https://bou.de/u/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=Hu+HuifangChina Studies Wiki - User contributions [en]2026-04-04T11:55:58ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.35.14https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201228_trans&diff=11933320201228 trans2020-12-27T13:22:31Z<p>Hu Huifang: /* Hu Huifang 胡慧芳 */</p>
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<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
'''Zhu Ziqing'''<br />
<br />
A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay "''Back View''" (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now. <br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.<br />
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Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence. <br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''"Report On the Massacre of the Government''"[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].<br />
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''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''<br />
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我想用三个例子说明，朱自清有绝对明确的政治思想。1926年3月18日，他参加了示威游行，这场游行最终以屠杀告终。朱自清在《执政府大屠杀记》中对此进行了描述。<br />
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''这时枪声未歇，东门口拥塞得几乎水泄不通。[...] 我们便推推搡搡，拥挤着，挣扎着，从他们身上踏上去。那时理性真失了作用，竟恬然不以为怪似的。'' --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:<br />
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''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''<br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his "''Ways to die''"[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds "to be shot" the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.<br />
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The essay "''Facing the New China''"[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.<br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''<br />
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A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''"Today's duty of the Intellectuals''"[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.<br />
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“中国必须通过民主化重生。[...]人们应该表达自己的意志，集中自己的力量。各级行政机关都应该建立在人民的意志和力量的基础之上，并且为大多数人及其最大化的幸福而奋斗。也就是民治，民有，民享。”<br />
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”中国必须用过民主化重生。[...]人们应当表达他们自身的意志，集中力量。各级政府都应建立在人民意志和力量基础之上，并为大部分人民及其最大幸福而奋斗。也就是民治、民有、民享。”--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在他去世的几周前，他在 “知识分子今天的职责”的演讲中要求知识分子参与建设更好的社会。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
'''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''<br />
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Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay. <br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.<br />
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Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].<br />
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我建立了一个用于统计分析的数据库，对5000余篇散文和1400名散文家进行排名。事实证明，迄今为止，在中国最著名的60篇论文中，只有14篇被翻译成英文。 谭景辉即将出版的散文选集另有新翻译的4篇，我自己则翻译余下的42篇。<br />
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分析表明，自1979年以来，总体上来说，散文发表有所增加，在“文化大革命”之后还出现了两次热潮，在1990年达到了新的高度。首次增加出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，此后便被报告文学所取代（Klaschka 1998）。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:41, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].<br />
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The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s: <br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].<br />
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2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands. <br />
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3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:<br />
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1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.<br />
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如果我们仔细观察在美国出版的，以及在香港、台湾和中华人民共和国出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们低估和高估了回应地域差异的单个散文家或散文: <br />
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1、异国情调 在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，完全不知名的作者和老牌作家拥有一样多的空间。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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如果我们细细研读在美国出版的，以及在中国香港、台湾和大陆出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们因地域差异而低估或高估了某些散文家或散文: <br />
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1、异国情调 在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，名不见经传的作者和著名的作家拥有同样多的市场。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br />
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3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]<br />
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Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".<br />
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政治散文的主题从1907年兴起的启蒙教育散文转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影）都在讨论最佳社会制度，于是有关政治问题的主题复兴，但20世纪90年代时，主题又变成了非政治性，更加哲学道德的主题范畴，那会，散文家们首先对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020 <br />
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政治类散文的局部发展从1907年兴起的启蒙教育类转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影中）对于最佳社会制度的探讨使得政治话题再次变得火热。但20世纪90年代时，写作主题又转向非政治性，以及更加哲学道德的范畴，那会，散文家们首先会对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("''On dreams''"[ "Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 ("''My own garden''"[ 9.1923.], "''The Fly''"[ 1924.], "''Reading on the Toilet''"[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.<br />
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非政治类文章的局部发展始于朱自清以及周作人1917年开始写的每日随想（朱自清1928年发表的散文《说梦》；周作人1923年发表的《自己的园地》、1924年发表的《苍蝇》、1936年发表的《入厕读书》）。自1927年的修正，政治类文章成为主流，直到20世纪30年代末期，非政治类文章因为抗日战争的爆发完全消失。直到20世纪70年代，人民生活回归正常，非政治类文章才重新现世，由于消失太久，日常琐事成为当时热门的写作话题。20世纪90年代，由于政治话题热度的下降以及进入新时代为迎合广大群众而开发新话题的需要，非政治类文章又迎来一次高潮。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: "readers"). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's "Moon traces", which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's "''Paradise for Birds''", which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.<br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. <br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]<br />
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上个世纪90年代，80年代的政论文随笔文化逐渐隐没了，唯一剩下留有想象空间的元素就是爱国主义。[“比如使用普通语言的趋势”，这是从1993年以来在小说中发现的（“贾平凹”） 费杜，古格，英格）以及自1995年以来，《新无边际》都无法在论文写作中得到证明，我们之所以没有找到后现代小说意义上的后现代散文，是因为文章的直接性：随笔作为一种体裁，是作者和读者之间的对话，而不是想要引起不同解释的原因或可能依赖于特殊形式或内容甚至是按顺序引用前现代特征的艺术品，这使它成为一个与众不同的“艺术品”。]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 13:06, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）<br />
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Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, "The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China", in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)<br />
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Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: "Yi feng huixin 一封回信" (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.<br />
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Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: "Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文" (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984<br />
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Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: "Duli sikao 獨立思考" (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]<br />
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Ba Jin 1962, "Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心" (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: "Wenxue tan 文學談" (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167<br />
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Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, "Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship)," in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78<br />
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Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求" (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296<br />
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Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181<br />
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Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)<br />
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Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71<br />
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Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148<br />
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Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)<br />
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==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
'''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''<br />
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''Martin Woesler''<br />
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In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.<br />
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《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》<br />
<br />
''吴漠汀''<br />
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在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》<br />
<br />
吴漠汀<br />
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本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
'''1. The unknown genre'''<br />
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The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);<br />
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'''1.未知体裁'''<br />
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二十世纪文选和选集里的文学史的叙述对于整个中国文学来说是不完整的：散文题材是缺失的。 在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。 作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''1.未知体裁'''<br />
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20世纪选集所讲述的文学历史叙事，描绘了一幅不完整的中国文学图景:：散文题材是缺失的。 在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。 作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:30, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
'''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''<br />
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Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term "wu yunwen" which corresponds to the term "epic" in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.<br />
在抒情诗中，读者被鼓励去感受当下的感觉，并且常常是诗人的忏悔式的感觉。戏剧直接在独白或对话中回忆起一个自足的动作，以这种方式释放了读者/观众重新创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是一种超脱的、非虚构的、自由形式的主观表现。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 02:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在抒情诗中，鼓励读者感受诗人当下的感觉，且这种感觉常常是诗人的忏悔。戏剧直接以独白或对话的方式回忆一个自足的动作，并通过这种方式释放了读者/观众再创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是以自由的形式进行的一种分离的非虚构的主观表现。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
"Essay", Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.<br />
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“散文”，中文主要是“散文”，是一个较短的、独立的非虚构散文文本的体裁术语，作者试图从主观的角度调解个人对一个对象或问题的体验。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。资源由散文家自主掌握，主题在更大的背景下被看到，甚至可以幽默地呈现。文章在形式和内容上的自由是必不可少的。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 13:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.<br />
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.<br />
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
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In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.<br />
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在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在21世纪，世界上的国家趋向于走到一起，而文化则主要取决于现代化水平。正如我们从现今报纸里面看到的那样，中国散文采用了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文开始趋同于国际散文体裁的第二个标志。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:27, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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21世纪，世界在共同成长，文化主要由现代化程度决定。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，在形式和内容上都与西方散文相似，其目标群体也与之相似。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文的第二个暗示。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，已经呈现出西方散文的形式与内容，并且其目标群体也与西方散文不相上下。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文体裁的第二个迹象。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).<br />
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尽管人们普遍接受用短小故事来翻译短篇小说，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系并不如西方散文与其中国同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹于1992年 13:269-272 论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆于1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it "Chinese"? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.<br />
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除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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除了周作人提倡采用英语散文风格所体现的全球化社会趋势外，中文散文还具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何在文化上定义，其中国性又是什么？在西方文章中，形式似乎是比中国文章更重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些只有类似内容，却跨越了形式上的属相框架的文本。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the "unfinished diary" or the "unfinished letter". Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: "essay in diary form" and "essay in letter form"), they are accepted as essays. <br />
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
'''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''<br />
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This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' "non-rhythmic prose", which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning "short literary essay pieces". <br />
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Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.<br />
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
'''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''<br />
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Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).<br />
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.<br />
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Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.<br />
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
'''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''<br />
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Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:<br />
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- The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection "Modern Chinese Literary Thought" 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.<br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.<br />
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- The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.<br />
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胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌依赖于形象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。<br />
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-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。个人主义在随笔中表现得比在诗歌中更直接，但在内容和形式上都有局限性。短文的短暂性体现在短文的形式上，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 13:48, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
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胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗歌升华情感。但诗歌也依赖于意象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“散文”却能给事物命名，反映千变万化的生活。现代主体性就是以“散文”为工具建构的。<br />
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- 随笔也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的发展趋势。个人主义在随笔中的表现比在诗歌中更直接，因为诗歌在内容和形式上对此有所限制。随笔的短暂性体现在随笔的形式上，人们可以在上班路上的地铁里阅读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就没有那么随性的享受。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌也依赖意向和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。<br />
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-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。由于散文的内容和形式上受限，它比诗歌更能直接表达个人主义。散文很短，所以花时间少，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，但在地铁里读诗可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.<br />
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- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.<br />
[[Media:Example.ogg]]==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
- The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).<br />
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“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报社是控制政府的机构；另一方面，他主张审查制度，报纸作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
'''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''<br />
The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.<br />
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.<br />
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3.让我们为散文指定其适当的位置，<br />
由此得出的结论是:让我们为散文指定其适当的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，论文写作有所增加，但对这一现象的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间才出现。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。<br />
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==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
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In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).<br />
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20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。另外90年代的两次会议也没有趋于国际学术研究的动向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:54, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).<br />
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Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.<br />
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在不早于上个世纪90年代下半叶之时，出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。 （《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。<br />
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关于中国大陆，台湾地区和西方的散文评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
上世纪90年代后半期以前, 出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。 （《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。中国大陆，台湾和西方对散文的评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br />
<br />
Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.<br />
在台湾,鲁迅很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。 如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。 香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。<br />
然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在台湾,鲁迅的作品很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家作品印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。 如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。 香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。<br />
<br />
然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays. <br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
'''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''<br />
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I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.<br />
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We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century. <br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.<br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.<br />
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'''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''<br />
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How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.<br />
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下面，我将从三个方面(在时间顺序上按过去、现代、当代排序)来论述对散文的考量将改写中国文学史，改变我们目前对它的认识这一论点。<br />
<br />
5. 古典和前现代散文记录了中国哲学，其早期的主体性，仍然是对中国本土传统的质疑。<br />
中国散文在历史上要如何定位，它是如何产生的，它的共有背景是什么？一般来说，中国和西方的散文都是起源于写在书本空白处的笔记，是书信和游记。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.<br />
<br />
From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.<br />
<br />
In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.<br />
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“詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。”罗大京提到的另一个骂名，是形式上的：与具有高度艺术性和长达一个世纪传统的诗歌写作相比，散文中直接的、白话文式的语言在他看来并不那么有价值。<br />
在西方，16世纪晚期出现了一种真正的“散文写作艺术”，作为一种传播重组知识的媒介。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“诗騷妙天下，而散文颇觉瑣碎局促。”罗大经提出的另一个责难，是形式上的。在他看来，与高度艺术化的百年诗词写作传统相比，散文直接的、白话文式的语言没有什么价值。<br />
在西方，真正的 “散文写作艺术 ”是在16世纪末作为重组知识的一种媒介出现的。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.<br />
<br />
In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''. <br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.<br />
<br />
During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.<br />
<br />
荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。<br />
<br />
历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，这些散文中传授的普遍定理不仅有引用经典著作，还首次借鉴其个人经历。这种个体性在当代的散文中仍有保留。<br />
<br />
历朝历代，散文通过一些子类别得以呈现，如明朝盛行的在书页边上写的读书注释，它就是源于笔记。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。<br />
<br />
历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.<br />
<br />
Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.<br />
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边缘主义是中西早期散文的一个纽带。散见的笔记包含了私人的历史记录，轶事，交谈和个人沉思。然而，尽管当时的散文选集众多，但将视散文作为一种文体的意识，清朝之前并没有出现。<br />
<br />
考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们在旧社会时，对短篇故事和小说的看法不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的困惑和经历。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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边缘主义是中西早期散文传统的一个纽带。偶尔的笔记可以包含私人的历史笔记，轶事，交流和沉思。然而，尽管当时中国散文选集有很多，一直到清朝之后我们才将散文视作一种文体意识。<br />
考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们对旧社会的看法与短篇小说和小说不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的问题和经历。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.<br />
<br />
Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the "Eight legged essay" as as appealing and intoxicating as the "pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).<br />
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目前为止，中国红楼梦前的个体文学还只是通过诗中的间接语言与我们对话。通过重拾散文，我们可以知晓不同观点和社会历史状况等文学创作的丰富源泉。<br />
现代散文之前的文学并不限于形式上受限制的八股文，一方面鲁迅本人也有一些散文是用八股文写成的，但另一方面他又把八股文当作古代社会的代名词。周作人把 "八股文 "的语言节奏看作是 "做鸦片的快感 "一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
直到现在，中国前“红楼梦”的个体文学只能通过诗歌的间接语言与我们对话。重新发掘这些散文，我们可以拥有丰富的观点来源，社会历史图片等。<br />
<br />
前现代散文文学不仅仅包括它最为人所知的例子，正式的、有限制性的“八卦文”。鲁迅自己的一些文章就是用“八卦文”写的，但是在另一方面又把它当作古代社会的同义词。周作人认为《八股文》的语言节奏就像“吸鸦片的快感”一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:07, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).<br />
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Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.<br />
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<br />
但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。<br />
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新儒家强调''文''（散文）是传播''道''的最重要工具：''文以载道''（文以载道）。如果我们从文体的角度来重新解读这句话，我们可以说，当时的散文已经被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。<br />
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理学强调“文”（散文）是传播“道”的最重要工具：“文以载道”。（以文学为载体的方式）。如果我们从体裁的角度来重新解读这一措辞，可以说，散文已成为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.<br />
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'''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''<br />
<br />
To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911). <br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).<br />
<br />
This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.<br />
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==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.<br />
<br />
然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:57, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 15:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:<br />
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以五四运动传奇作者为例可以看出个人观点对历史事实的叙述的影响有多大。 这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。 后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
for example, Lu Xun with his theory "'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論"" (Theory of "Starting" and "Blossoming") came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his "Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論" (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay). <br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.<br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as "paralyzing" (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the "Fly", he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins "Thoughts" (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.<br />
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The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is "a genre of self-reflection". Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art. <br />
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I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.<br />
<br />
除开关注作家的小说和诗歌之外，如果我们对他们的散文有所涉猎，就会发现他们不仅对文学整体的理解发生了变化，单个作者的观点也发生了变化。仅就周作人来说，他的思想在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的同伴们联系在一起，但是这些设想在中国行不通。当时的中国走的是一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路，这一现状还并没有得到改变。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. <br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, "The Fly" 1924, "Reading on the Toilet" 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. <br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.<br />
<br />
Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.<br />
<br />
20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。<br />
<br />
考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
20世纪90年代，20-30年代民国时期的文章仍然和当代的同类文章一样经常被重印。显然，我们可以得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的政治宣传类散文只保存在专门的政治散文集中，到21世纪初，不再有人去写，也不再有人读这类文章了。<br />
<br />
一种文学体裁会转变整个文学的视角，一位作家的散文作品，同样也会转变对这个作家的看法。我只以一位现代散文家为例：周作人。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
'''Zhou Zuoren'''<br />
<br />
I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a "traitor". Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.<br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''<br />
<br />
''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' "The wolves are coming" ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921). <br />
<br />
In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
With these words from the essay "''The aesthetic essay''" this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the "king of essays". <br />
<br />
In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.<br />
<br />
“美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这个起点在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。<br />
<br />
为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。 他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:48, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea "l'art pour l'art" , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181). <br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual. <br />
<br />
"I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless "monsters" and "goblins" are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown." <br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
Confronting tradition and progress in the essay "''Ancestor Worship''", he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8). <br />
<br />
Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.<br />
<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die "Kunst um der Kunst willen" propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept "Kunst um der Kunst willen" zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.<br />
<br />
Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: "''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''" 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.<br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had "duoluo 墮落" (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'. <br />
<br />
On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.<br />
<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on "''The Fly''", where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things. <br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he "saw only the fly and not the cosmos" , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.<br />
<br />
His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food. <br />
<br />
Siehe Zhou Zuoren: "Cangying 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.<br />
<br />
''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay "''Cangying'' 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.<br />
<br />
他的作品《苦雨》展现出了这种氛围，因此他的文章被称为“苦茶”：阅读完之后能感到余味悠长。如果你对比鲁迅和周作人的《论饮茶》(Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326)，你可以看到“短小精辟”和“雄辩易读”的区别。《初恋》是最欢乐的作品。文章《三种不同的死法》表明周作人在讽刺小说方面足以与他的哥哥抗衡。鲁迅的同题作文《1926年3月18日的大屠杀》让人眼前一亮。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.<br />
<br />
'''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''<br />
<br />
''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: "''Anxiang'' 安详" (Serene) 1992, "''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事" (First make your own things in a good way) 1994). <br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.<br />
<br />
Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive ("''Shanxi opera''", Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world ("''The nightmare''", Si Yu 1995).<br />
<br />
From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:<br />
这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。<br />
20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文虽是一种新的主观主义，其目标是摆脱当代的矛盾，但是通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。<br />
从这篇文章中，我们可以看到当代文学的趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
- The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii); <br />
<br />
- The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br />
<br />
- A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br />
<br />
- The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.<br />
<br />
- 当下中国社会的浮躁节奏，对转折性和短文的要求。"[...]我们生活在一个论述的时代"(Hall 1984:xiii)。<br />
<br />
- 越发增加的独立意识，对其而言，文章是最直接的主体表达形式，甚至比诗的格律和形式要求更直接。<br />
<br />
- 通过散文这一媒介讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复苏，就像20世纪20/30年代的情况一样。<br />
<br />
- 日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得自觉，最常见的是日常生活的文体--散文。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
-当前中国社会节奏轻快，要求有趣味的短文：“[…]我们生活在一个博览会时代”（大厅1984:xiii）；<br />
<br />
-对于个人二元性意识的增强，散文是主体性表达的最直接形式，甚至比诗歌的韵律和形式要求更直接；<br />
<br />
-通过这篇文章讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复复苏，如同20世纪20年代或30年代的情况一样。<br />
<br />
-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:59, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
- The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. <br />
<br />
- Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: "readers"). <br />
<br />
- The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay "''The Back View''", filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.<br />
<br />
- ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).<br />
<br />
- ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''<br />
<br />
- Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being "''The Small Dog Baodi''", written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before ("''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''", Ba Jin 1984).<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's "''Rain in Kunming''" as well as for Jia Pingwa's "''Shanxi opera''". <br />
类似的还有想象怀旧的概念，正如王功权所说的沈从文作品中虚构的真实（王大卫·德维王1992），有助于解读汪曾祺的《昆明雨》，也有助于贾平凹的《山西剧》。<br />
<br />
- The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.<br />
施瓦茨在“隐喻话语”中所表达的“个人悲伤”概念，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他以“存在的真理”而闻名的，却通过他的狗“宝坻”的隐喻而获得更具说服力的虚构真相。<br />
<br />
Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay "The nightmare", where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong "woman soldier" .（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
'''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''<br />
<br />
Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.<br />
<br />
- People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
- If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?<br />
<br />
- Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
- The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?<br />
<br />
- 在中国，世界范围内城市生活的异化和互相不认识的现象与传统价值观如意识形态、家庭、团圆等的丧失结合在一起，有利于为自己谋利的观念，如果这已经产生了对新方向的渴望，这个领域能否被道德指导性文章或民族主义思想所填补呢？--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 11:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录<br />
<br />
'''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）<br />
<br />
吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.<br />
<br />
Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide. <br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中生长出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。<br />
<br />
曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。（修改）<br />
<br />
在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中衍生出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。<br />
<br />
曹雪芹，甚至于他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:09, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.<br />
<br />
红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）<br />
<br />
多元一体<br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
<br />
Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage<br />
<br />
“红楼梦”是一个多元的中国文化综合体，是中国文化的体现和精髓，但它也具有全球影响力，因此应该被授予“世界文献遗产”的荣誉。（修改<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>）<br />
<br />
多元一体<br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
<br />
Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage<br />
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
《红楼梦》是一个中国文化综合体，展示着中国文化的精髓的同时也极具全球影响力，理应被列入世界记忆遗产名录。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
'''1. Chinese Ethics'''<br />
<br />
To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.<br />
<br />
However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
'''2. Compatibility<br />
'''<br />
Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?<br />
<br />
First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel. <br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.<br />
<br />
'''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''<br />
<br />
There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.<br />
<br />
然而，《红楼梦》章回结构不连续来自于《水浒传》中几乎没有联系的章回的传统，这是朝着章回更连贯、与故事线一致以及更集中于较少主角的方向迈出的一步。因此，《红楼梦》明显向西方小说传统迈进了一步，可能是因为西方对清代的影响越来越大。<br />
<br />
'''3.译者的本土文化对翻译过程的影响'''<br />
<br />
《红楼梦》和西方文学作品之间有跨文化的相似之处。<br />
--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.<br />
<br />
'''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''<br />
<br />
According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist). <br />
<br />
The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music).<br />
<br />
虽然作者在他的时代无法批判皇帝的制度和权力，但在小说中，他通过家族的日益衰败（修行道教、休闲、写诗、艺术和音乐，而不是为了能够谋生而学习）和自己没有实现作为家族继承人的期望中寻找受迫害的罪责，来接受这种生活。这种对没落家庭颓废的描述，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.<br />
<br />
'''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''<br />
<br />
Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.<br />
<br />
然而，曹雪芹的信息不仅是“失乐园”的信息，而是他本人的一生。 尽管不如他的家人仍然享有皇帝的宠爱时富裕，但清初中国有一个工资体系和一个完整的社会网络，在那里他获得了足够的收入以独立于自己的富裕亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作 在大自然的小房子里过着轻松的生活，与家人和朋友共度时光，遵循自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和喝酒，为孩子们放风筝和思考处境不利的人。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
然而，曹雪芹所传达的信息并不是简单的“失乐园”，相反，他把自己的生活过得很好。 虽然比起他的家族享受皇帝的宠爱，他过得没有那么富裕，但清初中国有一套薪俸制度和一张完整的社会网，他获得了足够的收入，可以独立于富贵亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作，可以在大自然的小房子里过着悠闲的生活，可以与家人和朋友共度时光，可以追随自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和饮酒，可以为孩子们做风筝，可以为弱势群体着想。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.<br />
<br />
曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就有充分的认识，他熟悉社会的方方面面，他观察细致，叙事娴熟。他能把小说的结尾构思为对小说中人物不同性格的探讨，从而体现出他对人生的思考和对人性多样性的理解。他能够把握 "时间精神"(Zeitgeist)，并以他的亲身经历为材料创造了一部成熟的绝世之作，这不仅是为他的家庭、为清人、为中国人，更是为全人类。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
曹雪芹充分了解自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就，熟悉社会的不同层次，是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。他可能将小说的结局概念化为对小说中人物不同性格的讨论，从而表现出他对生活的反思和对人性多样性的心理理解。他能够把握“时代精神”(时代精神)，并以他的自传体经历，为他的家庭，为清朝人，为中国人，为人类创造了一部永恒的成长小说。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:01, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就了如指掌，他熟悉社会的不同层面，他是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。因此，他在小说中对人的不同个性的理解和对小说中人物性格的多样性进行了概念化的探讨。他能够把握“时代精神”，用他的自传体经历，不仅为他的家庭，为清朝的中国人，为中国人民，而且为人类，创作了一部永恒的成人小说。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:43, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.<br />
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802). <br />
==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''. <br />
<br />
'''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''<br />
<br />
Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.<br />
<br />
与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，这通过莎士比亚的经典戏剧得以体现。传统可以作为方向标，但主人公的个性需要通过解放才能发展，这是一种智慧，我们可以以上提过包括《梦》的所有小说中学习。<br />
“6.色情与真爱，女性对手"<br />
性是人类的一种基本需求，在不同文化中展现出不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是有固定程式的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:37, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，在《威廉·迈斯特》中，莎士比亚戏剧中复兴的经典作品代表了这一点。传统可以给予导向，但主人公的个性需要通过解放来发展是一种智慧，我们可以从包括《梦》在内的所有小说中学习。<br />
“6。色情与真爱，女性对手"<br />
性是人类的一种基本需求，在各种文化中形成了不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是程式化的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively. <br />
<br />
According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.<br />
<br />
The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).<br />
<br />
==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).<br />
<br />
In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”<br />
<br />
Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.<br />
<br />
在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地站在了反对低级动作和刻板色情文学的立场上，也站在了反对普遍存在的言情小说的立场上（以美丽的才女和通过公务员考试最终获得地位和财富的穷书生为经典角色）。<br />
<br />
在第一章中，他说："年轻人的真情实感......至今无人报道"。<br />
<br />
"情色场面以体面和联想的方式描述（"云和雨的游戏"），同时表现出另一种开放性，例如对双性恋的开放。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.<br />
<br />
While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”. <br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).<br />
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
'''7. Feudal society and slavery'''<br />
<br />
A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.<br />
<br />
封建社会和奴隶<br />
一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶一视同仁，这将成为奴隶解放的宣言。我并不同意这个解释，因为亚里士多德的民主就排除了奴隶的投票权。所以，我们并不能用现代观念去评判过去。在我看来，贾宝玉并不是和不平等作斗争，而是把人视作群体和个人。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 09:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德，当他要求民主的时候，会排除奴隶的投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人看成是群体和个人。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
许多人认为，贾宝玉对家庭成员和仆人的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种看法。因为当亚里士多德要求民主时，奴隶并没有投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去发生的事。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人分为是群体和个人。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
人们普遍认为贾宝玉对待家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德吁民主时，会将奴隶从投票权中剔除。所以我们不能用现代观点评判古人。我认为，贾宝玉并不是在为不平等而做斗争，而是将人区分为人或是个体。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 12:02, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.<br />
<br />
另外，把仆人理解为奴隶也与《红楼梦》中所描述的不符，因为有些仆人自己也有仆人，他们离开贾家后，家人会照顾他们，为他们婚配，并且贾正把女儿迎春称为“丫头”，所以用奴隶来翻译这个词是不合适的。因此，译者在翻译中更倾向于“仆人”而不是“奴隶”。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
而且把仆人理解为奴隶与《红楼梦》中的描写不符，因为有些仆人自己还有仆人，贾府会在她们离府的时候为她们寻一门亲事，作为贾府对她们的照料；贾政也把自己的女儿迎春喊作 “丫头”， 所以把这些翻译成奴隶是不合适的。因此英文翻译中采用“servant”会比“slave”更为合适。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.<br />
<br />
2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的感觉是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:43, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
'''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''<br />
<br />
Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.<br />
<br />
8.所有悲剧的悲剧成分<br />
<br />
亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释说，悲剧使人们比喜剧更能吸引人，因为他们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整和有程度的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。 欧洲的悲剧部分归因于亚里斯多德作品《喜剧》的丢失。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
8.所有悲剧含有的悲剧成分<br />
<br />
亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释道，悲剧之所以比戏剧更加动人，是因为它们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整且具有一定规模的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。悲剧在欧洲拥有崇高地位部分归因于亚里士多德的作品《论喜剧》的失传。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as "tragedy of all tragedies". To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture. <br />
<br />
In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.<br />
<br />
==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.<br />
<br />
==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
<br />
'''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''<br />
<br />
One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.<br />
<br />
9. “非二进制小说”<br />
<br />
可爱而神秘的主角贾宝玉是吸引西方读者的其中一点。由于他开放的双性恋倾向以及对同伴的兴趣，无论他们的社会地位如何，他彰显“现代”气质或至少不属于那个时代。 他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他与世隔绝的漫长状态使他既具有永恒的品格又具有神秘感。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.<br />
According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically. <br />
<br />
==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
'''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''<br />
<br />
Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.<br />
<br />
==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.<br />
<br />
==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”. <br />
<br />
'''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）<br />
<br />
Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.<br />
<br />
Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.<br />
<br />
Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition<br />
<br />
Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289<br />
<br />
Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107<br />
<br />
Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
'''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object<br />
'''<br />
<br />
A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role. <br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.). <br />
<br />
Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.<br />
<br />
本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。<br />
<br />
算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管世界，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。<br />
<br />
算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society. <br />
<br />
这些算法不仅针对明确的交流，也针对人类的情绪和思想，并预测未来的行为，因此允许模拟现实。更强大的算法也在社会中占据了决策角色：取代人类法庭的判决，及时微调和按需制作，审查聊天室等。一套算法有助于管理智慧城市和整个社会。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.<br />
<br />
<br />
虽然人仍然是通信的一部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人往往没有意识到虚拟通信和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟通信的主要参与者是机器。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
尽管人类仍然是交流活动的一个组成部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人类往往没有意识到，自己是虚拟沟通和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟沟通的主导者是机器。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
虽然人仍然是构成通信的一部分，尤其是作为分析对象和操纵目标，但人往往没有意识到人们在虚拟通信中扮演机器决策的被动接受者，而机器才是主要参与者。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.<br />
<br />
研究对这些形式的虚拟沟通进行了描述，在社会管理系统、信用系统（定制的（虚假）新闻筛选泡沫）和定制的消费商（亚马逊、脸书、谷歌、网飞）里面找到了证据（德国有“Schufa”，美国则因为信用史有重大人物而使得社会信用至上并日趋游戏化），并对益处加以分析，这些益处包含通过这类虚拟沟通提升安全。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:20, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
研究描述了这些虚拟通信的形式，在社会管理系统和信用系统中找到证据（在德国，我们有 "Schufa"，在美国有信用记录的大玩家，这导致了信用导向和人类生活的游戏化）或定制化（假）新闻过滤气泡，以及在定制化的消费优惠中（亚马逊，Facebook，谷歌，Netflix），并分析了好处，包括通过这种虚拟通信增强安全性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.<br />
<br />
'''Introduction'''<br />
<br />
In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).<br />
<br />
<br />
但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展发出警告，同时要对引起的伦理问题也要承担责任。特别是信用体系游戏化所造成的外骨骼伦理问题更需要得到重视，要反对内在的伦理问题。<br />
<br />
引言<br />
<br />
本论文在涉及机器与机器之间的交流时，我不考虑那些帮助人类让生活更便捷的机器（从“牛奶没了，请在送货单上加平常剂量的牛奶”到“老太太今早卧床不起，我最好叫医生吧”）。<br />
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:10, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展提出警告，并提出伦理问题。特别是信用体系等游戏化所强加的外骨骼伦理，更需要对照内在伦理加以重视。<br />
<br />
引言<br />
<br />
在本文中涉及机器与机器之间的交流，我跳过了机器协助人类提高生活便利的内容（从 "牛奶没了，请把平时的牛奶量加到送货单上"，到 "老太太今天早上还没下床，我还是叫医生吧"。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”<br />
实际上，本人研究涉及的方面如下：比如，“让我们创建一名用户的个性化主界面，并将其与大数据进行比对，学习如何最好的吸引该用户的注意，让他/她投票给总统候选人甲或乙。”“让我们检查这名用户鼠标的运动轨迹，通过与大数据进行比对，建立关联，来估计他是否会得帕金森。如果他患有帕金森疾病，我们会决定是否需要对他的贷款或医疗保险的申请予以拒绝。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:41, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
“Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”<br />
<br />
The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.<br />
<br />
“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”<br />
<br />
当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
"让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。"；甚至"利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。"<br />
目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、惧怕的事物、诸如通奸之类的秘密，从而勒索他让我的程序员获取赎金”。更有甚时，“让我们使用用户的位置让攻击机瞄准他。”<br />
<br />
当前亚马逊、脸书、联络电话、Instagram、谷歌、网飞等的新自由主义的系统软件，激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit.<br />
<br />
这与因不受监管地使用衍生品导致的金融危机非常相似。这是一个系统性的发展，它目前走的是一条用算法控制奴役人们，为科技公司谋利的道路。从全世界对社交媒体的沉迷，从越来越多的阴谋论者，从美国对特朗普的两极分化或英国对英国脱欧的两极分化，我们都可以看出，奴役已经开始。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:07, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
'''1 History of Media Epochs'''<br />
<br />
Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role. <br />
<br />
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).<br />
<br />
卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头（媒体时代1.0）到文字（2.0）的通讯发展，再到印刷（3.0）数字通讯（4.0）<br />
在所有这些阶段中，科技都只起到了协助作用。<br />
<br />
本文认为，从根本上来说，“虚拟沟通”处于新阶段（媒体时代5.0），其中人工智能（由人类初始化）已被接管，人类已成为分析和操纵的对象（如顾客，选民等）--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:56, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).<br />
<br />
虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.<br />
<br />
The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.<br />
<br />
但是，我们几乎一直在通过聊天和地理位置追踪运动，不断沉迷于社交媒体，携带手机以及越来越多的智能设备来生成数据，因此，我们一直是通过算法进行分析的对象。<br />
<br />
交流行为的传统设置变得模糊：机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标记了阈值），并且在经过一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏机器的本质。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:49, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，我们几乎在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和地理追踪的动作，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们随时携带手机和越来越多的智能设备，因而成为算法分析的对象。<br />
<br />
传统的交流行为的设定模糊了。机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标志着一个门槛），在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
然而，我们几乎是在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和追踪移动，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们无时无刻都带着手机和越来越多的智能设备，因此我们是算法分析的对象。<br />
传统的交流行为设定是模糊的:机器可以直接与人类交流(图灵测试在这里标记了一个阈值)，并且在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:49, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.<br />
<br />
机器还可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言的多模态交流、行为、个性等，并与人类进行交互，从而间接地与人类进行交流，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤器泡沫中成长并相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子：人们被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
机器也可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言多模态交流、行为、个性等与人类进行交流，或者间接地与人类进行互动，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤气泡中长大、相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子:这个人一直被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:45, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.<br />
<br />
'''2 Types of communicative acts'''<br />
<br />
1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)<br />
<br />
2.Surf behavior (websites visited)<br />
<br />
3.Consumer behavior (purchases)<br />
<br />
4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)<br />
<br />
5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)<br />
<br />
6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)<br />
甚至没有注意到人与机器之间发生的互动，人已经失去了他/她对机器的独立性。<br />
<br />
"两种类型的交际行为"<br />
<br />
1.<br />
文本(口头和书面评论/聊天文本/博客/电子邮件)<br />
<br />
2.<br />
上网行为(浏览网站)<br />
<br />
3.<br />
消费者行为(购买)<br />
<br />
4.<br />
喜欢(参见OCEAN, UEBA)<br />
<br />
5.<br />
持续时间/关注(见UEBA)<br />
<br />
6.<br />
习惯/重复/出现(是不同AI应用/工具的分析元素)--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)<br />
<br />
8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships<br />
<br />
9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
'''3 Types of analysis'''<br />
<br />
1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)<br />
<br />
2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)<br />
<br />
3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)<br />
<br />
4.Mobility profile/pattern<br />
<br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)<br />
<br />
6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)<br />
<br />
5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)<br />
<br />
6.就业形势/就业市场（2020年《人才搜索人》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)<br />
<br />
6.就业形势/就业市场（《人才搜索人 2020》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:58, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.<br />
<br />
8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the "clickworker" company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)<br />
<br />
9.Secrets (like adultery)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
'''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]<br />
<br />
1.the human switches from active to passive<br />
<br />
2.the human switches from subject to object<br />
<br />
3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)<br />
<br />
4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet<br />
<br />
5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance<br />
<br />
4.媒介5.0时代的独特品质 [我创造了 "媒介5.0时代"和 "虚拟通信 "这两个词，它们是从德国的“工业4.0”以及卢曼和贝克提出的媒介4.0时代（贝克称之为1.0...4.0）等概念发展而来的。一些作者揣测媒介4.0时代这个词的含义，比如1990年出版的雷-库兹韦尔的《灵魂机器时代》]<br />
<br />
1.人从主动到被动的转换<br />
<br />
2.人从主体到客体的转换<br />
<br />
3.人沉迷于社交媒体，提高了患抑郁症的风险<br />
<br />
4.人从木偶操纵者或看似拥有自由意志的实体到木偶人的转换<br />
<br />
5.互联网的性质从自由到监测的转换--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:25, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)<br />
<br />
7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))<br />
<br />
8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine<br />
<br />
9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration<br />
<br />
6，直接交流变成间接交流（人们自己可能没有意识到这种交流/分析）。<br />
<br />
7，明确的交流（声音，文字）变成隐性的交流（偏好/想法/梦想/愿望/价值观（上海和北京已开始在工人的帽子上使用脑扫描仪进行首次实验））。<br />
<br />
8，人与人之间的通信变成了人与机器之间的通信（电话机器人）再到机器与机器之间的通信。<br />
<br />
9.4.0是从集中到分散，5.0是部分集中和部分分散，也有集中。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.<br />
<br />
'''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)<br />
'''<br />
<br />
1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions<br />
<br />
2.Filter bubbles => supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments<br />
<br />
到目前为止，大众媒体一直被认为是单一的。数百万个人用户数据的交互和处理似乎太费力。在虚拟传播时代，即媒体时代5.0，大众传媒是个性化和互动的，因此更具影响力。<br />
<br />
'''5 种操纵类型（有意识或无意识，有时是半意识的）'''<br />
<br />
1.无意识广告发布：影响消费者决策<br />
<br />
2.过滤泡沫=>支持阴谋论，影响判断--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:08, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).<br />
<br />
4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation<br />
<br />
5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)<br />
<br />
6.Identity theft<br />
<br />
<br />
3.社交媒体的本质：谎言的传播速度比真理快 6 倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。<br />
<br />
4.改变政治态度：案例剑桥分析：通过操纵多数年轻人不投票帮助少数民族赢得选举 （这样做：不要投票竞选。奥德利夫森 2020年）；特朗普选举和英国脱欧通过操纵获胜<br />
<br />
5.利用私人信息/依赖关系获取好处（勒索钱财或犯罪等）<br />
<br />
6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3.社交媒体的性质：谎言传播速度是真相的6倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。<br />
4.政治态度的改变：剑桥分析案例：通过操纵大多数年轻人不投票帮助少数人赢得选举（Do Do Do:Do not vote campaign，Oddleifson 2020）；特朗普选举和脱欧是通过操纵赢得的<br />
5.利用私人信息/依赖性获取利益（勒索钱财或犯罪等）<br />
6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
'''6 Consequences'''<br />
<br />
1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)<br />
<br />
6.后果<br />
<br />
1.虚拟通讯大多是 "隐蔽 "的，人多半不知道，但可能会承受后果（警察可能仅仅因为人脸识别玻璃识别出路过的行人，并评估其为 "危险 "而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新的客户）--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
6.后果<br />
<br />
1.虚拟通信通常是“隐藏的”，人类大多数情况下是不知道的，但可能会承受后果（警察可能只是因为面部识别玻璃杯识别出行人经过并将他/她评估为“危险”而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''6.后果<br />
'''<br />
<br />
1.大多情况下，虚拟通信是“隐藏的”，人类也没有意识到这一点，但可能会承担由此带来的后果（警察可能会因为面部识别玻璃检测到行人通过，并将其评估为“危险人物”而将嫌疑犯拘留‘贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery) <br />
<br />
3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)<br />
<br />
4.Populists and populist views gain supporters<br />
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5.Polarization of Society<br />
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6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.<br />
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7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
2.用户变得透明化（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被拉黑，嫉妒的配偶可以查奸情）<br />
<br />
3.交流讨论意愿较弱（因为立场相差太远）<br />
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4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者<br />
<br />
5.社会的两极分化<br />
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6.有动机不透露自己对对象了解多少，因为对象就可能质疑合法性、制度等。<br />
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7.最后的手段—思维，已经被破解：机器解释的是 "真实 "的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
2.用户变得透明（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被勒索，嫉妒的配偶可以调查奸情）<br />
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3.缺乏沟通和讨论的意愿（因为立场相差太远）<br />
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4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者<br />
<br />
5.社会两极分化<br />
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6.有动机不透露自己对客体了解多少，因为客体可能会质疑其合法性、制度等。<br />
<br />
7.最后一个办法是思考：机器解释的是“真实”的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)<br />
<br />
9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics<br />
'''<br />
7 Simulation of the imminent future'''<br />
<br />
1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted<br />
<br />
2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted => simulation<br />
<br />
8.知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量<br />
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br />
'''<br />
7模拟即将到来的未来<br />
1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的<br />
2.有了许多被分析的人类，现实的即将到来的未来可以被预测=>模拟--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:00, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
8.已知的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比未知im min的人（受害者）更有力量<br />
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br />
'''<br />
7模拟迫近的未来<br />
1.人类的迫近未来行为是可以预测的<br />
2.在分析了许多人类后，我们便可预测现实的迫近未来=>模拟--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019). <br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
'''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''<br />
<br />
Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.<br />
Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''8 结论与展望''' <br />
<br />
数据已经取代石油成为当今经济中最有价值的资源。大型科技公司已经在使用用户的数据并从中牟取暴利，与此同时，立法被拖延，国界（不存在科技公司）正在为之苦苦挣扎。<br />
<br />
尽管像欧盟这样的以输入合法化的自由民主国家和市场经济，仍然保护着隐私和数据安全，但是中美两国的科技公司已经开始渗透欧洲市场。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.<br />
<br />
'''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.<br />
'''<br />
'''<br />
The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms: <br />
'''<br />
我们需要提高意识，引导青少年注意屏幕时间和他们在网上分享的东西。我们需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。<br />
<br />
'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''<br />
<br />
所列出的后果证明了范式的根本变化:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
我们需要提高意识，引导青少年留意屏幕时间和网上分享，需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。<br />
<br />
'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''<br />
<br />
所列出的后果证明了范式的基本变化:--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
'''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.<br />
'''<br />
<br />
AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.<br />
<br />
人类通过建立政治、法官等制度所形成的原因导向的决策方法正在被算法形成的关联导向的决策方法所取代，算法通常为科技公司的利润利益或选举操纵者的政治利益服务。<br />
<br />
人工智能走上了错误的发展道路，它从为人类服务变成了试图为了经济或政治利益而操纵人类。当人工智能被用于教育公民——比如帮助德国客户保持干净的信用历史和良好的信用评分——它就会改变公民的行为，使其成为一种外骨骼伦理。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more? <br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
'''9 Outlook'''<br />
<br />
We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.<br />
<br />
'''References<br />
'''<br />
（参考文献不用翻译）<br />
<br />
AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/<br />
<br />
Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007<br />
<br />
Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/ <br />
<br />
Booth, T. "Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics." ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.<br />
<br />
Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/<br />
<br />
Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453 <br />
<br />
Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare<br />
<br />
Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf: <br />
<br />
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true<br />
<br />
Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). "Predicting personality with social media." ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.<br />
<br />
Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). "Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students." Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.<br />
<br />
Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997<br />
<br />
Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.<br />
<br />
https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf<br />
<br />
Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., & Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.<br />
<br />
Ruan, Lotus, et al. "One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally." (2016).<br />
Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). "Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study." ''Social Science & Medicine ''182: 150-157.<br />
<br />
Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.<br />
<br />
Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). "The social media disorder scale." ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.<br />
<br />
Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. "ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity." ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.<br />
<br />
Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
'''Bio'''<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.<br />
Woesler has co-edited the books "China's Digital Dream", "Ethics of Information Society" and Springer has scheduled to publish the book "Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation" including his book chapter "Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids" in February 2021.<br />
<br />
个人简历<br />
<br />
自2020年起，吴漠汀（Martin Woesler）博士是湖南师范大学欧洲研究的讲座教授。自2019年来，他在湖师大外国语学院担任中国文化研究、翻译研究和比较文学的特聘教授。2019年，吴教授当选萨尔茨堡欧洲科学与艺术学院院士。吴教授曾与人合编《中国的数字梦想》、《信息社会伦理学》等书。施普林格（Springer）已计划于2021年2月出版《中国笔译与口译中的多种声音》一书，其中包括他的《数字与技术辅助的现代口译》一章。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College "Media Cultures of Computer Simulations" 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.</div>Hu Huifanghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201228_trans&diff=11932920201228 trans2020-12-27T13:10:24Z<p>Hu Huifang: /* Hu Huifang 胡慧芳 */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
'''Zhu Ziqing'''<br />
<br />
A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay "''Back View''" (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now. <br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.<br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence. <br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''"Report On the Massacre of the Government''"[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].<br />
<br />
''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''<br />
<br />
我想用三个例子说明，朱自清有绝对明确的政治思想。1926年3月18日，他参加了示威游行，这场游行最终以屠杀告终。朱自清在《执政府大屠杀记》中对此进行了描述。<br />
<br />
''这时枪声未歇，东门口拥塞得几乎水泄不通。[...] 我们便推推搡搡，拥挤着，挣扎着，从他们身上踏上去。那时理性真失了作用，竟恬然不以为怪似的。'' --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:<br />
<br />
''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''<br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his "''Ways to die''"[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds "to be shot" the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.<br />
<br />
The essay "''Facing the New China''"[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.<br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''<br />
<br />
A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''"Today's duty of the Intellectuals''"[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.<br />
<br />
“中国必须通过民主化重生。[...]人们应该表达自己的意志，集中自己的力量。各级行政机关都应该建立在人民的意志和力量的基础之上，并且为大多数人及其最大化的幸福而奋斗。也就是民治，民有，民享。”<br />
<br />
在他去世的几周前，他在 “知识分子今天的职责”的演讲中要求知识分子参与建设更好的社会。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
'''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''<br />
<br />
Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay. <br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.<br />
<br />
Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].<br />
<br />
我建立了一个用于统计分析的数据库，对5000余篇散文和1400名散文家进行排名。事实证明，迄今为止，在中国最著名的60篇论文中，只有14篇被翻译成英文。 谭景辉即将出版的散文选集另有新翻译的4篇，我自己则翻译余下的42篇。<br />
<br />
分析表明，自1979年以来，总体上来说，散文发表有所增加，在“文化大革命”之后还出现了两次热潮，在1990年达到了新的高度。首次增加出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，此后便被报告文学所取代（Klaschka 1998）。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:41, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].<br />
<br />
The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s: <br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].<br />
<br />
2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands. <br />
<br />
3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:<br />
<br />
1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.<br />
<br />
如果我们仔细观察在美国出版的，以及在香港、台湾和中华人民共和国出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们低估和高估了回应地域差异的单个散文家或散文: <br />
<br />
1、异国情调 在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，完全不知名的作者和老牌作家拥有一样多的空间。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
如果我们细细研读在美国出版的，以及在中国香港、台湾和大陆出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们因地域差异而低估或高估了某些散文家或散文: <br />
<br />
1、异国情调 在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，名不见经传的作者和著名的作家拥有同样多的市场。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br />
<br />
3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]<br />
<br />
Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".<br />
<br />
政治散文的主题从1907年兴起的启蒙教育散文转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影）都在讨论最佳社会制度，于是有关政治问题的主题复兴，但20世纪90年代时，主题又变成了非政治性，更加哲学道德的主题范畴，那会，散文家们首先对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020 <br />
<br />
政治类散文的局部发展从1907年兴起的启蒙教育类转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影中）对于最佳社会制度的探讨使得政治话题再次变得火热。但20世纪90年代时，写作主题又转向非政治性，以及更加哲学道德的范畴，那会，散文家们首先会对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("''On dreams''"[ "Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 ("''My own garden''"[ 9.1923.], "''The Fly''"[ 1924.], "''Reading on the Toilet''"[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.<br />
<br />
非政治类文章的局部发展始于朱自清以及周作人1917年开始写的每日随想（朱自清1928年发表的散文《说梦》；周作人1923年发表的《自己的园地》、1924年发表的《苍蝇》、1936年发表的《入厕读书》）。自1927年的修正，政治类文章成为主流，直到20世纪30年代末期，非政治类文章因为抗日战争的爆发完全消失。直到20世纪70年代，人民生活回归正常，非政治类文章才重新现世，由于消失太久，日常琐事成为当时热门的写作话题。20世纪90年代，由于政治话题热度的下降以及进入新时代为迎合广大群众而开发新话题的需要，非政治类文章又迎来一次高潮。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: "readers"). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's "Moon traces", which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's "''Paradise for Birds''", which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.<br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. <br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]<br />
<br />
上个世纪90年代，80年代的政论文随笔文化逐渐隐没了，唯一剩下留有想象空间的元素就是爱国主义。[“比如使用普通语言的趋势”，这是从1993年以来在小说中发现的（“贾平凹”） 费杜，古格，英格）以及自1995年以来，《新无边际》都无法在论文写作中得到证明，我们之所以没有找到后现代小说意义上的后现代散文，是因为文章的直接性：随笔作为一种体裁，是作者和读者之间的对话，而不是想要引起不同解释的原因或可能依赖于特殊形式或内容甚至是按顺序引用前现代特征的艺术品，这使它成为一个与众不同的“艺术品”。]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 13:06, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）<br />
<br />
Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, "The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China", in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)<br />
<br />
Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: "Yi feng huixin 一封回信" (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.<br />
<br />
Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: "Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文" (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984<br />
<br />
Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: "Duli sikao 獨立思考" (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]<br />
<br />
Ba Jin 1962, "Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心" (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: "Wenxue tan 文學談" (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, "Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship)," in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求" (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148<br />
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Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)<br />
<br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
'''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''<br />
<br />
''Martin Woesler''<br />
<br />
In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.<br />
<br />
《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》<br />
<br />
''吴漠汀''<br />
<br />
在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》<br />
<br />
吴漠汀<br />
<br />
本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
'''1. The unknown genre'''<br />
<br />
The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);<br />
<br />
'''1.未知体裁'''<br />
<br />
二十世纪文选和选集里的文学史的叙述对于整个中国文学来说是不完整的：散文题材是缺失的。 在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。 作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''1.未知体裁'''<br />
<br />
20世纪选集所讲述的文学历史叙事，描绘了一幅不完整的中国文学图景:：散文题材是缺失的。 在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。 作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:30, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
'''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''<br />
<br />
Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term "wu yunwen" which corresponds to the term "epic" in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.<br />
在抒情诗中，读者被鼓励去感受当下的感觉，并且常常是诗人的忏悔式的感觉。戏剧直接在独白或对话中回忆起一个自足的动作，以这种方式释放了读者/观众重新创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是一种超脱的、非虚构的、自由形式的主观表现。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 02:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在抒情诗中，鼓励读者感受诗人当下的感觉，且这种感觉常常是诗人的忏悔。戏剧直接以独白或对话的方式回忆一个自足的动作，并通过这种方式释放了读者/观众再创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是以自由的形式进行的一种分离的非虚构的主观表现。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
"Essay", Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.<br />
“散文”，中文主要是“散文”，是一个较短的、独立的非虚构散文文本的体裁术语，作者试图从主观的角度调解个人对一个对象或问题的体验。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。资源由散文家自主掌握，主题在更大的背景下被看到，甚至可以幽默地呈现。文章在形式和内容上的自由是必不可少的。<br />
<br />
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.<br />
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.<br />
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
<br />
In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.<br />
<br />
在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在21世纪，世界上的国家趋向于走到一起，而文化则主要取决于现代化水平。正如我们从现今报纸里面看到的那样，中国散文采用了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文开始趋同于国际散文体裁的第二个标志。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:27, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
21世纪，世界在共同成长，文化主要由现代化程度决定。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，在形式和内容上都与西方散文相似，其目标群体也与之相似。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文的第二个暗示。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，已经呈现出西方散文的形式与内容，并且其目标群体也与西方散文不相上下。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文体裁的第二个迹象。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).<br />
<br />
尽管人们普遍接受用短小故事来翻译短篇小说，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系并不如西方散文与其中国同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹于1992年 13:269-272 论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆于1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it "Chinese"? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.<br />
<br />
除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
除了周作人提倡采用英语散文风格所体现的全球化社会趋势外，中文散文还具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何在文化上定义，其中国性又是什么？在西方文章中，形式似乎是比中国文章更重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些只有类似内容，却跨越了形式上的属相框架的文本。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the "unfinished diary" or the "unfinished letter". Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: "essay in diary form" and "essay in letter form"), they are accepted as essays. <br />
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
'''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''<br />
<br />
This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' "non-rhythmic prose", which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning "short literary essay pieces". <br />
<br />
Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.<br />
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
'''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''<br />
<br />
Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).<br />
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.<br />
<br />
Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.<br />
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
'''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''<br />
<br />
Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:<br />
<br />
- The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection "Modern Chinese Literary Thought" 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.<br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.<br />
<br />
- The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.<br />
<br />
胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌依赖于形象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。<br />
<br />
-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。个人主义在随笔中表现得比在诗歌中更直接，但在内容和形式上都有局限性。短文的短暂性体现在短文的形式上，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 13:48, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
<br />
胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗歌升华情感。但诗歌也依赖于意象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“散文”却能给事物命名，反映千变万化的生活。现代主体性就是以“散文”为工具建构的。<br />
<br />
- 随笔也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的发展趋势。个人主义在随笔中的表现比在诗歌中更直接，因为诗歌在内容和形式上对此有所限制。随笔的短暂性体现在随笔的形式上，人们可以在上班路上的地铁里阅读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就没有那么随性的享受。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌也依赖意向和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。<br />
<br />
-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。由于散文的内容和形式上受限，它比诗歌更能直接表达个人主义。散文很短，所以花时间少，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，但在地铁里读诗可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.<br />
<br />
- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.<br />
[[Media:Example.ogg]]==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
- The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).<br />
<br />
“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报社是控制政府的机构；另一方面，他主张审查制度，报纸作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
'''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''<br />
The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.<br />
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.<br />
<br />
3.让我们为散文指定其适当的位置，<br />
由此得出的结论是:让我们为散文指定其适当的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，论文写作有所增加，但对这一现象的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间才出现。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。<br />
<br />
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
<br />
In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).<br />
<br />
20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。另外90年代的两次会议也没有趋于国际学术研究的动向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:54, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).<br />
<br />
Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.<br />
<br />
在不早于上个世纪90年代下半叶之时，出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。 （《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。<br />
<br />
关于中国大陆，台湾地区和西方的散文评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
上世纪90年代后半期以前, 出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。 （《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。中国大陆，台湾和西方对散文的评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br />
<br />
Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.<br />
在台湾,鲁迅很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。 如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。 香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。<br />
然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在台湾,鲁迅的作品很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家作品印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。 如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。 香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。<br />
<br />
然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays. <br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
'''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''<br />
<br />
I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.<br />
<br />
We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century. <br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.<br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.<br />
<br />
'''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''<br />
<br />
How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.<br />
<br />
下面，我将从三个方面(在时间顺序上按过去、现代、当代排序)来论述对散文的考量将改写中国文学史，改变我们目前对它的认识这一论点。<br />
<br />
5. 古典和前现代散文记录了中国哲学，其早期的主体性，仍然是对中国本土传统的质疑。<br />
中国散文在历史上要如何定位，它是如何产生的，它的共有背景是什么？一般来说，中国和西方的散文都是起源于写在书本空白处的笔记，是书信和游记。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.<br />
<br />
From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.<br />
<br />
In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.<br />
<br />
“詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。”罗大京提到的另一个骂名，是形式上的：与具有高度艺术性和长达一个世纪传统的诗歌写作相比，散文中直接的、白话文式的语言在他看来并不那么有价值。<br />
在西方，16世纪晚期出现了一种真正的“散文写作艺术”，作为一种传播重组知识的媒介。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“诗騷妙天下，而散文颇觉瑣碎局促。”罗大经提出的另一个责难，是形式上的。在他看来，与高度艺术化的百年诗词写作传统相比，散文直接的、白话文式的语言没有什么价值。<br />
在西方，真正的 “散文写作艺术 ”是在16世纪末作为重组知识的一种媒介出现的。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.<br />
<br />
In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''. <br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.<br />
<br />
During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.<br />
<br />
荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。<br />
<br />
历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，这些散文中传授的普遍定理不仅有引用经典著作，还首次借鉴其个人经历。这种个体性在当代的散文中仍有保留。<br />
<br />
历朝历代，散文通过一些子类别得以呈现，如明朝盛行的在书页边上写的读书注释，它就是源于笔记。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。<br />
<br />
历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.<br />
<br />
Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.<br />
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边缘主义是中西早期散文的一个纽带。散见的笔记包含了私人的历史记录，轶事，交谈和个人沉思。然而，尽管当时的散文选集众多，但将视散文作为一种文体的意识，清朝之前并没有出现。<br />
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考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们在旧社会时，对短篇故事和小说的看法不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的困惑和经历。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
边缘主义是中西早期散文传统的一个纽带。偶尔的笔记可以包含私人的历史笔记，轶事，交流和沉思。然而，尽管当时中国散文选集有很多，一直到清朝之后我们才将散文视作一种文体意识。<br />
考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们对旧社会的看法与短篇小说和小说不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的问题和经历。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.<br />
<br />
Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the "Eight legged essay" as as appealing and intoxicating as the "pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).<br />
<br />
目前为止，中国红楼梦前的个体文学还只是通过诗中的间接语言与我们对话。通过重拾散文，我们可以知晓不同观点和社会历史状况等文学创作的丰富源泉。<br />
现代散文之前的文学并不限于形式上受限制的八股文，一方面鲁迅本人也有一些散文是用八股文写成的，但另一方面他又把八股文当作古代社会的代名词。周作人把 "八股文 "的语言节奏看作是 "做鸦片的快感 "一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
直到现在，中国前“红楼梦”的个体文学只能通过诗歌的间接语言与我们对话。重新发掘这些散文，我们可以拥有丰富的观点来源，社会历史图片等。<br />
<br />
前现代散文文学不仅仅包括它最为人所知的例子，正式的、有限制性的“八卦文”。鲁迅自己的一些文章就是用“八卦文”写的，但是在另一方面又把它当作古代社会的同义词。周作人认为《八股文》的语言节奏就像“吸鸦片的快感”一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:07, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).<br />
<br />
Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.<br />
<br />
<br />
但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。<br />
<br />
新儒家强调''文''（散文）是传播''道''的最重要工具：''文以载道''（文以载道）。如果我们从文体的角度来重新解读这句话，我们可以说，当时的散文已经被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。<br />
<br />
理学强调“文”（散文）是传播“道”的最重要工具：“文以载道”。（以文学为载体的方式）。如果我们从体裁的角度来重新解读这一措辞，可以说，散文已成为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.<br />
<br />
'''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''<br />
<br />
To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911). <br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).<br />
<br />
This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.<br />
<br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.<br />
<br />
然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:57, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 15:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:<br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
for example, Lu Xun with his theory "'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論"" (Theory of "Starting" and "Blossoming") came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his "Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論" (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay). <br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.<br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as "paralyzing" (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the "Fly", he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins "Thoughts" (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.<br />
<br />
The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is "a genre of self-reflection". Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art. <br />
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I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.<br />
<br />
除开关注作家的小说和诗歌之外，如果我们对他们的散文有所涉猎，就会发现他们不仅对文学整体的理解发生了变化，单个作者的观点也发生了变化。仅就周作人来说，他的思想在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的同伴们联系在一起，但是这些设想在中国行不通。当时的中国走的是一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路，这一现状还并没有得到改变。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. <br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, "The Fly" 1924, "Reading on the Toilet" 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. <br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.<br />
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Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.<br />
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20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。<br />
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考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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20世纪90年代，20-30年代民国时期的文章仍然和当代的同类文章一样经常被重印。显然，我们可以得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的政治宣传类散文只保存在专门的政治散文集中，到21世纪初，不再有人去写，也不再有人读这类文章了。<br />
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一种文学体裁会转变整个文学的视角，一位作家的散文作品，同样也会转变对这个作家的看法。我只以一位现代散文家为例：周作人。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
'''Zhou Zuoren'''<br />
<br />
I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a "traitor". Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.<br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''<br />
<br />
''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' "The wolves are coming" ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921). <br />
<br />
In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
With these words from the essay "''The aesthetic essay''" this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the "king of essays". <br />
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In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.<br />
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“美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这个起点在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。<br />
<br />
为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。 他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:48, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea "l'art pour l'art" , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181). <br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual. <br />
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"I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless "monsters" and "goblins" are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown." <br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
Confronting tradition and progress in the essay "''Ancestor Worship''", he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8). <br />
<br />
Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.<br />
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==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die "Kunst um der Kunst willen" propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept "Kunst um der Kunst willen" zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.<br />
<br />
Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: "''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''" 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.<br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had "duoluo 墮落" (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'. <br />
<br />
On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.<br />
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==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on "''The Fly''", where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things. <br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he "saw only the fly and not the cosmos" , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.<br />
<br />
His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food. <br />
<br />
Siehe Zhou Zuoren: "Cangying 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.<br />
<br />
''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay "''Cangying'' 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.<br />
<br />
他的作品《苦雨》展现出了这种氛围，因此他的文章被称为“苦茶”：阅读完之后能感到余味悠长。如果你对比鲁迅和周作人的《论饮茶》(Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326)，你可以看到“短小精辟”和“雄辩易读”的区别。《初恋》是最欢乐的作品。文章《三种不同的死法》表明周作人在讽刺小说方面足以与他的哥哥抗衡。鲁迅的同题作文《1926年3月18日的大屠杀》让人眼前一亮。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.<br />
<br />
'''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''<br />
<br />
''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: "''Anxiang'' 安详" (Serene) 1992, "''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事" (First make your own things in a good way) 1994). <br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.<br />
<br />
Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive ("''Shanxi opera''", Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world ("''The nightmare''", Si Yu 1995).<br />
<br />
From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:<br />
这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。<br />
20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文虽是一种新的主观主义，其目标是摆脱当代的矛盾，但是通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。<br />
从这篇文章中，我们可以看到当代文学的趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
- The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii); <br />
<br />
- The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br />
<br />
- A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br />
<br />
- The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.<br />
<br />
- 当下中国社会的浮躁节奏，对转折性和短文的要求。"[...]我们生活在一个论述的时代"(Hall 1984:xiii)。<br />
<br />
- 越发增加的独立意识，对其而言，文章是最直接的主体表达形式，甚至比诗的格律和形式要求更直接。<br />
<br />
- 通过散文这一媒介讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复苏，就像20世纪20/30年代的情况一样。<br />
<br />
- 日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得自觉，最常见的是日常生活的文体--散文。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
-当前中国社会节奏轻快，要求有趣味的短文：“[…]我们生活在一个博览会时代”（大厅1984:xiii）；<br />
<br />
-对于个人二元性意识的增强，散文是主体性表达的最直接形式，甚至比诗歌的韵律和形式要求更直接；<br />
<br />
-通过这篇文章讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复复苏，如同20世纪20年代或30年代的情况一样。<br />
<br />
-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:59, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
- The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. <br />
<br />
- Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: "readers"). <br />
<br />
- The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay "''The Back View''", filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.<br />
<br />
- ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).<br />
<br />
- ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''<br />
<br />
- Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being "''The Small Dog Baodi''", written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before ("''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''", Ba Jin 1984).<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's "''Rain in Kunming''" as well as for Jia Pingwa's "''Shanxi opera''". <br />
类似的还有想象怀旧的概念，正如王功权所说的沈从文作品中虚构的真实（王大卫·德维王1992），有助于解读汪曾祺的《昆明雨》，也有助于贾平凹的《山西剧》。<br />
<br />
- The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.<br />
施瓦茨在“隐喻话语”中所表达的“个人悲伤”概念，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他以“存在的真理”而闻名的，却通过他的狗“宝坻”的隐喻而获得更具说服力的虚构真相。<br />
<br />
Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay "The nightmare", where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong "woman soldier" .（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
'''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''<br />
<br />
Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.<br />
<br />
- People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
- If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?<br />
<br />
- Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
- The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?<br />
<br />
- 在中国，世界范围内城市生活的异化和互相不认识的现象与传统价值观如意识形态、家庭、团圆等的丧失结合在一起，有利于为自己谋利的观念，如果这已经产生了对新方向的渴望，这个领域能否被道德指导性文章或民族主义思想所填补呢？--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 11:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录<br />
<br />
'''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）<br />
<br />
吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.<br />
<br />
Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide. <br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中生长出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。<br />
<br />
曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。（修改）<br />
<br />
在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中衍生出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。<br />
<br />
曹雪芹，甚至于他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:09, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.<br />
<br />
红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）<br />
<br />
多元一体<br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
<br />
Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage<br />
<br />
“红楼梦”是一个多元的中国文化综合体，是中国文化的体现和精髓，但它也具有全球影响力，因此应该被授予“世界文献遗产”的荣誉。（修改<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>）<br />
<br />
多元一体<br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
<br />
Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage<br />
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
《红楼梦》是一个中国文化综合体，展示着中国文化的精髓的同时也极具全球影响力，理应被列入世界记忆遗产名录。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
'''1. Chinese Ethics'''<br />
<br />
To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.<br />
<br />
However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
'''2. Compatibility<br />
'''<br />
Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?<br />
<br />
First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel. <br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.<br />
<br />
'''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''<br />
<br />
There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.<br />
<br />
然而，《红楼梦》章回结构不连续来自于《水浒传》中几乎没有联系的章回的传统，这是朝着章回更连贯、与故事线一致以及更集中于较少主角的方向迈出的一步。因此，《红楼梦》明显向西方小说传统迈进了一步，可能是因为西方对清代的影响越来越大。<br />
<br />
'''3.译者的本土文化对翻译过程的影响'''<br />
<br />
《红楼梦》和西方文学作品之间有跨文化的相似之处。<br />
--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.<br />
<br />
'''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''<br />
<br />
According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist). <br />
<br />
The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music).<br />
<br />
虽然作者在他的时代无法批判皇帝的制度和权力，但在小说中，他通过家族的日益衰败（修行道教、休闲、写诗、艺术和音乐，而不是为了能够谋生而学习）和自己没有实现作为家族继承人的期望中寻找受迫害的罪责，来接受这种生活。这种对没落家庭颓废的描述，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.<br />
<br />
'''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''<br />
<br />
Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.<br />
<br />
然而，曹雪芹的信息不仅是“失乐园”的信息，而是他本人的一生。 尽管不如他的家人仍然享有皇帝的宠爱时富裕，但清初中国有一个工资体系和一个完整的社会网络，在那里他获得了足够的收入以独立于自己的富裕亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作 在大自然的小房子里过着轻松的生活，与家人和朋友共度时光，遵循自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和喝酒，为孩子们放风筝和思考处境不利的人。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
然而，曹雪芹所传达的信息并不是简单的“失乐园”，相反，他把自己的生活过得很好。 虽然比起他的家族享受皇帝的宠爱，他过得没有那么富裕，但清初中国有一套薪俸制度和一张完整的社会网，他获得了足够的收入，可以独立于富贵亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作，可以在大自然的小房子里过着悠闲的生活，可以与家人和朋友共度时光，可以追随自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和饮酒，可以为孩子们做风筝，可以为弱势群体着想。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.<br />
<br />
曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就有充分的认识，他熟悉社会的方方面面，他观察细致，叙事娴熟。他能把小说的结尾构思为对小说中人物不同性格的探讨，从而体现出他对人生的思考和对人性多样性的理解。他能够把握 "时间精神"(Zeitgeist)，并以他的亲身经历为材料创造了一部成熟的绝世之作，这不仅是为他的家庭、为清人、为中国人，更是为全人类。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
曹雪芹充分了解自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就，熟悉社会的不同层次，是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。他可能将小说的结局概念化为对小说中人物不同性格的讨论，从而表现出他对生活的反思和对人性多样性的心理理解。他能够把握“时代精神”(时代精神)，并以他的自传体经历，为他的家庭，为清朝人，为中国人，为人类创造了一部永恒的成长小说。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:01, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就了如指掌，他熟悉社会的不同层面，他是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。因此，他在小说中对人的不同个性的理解和对小说中人物性格的多样性进行了概念化的探讨。他能够把握“时代精神”，用他的自传体经历，不仅为他的家庭，为清朝的中国人，为中国人民，而且为人类，创作了一部永恒的成人小说。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:43, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.<br />
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802). <br />
==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''. <br />
<br />
'''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''<br />
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Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.<br />
<br />
与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，这通过莎士比亚的经典戏剧得以体现。传统可以作为方向标，但主人公的个性需要通过解放才能发展，这是一种智慧，我们可以以上提过包括《梦》的所有小说中学习。<br />
“6.色情与真爱，女性对手"<br />
性是人类的一种基本需求，在不同文化中展现出不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是有固定程式的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:37, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，在《威廉·迈斯特》中，莎士比亚戏剧中复兴的经典作品代表了这一点。传统可以给予导向，但主人公的个性需要通过解放来发展是一种智慧，我们可以从包括《梦》在内的所有小说中学习。<br />
“6。色情与真爱，女性对手"<br />
性是人类的一种基本需求，在各种文化中形成了不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是程式化的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively. <br />
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According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.<br />
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The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).<br />
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==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).<br />
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In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”<br />
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Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.<br />
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在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地站在了反对低级动作和刻板色情文学的立场上，也站在了反对普遍存在的言情小说的立场上（以美丽的才女和通过公务员考试最终获得地位和财富的穷书生为经典角色）。<br />
<br />
在第一章中，他说："年轻人的真情实感......至今无人报道"。<br />
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"情色场面以体面和联想的方式描述（"云和雨的游戏"），同时表现出另一种开放性，例如对双性恋的开放。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.<br />
<br />
While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”. <br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).<br />
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
'''7. Feudal society and slavery'''<br />
<br />
A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.<br />
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封建社会和奴隶<br />
一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶一视同仁，这将成为奴隶解放的宣言。我并不同意这个解释，因为亚里士多德的民主就排除了奴隶的投票权。所以，我们并不能用现代观念去评判过去。在我看来，贾宝玉并不是和不平等作斗争，而是把人视作群体和个人。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 09:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德，当他要求民主的时候，会排除奴隶的投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人看成是群体和个人。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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许多人认为，贾宝玉对家庭成员和仆人的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种看法。因为当亚里士多德要求民主时，奴隶并没有投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去发生的事。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人分为是群体和个人。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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人们普遍认为贾宝玉对待家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德吁民主时，会将奴隶从投票权中剔除。所以我们不能用现代观点评判古人。我认为，贾宝玉并不是在为不平等而做斗争，而是将人区分为人或是个体。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 12:02, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.<br />
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另外，把仆人理解为奴隶也与《红楼梦》中所描述的不符，因为有些仆人自己也有仆人，他们离开贾家后，家人会照顾他们，为他们婚配，并且贾正把女儿迎春称为“丫头”，所以用奴隶来翻译这个词是不合适的。因此，译者在翻译中更倾向于“仆人”而不是“奴隶”。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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而且把仆人理解为奴隶与《红楼梦》中的描写不符，因为有些仆人自己还有仆人，贾府会在她们离府的时候为她们寻一门亲事，作为贾府对她们的照料；贾政也把自己的女儿迎春喊作 “丫头”， 所以把这些翻译成奴隶是不合适的。因此英文翻译中采用“servant”会比“slave”更为合适。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.<br />
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2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
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2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的感觉是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:43, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
'''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''<br />
<br />
Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.<br />
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8.所有悲剧的悲剧成分<br />
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亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释说，悲剧使人们比喜剧更能吸引人，因为他们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整和有程度的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。 欧洲的悲剧部分归因于亚里斯多德作品《喜剧》的丢失。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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8.所有悲剧含有的悲剧成分<br />
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亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释道，悲剧之所以比戏剧更加动人，是因为它们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整且具有一定规模的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。悲剧在欧洲拥有崇高地位部分归因于亚里士多德的作品《论喜剧》的失传。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as "tragedy of all tragedies". To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture. <br />
<br />
In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.<br />
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==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.<br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
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'''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''<br />
<br />
One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.<br />
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9. “非二进制小说”<br />
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可爱而神秘的主角贾宝玉是吸引西方读者的其中一点。由于他开放的双性恋倾向以及对同伴的兴趣，无论他们的社会地位如何，他彰显“现代”气质或至少不属于那个时代。 他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他与世隔绝的漫长状态使他既具有永恒的品格又具有神秘感。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.<br />
According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically. <br />
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==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
'''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''<br />
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Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.<br />
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==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.<br />
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==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”. <br />
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'''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）<br />
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Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.<br />
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Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.<br />
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Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition<br />
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Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289<br />
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Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107<br />
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Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.<br />
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==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
'''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object<br />
'''<br />
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A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication<br />
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Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University<br />
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'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role. <br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.). <br />
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Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.<br />
<br />
本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。<br />
<br />
算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管世界，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。<br />
<br />
算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society. <br />
<br />
这些算法不仅针对明确的交流，也针对人类的情绪和思想，并预测未来的行为，因此允许模拟现实。更强大的算法也在社会中占据了决策角色：取代人类法庭的判决，及时微调和按需制作，审查聊天室等。一套算法有助于管理智慧城市和整个社会。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.<br />
<br />
<br />
虽然人仍然是通信的一部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人往往没有意识到虚拟通信和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟通信的主要参与者是机器。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
尽管人类仍然是交流活动的一个组成部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人类往往没有意识到，自己是虚拟沟通和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟沟通的主导者是机器。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
虽然人仍然是构成通信的一部分，尤其是作为分析对象和操纵目标，但人往往没有意识到人们在虚拟通信中扮演机器决策的被动接受者，而机器才是主要参与者。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.<br />
<br />
研究对这些形式的虚拟沟通进行了描述，在社会管理系统、信用系统（定制的（虚假）新闻筛选泡沫）和定制的消费商（亚马逊、脸书、谷歌、网飞）里面找到了证据（德国有“Schufa”，美国则因为信用史有重大人物而使得社会信用至上并日趋游戏化），并对益处加以分析，这些益处包含通过这类虚拟沟通提升安全。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:20, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
研究描述了这些虚拟通信的形式，在社会管理系统和信用系统中找到证据（在德国，我们有 "Schufa"，在美国有信用记录的大玩家，这导致了信用导向和人类生活的游戏化）或定制化（假）新闻过滤气泡，以及在定制化的消费优惠中（亚马逊，Facebook，谷歌，Netflix），并分析了好处，包括通过这种虚拟通信增强安全性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.<br />
<br />
'''Introduction'''<br />
<br />
In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).<br />
<br />
<br />
但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展发出警告，同时要对引起的伦理问题也要承担责任。特别是信用体系游戏化所造成的外骨骼伦理问题更需要得到重视，要反对内在的伦理问题。<br />
<br />
引言<br />
<br />
本论文在涉及机器与机器之间的交流时，我不考虑那些帮助人类让生活更便捷的机器（从“牛奶没了，请在送货单上加平常剂量的牛奶”到“老太太今早卧床不起，我最好叫医生吧”）。<br />
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:10, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展提出警告，并提出伦理问题。特别是信用体系等游戏化所强加的外骨骼伦理，更需要对照内在伦理加以重视。<br />
<br />
引言<br />
<br />
在本文中涉及机器与机器之间的交流，我跳过了机器协助人类提高生活便利的内容（从 "牛奶没了，请把平时的牛奶量加到送货单上"，到 "老太太今天早上还没下床，我还是叫医生吧"。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”<br />
实际上，本人研究涉及的方面如下：比如，“让我们创建一名用户的个性化主界面，并将其与大数据进行比对，学习如何最好的吸引该用户的注意，让他/她投票给总统候选人甲或乙。”“让我们检查这名用户鼠标的运动轨迹，通过与大数据进行比对，建立关联，来估计他是否会得帕金森。如果他患有帕金森疾病，我们会决定是否需要对他的贷款或医疗保险的申请予以拒绝。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:41, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
“Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”<br />
<br />
The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.<br />
<br />
“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”<br />
<br />
当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
"让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。"；甚至"利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。"<br />
目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、惧怕的事物、诸如通奸之类的秘密，从而勒索他让我的程序员获取赎金”。更有甚时，“让我们使用用户的位置让攻击机瞄准他。”<br />
<br />
当前亚马逊、脸书、联络电话、Instagram、谷歌、网飞等的新自由主义的系统软件，激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit.<br />
<br />
这与因不受监管地使用衍生品导致的金融危机非常相似。这是一个系统性的发展，它目前走的是一条用算法控制奴役人们，为科技公司谋利的道路。从全世界对社交媒体的沉迷，从越来越多的阴谋论者，从美国对特朗普的两极分化或英国对英国脱欧的两极分化，我们都可以看出，奴役已经开始。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:07, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
'''1 History of Media Epochs'''<br />
<br />
Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role. <br />
<br />
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).<br />
<br />
卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头（媒体时代1.0）到文字（2.0）的通讯发展，再到印刷（3.0）数字通讯（4.0）<br />
在所有这些阶段中，科技都只起到了协助作用。<br />
<br />
本文认为，从根本上来说，“虚拟沟通”处于新阶段（媒体时代5.0），其中人工智能（由人类初始化）已被接管，人类已成为分析和操纵的对象（如顾客，选民等）--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:56, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).<br />
<br />
虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.<br />
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The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.<br />
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但是，我们几乎一直在通过聊天和地理位置追踪运动，不断沉迷于社交媒体，携带手机以及越来越多的智能设备来生成数据，因此，我们一直是通过算法进行分析的对象。<br />
<br />
交流行为的传统设置变得模糊：机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标记了阈值），并且在经过一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏机器的本质。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:49, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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然而，我们几乎在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和地理追踪的动作，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们随时携带手机和越来越多的智能设备，因而成为算法分析的对象。<br />
<br />
传统的交流行为的设定模糊了。机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标志着一个门槛），在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
然而，我们几乎是在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和追踪移动，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们无时无刻都带着手机和越来越多的智能设备，因此我们是算法分析的对象。<br />
传统的交流行为设定是模糊的:机器可以直接与人类交流(图灵测试在这里标记了一个阈值)，并且在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:49, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.<br />
<br />
机器还可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言的多模态交流、行为、个性等，并与人类进行交互，从而间接地与人类进行交流，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤器泡沫中成长并相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子：人们被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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机器也可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言多模态交流、行为、个性等与人类进行交流，或者间接地与人类进行互动，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤气泡中长大、相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子:这个人一直被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:45, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.<br />
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'''2 Types of communicative acts'''<br />
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1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)<br />
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2.Surf behavior (websites visited)<br />
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3.Consumer behavior (purchases)<br />
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4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)<br />
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5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)<br />
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6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)<br />
甚至没有注意到人与机器之间发生的互动，人已经失去了他/她对机器的独立性。<br />
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"两种类型的交际行为"<br />
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1.<br />
文本(口头和书面评论/聊天文本/博客/电子邮件)<br />
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2.<br />
上网行为(浏览网站)<br />
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3.<br />
消费者行为(购买)<br />
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4.<br />
喜欢(参见OCEAN, UEBA)<br />
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5.<br />
持续时间/关注(见UEBA)<br />
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6.<br />
习惯/重复/出现(是不同AI应用/工具的分析元素)--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)<br />
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8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships<br />
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9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)<br />
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==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
'''3 Types of analysis'''<br />
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1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)<br />
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2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)<br />
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3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)<br />
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4.Mobility profile/pattern<br />
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==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)<br />
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6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)<br />
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5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)<br />
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6.就业形势/就业市场（2020年《人才搜索人》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)<br />
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6.就业形势/就业市场（《人才搜索人 2020》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:58, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.<br />
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8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the "clickworker" company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)<br />
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9.Secrets (like adultery)<br />
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==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
'''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]<br />
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1.the human switches from active to passive<br />
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2.the human switches from subject to object<br />
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3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)<br />
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4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet<br />
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5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance<br />
<br />
4.媒介5.0时代的独特品质 [我创造了 "媒介5.0时代"和 "虚拟通信 "这两个词，它们是从德国的“工业4.0”以及卢曼和贝克提出的媒介4.0时代（贝克称之为1.0...4.0）等概念发展而来的。一些作者揣测媒介4.0时代这个词的含义，比如1990年出版的雷-库兹韦尔的《灵魂机器时代》]<br />
<br />
1.人从主动到被动的转换<br />
<br />
2.人从主体到客体的转换<br />
<br />
3.人沉迷于社交媒体，提高了患抑郁症的风险<br />
<br />
4.人从木偶操纵者或看似拥有自由意志的实体到木偶人的转换<br />
<br />
5.互联网的性质从自由到监测的转换--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:25, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)<br />
<br />
7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))<br />
<br />
8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine<br />
<br />
9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration<br />
<br />
6，直接交流变成间接交流（人们自己可能没有意识到这种交流/分析）。<br />
<br />
7，明确的交流（声音，文字）变成隐性的交流（偏好/想法/梦想/愿望/价值观（上海和北京已开始在工人的帽子上使用脑扫描仪进行首次实验））。<br />
<br />
8，人与人之间的通信变成了人与机器之间的通信（电话机器人）再到机器与机器之间的通信。<br />
<br />
9.4.0是从集中到分散，5.0是部分集中和部分分散，也有集中。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.<br />
<br />
'''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)<br />
'''<br />
<br />
1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions<br />
<br />
2.Filter bubbles => supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments<br />
<br />
到目前为止，大众媒体一直被认为是单一的。数百万个人用户数据的交互和处理似乎太费力。在虚拟传播时代，即媒体时代5.0，大众传媒是个性化和互动的，因此更具影响力。<br />
<br />
'''5 种操纵类型（有意识或无意识，有时是半意识的）'''<br />
<br />
1.无意识广告发布：影响消费者决策<br />
<br />
2.过滤泡沫=>支持阴谋论，影响判断--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:08, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).<br />
<br />
4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation<br />
<br />
5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)<br />
<br />
6.Identity theft<br />
<br />
<br />
3.社交媒体的本质：谎言的传播速度比真理快 6 倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。<br />
<br />
4.改变政治态度：案例剑桥分析：通过操纵多数年轻人不投票帮助少数民族赢得选举 （这样做：不要投票竞选。奥德利夫森 2020年）；特朗普选举和英国脱欧通过操纵获胜<br />
<br />
5.利用私人信息/依赖关系获取好处（勒索钱财或犯罪等）<br />
<br />
6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3.社交媒体的性质：谎言传播速度是真相的6倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。<br />
4.政治态度的改变：剑桥分析案例：通过操纵大多数年轻人不投票帮助少数人赢得选举（Do Do Do:Do not vote campaign，Oddleifson 2020）；特朗普选举和脱欧是通过操纵赢得的<br />
5.利用私人信息/依赖性获取利益（勒索钱财或犯罪等）<br />
6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
'''6 Consequences'''<br />
<br />
1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)<br />
<br />
6.后果<br />
<br />
1.虚拟通讯大多是 "隐蔽 "的，人多半不知道，但可能会承受后果（警察可能仅仅因为人脸识别玻璃识别出路过的行人，并评估其为 "危险 "而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新的客户）--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
6.后果<br />
<br />
1.虚拟通信通常是“隐藏的”，人类大多数情况下是不知道的，但可能会承受后果（警察可能只是因为面部识别玻璃杯识别出行人经过并将他/她评估为“危险”而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''6.后果<br />
'''<br />
<br />
1.大多情况下，虚拟通信是“隐藏的”，人类也没有意识到这一点，但可能会承担由此带来的后果（警察可能会因为面部识别玻璃检测到行人通过，并将其评估为“危险人物”而将嫌疑犯拘留‘贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery) <br />
<br />
3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)<br />
<br />
4.Populists and populist views gain supporters<br />
<br />
5.Polarization of Society<br />
<br />
6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.<br />
<br />
7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
2.用户变得透明化（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被拉黑，嫉妒的配偶可以查奸情）<br />
<br />
3.交流讨论意愿较弱（因为立场相差太远）<br />
<br />
4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者<br />
<br />
5.社会的两极分化<br />
<br />
6.有动机不透露自己对对象了解多少，因为对象就可能质疑合法性、制度等。<br />
<br />
7.最后的手段—思维，已经被破解：机器解释的是 "真实 "的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
2.用户变得透明（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被勒索，嫉妒的配偶可以调查奸情）<br />
<br />
3.缺乏沟通和讨论的意愿（因为立场相差太远）<br />
<br />
4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者<br />
<br />
5.社会两极分化<br />
<br />
6.有动机不透露自己对客体了解多少，因为客体可能会质疑其合法性、制度等。<br />
<br />
7.最后一个办法是思考：机器解释的是“真实”的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)<br />
<br />
9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics<br />
'''<br />
7 Simulation of the imminent future'''<br />
<br />
1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted<br />
<br />
2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted => simulation<br />
<br />
8.知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量<br />
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br />
'''<br />
7模拟即将到来的未来<br />
1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的<br />
2.有了许多被分析的人类，现实的即将到来的未来可以被预测=>模拟--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:00, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
8.已知的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比未知im min的人（受害者）更有力量<br />
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br />
'''<br />
7模拟迫近的未来<br />
1.人类的迫近未来行为是可以预测的<br />
2.在分析了许多人类后，我们便可预测现实的迫近未来=>模拟--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019). <br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
'''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''<br />
<br />
Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.<br />
Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''8 结论与展望''' <br />
<br />
数据已经取代石油成为当今经济中最有价值的资源。大型科技公司已经在使用用户的数据并从中牟取暴利，与此同时，立法被拖延，国界（不存在科技公司）正在为之苦苦挣扎。<br />
<br />
尽管像欧盟这样的以输入合法化的自由民主国家和市场经济，仍然保护着隐私和数据安全，但是中美两国的科技公司已经开始渗透欧洲市场。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.<br />
<br />
'''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.<br />
'''<br />
'''<br />
The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms: <br />
'''<br />
我们需要提高意识，引导青少年注意屏幕时间和他们在网上分享的东西。我们需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。<br />
<br />
'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''<br />
<br />
所列出的后果证明了范式的根本变化:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
我们需要提高意识，引导青少年留意屏幕时间和网上分享，需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。<br />
<br />
'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''<br />
<br />
所列出的后果证明了范式的基本变化:--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
'''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.<br />
'''<br />
<br />
AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.<br />
<br />
人类通过建立政治、法官等制度所形成的原因导向的决策方法正在被算法形成的关联导向的决策方法所取代，算法通常为科技公司的利润利益或选举操纵者的政治利益服务。<br />
<br />
人工智能走上了错误的发展道路，它从为人类服务变成了试图为了经济或政治利益而操纵人类。当人工智能被用于教育公民——比如帮助德国客户保持干净的信用历史和良好的信用评分——它就会改变公民的行为，使其成为一种外骨骼伦理。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more? <br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
'''9 Outlook'''<br />
<br />
We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.<br />
<br />
'''References<br />
'''<br />
（参考文献不用翻译）<br />
<br />
AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/<br />
<br />
Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007<br />
<br />
Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/ <br />
<br />
Booth, T. "Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics." ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.<br />
<br />
Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/<br />
<br />
Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453 <br />
<br />
Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare<br />
<br />
Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf: <br />
<br />
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true<br />
<br />
Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). "Predicting personality with social media." ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.<br />
<br />
Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). "Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students." Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.<br />
<br />
Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997<br />
<br />
Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.<br />
<br />
https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf<br />
<br />
Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., & Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.<br />
<br />
Ruan, Lotus, et al. "One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally." (2016).<br />
Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). "Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study." ''Social Science & Medicine ''182: 150-157.<br />
<br />
Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.<br />
<br />
Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). "The social media disorder scale." ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.<br />
<br />
Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. "ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity." ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.<br />
<br />
Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
'''Bio'''<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.<br />
Woesler has co-edited the books "China's Digital Dream", "Ethics of Information Society" and Springer has scheduled to publish the book "Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation" including his book chapter "Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids" in February 2021.<br />
<br />
个人简历<br />
<br />
自2020年起，吴漠汀（Martin Woesler）博士是湖南师范大学欧洲研究的讲座教授。自2019年来，他在湖师大外国语学院担任中国文化研究、翻译研究和比较文学的特聘教授。2019年，吴教授当选萨尔茨堡欧洲科学与艺术学院院士。吴教授曾与人合编《中国的数字梦想》、《信息社会伦理学》等书。施普林格（Springer）已计划于2021年2月出版《中国笔译与口译中的多种声音》一书，其中包括他的《数字与技术辅助的现代口译》一章。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College "Media Cultures of Computer Simulations" 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.</div>Hu Huifanghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=116966History of Translation Studies 92020-12-21T01:09:03Z<p>Hu Huifang: /* Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang 202020080604 */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
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='''Comparative Studies'''=<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan <br />
易欢 202020080663<br />
(1.between should be Between; 2. Please add your student number and major here)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 06:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC) ==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language is under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, makes a comparative study of English and Chinese language forms and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br />
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(Sentence 3 the both should be both; Sentence 4 beween should be between --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 07:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC))<br />
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===Key words===<br />
language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br />
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===摘要===<br />
英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显然，语言，文化与思维之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. That is to say, language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921:12)<br />
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Meanwhile, language is part of culture. And language, as a system of signs with its own cultural substances and values, may be viewed as a symbol of culture identity. For example, a person who moves from his or her speech community to another one, will easily exposes himself or herself as a newcomer in communication since the language he uses may betray his culture identity. Also each culture has its own peculiarities and throws influence on the language system. Hence, language is the carrier and the representation of culture, and as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture.<br />
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（Sentence 2 culture identity should be cultural identity, same mistake in Sentence 3; exposes should be expose )--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 13:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properties and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. <br />
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(Sentence 2 is known as should be are known as)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 13:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br />
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===2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese===<br />
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The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. And in different countries, there exist different thinking patterns, then it is going to illustrate four types of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present the reflection upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. <br />
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===2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking===<br />
When Premier Zhou and Secretary of State Kissinger drafted “Shanghai Sino-US Communique,” Kissinger once said that the thought of Oriental is to seek the common ground among differences, while the thought of the Occidental are accustomed to seeking differences among the similarities. To some extent, it shows that Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical. Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. <br />
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(Sentence 2 are accustomed to should be is accustomed to )--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Actually, the formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. Then such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking.<br />
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(Sentence 1 the nature——nature ; Sentence 5 towards——of; Sentence 6 develop——to develop)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analyzing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively.<br />
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(Sentence 1 “subject-object~”——the “subject-object~”; explain ——explains; Sentence 3 logic——logical)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relatiobnships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking.<br />
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(Sentence 4 wrong spelling of relationships)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis, is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. <br />
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Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br />
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(1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br />
我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br />
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(2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br />
Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face.(Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br />
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From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one prominent feature is the abundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. <br />
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Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br />
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(Sentence 2 some of——some)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking===<br />
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It is well known that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking. As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the opposite side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” (Tao Te Ching, chapter 25) Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” (Mencius, chapter 1)<br />
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(Sentence 1stress——stresses; Sentence 2 sever——severe; think——think of; Sentence 3 Chinese Confucian school——the Chinese Confucian school)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1971: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. <br />
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(Sentence 3 is——are)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature. On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conquer nature. <br />
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(Sentence 3 has looked upon at—— have looked upon )--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism advocates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974: 25 ) <br />
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(Sentence 2 truth ——the truth)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br />
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( Sentence 1 used of ——used)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br />
一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br />
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A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br />
我突然想出了一个好主意。<br />
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The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br />
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Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. <br />
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(Sentence 1 show——to show; its——their; Sentence 2 are ——is)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br />
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(Sentence 2 pattern——patterns)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(1) 公交车来了。<br />
There comes the bus.<br />
(2) 我家有五口人。<br />
There are 5 people in my family.<br />
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Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by) “为人所骗” (be cheated by). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br />
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(Sentence 3 use ——uses)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking===<br />
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Thinking in images and thinking in notions are two forms of thought activities. Generally speaking, Chinese people are well good at thinking in images, while English–speaking people are well developed in thinking in notions. These two tendencies are rooted in their own cultures (包惠南, 2001: 26). Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration. As we all know Chinese language is vivid and full of images and the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. <br />
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Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgment and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences.<br />
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Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. <br />
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Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M.Young once pointed，“an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end, detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness.” <br />
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(Sentence 2 tend to——tends to)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” (1946: 15-16) The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br />
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Sentence 2 devices——device; Sentence 3 medonstrated ——demonstrated; Sentence 4 examplify ——exemplify)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br />
欲饮琵琶马上催。<br />
— 王翰《凉州词》<br />
With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br />
Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br />
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无边落木萧萧下，<br />
不尽长江滚滚来。<br />
—杜甫《登高》<br />
The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br />
The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br />
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In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br />
“To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br />
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“为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br />
是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br />
There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to govern the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br />
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Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br />
智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br />
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In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br />
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===2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking===<br />
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According to Robert Kaplan who analyzes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br />
Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. <br />
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And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging.<br />
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While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotelian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. <br />
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(Sentence 4 view——views ; superior ——as superior)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br />
<br />
(Sentence 1 has——have)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br />
足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br />
<br />
There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br />
<br />
(2) 各位来宾，<br />
女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br />
Distinguished Guests,<br />
Ladies and Gentlemen,<br />
Dear Friends,<br />
在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br />
With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br />
<br />
Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br />
诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br />
<br />
Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delight in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br />
<br />
Although the distinction is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of Composition above Middle School, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines.<br />
<br />
===3. Conclusion===<br />
The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other.<br />
<br />
( Sentence 1 comparison on——comparison of)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 15:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, and we can not lump together under one head. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people view about the world around them, and then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br />
<br />
( Sentence 3 about——of; two language——two languages ; Sentence 4 view about——view)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 15:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Bibliography===<br />
*Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br />
*Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br />
*Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br />
*Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br />
*Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br />
*Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br />
* Lian Shuneng. 连淑能. (2002) 论中西思维方式【J】 On Chinese and Western modes of thinking. 大连：外语与外语教学. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching.<br />
*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1992) 《汉英对比翻译》【M】 Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese, 南昌: 江西教育出版社, Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press.<br />
*Qian Mu. 钱穆，(1977)《世界局势与中国文化》The World Situation and Chinese Culture【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD.<br />
*Shen Xiaolong. 申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters《学术月刊》 1994 第14期, 74. Academic Monthly, 1994 (14), 74.<br />
*Wang Dehua. 汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36. Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br />
*Zhang Li. 张 黎. (1994) 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】on Chinese Parataxis Grammar. 长春：吉林教育出版社Changchun: Jilin Education Press.<br />
*Zhang Sijie & Zhang Boran. 张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, 中国翻译 Chinese Translation. 2001 (7), 13.<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 英语笔译 MTI 202070080578==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed the theory of functional equivalence, which has boosted the development of translation theory. The theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory. Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between the original language and the target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the key in translation, exerting great guiding significance for translators.<br />
<br />
With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, Chinese translators also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators.<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence and Yan Fu's faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences between these two theories will be presented, aiming to have a better understanding in translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words=== <br />
<br />
Functional Equivalence; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; similarities and differences; ''Vanity Fair''<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。<br />
<br />
随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, it can be seen that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His "Functional equivalence" theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reaching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43).<br />
<br />
Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).<br />
<br />
Despite the different social environment and the imperfect translation standards, it is undeniable that these two are still the most authoritative and vital ones in Chinese and Western translation circles(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).<br />
<br />
====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible, and a translation theorist as well. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). <br />
<br />
In 1964, Nida put forward "formal equivalence" and "dynamic equivalence" in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of "dynamic equivalence" until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression "dynamic equivalence" was superseded by "functional equivalence" in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined "in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). "<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). It is impossible to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translators can cause differences in translation.<br />
<br />
In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level(Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as "The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it". The maximal level is stated as "The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did"(Nida 1993,118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. According to Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida,1995,224).<br />
<br />
====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as the essential criteria for understanding translation since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898)（Zhang Xi 2014,1):<br />
<br />
"Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so(Yan Fu 2009, 202)."<br />
<br />
Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of Chinese translation theory in the 20th century (Zhang Xi 2014, 2). <br />
<br />
According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. "Faithfulness" emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. "Expressiveness" stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. "Elegance" reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics''(Yan Fu 2009, 202):<br />
<br />
"Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also added, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for translators. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek for elegance.(Yan Fu 2009, 202)"<br />
<br />
Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticism comes from the denial of standard "elegance". According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese characters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons. Firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br />
<br />
Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. "Elegance" now has been modified by later generations, which refers to that the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard "elegance", the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br />
<br />
===Theoretial Foundation===<br />
<br />
====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====<br />
<br />
=====Modern Linguistic===== <br />
<br />
Based on modern linguistic, functional equivalence has a close relationship with linguistics(Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately(Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process（Zhu Haotong 2006,64).<br />
<br />
According to Nida, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure(Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).<br />
<br />
=====Information Theory=====<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information(Nida 1964, 68).<br />
<br />
Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and the target language belong to different language systems and cultures(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original text for the target readers to better understand the translation(Nida 1984, 34).<br />
<br />
=====Social Semiotics=====<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning(Zhu Haotong 2006,65).<br />
<br />
In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods(Nida 1993, 67). <br />
<br />
====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br />
<br />
=====Chinese Aesthetics=====<br />
<br />
Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty（Guo dingju 2013, 18). It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today.<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. "Expressiveness" means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. "Elegance" refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. "Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" reveal the essence of translation(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters(Guo Dingju 2013, 18).<br />
<br />
Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance(Guo Dingju 2013, 19).<br />
<br />
=====Literary Criticism=====<br />
<br />
Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods(Guo Dingju 2013, 19). <br />
<br />
On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is the body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered around the craftmanship of literary works(Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation(Li Jianzhong 2009, 46). <br />
<br />
There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of criticism functions. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism, Lu Xun being one of the representative. The second type aims at the independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism serving politics, which works well in the period of political struggels(Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).<br />
<br />
===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===<br />
<br />
====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====<br />
<br />
=====About ''Vanity Fair''=====<br />
<br />
''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the stories of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition(Guo Dingju 2013, 21).<br />
<br />
At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again(Thackeray 2006，178).<br />
<br />
This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater living in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time(Guo Dingju 2013, 21). <br />
<br />
The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at that time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveals the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, he doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness(Thackeray 2006, 89).<br />
<br />
=====Yang Bi’s Translation of ''Vanity Fair''=====<br />
<br />
There are many Chinese translation versions of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of ''Vanity Fair'' was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957, then re-published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br />
<br />
Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of the original text appropriately to Chinese readers, hence having a great response from Chinese readers.(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br />
<br />
====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br />
<br />
Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator when translating. When comparing the English and Chinese version of ''Vanity Fair'', it’s easy to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.<br />
<br />
=====At Lexical Level=====<br />
<br />
In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943，89), those are <br />
<br />
(1) entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on; <br />
<br />
(2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on; <br />
<br />
(3) states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on; <br />
<br />
(4) characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on; <br />
<br />
(5) processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on; <br />
<br />
(6) links, such as when, during, below and so on; <br />
<br />
(7) deictics, such as that, there, this and so on(Nida 1986, 20). <br />
<br />
From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language(Zhang Yanmei 2019,16). <br />
<br />
Exampe 1: <br />
<br />
ST1: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br />
<br />
TT1: ……痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br />
<br />
In ST1, "Love" and "Beauty" are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words "Love" and "Beauty" to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates "Love" and "Beauty" into "痴情男子" and "美貌佳人" to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate "Love" and "Beauty" into "爱情" and "美人", the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.<br />
<br />
=====At Syntactical Level=====<br />
<br />
A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences (Nida, 1946). Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence(Nida 1946, 55). He think there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:<br />
<br />
(1) subject + predicate + adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;<br />
<br />
(2) subject + predicate + object, such as, John hit Bill;<br />
<br />
(3) subject + predicate + object + object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;<br />
<br />
(4) subject + be + subject complement, such as, John is in the restaurant;<br />
<br />
(5) subject + be + attributive, such as, John is kind;<br />
<br />
(6) subject + be + indefinite article + noun, such as, John is a man;<br />
<br />
(7) subject + be + pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend. <br />
<br />
The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences(Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text(Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation. <br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
<br />
ST2: His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury. <br />
(Thackeray 2016,75) <br />
<br />
TT2: 他第一次结婚的时候,奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐,是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br />
(Yang Bi 2013,76) <br />
<br />
In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences(Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.<br />
<br />
(1) 他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。<br />
<br />
His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.<br />
<br />
(2) 他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。<br />
<br />
He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.<br />
<br />
(3) 她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。<br />
<br />
She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade. <br />
<br />
(4) 她死后，他许下承诺。<br />
<br />
He was hanged after her death.<br />
<br />
(5) 他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。<br />
<br />
He would never take another of her sort.<br />
<br />
(6) 妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。<br />
<br />
At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.<br />
<br />
(7) 他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br />
<br />
He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.<br />
<br />
In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.<br />
<br />
====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br />
<br />
The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.<br />
<br />
=====At Lexical level=====<br />
<br />
Literary words demands that the translator has good command of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence(Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
<br />
ST3: …for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty?(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br />
<br />
TT3: ……痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br />
<br />
In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words "an image of Love" and "Beauty" to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br />
<br />
If the words "prettier", "an image of Love" and "Beauty" are translated into "更好看" "爱情形象" "美人" respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, "痴情男子" "美貌佳人" and "赏心悦目" reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br />
<br />
=====At Sentence Level===== <br />
<br />
English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis(Guo Dingju 2013,40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br />
<br />
Example 4: <br />
<br />
ST4: The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley. (Thackeray 2006, 74)<br />
<br />
TT4: 布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)<br />
<br />
In the original sentence, the abstract words "behavior" and "reception" are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into "克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……" without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.<br />
<br />
====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====<br />
<br />
===== Similarities =====<br />
<br />
Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.<br />
<br />
One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent(Nida&Taber 1969, 22).<br />
<br />
Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers. The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty(Guo Dingju 2013, 43). Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.<br />
<br />
The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating(Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information(Nida 1969,30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent.<br />
<br />
Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely(Guo Dingju 2013,44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.<br />
<br />
By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.<br />
<br />
===== Differences =====<br />
<br />
Although there are many similarities between these two thoeries, there are still some differences because of the different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence, which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of "elegance". What’s more, the concrete explanation of "faithfulness" is not clear. Whether the target text should only be "faithful" to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as the translation standard. <br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class(Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of the differences between these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translation. <br />
<br />
From the comparison above, it is known that there are some similarities and differences between these two thoeries. It is believed that these two translation theories both play an important role in translation, guiding us to better understand different cultures. <br />
<br />
====Implements====<br />
<br />
Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). <br />
<br />
What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper(Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.<br />
<br />
====Limitations====<br />
<br />
Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene Albert. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Leiden: Brill Archive.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene Albert. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Leiden: Brill Archive.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene Albert, and Charles Russell Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill Archive.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene Albert, and Jan de Waard. (1986) ''From One Language to Another''. Nashville: Thomas Nelson.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene Albert. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press. <br />
<br />
Thackeray, William. (2006）. ''Vanity Fair''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
<br />
Chen Minjie 陈岷婕. (2013). 浅谈严复的信达雅与奈达的功能对等[On Yan Fu’s "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Nida’s "Functional Equivalence"].''科教文汇'' The Science Education Article Collects(236)94-97.<br />
<br />
Guo Dingju 郭丁菊. (2013). 功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness Expressiveand Elegance]. Harbin: Northeast Forestry University 东北农业大学.<br />
<br />
Li Jianzhong 李建中. (2009). 中国文学批评史[History of Chinese Literary Criticism]. Beijing: Peking University Press 北京大学出版社.<br />
<br />
Tan Kai 谭凯. (2011). 严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Yan Fu’s "Faithfulness Expressive and Elegance" and Nida’s "Functional Equivalence"].''青年作家'' Young Writers(1)43-44.<br />
<br />
Wang Yunxi 王运熙, Gu Yisheng 顾易生. (2007). 中国文学批评史新编[A New History of Chinese Literary Criticism]. Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.<br />
<br />
Yan Fu 严复 (2009). 《天演论》译例言[Preface to ''Evolution and Ethics'']. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
Yang Bi 杨必. (2013)《名利场》[''Vanity Fair'']. Beijing: People’s Literature Publishing House 人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yanmei 张妍梅. (2019). 功能对等理论视角下《名利场》的翻译[A Study on The Translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory]. Lanzhou: Lanzhou Jiaotong University 兰州交通大学.<br />
<br />
Zhang Xi 张曦. (2014). 翻译硕士备考指南[A Guide Book to MTI]. Shanghai: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press 上海交通大学出版社.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yimei 张忆美. (2020). 对比“信达雅”与功能对等[A Comparison on "Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance" and Functional Equivalence]. ''中国学术期刊电子出版社'' China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House(2)180-181.<br />
<br />
Zhu Haotong 朱浩彤. (2006). 奈达“功能对等”理论基础的再思考[Some Thoughts on the Theoretical Bases of Nida’s "Functional Equivalence"]. ''福建医科大学学报'' Journal of Fujiann Medical University(3)62-65.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br />
<br />
In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the Government Work Report has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of 2019 Government Work Report .--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br />
<br />
===摘要===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br />
<br />
近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。 --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The ''Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the ''National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference'', including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）<br />
<br />
The Government Work Report of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the National People's Congress on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China.Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials. In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. （Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）<br />
<br />
As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, the essay interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials. In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. （Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）<br />
<br />
In order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. The essay includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===1.Introduction of Government Work Report===<br />
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''Government Work Report'' has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, ''Government Work Report'' manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br />
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Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, using the data to tell the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.(Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.1 Lexical Level ====<br />
For ''Government Work Report'' has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br />
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For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====1.1.1Formal and Concise Words=====<br />
The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)<br />
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The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many kinds of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics=====<br />
As the ''Government Work Reports'' involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br />
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As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment. (Zhou Ji,2006) (什么是elcological environment？上文应先简单介绍一下)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====1.1.3 New and Popular Words=====<br />
The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br />
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The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2 Syntactic Level====<br />
In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. (Zhou Ji,2006)<br />
Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br />
It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br />
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In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.) It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. (Zhou Ji,2006) （GWR斜体）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br />
In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br />
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In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently adopted. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis=====<br />
Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br />
Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) <br />
“获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) <br />
“增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) <br />
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Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br />
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Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )<br />
“在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)<br />
“放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)<br />
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Repetition and parataxis structure have reinforced that makes the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure. （GWR斜体）<br />
Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two. Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )“在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)“放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology===<br />
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Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br />
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Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.（Hu Gengshen，2001）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology====<br />
Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br />
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Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks translation as a brandnew perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed. （Hu Gengshen，2001）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology====<br />
=====2.2.1 Adaption and Selection=====<br />
The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection". The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br />
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The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.(Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation=====<br />
Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br />
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Adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid literal translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation. (Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br />
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Cultural dimension is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so as various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation. (Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br />
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Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.(Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br />
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By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text. In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be. (Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective===<br />
From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br />
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From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.1 Linguistic Dimension====<br />
The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports(Tong Xiaohua,2006) <br />
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The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports(Tong Xiaohua,2006) --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)<br />
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Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear(Tong Xiaohua,2006)<br />
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Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear(Tong Xiaohua,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)<br />
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Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 Cultural Dimension====<br />
The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br />
<br />
The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural forms. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.) It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br />
<br />
Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.) It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public into the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.) In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br />
<br />
Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.) In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.) “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers(Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br />
<br />
Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.) “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers(Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.3 Communicative Dimension====<br />
From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.(Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br />
For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
<br />
Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”) For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication. --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br />
“保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br />
<br />
Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.) “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)<br />
In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br />
In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be.(Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br />
<br />
Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1] In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br />
<br />
During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns. (Yang Guang,2017)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention<br />
<br />
Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report (斜体)in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention. (Yang Guang,2017)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br />
However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br />
<br />
First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay. In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation. (Yang Guang,2017) GWR都要斜体--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report. (Yang Guang,2017)基于不足分析上再增加一个与其他著名理论对比的part会更好<br />
--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br />
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Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br />
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Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br />
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Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 1999. <br />
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Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003 (4): 283-291.<br />
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Joan Pinkham. The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br />
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程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br />
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方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br />
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胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br />
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黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br />
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胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br />
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刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br />
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童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br />
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王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br />
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王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br />
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周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br />
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周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br />
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杨广,吉鑫悦. 生态视角下的政府工作报告英译解读[J]. 海外英语,2017(13):108-109<br />
中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br />
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==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603 MTI英语笔译==<br />
<center>欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspectives. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. <br />
<br />
Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。<br />
<br />
另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br />
Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed out the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. The two approaches were put forward to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors(Munday, 2008: 42).<br />
<br />
By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure. And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory(Munday, 2008: 42).<br />
<br />
His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies(Munday, 2008: 42).<br />
<br />
====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br />
Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' that the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated from his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). <br />
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In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory( Catford, 1965: 20). <br />
<br />
If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies(Catford, 1965: 20).<br />
<br />
===2.Similarities and Differences===<br />
<br />
====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br />
As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistics was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible, the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible(Nida, 1984: 14).<br />
<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br />
Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar. Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes(Munday, 2008: 40). <br />
<br />
Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language, and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language. To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels(Catford, 1965: 20). <br />
<br />
Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process, and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement(Li Yang, 2014: 94).<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br />
The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40).<br />
<br />
He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br />
<br />
The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence''. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable(Li Zhidan, 2014:93). <br />
<br />
Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language, which means, in a sense, he wanted to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above(Catford, 1965: 73).<br />
<br />
====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br />
Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42).<br />
<br />
Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factor to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). <br />
<br />
By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence. And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods(Catford, 1965: 22). <br />
<br />
=====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br />
Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented in front of its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. (Munday, 2008: 42)<br />
<br />
Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response. These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. (Munday, 2008: 42)<br />
<br />
Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to be achieved between source language and target language.From this we can know that it's difficult to achieve the same meaning at a linguistic level between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49).<br />
<br />
In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings. To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made(Catford, 1965: 49). <br />
<br />
=====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br />
Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence. These two types actually reflect a shallow to deep tendency of Nida's researches on structure of language. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). <br />
<br />
In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory ,Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation. Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts(Munday, 2008: 43). <br />
<br />
<br />
In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20).<br />
<br />
Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language(Catford, 1965: 20).<br />
<br />
=====2.2.3.Different Research Approaches=====<br />
To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). <br />
<br />
In another aspect, Nida held a view that "meaning is universal" and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). <br />
<br />
By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was defined by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). <br />
<br />
Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language. In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework(Catford, 1965: 27).<br />
<br />
===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br />
<br />
=====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br />
In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspectives. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics. Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages(Tan, 2017: 132). <br />
<br />
Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect. This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators.Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence have offered a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language(Nida, 1964: 159). <br />
<br />
=====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br />
Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully. Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory(Munday, 2008: 38). <br />
<br />
What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors. However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators(Munday, 2008: 42). <br />
<br />
====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br />
Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved, he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature wayCaford, 1965:22).<br />
<br />
====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br />
Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials. Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators(Wang, 2008: 166). <br />
<br />
Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinguish linguistic untranslatability from cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language. This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete(Catford, 1965: 101).<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion===<br />
In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence. The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possessing many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27).<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br />
<br />
Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br />
<br />
Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br />
<br />
Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br />
<br />
Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br />
<br />
Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br />
<br />
Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science & Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 14:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605==<br />
<center>石海瑶 Shi Haiyao </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people's overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'' was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, ''On the Construction of the System of Translatology''. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br />
<br />
<br />
===摘要=== <br />
一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br />
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<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
====Tan Zaixi’s Translation System====<br />
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In his book ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'', Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, it should also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.<br />
<br />
Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, the study of human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.<br />
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In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable, knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:21-22)<br />
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From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br />
<br />
[[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]<br />
<br />
====Yi Jing’s Translation System====<br />
According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology.<br />
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The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology.<br />
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The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself.<br />
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The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.<br />
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The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. <br />
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The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:197-287).<br />
<br />
From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br />
[[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]<br />
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The translations of the above terms are as following:<br />
<br />
[[File:Shu Yu.jpg]]<br />
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===Similarities and Differences===<br />
<br />
====The Similarities between the Two systems====<br />
<br />
=====Both deem translatology as an independent discipline=====<br />
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In 1951, Dong Qiusi published ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper ''Translatology must be established'', which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br />
<br />
From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br />
<br />
It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br />
<br />
=====Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation=====<br />
<br />
In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br />
<br />
For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br />
<br />
Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br />
<br />
=====Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation=====<br />
The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that "all translations must be faithful to the original text". Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as "faithful to the original content ", " faithful to the original form ", " faithful to the original effect ", " faithful to the original function" and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that "comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style" is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br />
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As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br />
Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br />
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====The differences between the Two Translation Systems====<br />
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=====Different structures of translation system=====<br />
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From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br />
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Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br />
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=====Different views on the study of translation history=====<br />
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Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br />
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we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br />
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=====Different views on translation process=====<br />
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For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br />
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From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive. <br />
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===My Thoughts on the Two Systems===<br />
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====My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System====<br />
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=====Contributions of Tan’s Translation System=====<br />
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First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word "translatology" is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br />
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Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that "translatology is an independent discipline" is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br />
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Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of "harmony in diversity", which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br />
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=====Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System=====<br />
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As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br />
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Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br />
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Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br />
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=====My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System=====<br />
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The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br />
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====My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System====<br />
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=====Contributions of Yi’s Translation System=====<br />
First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br />
In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br />
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=====Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System=====<br />
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However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br />
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Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br />
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Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br />
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=====My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System=====<br />
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Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies. <br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br />
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<br />
===Refrences===<br />
<br />
[1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外国语大学出版社,2000.<br />
<br />
[2]方梦之.当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起 [J]. 外语教学理论与实践，2016（3）：55-63.<br />
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[3]蓝红军. "从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017)." 中国翻译 39.1 (2018): 7-16.<br />
<br />
[4]谭载喜.必须建立翻译学[J].中国翻译,1987b3: 2-7.<br />
<br />
[5]谭载喜.翻译学[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005.<br />
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[6]许钧,穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京:译林出版社,2009.<br />
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[7]易经.试论翻译学体系的构建[D].湖南师范大学,2009.<br />
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==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang 202020080604==<br />
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胡慧芳 Hu Huifang 20202008060<br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of "dynamic equivalence", and Bassnett proposed the concept of "cultural equivalence". Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of "equivalence" or "equivalence" in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br />
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==='''Key Words'''=== <br />
Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br />
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===摘要===<br />
尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br />
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===关键词=== <br />
尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek "Bible New Testament" studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society.<br />
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In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is "Toward a Science of Translation" "The Theory and Practice of translation" etc. <br />
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His "dynamic equivalence" translation theory and "reader's response theory" translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br />
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Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, author and Courier at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation at the University of Warwick, United Kingdom. As a leading figure in the school of Translation culture, her concept of "cultural equivalence" and related translation theories have exerted a great influence on contemporary translation studies.<br />
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There are some similarities between Nida's "dynamic equivalence" and Barnett's "cultural equivalence", but there are also many differences. This paper starts with the "similarities and differences" and "differences" between the two, in order to have a more comprehensive understanding of these two theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to deepen the understanding and understanding of their translation purposes. Theory.<br />
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===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br />
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Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. <br />
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But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br />
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Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values embodied in translated texts.<br />
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===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br />
Nida's "dynamic equivalence" translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. <br />
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Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research.<br />
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Since the 1950s, Nida has been the executive secretary of the Translation Department of the American Bible Society for many years. Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the practical work of "Bible" translation. In translation projects organized by the American Bible Society since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the theory of dynamic equivalence (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br />
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===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br />
As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to "Translation, History and Culure" (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that "Culural lurn" (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br />
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According to Bassnett, the linguistics of translation faces the following problems: Machine translation method is an effective method, but it is not applicable to literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett points out that translation research methods should undergo a cultural turn (cultural turn). In her opinion, translators must carry out their translation activities in a specific cultural context, and they should not carry out their translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's view of cultural translation is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, but is rooted in and influenced by linguistic culture.<br />
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===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br />
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===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence" Theory===<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence" is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term "equivalence".<br />
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3.1.1The nature of "equivalence"<br />
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"Equivalence" is an important proposition in translation, because it involves the essence of translation, translation norms, quality and translation evaluation and other key issues. "Mathematical equivalence" is the relationship between absolute symmetry and equivalence in mathematics. But in many English dictionaries it has an obscure meaning that something is similar or essentially the same. So, does the concept of equivalence in translation theory derive from its absolute mathematical reference, or is it borrowed from its vague meaning as a word in general linguistics? According to many translation theorists, including Nida, the latter may mean more than the former.<br />
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" Equivalence" is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that "loyalty" or "faith", for the concept of "loyalty"or "faith" refers to attitudes of translators while "faithful translation" indicates the quality of translation. But "equivalence" involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The "equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. <br />
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The historic contribution of Nida's" dynamic equivalence" is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s "dynamic equivalence". however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br />
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3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of " dynamic equivalence”<br />
It has been mentioned above that Nida s "dynamic equivalence" theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br />
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3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br />
What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence" is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( Yang Liu， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved." (Jin Ti,,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence " focuses mainly onthe relative side of " equivalence " rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br />
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As a relative conception, the goal " dynamic equivalence" pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching.<br />
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To sum up, those who oppose the theory believe that the equivalence in translation is impossible forever, because the translation involves at least two different languages, cultures, etc., it is rather difficult for the locals, while in favor of people think equivalence can be realized on the senses and style not only, and in effect can be achieved. Nida made it very clear that "reactions can never be the same," but that "a high degree of reaction equivalence" is required and possible; As for "functional equivalence", Nida explained that no translation can be completely equivalent.<br />
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Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, "equivalence" doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida holds that the expression“functional equivalence" is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something " identical" or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness" to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. <br />
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He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity". Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term " equivalence" in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from "identity", and " equivalence"is a relative conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (Jin Ti,, 1998:44).<br />
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3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of "Functional Equivalence" in China-A Comment on the Translation of "A Madman's Diary"<br />
Here are three examples to analyze the theory of "functional equivalence" used in the "Madman's Diary" in the translation of "The Call" by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br />
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（1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br />
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“what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers.." (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br />
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If this example is literally translated "赵贵翁", it may be translated as "Zhao Guiweng" in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated "Mr. Zhao" in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The "old-year running book" here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means "old account book". If literally translated as "aged jour-nal", obviously there is no "old ledgers" which is more suitable for the time.<br />
Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br />
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(2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br />
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“Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home." (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br />
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The personal pronoun "陈老五", if translated literally, might be translated as "Chen Laowu". Yang Xianyi translated "Old Chen", which is more authentic. "Chen Lao Wu" may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as "Lao Chen" here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br />
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(3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br />
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“a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop..." ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br />
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"狼子村" is a place noun. If it is simply translated as "The Wolf Child Village", it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of "Cub" in "Wolf Cub Village" of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. "Cub" means "cub" and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br />
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===3.2 Bassnett's "cultural equivalence" theory===<br />
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According to Bassnett, the goal of translation should be to shift from the generally accepted text to culture, which is called cultural transformation. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. The mind, language and body coordinate with each other to maintain vitality and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must consider the patient's overall physical condition. The same is true of translation practice. In the process of translating a target language into a target language, parliamentarians must consider double standards of linguistic accuracy and cultural adaptation, and must not deprive cultures and treat translations separately.<br />
<br />
3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br />
Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br />
<br />
<br />
Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br />
<br />
<br />
3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br />
As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content.<br />
<br />
But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. <br />
Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br />
<br />
<br />
3.2.3 "Intelligibility" of the translation<br />
Before the rise of the school of cultural Translation, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into simple and clear language so that readers could better understand the translation and thus remove the metaphor and association in the literature. In this way, the translation will indeed become easier to understand, but the literariness of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth of the work cannot achieve the effect of the original text. Therefore, According to Bassnett, the "intelligibility" of translation should not be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but on striving to maintain the original style.<br />
<br />
3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br />
For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br />
<br />
3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br />
<br />
原文:<br />
<br />
“六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br />
<br />
辜译: "Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,"<br />
<br />
韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons." (Waley, 1999:37 )<br />
<br />
"六亲" in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as "the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it "sixnear ons" , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of "six relatives". (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br />
<br />
原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br />
<br />
辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses." ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br />
<br />
韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e.."(Waley,1999:131 )<br />
<br />
Both translators translated "驷马" into "four horses", which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br />
<br />
<br />
===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br />
<br />
Nida's translation thought is mainly influenced by the structuralist translator, which is reflected in his use of syntactic structure analysis method, the semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core ideas similar to Chomsky's deep structure syntactic analysis. From the perspective of language translation (interlingual translation), this paper makes a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation programs. However, the essence of Nida's translation thoughts lies not only in his view of language structuralism, but also in "translation is science", "translation and communication", "translation must emphasize readers' reflection" and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contributions to translation theory, especially to Bible translation theory, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br />
<br />
But Bassnett's "cultural translation view" focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br />
<br />
<br />
===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br />
Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br />
<br />
Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the process of translation, form should give way to content. Bethnet also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, translators will not be limited by literary images. It can be seen that two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of translation.<br />
<br />
Nida pointed out that the languages and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br />
<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br />
<br />
[2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br />
<br />
[3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br />
<br />
[4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br />
<br />
[5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br />
<br />
[6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br />
<br />
[7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br />
<br />
[8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br />
<br />
[9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's "Cultural Translation" Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br />
<br />
[10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br />
<br />
[11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br />
<br />
[12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br />
<br />
[13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br />
<br />
--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 01:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610 MTI ==<br />
<center> 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br />
<br />
===目的论和严复理论的比较研究===<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating. The theory holds the idea that translating and interpreting should primarily take the function of target text into full consideration. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. (Dun Guangang 2011, 248) <br />
<br />
In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (that are Xin, Da, Ya in Chinese), which has an influence on the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107）With the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their similarities, differences and influences, so as to deepen our understanding of translation theory study.<br />
<br />
===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br />
<br />
“Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances”. (Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work and the production of the target text. All translation behaviours should take purpose into consideration.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br />
<br />
The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 255) Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br />
<br />
(1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br />
<br />
The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation for Skopos theory.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 257)<br />
<br />
(2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br />
<br />
Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Functional Equivalence, thought that “translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose.” According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. It is readers that determine translation purpose. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br />
<br />
(3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br />
<br />
Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br />
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=====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br />
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There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br />
<br />
The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “skopos rule”, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina & Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) <br />
<br />
Whether the function of the source text or passages of the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. <br />
<br />
The last rule, fidelity rule, is also called as inter-textual rule which means the ‘inter-textual coherence’ should exists between the source text and target text. Just like Nord (2001) said a translation is an “offer of information”about “a preceding offer of information”, it is expected to bear some kind of relationship with the corresponding source text. It means that the source text and target text should be coherent with each other, and the coherent aspects between them including special collocations, sentence length, grammatical features, or even rhetorical devices, in style, in function, etc. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose. (Dun Guangang 2011,251) <br />
<br />
These three rules connect with each other. From the three basic rules above mentioned we can see that the fidelity rule is considered subordinate to the coherence rule, and the both of rules are subordinated to skopos rule. (Vermeer, Hans J. 1989,187) From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard —rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. (Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br />
<br />
Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 113）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br />
<br />
(1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br />
<br />
The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. <br />
<br />
The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br />
<br />
(2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br />
<br />
Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br />
<br />
The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. (Chen Fukang 2000, 108) Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it, while there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory.<br />
<br />
Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br />
<br />
Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made. (Chen Fukang 2000, 112)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br />
<br />
Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor.(Yan Fu, 1987)<br />
<br />
There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. (Yan Fu, 1987)<br />
<br />
And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br />
<br />
In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br />
<br />
===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br />
<br />
====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br />
<br />
=====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br />
<br />
The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory.<br />
<br />
Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 256)<br />
<br />
In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br />
<br />
This coincides with Yan Fu's "Faithfulness", which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And "Faithfulness" is the premise and foundation of translation. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of "Faithfulness", as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br />
<br />
=====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br />
<br />
The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. <br />
<br />
In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) <br />
<br />
Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br />
<br />
This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. <br />
<br />
At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. (Yan Fu, 1987) Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br />
<br />
=====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br />
<br />
The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. <br />
<br />
The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and "one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation". Translation is "the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br />
<br />
While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br />
<br />
Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. (Dun Guangang 2011. 242) Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. <br />
<br />
Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br />
<br />
But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that "Faithfulness" refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br />
<br />
Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br />
<br />
Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the "faithfulness principle" as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. "Skopos" usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, "the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers". Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br />
<br />
In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br />
<br />
For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)<br />
<br />
So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 257) Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity. (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)<br />
<br />
However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156) This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. <br />
<br />
As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br />
<br />
===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br />
<br />
====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach .(Tan Zaixi 2004, 242) <br />
<br />
In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a "source of information", which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation. ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. <br />
<br />
More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the function of translated work and translators’ subjectivity. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br />
<br />
Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. <br />
<br />
In particular, there are various new interpretations of "Elegance" in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”.(Shen Suru 2001,7)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory. (Pym Anthony, 1996) <br />
<br />
Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. (Dun Guangang 2011, 247) Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable. <br />
<br />
Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced.<br />
<br />
In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br />
<br />
Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord. (1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity''. Kinderhook: St. Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Reiss Katharina & Vermeer Hans J. (1984). Groundwork for a general theory of translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br />
<br />
Pochhacker Franz. (1995). Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, (14): 31-53.<br />
<br />
Pym, Anthony. (1996). Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics.<br />
<br />
Vermeer Hans J. (1982a). Translation als informationsangebot. Lebende sprachen, 27(3)97-101.<br />
<br />
Vermeer Hans J. (1987a). What does it mean to translate. ''Indian journal of applied linguistic'', 13(2):25-33.<br />
<br />
Vermeer Hans J. (1989a). Skopos and Commission in Translational Action. Andrew Chersterman: ''The Translation Studies Reader'', 173-187.<br />
<br />
Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2000). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [A History of Translation Theory in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
Dun Guangang 顿官刚.（2011). ''西方翻译理论文献宣读'' [Selected Readings in Western Translation Theory]. Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press 湖南师范大学出版社.<br />
<br />
He Xiaoling 閤小玲. (2012). 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性 [An Analysis of Translator Subjectivity in the Perspective of Purpose Theory]. Journal of Liuzhou Teachers College ''柳州师专学报''. (4):45-47.<br />
<br />
Liu Qijia 刘期家. (2000). 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹 [On the historical development trajectory of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Journal of Sichuan International Studies University ''四川外语学院学报''. (2):96-101.<br />
<br />
Shen Suru 沈苏儒.(2001). 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈 [The Highest Level of Translation - A Compendium of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [ A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
Yan Fu严复. (1897). ''天演论·译例言'' [Evolution and Ethics· Yiliyan]. News Collection ''国闻汇编''.<br />
<br />
Zhou Mengzhen 周锰珍. (2007). “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较 ['Skopos Theory' and 'Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance': A Comparison of Two Translation Theories in China and the West]. Academic Forum ''学术论坛''. (8):154-158.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian 202020080605==<br />
<br />
<center>纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract=== <br />
<br />
As a representative of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it is also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br />
<br />
===Key words=== <br />
<br />
Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要=== <br />
<br />
张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br />
<br />
===关键词=== <br />
<br />
张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and [[prose]] have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1)1.proses<br />
<br />
In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in [[that]] she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone [[has]] talent in creation”（Luo Xinzhang & Chen Yingnian 2009：413）, and [[looking through]] the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so [[much]] Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. 1.which 2.who has 3.looking back 4.many<br />
<br />
She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, [[prose]] and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1)1.proses 2. the translations will-the translations that will <br />
<br />
Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity, in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as the author or the translator, represents different gender identities. (Ma Yue & Mu Lei 2010: 67)1. profoundly embodied-is profoundly embodied 2. an author or a translator--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 14:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. Gender and Translation===<br />
<br />
Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminist translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women' s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23) Feminist-feminism <br />
<br />
During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23)<br />
<br />
As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity. when developed-when it developed<br />
<br />
This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang' s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this chapter breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences different gender identities make to the translation. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 46) influence-influence that--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 15:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang' s Self-translation -- ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br />
<br />
As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Hsia, while Fu Lei (whose early pseudonym is Xun Yu) also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun Yu 1994: 121). <br />
<br />
In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''(1921).<br />
<br />
Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor' s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted. She destroys her son' s marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. Besides, her daughter' s marriage is put an end to by her. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)<br />
<br />
Eileen Chang' s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation.<br />
<br />
====3.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br />
<br />
In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Chiang Chi-tse. However, the reality proves to her that Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)<br />
<br />
ST： <br />
（七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！(Eileen Chang 1992: 108)<br />
<br />
TT：<br />
( Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. (Eileen Chang 1971: 163)<br />
<br />
Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Chiang Chi-tse all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Chiang Chi-tse for love. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)<br />
<br />
However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity====<br />
<br />
In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passive and helpless of female characters under a specific era background. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145)<br />
<br />
ST：<br />
娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)<br />
<br />
TT：<br />
Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)<br />
<br />
The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by others. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145)<br />
<br />
In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)<br />
<br />
Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br />
<br />
ST：<br />
长安和长白分了家搬出来住。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)<br />
<br />
TT：<br />
Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)<br />
<br />
The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color. <br />
<br />
Instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)<br />
<br />
====3.3 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes. <br />
<br />
ST：<br />
（去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。(Eileen Chang 1992: 104)<br />
<br />
TT：<br />
（Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. (Eileen Chang 1971: 157)<br />
<br />
The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Chiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)<br />
<br />
Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, and everyone is a survivor of suffering. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)<br />
<br />
<br />
Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts. (Wang Jing 2011: 104)<br />
<br />
===4. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Conventional Translation -- ''The Old Man and the Sea''===<br />
<br />
''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway also won the Nobel Prize of Literature. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br />
<br />
Once the work was published, it attracted a wide attention. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br />
<br />
''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton.<br />
<br />
When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.(Eileen Chang 1979: 5) <br />
<br />
====4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br />
<br />
It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br />
<br />
ST：<br />
“Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” (Hemingway 1985: 39)<br />
<br />
TT：<br />
“再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱? 好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 29)<br />
<br />
Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br />
<br />
====4.2 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br />
<br />
As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. (Wang Jing 2011: 103)<br />
<br />
To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br />
<br />
ST: <br />
It is what a man must do．(Hemingway 1985: 23)<br />
<br />
TT: <br />
男子汉就应该这样。(Hai Guan 1979: 15) <br />
<br />
男子汉就该这么干。(Wu Lao 2009: 21) <br />
<br />
活总是要干的。(Eileen Chang 1979: 16) <br />
<br />
Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br />
<br />
====4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity====<br />
<br />
For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br />
<br />
ST：<br />
“But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”(Hemingway 1985: 96)<br />
<br />
TT：<br />
“但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 81）<br />
<br />
“可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（Hai Guan 1979: 79）<br />
<br />
“不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（Wu Lao 2009: 99）<br />
<br />
Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br />
<br />
Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br />
<br />
Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br />
<br />
===5. Reasons for the Transformation of Gender Identity===<br />
<br />
====5.1 Cultural Context====<br />
<br />
Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua 2017, 121)<br />
<br />
The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity.<br />
<br />
For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words. However, when the text is taken into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)<br />
<br />
For example, the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the differences of context. Therefore, in her translation, Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)<br />
<br />
====5.2 The Gender of the Translator and the Purpose of Translation====<br />
<br />
As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.<br />
<br />
And in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface that the old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)<br />
<br />
Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chang Eileen, trans. (1971). ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. <br />
<br />
Eileen Chang 张爱玲. (1955). 金锁记[M]. [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. [Shanghai Press].<br />
<br />
Ma Ruofei 马若飞. (2007). 张爱玲翻译研究[D]. [Eileen Chang Translation Studies]. 北京语言大学. [Beijing Language and Culture University]. <br />
<br />
Ernest Hemingway. (1985). ''The Old Man and the Sea''[M]. Printed in Great Britain by St Edmundsbury Press, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk.<br />
<br />
Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. [Hong Kong: Hong Kong Today World Press].<br />
<br />
Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 海观译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br />
<br />
Ernest Hemingway. (2009). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 吴劳译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br />
<br />
Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. (2009). 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection'']. 北京: 商务印书馆. [Beijing: The Commercial Press].<br />
<br />
Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. (2010). 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. [Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies]. 解放军外国语学院学报. [Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages]. 66-70.<br />
<br />
Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. (2018). 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J]. [Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 大众文艺. [Popular Literature]. 171-173.<br />
<br />
Meng Lingzi 孟令子. (2016). 从女性主义翻译到性别翻译[J]. [From Feminist Translation to Gender and Translation]. 中国翻译. [Chinese Translators Journal]. 23-31. <br />
<br />
Simon, Sherry. (1996). Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge. <br />
<br />
Wang Jing 王璟. (2011). 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. [Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation]. 中国外语. [Chinese Foreign Language]. 102-106.<br />
<br />
Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. (2015). 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. [''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation'']. 广州:中山大学出版社. [Guangzhou: Sun Yat-sen University Press].<br />
<br />
Xi Peihua 席培华. (2017). 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. [On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. [Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education]. 121-123.<br />
<br />
='''Art of Translation'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics Gui Yizhi 桂一枝 202070080587==<br />
<br />
桂一枝 202070080587<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works ''Bian Cheng'' has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of ''Bian Cheng'' translated by Gladys Yang and Ching Ti & Robert Payne respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.<br />
<br />
Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as cross-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works ''Bian Cheng'' has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of ''Bian Cheng'' translated by Gladys Yang and Ching Ti & Robert Payne respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Translation ethics, ''Bian Cheng'', Chesterman<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文将从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——戴乃迭和金堤与白英的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。<br />
<br />
翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生进行跨文化行为，就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文将从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——戴乃迭和金堤与白英的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼<br />
<br />
===1. Research Background===<br />
<br />
Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms. <br />
<br />
Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms.quote missing--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the "cultural turn". (Luo 2009: 61)<br />
<br />
From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the "cultural turn". (Luo, 2009 61)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the "cultural turn" in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a "cultural mediator" has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br />
It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym claims in his article: "ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle." It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.(Pym 2001:129-138)<br />
<br />
With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the "cultural turn" in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a "cultural mediator" has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br />
It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym claims in his article: "ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle." It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.(Pym, 2001 129-138)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2. Literature Review===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====<br />
<br />
After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br />
It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of "translation ethics" in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on "transmitting sense" and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.(Berman 1992: 3)<br />
<br />
After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br />
It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of "translation ethics" in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on "transmitting sense" and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.(Berman, 1992 3)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating "an ethics of difference". He invents the two words "domestication" and "resistancy" to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of "resistancy" seem more realistic and profound.(Venuti 2004)<br />
<br />
<br />
Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating "an ethics of difference". He invents the two words "domestication" and "resistancy" to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of "resistancy" seem more realistic and profound.(Venuti, 2004 page missing)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As the initiator of "the return to ethics" in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman's theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about "how to translate" over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other's work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (Pym 2001:129-138). <br />
<br />
As the initiator of "the return to ethics" in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman's theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about "how to translate" over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other's work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances(Pym, 2001129-138).--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman published a paper "Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath" in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled "the return to Ethics". In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.(Chesterman 2001:139-153)<br />
<br />
<br />
In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman published a paper "Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath" in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled "the return to Ethics". In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.(Chesterman, 2001 139-153)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====<br />
<br />
With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose "translation ethics" based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book ''Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel'' written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as "a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics". (Lu 2001: 272)<br />
<br />
With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose "translation ethics" based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book ''Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel'' written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as "a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics". (Lu, 2001 272)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics. <br />
<br />
Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics. (quoteing missing)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.(Sun 2007: 14-18)<br />
<br />
With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.(Sun, 2007 14-18)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article ''essay on three levels of translation activities'' in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by "willingness", "reality", and "morality", he proposes that "the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level".(Xu 1998: 49-54)<br />
<br />
<br />
Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article ''essay on three levels of translation activities'' in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by "willingness", "reality", and "morality", he proposes that "the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level".(Xu, 1998 49-54)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.3. the Translation of ''Bian Cheng''====<br />
<br />
The thesis adopts the classic modern novel ''Bian Cheng'' owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as "one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature" (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the "Nobel Literature Prize" in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. <br />
<br />
The thesis adopts the classic modern novel ''Bian Cheng'' owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as "one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature" (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the "Nobel Literature Prize" in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. quote missing--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are four English version of ''Bian Cheng''. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled ''Green Jade and Green Jade'' translated by Xing Molei (the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girlfriend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled ''The Frontier City'' contained in T''he Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen'' translated by Ching Ti & Robert Payne and published by George Allen & Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Bian Cheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called "Panda Books" to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included ''The Border Town and Other Stories'' translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.<br />
<br />
There are four English version of ''Bian Cheng''. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled ''Green Jade and Green Jade'' translated by Xing Molei (the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girlfriend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled ''The Frontier City'' contained in T''he Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen'' translated by Ching Ti & Robert Payne and published by George Allen & Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Bian Cheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called "Panda Books" to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included ''The Border Town and Other Stories'' translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature. quote missing--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Ching Ti & Robert Payne and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics. <br />
<br />
Based on the previous studies, this thesis chooses these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Ching Ti & Robert Payne and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===<br />
<br />
Chesterman's five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.<br />
<br />
Chesterman's five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.quote missing--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman's words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author's intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text.(Chesterman 2001: 139) <br />
<br />
Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman's words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author's intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text.(Chesterman, 2001139) --[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The ethics of service requires the translator to "act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator", and the translator should be "loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer".(Chesterman 2001: 140)<br />
<br />
The ethics of service requires the translator to "act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator", and the translator should be "loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer".(Chesterman, 2001 140)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The ethics of communication sees translation as "an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication" and asks the translator to be "a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding".(Chesterman 2001: 141) <br />
<br />
The ethics of communication sees translation as "an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication" and asks the translator to be "a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding".(Chesterman, 2001 141) --[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of "descriptive translation studies". Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like "the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations". That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.(Chesterman 2001: 142)<br />
<br />
Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of "descriptive translation studies". Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like "the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations". That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.(Chesterman, 2001 142)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: "I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator". He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.(Chesterman 2001: 147)<br />
<br />
The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: "I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator". He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.(Chesterman, 2001 147)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4. Comparison of the Two English Versions of ''Bian Cheng''===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Different Translator Focuses on Different Translation Ethics====<br />
<br />
Ching & Payne's translation was published in ''the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen The Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Ts'ung-wen'' in 1947 by George Allen & Unwin Ltd in London, England. The author aims to introduce Chinese novels to English readers, making the Border Town known to readers in Western countries. Since then, western readers have gradually know Shen Congwen. The translation was republished by Columbia University Press in 1982. After the founding of New China, Shen Congwen's works were once banned. It was not until the 1980s that his books returned to people's vision. Gladys 's translation is contained in ''Border Town and Other Stories'', published by China Literature Publishing House in 1981, which aims to promote representative Chinese literary works to the world.(Xiang 2019:92)<br />
<br />
Ching & Payne's translation was published in ''The Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen The Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Ts'ung-wen'' in 1947 by George Allen & Unwin Ltd in London, England. The author aims to introduce Chinese novels to English readers, making the Border Town known to readers in Western countries. Since then, western readers have gradually know Shen Congwen. The translation was republished by Columbia University Press in 1982. After the founding of New China, Shen Congwen's works were once banned. It was not until the 1980s that his books returned to people's vision. Gladys 's translation is contained in ''Border Town and Other Stories'', published by China Literature Publishing House in 1981, which aims to promote representative Chinese literary works to the world.(Xiang 2019:92)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Different translations deal with the frame structure of the original work differently. The Ching & Payne translation adds an 8-page translation preface to the front of the text. In the translation preface, the translator first explains the reason and importance of adding the preface to the translation. Furthermore, the translator introduced the writing styles of Shen Congwen and Lu Xun; third, the translator introduced Shen Congwen’s life and his position in the Chinese literary world; finally, the translator analyzed the theme and content of ''Border Town''. However, Gladys 's version only has a short preface about brief introduction of Shen Congwen. The Ching & Payne translation was published in 1947. In order to meet the needs of translation service ethics and communication ethics, based on the fact that Western world and western readers did not know much about Chinese culture as well as Shen Congwen, so the translator gave a lot of introduction Shen Congwen and Border Town. Gladys’s version was published in 1981. Before this time, Shen Congwen’s works were once listed as banned books. During this period, overseas research on Shen Congwen has never stopped. In the 1980s, there was even Overseas Shen Congwen Craze. So based on the relationship between the translator, the sponsor and the readers, different translator will focus on different translation ethics during their translation activities.(Xiang 2019:92)<br />
<br />
Different translations deal with the frame structure of the original work differently. The Ching & Payne translation adds an 8-page translation preface to the front of the text. In the translation preface, the translator first explains the reason and importance of adding the preface to the translation. Furthermore, the translator introduced the writing styles of Shen Congwen and Lu Xun; third, the translator introduced Shen Congwen’s life and his position in the Chinese literary world; finally, the translator analyzed the theme and content of ''Border Town''. However, Gladys 's version only has a short preface about brief introduction of Shen Congwen. The Ching & Payne translation was published in 1947. In order to meet the needs of translation service ethics and communication ethics, based on the fact that Western world and western readers did not know much about Chinese culture as well as Shen Congwen, so the translator gave a lot of introduction Shen Congwen and Border Town. Gladys’s version was published in 1981. Before this time, Shen Congwen’s works were once listed as banned books. During this period, overseas research on Shen Congwen has never stopped. In the 1980s, there was even Overseas Shen Congwen Craze. So based on the relationship between the translator, the sponsor and the readers, different translator will focus on different translation ethics during their translation activities.(Xiang, 2019 92)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Places and Culture-loaded Words Translation====<br />
<br />
Table1 comparison of places names in two versions <br />
<br />
源语/金白译/戴译 <br />
<br />
四川/ Szechuan/ Szechuan <br />
<br />
辰州/ Chenshow/ Chenshow <br />
<br />
桃源/ Taoyuan/ Taoyuan <br />
<br />
沅水/ Yua Sui/ River Yuan <br />
<br />
白河/ White Stream/ White River <br />
<br />
湖南/ Hunan/ Hunan<br />
<br />
秀山/ Hsiushan Mountain/ Mount Xiu<br />
<br />
茶峒/ Ch’a-t’ung/ Chatong<br />
<br />
酉水/ Yu Sui/ The You<br />
<br />
洞庭湖/ T-ung-ting Lake/ Lake Dongting<br />
<br />
The ethics of communication believes that translation is a cross-cultural and cross-language communication activity. The translator should first be faithful to the translation ethics in the "cultural communication space", not the source or target culture. The ultimate goal of translation is promoting communication and cooperation between the two parties. Therefore, the two translators followed different communicative ethics in different times. In order to effectively achieve the purpose of communication, Ching & Payne adopted Wade-Giles Romanization, which was acceptable to the English world. This way is easy to be taken by readers and promotes effective communication. At that time, Gladys was commissioned by the magazine Chinese Literature at the time, and her translation had to serve as her "patron". For the translation of place names, Gladys 's translation used the phonetic system which was the standard rules for translating names of places and persons at that time. When personal ethics conflict with social ethics, the subjectivity of the translator will be controlled by the "patron". Ching & Payne translated earlier, and their version was published by George Allen & Unwin Ltd. Therefore, compared to Gladys, the "patron" of the Ching & Payne’s version are themselves.(Xiang 2019:93)<br />
<br />
The ethics of communication believes that translation is a cross-cultural and cross-language communication activity. The translator should first be faithful to the translation ethics in the "cultural communication space", not the source or target culture. The ultimate goal of translation is promoting communication and cooperation between the two parties. Therefore, the two translators followed different communicative ethics in different times. In order to effectively achieve the purpose of communication, Ching & Payne adopted Wade-Giles Romanization, which was acceptable to the English world. This way is easy to be taken by readers and promotes effective communication. At that time, Gladys was commissioned by the magazine Chinese Literature at the time, and her translation had to serve as her "patron". For the translation of place names, Gladys 's translation used the phonetic system which was the standard rules for translating names of places and persons at that time. When personal ethics conflict with social ethics, the subjectivity of the translator will be controlled by the "patron". Ching & Payne translated earlier, and their version was published by George Allen & Unwin Ltd. Therefore, compared to Gladys, the "patron" of the Ching & Payne’s version are themselves.(Xiang, 2019 93)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Table 2 comparison of culture-loaded words in two versions<br />
<br />
源语/ 金白译/ 戴译 <br />
<br />
油坊/ Oilshops/ Tung oil presses <br />
<br />
桐油/ Wood-oil/ Tung oil <br />
<br />
唢呐/ Flute/ Trumpet <br />
<br />
糍粑/ Cake/ Ciba <br />
<br />
纤夫/ Haulers/ Towman <br />
<br />
上帝/ God/ Jade Emperor <br />
<br />
蓬船/ Junk/ Craft<br />
<br />
青盐/ Green salt/ Rock salt <br />
<br />
法器/ Musical instrument/ Stock-in-trade<br />
<br />
粉条/ Rice noddles/ Bean-vermicelli<br />
<br />
喽啰/ bandit/ Whirligig <br />
<br />
陀螺/ Delicate silk gowns/ Dark satin jackets over long gowns<br />
<br />
From Table2 we can see that Gladys's translation adopts the strategy of foreignization, preserving Chinese culture and following the ethic of representation. It also contains serving factors for the "patron". In a sense, it unifies the ethics of representation and service. While Ching & Payne’s version focuses more on the target language readers’ understanding, and give up to represent the culture-loaded words that are unfamiliar to target language readers by using the translation strategy of domestication. Its aim is to entertain the readers. In order to effectively achieve better communication with target language readers, he mainly follows the communication ethics in translation ethics.(Xiang 2019:93)<br />
<br />
From Table2 we can see that Gladys's translation adopts the strategy of foreignization, preserving Chinese culture and following the ethic of representation. It also contains serving factors for the "patron". In a sense, it unifies the ethics of representation and service. While Ching & Payne’s version focuses more on the target language readers’ understanding, and give up to represent the culture-loaded words that are unfamiliar to target language readers by using the translation strategy of domestication. Its aim is to entertain the readers. In order to effectively achieve better communication with target language readers, he mainly follows the communication ethics in translation ethics.(Xiang, 2019 93)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Representation of the Aesthetic Prospect====<br />
<br />
One of the most distinctive features of Bian Cheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Contemporary literary theorist Tong Qingbing defines the aesthetic prospect as “an image system of a fusion of feelings with the scenery depicted represented in the lyrical works, which can evoke readers’ association and imagination, and surpasses the concrete vision and ascends an extensive artistic space.” So, it's the translators’ responsibility to represent the aesthetic prospect of the source text. Now, let’s take a look at the following examples.(Tong 1998: 194)<br />
<br />
One of the most distinctive features of Bian Cheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Contemporary literary theorist Tong Qingbing defines the aesthetic prospect as “an image system of a fusion of feelings with the scenery depicted represented in the lyrical works, which can evoke readers’ association and imagination, and surpasses the concrete vision and ascends an extensive artistic space.” So, it's the translators’ responsibility to represent the aesthetic prospect of the source text. Now, let’s take a look at the following examples.(Tong, 1998 194)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[Example 1]<br />
<br />
[STI]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶峒”的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文，1981:1)<br />
<br />
[TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys, 1981:5)<br />
<br />
[TT-2] From Szechuan there is a highway running east to Hunan. When the road reaches the small mountain city of Ch'a-t'ung, just inside the border of Hunan, it crosses a river, near the river you will find a white pagoda and a small isolated cottage, where there once lived a family which consisted of an old man, a girl and a yellow dog. (Ching, 1982:190)<br />
<br />
This is the beginning paragraph of Bian Cheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images -- "官路", "小山城"，"小溪", "白色", "小塔七", "单独的人家", "老人", "女孩子" and "黄狗", making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character "一". The character "一" embodies the "blue" aesthetic mentality and literary creation view of Shen Congwen, who once said: I feel so lonely, perhaps from which I hope to be close to the beauty still left in my impression? Here in the beginning of the novel, by using his usual simple and plain writing style, the author successfully fuses his feelings with the natural setting to convey his deep love and concern towards the characters and what will happen next. (Wang 2012: 25)<br />
<br />
In Gladys Yang’s version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character "一" in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven "a (an)" and one "the" to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates "单独" (的人家)into a "solitary" household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of "alone" and "lonely"，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original.(Wang 2012: 25)<br />
<br />
Compared with Gladys Yang's version, Ching Ti's also fully represents the eight images of the original. But with the translation of "单独"(的人家)into an "isolated" cottage which conveys less emotional overtones than "solitary" and the use of complicated and rambling sentences with nearly five verbs, the original aesthetic connotations are involuntarily broken by him. To sum up, Gladys’s translation better represents the aesthetic prospect of the original than Ching Ti's.(Wang 2012: 25)<br />
<br />
====4.4 Conflict between the Ethics of Representation and the Norm-based Ethics====<br />
<br />
As Chesterman argues: "the representation model is vulnerable to arguments about the impossibility of totally true representation, about the relative status of the original and translations, about the illusion of perfect equivalence". Accordingly, the ethics of representation can easily conflict with other models of translation ethics, especially the norm-based ethics.(Chesterman 2001:39-154)<br />
<br />
As Chesterman argues: "the representation model is vulnerable to arguments about the impossibility of totally true representation, about the relative status of the original and translations, about the illusion of perfect equivalence". Accordingly, the ethics of representation can easily conflict with other models of translation ethics, especially the norm-based ethics.(Chesterman, 2001 39-154)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From the linguistic point of view, the vital difference between Chinese and English lies in parataxis and hypotaxis which are two different devices that help realize the cohesion in language. Chinese prefers parataxis which depend coherence in meaning and sentences are organized in a topic-comment structure without overt logical markers in many cases. While English favors hypotaxis which lays great emphasis on logical relation and sentences are organized in the S-P (subject-predicate) patterns with various explicit logical markers of overt cohesion. Inevitably translators have to notice and deal with such a difference between Chinese and English.(Wang 2012: 34)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of linguistics, the vital difference between Chinese and English lies in parataxis and hypotaxis which are two different devices that help realize the cohesion in language. Chinese prefers parataxis which depend coherence in meaning and sentences are organized in a topic-comment structure without overt logical markers in many cases. While English favors hypotaxis which lays great emphasis on logical relation and sentences are organized in the S-P (subject-predicate) patterns with various explicit logical markers of overt cohesion. Inevitably translators have to notice and deal with such a difference between Chinese and English.(Wang, 2012 34)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Let's look at the following examples:<br />
<br />
[Example 1]<br />
<br />
[STI] 话虽轻轻的，那男的却听得出，且从声音上听得出翠翠年纪，便带笑道：“怎么， 你骂人！你不愿意上去，要呆在这儿，回头水里大鱼来咬了你，可不要叫喊！”<br />
翠翠说：“鱼咬了我也不管你的事。” (沈从文，1981:24)<br />
<br />
[TTl-l] Low as the words were, he caught them, and realized that she was no more than a girl. "Such language from a child!" he teased, chuckling, "you stay here, mind a big fish doesn't bite you—don't expect me to rescue you!"<br />
"Whether it bites me or not, that's none of your business!" (Gladys, 1981:26)<br />
<br />
[TTl-2] She spoke under her breath, but the man heard her. He guessed her age from her voice, and answered laughingly: "So you like cursing, eh? Wbll if you don't want to go, you can wait here、 but don't be surprised if a fish comes out of the water and bites you."<br />
<br />
"Eyen if a fish does bite me, I'll never have anything to do with you!" the girl retorted. (Ching, 1982: 211)<br />
<br />
Under such conflict, taking the target readers’ maximum acceptability into consideration, Gladys Yang has adopted relatively flexible translation strategies to try to retain the linguistic feature of Chinese by using as less overt logical markers as possible. While Ching Ti chooses to meet target readers, expectations by fully employing the hypotactic structure of the English language, for he exchanges the original diffusive structure into long and complicated sentences with logical markers.(Wang 2012: 35)<br />
<br />
Under such conflict, taking the target readers’ maximum acceptability into consideration, Gladys Yang has adopted relatively flexible translation strategies to try to retain the linguistic feature of Chinese by using as less overt logical markers as possible. While Ching Ti chooses to meet target readers, expectations by fully employing the hypotactic structure of the English language, for he exchanges the original diffusive structure into long and complicated sentences with logical markers.(Wang, 2012 35)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
After a theoretical study of translation ethics and a practical analysis of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' within the framework of Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics, we 'can conclude that the present study of translation ethics, with Chesterman's five models as its representative, does open a new perspective for not only translation studies but also for the translation practice and evaluation. This chapter mainly deals with the major findings as well as some limitations and suggestions for further study.<br />
<br />
After the theoretical study of translation ethics and practical analysis of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' within the framework of Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics, we 'can conclude that the present study of translation ethics, with Chesterman's five models as its representative, does open a new perspective for not only translation studies but also for the translation practice and evaluation. This chapter mainly deals with the major findings as well as some limitations and suggestions for further study.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This thesis focuses on the comparison of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' under Chesterman's five models of ethics namely the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, and the ethics of communication, norm-based ethics and the ethics of professional commitment.<br />
<br />
This thesis focuses on the comparison of two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' under Chesterman's five models of ethics namely the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, and the ethics of communication, norm-based ethics and the ethics of professional commitment.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It mainly applies the ethics of representation into evaluation from the aspects of the representation of the aesthetic prospect, the ethnological color, the character images through dialogues, and the cultural-specific of the original, based on which the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics at certain linguistic and cultural levels and the mediation by the ethics of service & communication under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole are also examined carefully. Generally speaking, both of the translators put the ethics of representation in an important position, though Gladys Yang has done better jobs in representing the original, both in form and spirit, than Ching Ti. It's not only because Gladys Yang is more highly skilled in translating than Ching Tii but also because they put different factors into first consideration in translation with the former being faithful and loyal to the original and the latter meeting the target readers' expectations.<br />
<br />
It mainly applies the ethics of representation into evaluation from the aspects of the representation of the aesthetic prospect, the ethnological color, the character images through dialogues, and the cultural-specific of the original, based on which the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics at certain linguistic and cultural levels and the mediation by the ethics of service & communication under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole are also examined carefully. Generally speaking, both of the translators put the ethics of representation in an important position, though Gladys Yang has done better jobs in representing the original, both in form and spirit, than Ching Ti. It's not only because Gladys Yang is more highly skilled in translating than Ching Tii but also because they put different factors into first consideration in translation with the former being faithful and loyal to the original and the latter meeting the target readers' expectations.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
And when the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics emerges, the ethics of service & communication will serve as mediators to guide their translation, generally, Gladys Yang chooses to preserve the original to a maximum, that is to say, she prefers to take the ethics of representation into first consideration, based on which she will adopt relatively flexible translation strategies to make her translation acceptable by conforming to norm-based ethics to some extent. While Ching Ti lays primary emphasis on norm-based ethics, always putting target readers' expectations first by violating the ethics of representation. But both of their coordination or mediation is under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole from a higher level, instead of abusing their professional power to mediate arbitrarily.<br />
<br />
And when the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics emerges, the ethics of service & communication will serve as mediators to guide their translation, generally, Gladys Yang chooses to preserve the original to a maximum, that is to say, she prefers to take the ethics of representation into first consideration, based on which she will adopt relatively flexible translation strategies to make her translation acceptable by conforming to norm-based ethics to some extent. While Ching Ti lays primary emphasis on norm-based ethics, always putting target readers' expectations first by violating the ethics of representation. But both of their coordination or mediation is under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole from a higher level, instead of abusing their professional power to mediate arbitrarily.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In a word, with different ethics influencing the translators most, the two English versions possess different characteristics. Guided mainly by the norm-based ethics, Ching Ti tends to take the strategy of "domestication" to make his version colloquial, smooth and simple for the target public to get amusement. While Gladys Yang highlights the ethics of representation to adopt the strategy of foreignization mostly to make her version formal, exquisite, serious and academic to some extent, which mainly appeal to those target readers who are interested in Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
In a word, with different ethics influencing the translators most, the two English versions possess different characteristics. Guided mainly by the norm-based ethics, Ching Ti tends to take the strategy of "domestication" to make his version colloquial, smooth and simple for the target public to get amusement. While Gladys Yang highlights the ethics of representation to adopt the strategy of foreignization mostly to make her version formal, exquisite, serious and academic to some extent, which mainly appeal to those target readers who are interested in Chinese culture.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Berman, A. 1992. The Experience of the Foreign: Cultural and Translation in Romantic Germany [M], Trans. S. Heyvaert. Albany: State University of New York Press.<br />
<br />
Venuti, L. 2004. The Translator Invisibility: A History of Translation [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Pym, A. 2001. The Return to Ethics in Translation Studies [J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .<br />
<br />
Chesterman, A. 2001. Proposal for a hieronymic oath [J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .<br />
<br />
Shen Congwen. 1982. The Frontier City in the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Tsfung wen [M], trans. Ching Ti & R. Payne. New York: Columbia University Press.<br />
<br />
Shen Congwen. 1981. The Border Town and Other Stories [M]. Translated by Gladys Yang. Beijing: Chinese Literature Press.<br />
<br />
骆贤凤（2009）。中西翻译伦理研究述评。《中国翻译》。3，13-17。 <br />
<br />
吕俊，2001,《跨越文化障碍一巴比塔的重建》Mo南京：东南大学出版社。<br />
<br />
孙致礼（2007）。译者的职责。《中国翻译》，4, 14-18。<br />
<br />
沈从文，1981,《边城》Mo南昌：江西人民出版社<br />
<br />
向仍东.翻译伦理视角下《边城》英译研究[J].语文学刊,2019,39(04):91-95.<br />
<br />
童庆炳，1998,《文学理论教程》Mo北京：高等教育出版社。<br />
<br />
王卫萍. 翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究[D].南京师范大学,2012.<br />
<br />
<br />
Berman, A. (1992). ''The Experience of the Foreign: Cultural and Translation in Romantic Germany''[M], Trans. S. Heyvaert. Albany: State University of New York Press.<br />
<br />
Venuti, L. (2004). ''The Translator Invisibility: A History of Translation''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Pym, A. (2001). ''The Return to Ethics in Translation Studies''[J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .<br />
<br />
Chesterman, A. (2001). ''Proposal for a hieronymic oath''[J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .<br />
<br />
Shen Congwen. (1982). ''The Frontier City in the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Tsfung wen''[M], trans. Ching Ti & R. Payne. New York: Columbia University Press.<br />
<br />
Shen Congwen. (1981). ''The Border Town and Other Stories''[M]. Translated by Gladys Yang. Beijing: Chinese Literature Press.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br />
<br />
==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 202070080597 (<span style="color:red"> 专业</span>)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)==<br />
<center>刘欧 Liu Ou</center><br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to witness the world, meanwhile, an increasing number of foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Culture Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promoting Sino-foreign friendship and enhancing the world's understanding of China.<br />
<br />
With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to witness the world, meanwhile, an increasing number of foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Culture Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promoting (<span style="color:red">promote</span>)Sino-foreign friendship and enhancing (<span style="color:red">enhance</span>)the world's understanding of China.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
English Translation Hunan Scenic Spots Names the View of Culture Translation (<span style="color:red">semicolon should be added.</span>)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
随着改革开放的不断深化，中国与世界的联系日益紧密。大批中国人走出国门开眼看世界的同时，越来越多的外国友人也来中国游览观光。湖南作为旅游资源大省，拥有许多风光迤逦的旅游景点。在欢迎国外游客的同时，旅游景点名翻译也应当准确达意。巴斯奈特的文化翻译观认为，汉语翻译成英语的过程不但是两种不同语言之间的转换，更是两种语言的跨文化交流。采用文化翻译观作为湖南旅游景点的指导思想，有利于增进外国游客在饱览景区美景的同时，了解景区背后的文化内涵。这对于促进中外友谊，增进世界对中国的了解都大有裨益。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
英语翻译 湖南旅游景点 文化翻译观<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year. (Xin Xin, 2012) Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of Culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardize the translation of scenic spots names is an important opportunity to show the most beautiful side of Hunan culture to foreign tourists. (Xiao Fuliang, 2016)<br />
<br />
Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year. (Xin Xin, 2012) Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of Culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardize the translation of scenic spots names is an important opportunity to show the most beautiful side of Hunan culture to foreign tourists.(<span style="color:red">语法有错误。</span>) --[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)(Xiao Fuliang, 2016)<br />
<br />
The name of tourist attractions refers to the names of natural and cultural landscapes in tourist attractions. Some of these names are engraved on stone tablets, some are engraved on the signboards of scenic spots, and some appear in various publicity materials such as tourist brochures, scenic maps and websites. In order to leave a good impression on tourists and attract them to visit, the names of tourist attractions are usually short, concise, vivid and attractive. (Pan Hong, 2016)<br />
<br />
This paper attempts to analyze whether the English translations of some scenic spots in Hunan Province have achieved the desired effect of publicity from the perspective of cultural translation. At the same time, if there were some improper translation in the English translation of Hunan scenic spots, the author will give his own translation for reference.<br />
<br />
=== The Introduction of the View of Culture Translation ===<br />
Before the emergence of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralism school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory. Jakobson, Catford and Nida, the representatives of the linguistic school, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation. They claim that translation is to replace another language with an equivalent language material; while Les, Nord and Mantari, the representatives of functional school, believe that the focus of translation studies should be on the target text rather than the original text. Their research sources are communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics theory. But whether it is linguistic school, functional school or structuralism school, in their research process, all try to achieve language equivalence more or less from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers hope to find a scientific and effective way to solve the various problems in translation, but the cultural diversity determines the cultural connotation of the text. Therefore, these researchers encounter great difficulties when they encounter the context which is quite different from their own cultural background, and the emergence of cultural translation school is meant to solve such problems.<br />
<br />
After the 1970s and 1980s, with the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination and the diversification of communication modes, the relationship between language and culture has become closer. In the process of information dissemination, differences among language become more and more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diversity of cultural values embodied in the translated text. <br />
<br />
In 1990, Translation, History and Culture, co-edited by Andre Lefevere and Bassnett, was published, marking a cultural turn in the field of translation. The concept of cultural translation emphasizes that translation is not only a bilingual communication, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication; the purpose of translation is to break through language barriers and promote cultural exchange; the essence of translation is to transmit cross-cultural information and reproduce the cultural activities of the original with the target language; the main purpose of translation is cultural transplantation and cultural blending, but cultural transplantation is a process; Language is not the operation form of translation, but the cultural information . (Bassnett Susan, 1992: 13) Bassnett emphasizes that “translation is the communication within and between cultures”. (Bassnett Susan, 1990: 10-11) She believes that translators should carry out translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators should never carry out translation activities in isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's “cultural translation view” is that translation is not a mere language activity. It is rooted in and influenced by the culture in which the language is located. <br />
<br />
==== The Purpose of Translation ====<br />
As for the purpose of translation, Bassnett thinks that the primary purpose of translation is to allow readers from two or more different cultural backgrounds to communicate with each other through the medium of text, and the exchange of information should be placed in the second place of translation purpose. Through effective translation, translators can not only introduce the cultural characteristics of different nationalities to other readers, but also promote the communication between different cultures and promote the comparative study between the two cultures. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br />
<br />
====Translation Methods and Strategies====<br />
As for the translation method, Bassnett thinks that the language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological, the translator should try to use literal translation from the perspective of culture. If the source text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play a relatively free role in translation, make more use of translation skills and pay less attention to the restrictions of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high. As for translation strategy, Bassnett considers that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find out the cultural factors in the original text which are different from those in the target language, and then deeply understand these factors, and try to retain these factors. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and make them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br />
<br />
====Content and Form of Translation ====<br />
As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposed that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br />
<br />
As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposed (<span style="color:red">时态要统一。</span>)(<span style="color:red">efficient can be deleted</span>)that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br />
<br />
====“Intelligibility” of Translation ====<br />
Before the rise of cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated literary language into plain language and deleted literary metaphor and association in order to make the translation better understood by readers. In this way, the translation will become very easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth can not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett thinks that the “intelligibility” of the translation should not be based on the abandonment of the style and artistry of the original text, but should try to keep the original flavor of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br />
<br />
====Evaluation Criteria of Translation ====<br />
As for the evaluation standard of translation, Bassnett thinks that the evaluation standard of translation is not unique. The standard of translating academic articles is different from that of practical and literary articles. When examining and evaluating the standards of translation, we should start from the service object of the translation, and judge whether the translation can meet the needs of the service object. In short, translation should be based on meeting the needs of readers in different cultural contexts, and appropriate translation should be used to meet the needs.(Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br />
<br />
===2.The Existing English Translated Versions of Names of Hunan Scenic Spots===<br />
There are 15 major tourist areas and many tourist spots in Hunan, and there are many historic sites with a long history. Such as Mountain Heng, one of the Five Sacred Mountains in China. Dongting Lake, Shaoshan Mountain, the former residence of Chairman Mao Zedong, Wulingyuan, which shows the characteristics of strangeness, danger, seclusion, beauty and wildness, and Yuelu Academy with a thousand years of history. (Chen Jiao, 2013) In order to publicize and spread the culture of Hunan Province all over the world, we should standardize the English translation of Hunan scenic spots names. Meanwhile, we should translate these scenic spot names understandable from the guiding theory of the View of Culture Translation. <br />
<br />
====Improper English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names====<br />
When tourists enjoy the beautiful scenery, the name of the scenic spot is the first information that leaps into the their sight. In order to attract the attention of tourists, induce the tourists of English speaking countries to have a strong interest in the culture and landscape of the tourist destination, stimulate their desire to buy tourism products and promote the development of tourism, translators should pay attention to the cross-cultural awareness when translating the names of scenic spots, so as to provide accurate information as well as the cultural connotation to the tourists from English speaking countries and those who understand English. <br />
<br />
However, the author finds that there are many improper translations in the English translation of scenic spots nemes in Hunan Province, which brings a lot of inconvenience to tourists from English speaking countries, and also has a negative impact on the publicity of scenic spots. These improper translations mainly exist in the following aspects:<br />
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Firstly, the different versions of translation in the same or different scenic spots.<br />
For example, as one of the four wonders of Mountain Heng, scenic spot “水帘洞” has two translated names, which are translated as “water screen cave” in the official website of Mountain Heng tourism website, while it is translated into “waterfall cave” on the route map. The English translation of “雁峰寺” on Hengyang tourism route map is Yan Feng Si, while on Hengyang tourism website it is “The Goose Mountain Temple”. There are also two different versions of the English translation of the name of the scenic spot “烟雨池”. It was translated as “Yanyuchi” on Hengyang tourism route map, but on Hengyang tourism website, the free translation method is adopted, that is, “Misty Rain Pond”. (Wang Zaiyu, Jiang Shihong, 2012)<br />
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Secondly, the overuse of transliteration.<br />
Huiyan Peak, located on the Bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng, also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and rank the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归 雁 亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.<br />
<br />
Huiyan Peak, located on the Bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng, also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and rank the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. (<span style="color:red">第一句话语法有错误。</span>)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归 雁 亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.<br />
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Of course, transliteration is one of the common translation methods of scenic spot names translation, but if transliteration is used too much that without considering the cultural connotation of the original language, the name of scenic spot will be obscure and foreign tourists will be confused. Standing in front of these Pinyin, foreign tourists can not understand the cultural connotation of the names of scenic spots. So it is difficult for them to realize the historical and cultural stories of these scenic spot according to the transliterated names. Therefore, excessive transliteration will affect the transmission of scenic spot name information, make it difficult for English speaking tourists to understand the rich cultural connotation of scenic spot names, which will reduce the readability of the translations and thus affect the development of China's tourism industry and the spread of culture abroad. Therefore, the translator should carefully consider and choose the appropriate translation method.<br />
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===3. The Strategies of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation ===<br />
Tourism translation is a cross language, cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication activities. Compared with other types of translation, it is more direct, more prominent, more typical and more comprehensive in cross-cultural and cross psychological communication. (Chen Gang, 2004)(<span style="color:red">举例较少，没有分析。</span>)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==== Characteristics and Methods of Tourism English Translation ====<br />
According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents, the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.<br />
<br />
According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents(<span style="color:red">前半部分语法有错误</span>)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC), the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.<br />
<br />
==== Characteristics of Tourism English Translation ====<br />
The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br />
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The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes(<span style="color:red">主谓不一致。</span>)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC) style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br />
<br />
==== Methods of English Translation of Scenic Spot Name ==== <br />
In the translation of scenic spot name, in order to let foreign tourists understand Chinese culture and scenic spots, flexible translation methods should be adopted to effectively convey tourism information and Chinese culture. (Jia Wenbo, 2004) The translation of the scenic spot name is of great significance although the names are not contain too much vocabularies. How to use translation methods and skills flexibly by following the translation theory becomes very important. This requires the translators to be faithful to the content and style of the original materials in the process of translation, try to retain the cultural factors in the original text, and at the same time make it easy for the target readers to accept.<br />
<br />
In the translation of scenic spot name, in order to let foreign tourists understand Chinese culture and scenic spots, flexible translation methods should be adopted to effectively convey tourism information and Chinese culture. (Jia Wenbo, 2004) The translation of the scenic spot name is of great significance although the names are not contain too much vocabularies. How to use translation methods and skills flexibly by following the translation theory becomes very important. This requires the translators to be faithful to the content and style of the original materials in the process of translation, try to retain the cultural factors in the original text, and at the same time make it easy for the target readers to accept.(<span style="color:red">最后一句话语法错误。</span>)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Literal translation, free translation, literal translation+transliteration, transliteration+ explanation and cultural analogy are commonly used in scenic spot name translation. Through the study of the translation methods of translating the names of these scenic spots, we can use the translation skills more accurately and ultimately improve the translation ability. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br />
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1. Literal Translation<br />
Literal translation is helpful to convey the information of the source language such as place names, characters and events. (Chen Jiao, 2013) For these particular names or general names of scenic spots, it’s better to adopt the literal translation, namely word for word translation. The allusions of the figures in Nanyue Temple such as “苏武牧羊”（Su Wu Shepherding Sheep）”、“达摩东渡”（Dharm Sailing Eastward）；Fairy tale such as“后羿射日”（Houyi Shooting the Suns）、“盘古开天”（Pangu Creating the Universe）、“精卫填海”（Jingwei Filling the Sea）.<br />
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2. Free Translation<br />
Free translation refers to the translation method to translate the connotative meaning when the literal meaning and connotative meaning of the original text are inconsistent (Niu Xinsheng, 2013). In addition, translation techniques such as domestication and free translation are also discussed. Due to the differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, there are differences in language form and content between the two languages. Therefore, translators need to grasp the differences between the two languages and cultures to ensure that the information of the original text are properly transmitted to the target readers. If the names of some scenic spots contain rich cultural connotations and cannot be translated by literal translation, then the names of such scenic spots are mostly translated by free translation, that is, words with the same meaning but different forms are translated. For example,“爱晚亭”, the name was originated from a famous poem written by Du Mu (803-853) in Tang dynasty. But the official translation in the scenic spot was “the Lovely Evening Pavilion”. However, the real meaning of “晚” in the name was not evening but late autumn. Hence some scholars translate it as “the Autumn-Admiring Pavilion” and “the Maple-leaves Admiring Pavilion”.(Chen Jiao, 2013).<br />
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3.Transliteration + Literal Translation<br />
The front contains the proper name for a specific person or place name, and a fixed general name for the name of a scenic spot. Transliteration and literal translation can be used in translation. For example, "南岳庙" (Nanyue Temple), "洞庭湖" (Dongting Lake), "岳麓山"(Yuelu Mountain),"崀山" (Langshan Mountain), "湘江"(Xiangjiang Rive) etc.<br />
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4.Transliteration + Explanation<br />
The advantage of transliteration is that it does not need any explanation, and its disadvantage is that it can not fully arouse people's interest and attention. For foreign tourists, it is difficult to connect the original meaning of the original text with the Chinese pronunciation of the scenic spot. In order to follow the original author's intention and its own pronunciation, we adopt the method of combining the two to make up for the shortcomings. For example,"柳浪闻莺"liu'lang'wen'ying (listening to Orioles Singing in the willows), "鬼见愁"gui'jian'chou (sight that disorders devils). (Xin Xin, 2012) in order to help foreign tourists understand the background knowledge of China's human history, local conditions and customs, some relevant information can be appropriately added to the original text when translating. For example, when introducing "吊脚楼", if we just translate it as Diaojiaolou , it is difficult for tourists to understand the literal translation of it, so it is advisable that supplement the explanation of “suspended wood house built on stilts”. For example, in the introduction of traditional festivals in Zhangjiajie, “六月六” is translated into Liu Yue Liu Festival. In order to help tourists understand the specific connotation of the festival, the translation should be followed by an appropriate explanation: It usually takes place on the sixth day of the lunar six month, when all the members of the family get together to have dinner and hold a rite to pay sacrifice to their ancestors. This supplement can help foreign tourists understand the meaning of these traditional festivals quickly. (Chen Jiao, 2013)<br />
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Meanwhile, cultural analogy is also an effective skill in explanation. Analogy refers to the transformation of unfamiliar cultural information in the source language into similar information in the cultural context of the target language in order to eliminate the cultural strangeness contained in the source language and arouse the sense of similarity for the English speaking tourists. In other words, borrow the similar places of interest, legends and historical stories in English to translate the scenic spot name in Chinese, which can narrow the distance between the two different language for the readers and they can better understand the meaning of the original text. For example, Mountain Hengshan the scenic spot “祝融峰” is said to be the residence of Zhu Rong, the God of Fire. Its translation is "Zhu Rong peak", Zhu Rong, the Chinese Prometheus. (Chen Jiao, 2013) Prometheus, the hero of stealing fire in ancient Roman legend, is a familiar figure for Western tourists. It has great similarity with Zhu Rong, the Chinese God of Fire. When the tourists look at this translated name, they will have a better understanding of the the scenic spot.<br />
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=== Conclusion ===<br />
Under the background of globalization, peace and development have become the theme of the times, and the revise of the traditional translation theory is needed. On the other hand, cultural translation, based on the cultural theory of anthropology, advocates that the connotation of other cultures should be properly conveyed in translation, showing respect and understanding of other cultures; translators should highlight the characteristics of different cultures through translation, so that people from different cultural backgrounds can truly realize the communication and exchange in the cultural sense. Therefore, it is in line with the mainstream of the times to deeply study and understand Bassnett's cultural translation theory, which can help us better carry out translation activities under the background of globalization, so as to promote the exchange and dialogue between the Eastern and Western cultures from a macro perspective. <br />
<br />
As a part of the translation of tourist materials, the translation of scenic spot names should not only convey the basic tourism information, but also show the Chinese culture to foreign tourists. One of the main purposes of tourists coming to China is to understand the Chinese culture. Therefore, translators need to have a keen cross-cultural awareness, make the translation conform to the target language, enhance the readability to the target language readers, and choose the most suitable translation method to convey the historical and cultural connotation contained in the name of scenic spots to the greatest extent, so as to promote the development of China's tourism industry globally and spread China's tourism culture abroad. <br />
<br />
=== Bibliography ===<br />
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*Bassnett Susan. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge，1992: 13.<br />
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* Bassnett Susan. Translation, History and Culture[M]. 上海:上海外语教育出版社，1990: 10-11．<br />
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*黄艳娇.2018.浅谈巴斯奈特文化翻译理论，佳木斯职业学院学报<br />
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*肖付良.2016.16(06),43-45.湖南主要旅游景点公示语翻译现状与对策研究,英语教师.<br />
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*潘虹.2016，跨文化意识对旅游景点名称汉英翻译的影响，艺术文化交流<br />
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*陈娇.2013.从文化角度看湖南旅游景点的翻译，西南农业大学学报（社会科学版）<br />
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*辛欣.2012.论旅游英语中景点名称的翻译，长春教育学院学报<br />
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*陈刚.旅游翻译与涉外导游［M］． 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2004，59．<br />
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*王再玉，蒋柿红. 2012.从跨文化意识角度看旅游景点名称的英译———以衡阳旅游景点名称的英译为例,北京城市学院学报<br />
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*林玉华. 2008. 从文化角度看旅游景点名称的翻译 ［J］．重庆交通大学学报，2008 ( 02) : 105．<br />
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*熊玲. 2013. 对张家界景点名称英译的探析，长春教育学院学报<br />
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*贾文波．应用翻译功能论［M］．北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2004：134－156．<br />
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*湖南文物名胜概览.湖南省文化和旅游厅 http://whhlyt.hunan.gov.cn/whhlyt/wlxx/fwms/201407/t20140717_5385818.html<br />
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(<span style="color:red">参考文献格式错误。</span>)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
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==A Contrastive Study on the Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Shengshengman and Zuihuayin from the Perspective of Defamiliarization 祝美梅 student no. 202070080632== <br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
Poetry is what lost in translation as Robert Frost said, for it’s concise words, specific form, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study with poetry translation under the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)<br />
<br />
Poetry is what lost in translation. As Robert Frost said, for its concise words, specific forms, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind as has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study poetry translation according to the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:39, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization, though a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period. (Fang Xiaoyuan, 2011, 13-15)<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization, a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period. (Fang Xiaoyuan, 2011, 13-15)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Key Words'''===<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization Theory; Shengshengman; Zuihuayin; English Versions<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
译诗则诗。诗歌以其凝练的词语，特定的形式，涵盖的独特文化典故和意象，是否可译一直是译界极具争论的话题。本文旨在由俄国形式主义什克洛夫斯基提出的陌生化理论下研究诗歌翻译。陌生化，虽然是文学写作技巧，同样适应于翻译。在文学作品中，作家通过使熟悉的事物陌生化引起读者的兴趣和好奇，延长审美感知长度。勒菲弗尔说，翻译即改写。这一翻译策略尤其适合于诗歌翻译。直译只会是译诗平淡乏味，如同兑水之酒，甚至产生误解。李清照，作为历史上最有名的女词人之一，其“易安体”本就以其化故为新，以俗为雅的特点与“陌生化”有异曲同工之处。《声声慢》、《醉花阴》是她前后截然不同两个时期的代表作。本文试以俄国形式主义者什克洛夫斯基提出的“陌生化”为理论指导，以李清照词《声声慢》、《醉花阴》的多个译本为研究对象，分析对比不同译者的英译，尝试研究在译文中怎样重现文本陌生化和制造译本的陌生化，以期证明陌生化理论对李清照词英译的指导作用。(Ge Yunfeng, 2008, 34-35)<br />
<br />
本文共分为四部分，由引论、正文、结论三部分构成。引论部分主要介绍陌生化理论，优势和劣势，李清照词特点和国内外研究现状。正文分为两个部分，词和意象两个方向并辅以具体实例。结论部分将主要总结陌生化理论在诗歌翻译的应用，本文作者认为用陌生化理论研究翻译文本仍有很大的发掘空间，对诗歌翻译有启迪意义。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
陌生化理论；《声声慢》；《醉花阴》；英译版本<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasury of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.<br />
<br />
The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasure of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’s consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’ consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)<br />
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Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, and her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.1 Shklovsky’s Definition of Defamiliarization====<br />
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Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by the Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:"The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.(Zhang Jintong, 1987, 78-79)<br />
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Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by a Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:"The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.(Zhang Jintong, 1987, 78-79)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2 Features of Defamiliarization in Translation====<br />
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In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named up two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. <br />
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Alienization, is the similarity among defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.<br />
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Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, it has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)<br />
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In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Alienization is the similarity amid defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, which has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====1.2.1 Advantages of Defamiliarization=====<br />
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To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural-turn proposed by Susan Bassinet, against the culture invasion, this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)<br />
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To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural turn proposed by Susan Bassinet against the culture invasion, and this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====1.2.2 Disadvantages of Defamiliarization=====<br />
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Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new express or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)<br />
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Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new expression or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2. A brief Introduction of Li Qingzhao===<br />
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Before analyzing the translation versions of Li Qingzhao’s Ci, a general understanding of the characteristics and aesthetic value of Li’s Ci is very necessary. <br />
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====2.1. Li Qingzhao’s life and her Poem====<br />
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Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influence on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.<br />
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Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influences on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---Zuihuayin, is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism. <br />
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Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---''Zuihuayin'', is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2Research on Li’s Poem in Domestic and Abroad====<br />
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A comprehensive knowledge of history and state quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.<br />
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The study of Li Qingzhao’s poem in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. <br />
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A comprehensive knowledge of history and status quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The study of Li Qingzhao’s poems in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3. Defamiliarization on Words Level in Shengshengman and Zuihuayin===<br />
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Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, the word has greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.<br />
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Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, words are of greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.1 Analysis of Translation of Reduplicated Words====<br />
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Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character two or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.<br />
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Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character twice or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Her typical work which applies reduplicated words is Shengshengman. <br />
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“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。乍暖还寒时候，最难将息。<br />
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三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急？雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识。<br />
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满地黄花堆积。憔悴损，如今有谁堪摘？守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑？<br />
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梧桐更兼细雨，到黄昏、点点滴滴。这次第，怎一个、愁字了得！”（陈祖美 2003：108）<br />
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This piece of work enjoys the largest number of translation versions from different translators among all her works. The first fourteen characters are: “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”,they precisely describe the loneliness , melancholy and nostalgia of the homeland of the poetess after losing her husband. Six different translation versions collected are as follows:<br />
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1. I seek but seek in vain,<br />
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I search but search again.<br />
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I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
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So lonely, without cheer. (Xu Yuanchong)<br />
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2. So dim, so dark.<br />
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So dense, so dull,<br />
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So damp, so dank, so dead! (Lin Yutang)<br />
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3. Seeking,seeking,<br />
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Chilly and quite,<br />
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Desolate, painful and miserable. (Yang Xianyi）<br />
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4. Searching and searching, seeking and seeking,<br />
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So chill, so clear,<br />
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dreary,<br />
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and dismal,<br />
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and forlorn. (Stephen Owen)<br />
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5. Seeking<br />
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seeking<br />
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Searching<br />
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searching<br />
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over and over<br />
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lonely and forlorn <br />
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Sighing;<br />
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grieving<br />
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sighing<br />
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In the same round (Kwock&McHugh) <br />
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6. Seek…seek, search....search;<br />
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Lone...lone, cold...cold;<br />
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Sad...sad, pain...pain, moan...moan. (Liu Wuji) <br />
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Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heart-broken feeling and her worry about the convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.<br />
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Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heartbroken feeling and her worry about her convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrases them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem. <br />
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For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrased them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem. --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another example is “点点滴滴”,also from the same verse. Following are translation versions collected:<br />
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1.On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
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As twilight grizzles. (Xu Yuanchong)<br />
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2.In a drizzle so light, dripping-dropping into the oncoming night,<br />
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In the garden wutong trees stand blurred. (Zhu Chunsheng)<br />
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3.On drying leaves of plane trees should there be<br />
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A drizzle pattering, pattering towards the eve! (Liu Guoshan)<br />
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4.Against the tung and plane trees, the wind rises high.<br />
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The drizzle becomes trickles, as eve draws nigh. (Xu Zhongjie)<br />
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5.And the drizzle on the kola nut, keeps on droning: Pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat! (Lin Yutang)<br />
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6.The drizzles falls on the wutong trees, raindrops drip down at dusk. (Yang Xianyi)<br />
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No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu uses drizzles describing the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.<br />
<br />
No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu used drizzles to describe the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Translation of Verbs====<br />
<br />
Unlike English, Chinese poetry is skillfully using verb to vivify the image, often linked with rhetorical devices. Word transformation is mostly common, such as adjective or noun transformed to verb. There existed many instances; the author would like to choose two verbs from the Zuihuayin which would analyzed in this paper.<br />
Taking “帘卷西风”from Zuihuayin as an example:<br />
<br />
“薄雾浓云愁永昼，瑞脑消金兽。佳节又重阳，玉枕纱厨，半夜凉初透。东篱把酒黄昏后，<br />
有暗香盈袖。莫道不消魂，帘卷西风，人比黄花瘦。”<br />
<br />
This verse was written to express Li Qingzhao’s yearning for her husband. It’s the Double Ninth Day---the Chinese festival of the senior and family get-together. The west wind blows, makes people feel chilly and distressed, especially when the poetess was alone. Translation versions are assembled as following:<br />
<br />
1. What with curtains being folded—<br />
by violent blasts from the west (Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
2. The curtain lifted by the western wind (Qiu Xiaolong)<br />
<br />
3. When the west wind rolls up my bamboo curtain (Mao Yumei)<br />
<br />
4. With the door-curtains flapping in the west wind (Gong Jinghao)<br />
<br />
5. Only, when the west wind stir the curtain (Lucy Chow Ho)<br />
<br />
In the original, there is hyperbaton used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.<br />
<br />
In the original, hyperbaton was used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急?”The verb in this sentence used very vividly, how few cups of liquor withstand the wind at the dusk; Li Qingzhao personifies the natural thing, which is widely applied to express defamiliarization. Follows are various translation versions.<br />
<br />
1.By cup on cup of wine so dry oh,<br />
How can I endure at dusk the drift<br />
Of wind so swift? (Xu Yuanchong）<br />
<br />
2.Three cups of thin wine would utterly fail.<br />
To cope with the rising evening gale. (Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
3.How can a few cups of thin wine,<br />
Bring warmth against the chilly winds of sunset? (Lin Yutang)<br />
<br />
4.Three or two cups of light wine,<br />
How can they ward off the strong? (Yang Xianyi)<br />
<br />
Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by poet, which slash the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.<br />
<br />
Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by the poet, which slashed the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Translation of Colloquialism====<br />
<br />
Colloquialism refer to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.<br />
<br />
Colloquialism refers to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised for the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:<br />
<br />
Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised as the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1. Sitting alone at the window, how could I but quicken the pace of darkness <br />
Which won’t thicken? (Xu Yuanchong）<br />
<br />
2. Standing by the window---watching in anguish stark.<br />
Could I bear alone the sight until it is dark? (Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
3. I remain by my window. Why is the day so dark, all alone? (Mao Yumei)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and causal as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and casual as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Another sentence is“这次第，怎一个、愁字了得?”<br />
<br />
1.How, in the word “Miserable,” can one find------<br />
The total effects of all these on the mind! (Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
2.Oh, what can I do with a grief<br />
Beyond belief! (Xu Yuanchong)<br />
<br />
3.Is this the kind of mood and moment, to be expressed by one word “sad”? <br />
(Lin Yutang)<br />
<br />
4.At the time like this, what immense sorrow I must bear! (Yang Xianyi)<br />
<br />
The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different word to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.<br />
<br />
The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different words to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4. Defamiliarization on Image Level====<br />
<br />
Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.<br />
<br />
Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore it can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====4.1 Cultural-Loaded images=====<br />
<br />
This kind of category is the juxtaposition of allusion and complicated sentiment in certain culture.<br />
<br />
1.Translation the image of “雁” in the Shengshengman<br />
<br />
The sentence “雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识.”The translation versions collected as follow:<br />
<br />
1. Myself, into woe, a flight of wild geese has thrown.<br />
<br />
But with them, very familiar I have grown. (Xu Zhongjie) <br />
<br />
2.I recognize the geese flying overhead:<br />
<br />
My old friends,<br />
<br />
Bring not the old memories back! (Lin Yutang)<br />
<br />
3. It breaks my heart, alas,<br />
<br />
To see the wild geese pass,<br />
<br />
For they are my acquaintances of old. (Xu Yuanchong)<br />
<br />
4. Wild geese fly past, while I’am broken-hearted;<br />
<br />
But I recognize they are my old friends. (Yang Xianyi&Gladys Yang) <br />
<br />
5. Overhead,a heart-rending line<br />
<br />
South-bound wild geese at morn<br />
<br />
Yet old acquaintances of mine. (Zhu Chunshen)<br />
<br />
After study some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.<br />
<br />
After studying some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is a straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.<br />
<br />
Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Natural Images====<br />
<br />
Pure scenery depiction means the scene is universe, such as some flower, tree, mountain, stream but usually combined with emotional revelation.<br />
<br />
The image “黄花” usually translated into “yellow flower”, “chrysanthemum”, “yellow chrysanthemum”. Different versions are collected as follow:<br />
<br />
1. As compared with chrysanthemums,<br />
<br />
I look slimmer e’en at my best. (Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
2. I would show a thinner face than yellow flowers. (Xu Yuanchong)<br />
<br />
3. I look thinner than the chrysanthemum. (Mao Yumei)<br />
<br />
4. I find myself thinner than the yellow flowers. (Chu Dagao)<br />
<br />
Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is more blurred, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)<br />
<br />
Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is a more blurred one, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====Conclusion====<br />
<br />
Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of it’s terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)<br />
<br />
Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of its terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulate the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)<br />
<br />
The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulates the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
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* Eugene A.Nida. Language and Culture Contexts in Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2001. <br />
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* Gan Wanni.A Defamiliarization Perspective to the Study of Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Ci[D].Southwest Jiaotong University,2012.<br />
<br />
* Peter Newmark.A Textbook of Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2011.<br />
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* Schulte,R.and John Biguenet.Theories of Translation:An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida[C].Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1992.<br />
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* Xu Yuanchong. 300 Tang Poems [M].China Intercontinental Press，2011.<br />
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* Zhan Chongyang. Defamiliarization and Translation:A Case Study of the Chinese Versions of Jamaica Inn [D].Nanjing University，2013.<br />
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*陈琳.论陌生化翻译[J].中国翻译，2010(1).<br />
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* 陈琳.文学翻译审美的陌生化性[D].清华大学学报，2006(06)：21.<br />
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*房孝园,李清照:一言难尽的花与酒——《李清照词两首》个性解读[J].语文教学之友,2011,06:34-35.<br />
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* 葛云峰,季淑凤.中国典籍英译的风格再现，易安词英译个案分析[J].淮北煤炭师范学院外国语学报，2008(5):30.<br />
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*胡银根.文化语境视角下李清照八首词翻译的对比研究[D].湖南工业大学，2012.<br />
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* 刘晰.拥抱差异：诗歌翻译的“陌生化”取向[J].淮南师范学院学报,2013（04）:15.<br />
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* 李学欣.易安词作中叠词的美感传译[J].作家杂志，2009(12).<br />
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* 李睿婕,张轶前.许渊冲译者主体性在李清照《声声慢》英译本中的体现.[J].河北联合大学学报，2012(6):12.<br />
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*孙国华.鲁迅作品中的陌生化语言现象[J].无锡高等师范学校，2012.<br />
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* 张冰.陌生化诗学：俄国形式主义研究[M].北京师范大学出版社，2000.<br />
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* 朱纯深.宋词英译(2)[J].中国翻译,2002(3):93-94.<br />
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*郑恩岳,李清照《声声慢》词英译研究[J].浙江教育学院学报，2003(05).<br />
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*张金同.“怎一个愁字了得”——读李清照的《醉花阴》和《声声慢》[J].固原师专学报(社会科学版),1987,04:41-46.<br />
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==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan 202070080642 MTI==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
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Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br />
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<br />
===摘要===<br />
由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
摘要:<br />
由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
口译，文化差异，应对策略--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略（格式错误）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as "global consciousness" and "global values". However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健,2012）<br />
<br />
The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as "global consciousness" and "global values". However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（Jian Fang，Zhang Jian,2012）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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No matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br />
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===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br />
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Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that "the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures." He believes that "the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word." The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能,1993） <br />
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Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that "the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures." He believes that "the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word." The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（Lian Shuneng,1993）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, "For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used." Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation. (Jia Dejiang,1998)<br />
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====Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking====<br />
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Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br />
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Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.(Edward Spir,2006)<br />
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For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.(Jia Dejiang,1998)<br />
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====Cultural barriers caused from values====<br />
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Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br />
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A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br />
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====Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery====<br />
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Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
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For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval".“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word "龙" means something evil in the West, but "auspicious" in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase "望子成龙" should never be translated as “to hope one"'s child can become a dragon"，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br />
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====Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs====<br />
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Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give "New Year's Lucky money" to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but "Chinese New Year" does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. <br />
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Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. “Sleep with father" is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as "go the heaven" and "kick the bucket". It means the same as "go the heaven" and "kick the bucket", but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as "与父亲睡觉", which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng,1993）<br />
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Look at the following example:<br />
If this sentence is understood as<br />
"约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏", it is because the translator failed to understand " eats no fish " and "play the game". After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So "" means "loyalty" and " to eat no fish " means "loyalty" and " to play the game "means "race",The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is "John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright".<br />
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====Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors====<br />
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The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文,2002）<br />
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The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（Zhang Wen,2002）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology. <br />
Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive. (Bai Jingyu,2000)（段落过长）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology. <br />
<br />
Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br />
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Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of "functional equivalence". This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. <br />
<br />
Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of "functional equivalence". This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (Ye Zinan，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. --[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of "accuracy, smoothness and speed" and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as "on-site, present and limited time", the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the "nearest natural equivalence" between English and Chinese, and to try to find the "nearest natural equivalence" from the target language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
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In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the "nearest natural equivalents" between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br />
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====Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation====<br />
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Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
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The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the "nearest natural equivalent" to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions "三个和尚没水吃" into " Everyone‘s business is no one"s business." is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.(Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing,2006)<br />
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However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌" by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang,2006）<br />
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Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
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In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir,2006）<br />
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====Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods====<br />
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The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a "purpose-oriented" approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
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The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
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=====Direct translation method=====<br />
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Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, " Let sleeping dogs lie" is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br />
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=====Substitution Method=====<br />
The substitution method is also called the "reciprocity method". It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom "冰冻三尺非一日之寒" is translated into " Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom "to spend money like water " translated into "挥金如土" is a good example.(Wang Kefei,1997)<br />
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====Intentional translation method=====<br />
<br />
When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
<br />
For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the "U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology," Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that "The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, "天方夜谭" is not translated directly as"TheArabianNights"，but is instead translated as " fiction ". This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word "天方夜谭" has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）（段落过长）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the "U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology," Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that "The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, "天方夜谭" is not translated directly as"TheArabianNights"，but is instead translated as " fiction ". <br />
<br />
This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word "天方夜谭" has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
=====Interpretation=====<br />
<br />
Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language.(Bao Huinan,2001) When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
<br />
1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br />
诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br />
Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br />
<br />
2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br />
三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br />
and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br />
An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br />
<br />
3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br />
解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br />
<br />
4)Special cultural words<br />
<br />
敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br />
the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br />
<br />
=====Simple translation and no translation=====<br />
<br />
Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use "no translation" or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: "我姓张，弓长张。"Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.(Lu Naisheng,1993)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. <br />
<br />
Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.(Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br />
<br />
连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br />
<br />
刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br />
<br />
熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br />
<br />
杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br />
<br />
张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br />
<br />
Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br />
<br />
Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000.<br />
<br />
Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br />
<br />
Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br />
<br />
Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br />
<br />
Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br />
<br />
Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br />
--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:59, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br />
（少了学号）--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 12:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Wei Yafei<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the consistent development of the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, translation plays a more and more pivotal role in the world stage. It can not only help Chinese to have a better understanding of foreign cultures and promote the cooperation, but also spread the Chinese cultures to the international world. Translation strategies are the focus of translation works, especially during the process of translating Chinese to English. It’s very necessary to have a thorough study about the translation strategies. While towards different styles of text, different translation strategies should be applied relatively. This thesis focuses on translation strategies of two styles - journalistic style and literary style. <br />
The thesis firstly introduces main functons and types of texts. Then it depicts the characteristics and translation principles of journalistic style text and literary style text. In the main part, the thesis explores the translation strategies that suits for the two types based on different characteristics, including domestication, foreignization, omission,restructure and etc. This thesis is expected to make some contributions to the study of translation strategies and the practice of translation.<br />
<br />
===KEY WORDS===<br />
<br />
Translation strategies; text-types; journalistic style; literary style.<br />
（Key Words）注意大小写--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 12:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Wei Yafei<br />
<br />
<br />
===中文摘要===<br />
<br />
随着中外文化交流的不断发展，翻译在世界舞台上扮演着越来越重要的角色。它不仅可以帮助中国人更好地了解外国文化，促进合作，而且可以将中国文化传播到世界。翻译策略是翻译工作的重点，特别是在汉译英过程中。对翻译策略进行深入研究是有必要的。在针对不同样式的文本时，应相对地采用不同的翻译策略。本文主要研究两种体裁的翻译策略：新闻体裁和文学体裁。<br />
本文首先介绍主要的文本功能以及文本类型，然后探讨新闻风格文本和文学风格文本的语言特点及翻译原则。论文的主体部分结合了两种文本的特点，探讨了归化，异化，省译，重构等翻译策略。本文有望为翻译策略的研究和翻译的实践做出贡献。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
翻译策略; 文本类型; 新闻体裁; 文学体裁.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Translation strategies are critical in translation process. Towards texts in different styles which have different models of texts’ structure and communicative functions, translation strategies are quite variable. There are a great number of scholars both from China and the international world who have devoted themselves to dive into and research the most effective and practical strategies. <br />
<br />
Translation strategies are critical in translation process. Towards texts in different styles that have different models of texts’ structure and communicative functions, translation strategies are quite variable. There are a great number of scholars both from China and the international world who have devoted themselves to dive into and research the most effective and practical strategies. --[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 12:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Wei Yafei<br />
<br />
However, there are still lack of thorough researches about translation strategies for different text styles. In this thesis, the first part is about the introduction and analysis of former scholars’ researches and the whole picture of this thesis. Then, the thesis will discuss the development, characteristics and functions of different-style texts from the perspective of linguistics.From the perspective of language characteristics,literary style texts are vivid,full of feelings and connotation-contained, while journalistic style texts are new, objective,true and political-related. From the perspective of translation principles, literary style texts are based on equivalence priciple and accuracy,while journalistic style texts are based on accuracy,purpose and readability. The main part is about the translation strategies of source texts in journalistic style and literary style respectively and the analysis of examples, such as the domestication, foreignization in literary-style texts and the omission , restructure, amplification and imitation in journalistic-style text. In concluding part, the thesis will generalize the main idea and make an objective appreciation about the thesis.<br />
<br />
However, there are still lack of thorough researches about translation strategies for different text styles. In this thesis, the first part is about the introduction and analysis of former scholars’ researches and the whole picture of this thesis. Then, the thesis will discusses the development, characteristics and functions of different-style texts from the perspective of linguistics.From the perspective of language characteristics,literary style texts are vivid,full of feelings and connotation-contained, while journalistic style texts are new, objective,true and political-related. From the perspective of translation principles, literary style texts are based on equivalence priciple and accuracy,while journalistic style texts are based on accuracy,purpose and readability. The main part is about the translation strategies of source texts in journalistic style and literary style respectively and the analysis of examples, such as the domestication, foreignization in literary-style texts and the omission , restructure, amplification and imitation in journalistic-style text. In concluding part, the thesis will generalize the main idea and make an objective appreciation about the thesis.--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 12:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Wei Yafei<br />
<br />
===Theoretical Framework===<br />
====Background and development of Texts’ styles====<br />
<br />
According to the research, there is still no specific definition of distinguishing differences of texts styles. Some scholars claim texts’ styles to be registers, even some equal them to speech events. Qin Xiubai, a famous Chinese language and teaching professor, introduced that there were two main schools of the study of Texts styles’- the Swalesian School represented by John M.S wales and V.K.Bhatia and the Australian School represented by J.R.Martin. John Martin believes that styles of texts means a bunch of social events in which the members have the same communicative goal. While V.K.Bhatia believes that styles of texts are identifiable communicative events that have obvious inner structural features, conventionally happening in specific careers or academic communities. We can tell from the two schools’ views that styles of texts are a kind of communicative events with its special communicative purpose and clear structures. From this point, translators or interpreters can exert theory to analyze texts’ styles and recognize the intentions of writers as well as keep the functional and sense equivalence between the source texts and target texts. J.R.Martin take texts’ styles as a communication-orientated process of social communication with steps. Eggins view texts of styles as a type of activity with steps that orientated on communicative purposes. So that the difference of texts styles is on the level of values in use rather than the contents of discourse, characteristics of forms or other rules.<br />
<br />
According to the research, there is still no specific definition of distinguishing differences of texts styles. Some scholars claim texts’ styles to be registers, even some equal them to speech events. Qin Xiubai, a famous Chinese language and teaching professor, introduced that there were two main schools of the study of Texts styles’- the Swalesian School represented by John M.S wales and V.K.Bhatia and the Australian School represented by J.R.Martin. John Martin believes that styles of texts mean a bunch of social events in which the members have the same communicative goal. While V.K.Bhatia believes that styles of texts are identifiable communicative events that have obvious inner structural features, conventionally happening in specific careers or academic communities. <br />
We can tell from the two schools’ views that styles of texts are a kind of communicative events with its special communicative purpose and clear structures. From this point, translators or interpreters can exert theory to analyze texts’ styles and recognize the intentions of writers as well as keep the functional and sense equivalence between the source texts and target texts. J.R.Martin take texts’ styles as a communication-orientated process of social communication with steps. Eggins view texts of styles as a type of activity with steps that orientated on communicative purposes. So that the difference of texts styles is on the level of values in use rather than the contents of discourse, characteristics of forms or other rules.<br />
（段落过长 建议分成两段） （存在单复数语法错误）--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 13:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Wei yafei<br />
<br />
Huang Guowen once said that every text plays a communicative role in a specific social and cultural environment, and people belonging to a specific social and cultural background can usually see its communicative purpose. (Huang Guowen,2001) The text is a combination of communicative symbols for the exchange of information between the sender and the recipient. In order to achieve a certain communicative purpose, the sender must choose an appropriate genre and corresponding manifestation to convey the information, and the recipient is expected to respond accordingly. Thus, the function of texts can be realized. Christiane Nord summarized four functions of texts from the perspective of translation. They are referential function, expressive function, appellative function and phatic function. (Nord, 1997)<br />
<br />
====Main functions of texts==== <br />
<br />
=====The Referential Function=====<br />
The referential function of a text means the reference to or description of objects or phenomena of the world. It is mainly expressed through the denotative value of the lexical items presented in the text and can be analyzed through the nature of the objects. It is orientated toward objects in real or fictitious worlds. There are several functions of referential function: informative function, directive function and didactic function. If the referent is a fact or state of things unknown to the receiver, such as an accident, the text function may consist in informing the readers. If the referent is the description of an object, such as the illustration of using a washing machine, the text function may be directive. If it is a whole field that the receivers are to learn, such as physics, the function may be didactic.<br />
<br />
=====The Expressive Function=====<br />
<br />
The expressive function refers to the sender’s attitude to toward the objects or phenomena. This function is sender-orientated. The expressive function of the text may be subdivided according to what it is expressed. If the sender expresses individual feelings or emotions, such as a public speech, it will be an emotive sub-function. If what is expressed is an evaluation, like comments, the sub-function will be evaluative.<br />
<br />
=====The Appellative Function=====<br />
<br />
The appellative function refers to use of language to make the receiver feel or do something. The appellative function “receiver-orientated. It aims at the receivers’ sensitivity or disposition to act and tries to induce receivers to respond in a particular way. It can be broken into several sub-functions: illustrative function, persuasive function, advertising function and pedagogical function. If we want to illustrate a hypothesis by an example, we appeal to the reader’s previous experience to knowledge, That’s what called illustrative function. If we want to persuade someone to do something or to share a particular viewpoint, we appeal to their sensitivity and their secret desires. That’s what called persuasive function. If we want to let someone by a particular product, we tend to describe those qualities of the product that are presumed to have positive values in receivers’ value system. That’s advertising function. If we wan to educate a person, we may appeal to their susceptibility to ethical and moral principles. That’s pedagogical function.<br />
<br />
====Main Text - types====<br />
<br />
Katharina Reiss, founder of German translation functionalism, put forward text-typology theory in Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism. She believes that there are four texts, including the context-focused text, the form-focused text, the appeal-focused text and the audio-media text. <br />
Peter Newmark, representative of the British linguistic school of translation theory, based on the study of former linguisticians, he put forward the following six functions of texts - expressive function, informative function, the vocative function, the aesthetic function, the phatic function and the meta-lingual function. A text may has several functions at the same time, but only has one major function. Taking a whole consideration of the two theories, the main texts are the following three, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts. Journalistic-style texts and literary-style texts are mainly connected with the informative and expressive function respectively. <br />
<br />
=====The Expressive Texts=====<br />
<br />
Language is a tool for people to communicate with each other. Through language, people can express their thoughts, affection, wills, desires, opinions, attitude, etc. This is the expressive function of language. The core of expressive function is the speaker's thoughts. The speaker uses words to express feelings, regardless of the reaction of others.Typical expressive-function texts include the following three types. The first ones are serious and imaginative literature which contain lyrics, short stories, long novels and plays. The second type is authoritative texts, including a variety of genres, whose authority comes from the status of the author or language skills, such as senior government officials and political party leaders’ speeches, such as declarations, legal regulations, documents as well as literary and academic works written by authority figures etc. The third type is texts that express writers’ ideas directly, without direct readers, like autobiography, private letters, etc. <br />
<br />
===== The Informative Texts=====<br />
<br />
In interactions, people often have to describe, narrate or explain the situation of relevant things. This involves the information function of language. The core is the external environment, which is the reported insights and theories. The informative text usually has a fixed format, such as textbook, technical reports, newspaper articles, scientific papers, meeting minutes, etc. <br />
<br />
===== The Vocative Texts=====<br />
<br />
People often use words to evoke others' sympathy or prompt them to take some actions. That shows the imperative function of language. The core of this function is the readers or audiences. The speaker wants readers or audiences to feel and follow the intent of the text and act as expected. Typical vocative texts are notices, advertisements, instructions, requests, appeals, etc.<br />
<br />
===Literary Stylistics and Journalistic Stylistics=== <br />
<br />
With the appearance of societal pragmatics, pragmatics and functional grammar, scholars recognized the importance of language functions. They tried to classify the texts in the light of language functions and divided them into two main types. One is literary style, the other is non-literary style. Snell-Hornby classified literary texts as Bible, drama, film, lyric poetry, modern literature, classic works, children literature, literature in 1990 and pastime novel. <br />
<br />
====Language Characteristics====<br />
<br />
=====For literary style=====<br />
======Vividness======<br />
In literary works, writers use words or language to vividly describe or portray people, objects, things to reflect the world’s various situations or expose social reality, they will use appropriate techniques to render the atmosphere and create an immersive feeling for readers. For Example, “The bullfrogs trump to usher in the night, and the note of the whip-poor-will is borne on the rippling wind from over the water.” Through the use of verbs such as "trump", "usher" and "is borne", the images of frogs, hawks and wind blowing on the water surface in the evening are vividly depicted. That happens a lot in literary works.<br />
<br />
======Emotional expression======<br />
As we all know, all things and objects are embodiment of writers’ feelings and emotions. In literary creation, whether it is to portray characters or to describe scenery, often inadvertently or intentionally contains or carries the writer’s own emotions. In other words, expressing emotion includes direct expression and indirect expression. The lyricism of this kind of literature can effectively arouse the emotional resonance of readers.<br />
<br />
======Connotation======<br />
Connotation means that writers do not always describe people or things in all-round aspects with every details, but can depict in limited number of words to show or imply infinite meaning or artistic conception, leaving readers with imagination. That will be unforgettable for a long time. For example, “ From my mother’s sleep I fell into the State. And I hunched in its belly till my wet fur froze.” In this two sentences, “Sleep” metaphorically means in the mother’s womb, can also refer to the poet’s lofty ideals and ambitions. The capitalized "State" can refer to both the world and the poet’s motherland - The United States.<br />
<br />
<br />
===== For journalistic style=====<br />
Journalistic-style texts vary a lot from the the literary-style texts. As an unique texts which are shown to billions of audience, the characteristics of news are mainly in following four aspects: Truth, objective, new and political-related.<br />
<br />
======Truthfulness======<br />
First, as the definition indicates news is about facts，which first should be true. “News lays claim to the qualities of truthfulness and accuracy-properties often implied by the term objectivity, a concept used to legitimize the journalistic text while at the same time recognizing the multidimensional and elusive nature of truth. News asks to be accepted as, at the very least, an approximation to truth, and certainly close enough to the truth to be worthy of our trust in its integrity”(McNair, 1998:2)<br />
<br />
======Newness======<br />
If the news isn’t new, it should have been called “olds”. This is more than a joke. News is reported to make a contrast to the convention, strike people by surprise and keep them in suspense. “News is not about somebody bitten by a dog, but about a dog bitten by a man”, “News is just something that can move women to scream: My Gosh!” The two old sayings have been taken as most vivid descriptions of news, featuring its distinctive characteristics of newness.<br />
<br />
======Objectivity======<br />
The objectivity is one of the most important professional concepts of news and has caught great attention in news circle. “The basic content of this principle is the content must be completely true, fair and neutral, not fictitious, and not biased or subjective” (Yang Xiyou 2009, 6)When writing news or reports, media workers shouldn’t put their subjective feelings into the reports. And the use of vocabulary should also be fair and neutral. When international news media, such as BBC and VOA, report about China Diaoyu Islands issue, they generally use Sankaku Islands and Diaoyu Island. When translating these words, the translator should be faithful to the original text and translate these two names. However, due to ideological, political or historical reasons, the use of vocabulary may deviate from the principle of objectivity, such as: in the report of Russia and Japan’s dispute on islands, only the Russian address- “ Kuril Islands” was used, but the Japanese address- “Four Northern Islands” was not used. When translating, the translator should add “Thousand Southern Islands” and “Four Northern”.<br />
<br />
======Political Relevance======<br />
Although news is objective, absolutely objective and fair reports do not exist. The media has never been able to completely get rid of the shackles of political and economic power or ideology. The content of the report tends to obey the interests of the country. The use of political vocabulary in English current affairs news must also faithfully reflect the country’s political standpoint. Regarding to the English translation of the Diaoyu Islands, the Chinese news media translate into “Diaoyu Islands”, while the Japanese news media and some Western news media call it “Senkaku Islands”. From the usage of these words, it is obvious to see the political stance. When translating these political words, translators must be very cautious. In addition to be faithful to the original text, translators or interpreters should also consider our country’s interests.<br />
<br />
====Translation principles==== <br />
Translation is the process of transforming signs or representations into another signs or representations.(Nord, 2001:6) Generally speaking, according to the object of translation, translation can be divided into two kinds: literary translation and non-literary translation. In literary translation the object is only the literary work, such as pot, novel and so on, and it focuses on the expression of contents, emotions and rhetoric of the original.<br />
<br />
===== For literary style=====<br />
Although literary translation and non-literary translation share basic principles, literary translation which has its unique ways, is rather different from non-literary translation. Translating literary works is not only a process of transforming languages but also a process of recreating because literature belongs to a part of art. This is the most important feature of literary translation and also the basic translation principles.<br />
<br />
======Equivalence-based principle======<br />
Equivalence-based principle equals to “Dynamic equivalence” proposed by Eugene A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist. This principle points that translators should work hard in different languages and different cultures to find translation equivalents between them, and use appropriate methods to reorganize the form and semantic structure of the original text. Dynamic equivalence includes four aspects: one is lexical equivalence, the other is syntactic equivalence, the third is textual equivalence, the fourth is sense equivalence. In literary translation, sense equivalence is the core. For example, the Chinese sentence “青年小伙子们，有事没事，总想和小芹说句话” can be translated in to “Young men sought every excuse to talk with Xiao Qin”.This shows sense equivalence.<br />
<br />
======Accuracy-based principle======<br />
No matter how beautiful the texts are, the accuracy is always the most important, rather than the forms. Be Faithful to the content of the original text, the translator must fully express the content of the original text without any tampering, distortion, omission or arbitrary deletion. The more accurate the words be chosen, the better the translation texts will be. For example, when translating “ 微风”, we’d better translate it into “breeze” or “gentle breeze” rather than “gentle wind” since the breeze is more accurate.<br />
<br />
=====For Journalistic style=====<br />
Journalistic-style texts belong to the informative texts according to the above analysis. Translation principles of Journalistic are mainly mainly purposiveness, accuracy and readability.<br />
<br />
======Purpose-based principle======<br />
Purpose" is the basic principle of journalistic-style texts translation, and other principles are based on this principle. For information-based texts, “ translation skopos ”, the German functionalist translation theory, was put forward by Rice, Vermeer, and Nord. Skopos has great significance in guiding of translation. This is because the purpose of information-based translation is very strong, that is, the translation has a clear goal - to provide information. Snell Hornby believes: “More practical the texts is, more clear its function is. The more the translation tends to focus on the target language.” As far as the journalistic text is concerned, the purpose of its translation is conveying the information and communication, allowing readers to easily understand the intention of the speaker. The translation should conform to the audience’s needs, cultural expectations, beliefs and cognitive status as much as possible, and it is meaningful in the communication environment of the target language culture. For example, in news, sometimes vocabulary vacancies are caused by the absence of equivalence in the translation, and it is impossible to use completely equivalent and accurate words to express its connotation during translation. In this case, domestication can be applied. Considering the specific translation purpose, context and characteristics of the target language, if the purpose of translation is to spread foreign cultures, foreignization strategies can be adopted. That’s the purpose-based translation principle.<br />
<br />
Purpose" is the basic principle of journalistic-style texts translation, and other principles are based on this principle. For information-based texts, “ translation skopos ”, the German functionalist translation theory, was put forward by Rice, Vermeer, and Nord. Skopos has great significance in guiding of translation. This is because the purpose of information-based translation is very strong, that is, the translation has a clear goal - to provide information. Snell Hornby believes: “More practical the texts is, more clear its function is. The more the translation tends to focus on the target language.” <br />
As far as the journalistic text is concerned, the purpose of its translation is conveying the information and communication, allowing readers to easily understand the intention of the speaker. The translation should conform to the audience’s needs, cultural expectations, beliefs and cognitive status as much as possible, and it is meaningful in the communication environment of the target language culture. For example, in news, sometimes vocabulary vacancies are caused by the absence of equivalence in the translation, and it is impossible to use completely equivalent and accurate words to express its connotation during translation. In this case, domestication can be applied. Considering the specific translation purpose, context and characteristics of the target language, if the purpose of translation is to spread foreign cultures, foreignization strategies can be adopted. That’s the purpose-based translation principle.（建议截成两段，段落过长）--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 12:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Wei Yafei<br />
<br />
<br />
======Accuracy-based principle====== <br />
The purpose of informative text is to convey information. Therefore, the translation work of the information text should be accurate, clear and precise. The translator can’t deliberately or unintentionally miss any original author’s information. In journalistic style, the accuracy is critical. A slight difference of words can make huge results. Especially, for those news related with politics and business. A word with different emotional sense can make a complete opposite statement. A small movement of a point can cause millions capital loss. For example, 1.33 million and 13.3 million has the huge difference. This principle is similar to the “faith” proposed by Yan Fu. “Faith” means “faithfulness”. The translation of linguistic-style texts should confirm to accuracy.<br />
<br />
======Readability-based principle======<br />
Generally speaking, the terminology of information-based texts is neutral and has no obvious personal characteristics or regional colors. In news, even though there are more facts that personal emotions and feeling, translators or interpreters can make small adjustment of the speakers to make the report readable. In short, when translating, based on the readers’ language level, various translation methods should be mobilized on the premise of not changing the original intent of the article and report. It may make the content and layout of the article easier to understand, fluent and concise. But be sure to keep the source language texts’ characteristics. <br />
<br />
===Translation strategies===<br />
Translation strategies refer to the thoughts, process, methods and procedure during the process of translation. Towards original texts with different texts styles, translation strategies also vary in a large degree. The thesis will discuss from two typical stylistic texts - literary style and journalistic style. According to The Modern Chinese Dictionary, strategies indicate guidelines and means which are deigned on the basis of the situations concerned. While methods are the ways and procedures in solving real problems. However, the two are relative to each other. In simple words strategies are the guidelines of the concrete methods. The concrete methods should be adopted in the direction of their strategies. Based on the above, a conclusion in drawn that translation strategies are the guidelines for realizing a particular translation aim, yet translation methods the concrete ways employed by translators to make the particular translation aim come true.<br />
<br />
====Translation strategies in literary style====<br />
In the book Translation Criticism the Potentials & Limitations, Reiss pointed out that “Translation of literary works would better be called free rendering than translations, especially when the personality of the translator and the force of his artistic temperament result in a TL version standing on its own, indebted to the original as a model and a source of inspiration. (Reiss, 2004:91) This description indicates the characteristics of literary translation. <br />
<br />
===== Domestication=====<br />
Domestication is firstly coined by L.Venuti in his book The Translator’s Invisibility called “guihua” in Chinese. Domestication is a strategy by which the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the original text is erased in the translation in order to meet its readers’ aesthetic and reception psychology. As Venuti argues the adoption of domesticating strategy is the cultural disparity and imperialism. In the 1980s translation studies underwent “cultural turn”, and since then translation has being studied in the cultural and social contexts. The dominance of transparent discourse in English-language translation was decisively challenged at the turn of the twentieth century.<br />
Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication by his assertion on dynamic equivalence that “A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness <br />
of expression… and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture.” (Nida, 2004:159) He maintains that the function of translation is to communicate and it is important for the reader to understand what is conveyed by the translation, which takes the reader’s response into consideration. He claims that the reader of the target text should have the similar comprehension and appreciation as does the reader of the source text. Domestication tries to avoid cultural dispute and eliminate cultural barriers to achieve successful cross-cultural communication. The domesticating translation is one of naturalness and smoothness, <br />
which is the advantage of domestication. Here are three main methods that can achieve domestication strategy. They are paraphrasing, adaptation and replacement.<br />
Domestication is firstly coined by L.Venuti in his book T《he Translator’s Invisibility》 called “guihua” in Chinese. Domestication is a strategy by which the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the original text is erased in the translation in order to meet its readers’ aesthetic and reception psychology. As Venuti argues the adoption of domesticating strategy is the cultural disparity and imperialism. In the 1980s translation studies underwent “cultural turn”, and since then translation has being studied in the cultural and social contexts. The dominance of transparent discourse in English-language translation was decisively challenged at the turn of the twentieth century.<br />
Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication by his assertion on dynamic equivalence that “A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness <br />
of expression… and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture.” (Nida, 2004:159) He maintains that the function of translation is to communicate and it is important for the reader to understand what is conveyed by the translation, which takes the reader’s response into consideration. He claims that the reader of the target text should have the similar comprehension and appreciation as does the reader of the source text. Domestication tries to avoid cultural dispute and eliminate cultural barriers to achieve successful cross-cultural communication. The domesticating translation is one of naturalness and smoothness, <br />
which is the advantage of domestication. Here are three main methods that can achieve domestication strategy. They are paraphrasing, adaptation and replacement.（书籍需要加书名号）--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 13:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Wei yafei<br />
======paraphrasing======<br />
<br />
Domestication by the method of paraphrasing is effective in dealing with a simple expression behind which there is a heavy cultural load. We should adapt paraphrasing strategy.<br />
<br />
Example1<br />
<br />
ST: 如囊萤 如映雪 家虽贫 学不辍 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br />
<br />
TT1: Then we have one who put fireflies in a bag, and again another who used the white glare from snow. Although their families were poor, these men studied <br />
unceasingly.<br />
<br />
TT2: One enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag, another read by the light reflected by the snow. Although their families were poor, they never ceased learning. <br />
Annotation: in order to read by their light. <br />
<br />
TT3: Che-yin, when a boy, being poor, read his book by the light of a glow-worm which he confined. And Sun-kang, in winter, read his book by the light reflected from snow. Though their families were poor they studied incessantly. <br />
<br />
The original text is from a classical book in china named Three-Character Classic.“囊萤”and “映雪” are Chinese allusions urging children to work hard at their study. Each of the contracted expressions has a story behind it. By reading T1 and T2, readers cannot understand the allusion to the full and the logic between the expressions of “put fireflies in a bag/enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag”and“used the white glare from snow”and the expressions about the persons’ industry at their studies. T3 paraphrases the sentence and makes logic explicit by introducing the heroes in the allusions and explaining what they used the fireflies/glow-worms for. This is effective in translation.<br />
<br />
======Adaptation======<br />
<br />
In order to achieve naturalness of expression, grammar, lexicon and culture. Adaptations are necessary. For terms which identify culturally different objects but with somewhat similar functions, adaptation shows its advantage in translation.<br />
<br />
Example2 <br />
<br />
ST: 老少爷们，从麻木的状态中苏醒过来吧。(Moyan，2003:85)<br />
<br />
TT: Come out of your stupor, my friends. ( Goldblatt, 2004:293)<br />
<br />
Address terms, as an indispensable part of conversations and communications, can reflect the tradition and culture of a nation. In all languages, address terms play an important role in social intercourse. Set in Northeast countryside of China, “ 老少爷们”is a typical address term of China’s northern dialect. And it is usually used by a man, showing some masculinity. It’s an oral expression often addressed to males. Goldblatt translate it as “my friends”, often used in an English speech to strike a chord in listeners and get them united or in favor of the speaker, conspicuously in an adaptation way. <br />
<br />
Example3<br />
<br />
ST: 凡训蒙 须讲究 详训诂 明句读 （Wang Yinglin,1986）<br />
<br />
TT1: In the education of the young, there should be explanation and elucidation, careful teaching of the interpretations of commentators, and due attention to paragraphs and sentences. <br />
<br />
TT2: Whoever teaches boys, ought to discuss and examine deeply (the meaning of the characters); Explain their derivation, mark distinctly the periods and the punctuation. <br />
<br />
TT3: Every one that instructs youth should explain fully what he teaches; should illustrate the present and the past, and distinguish clearly the comma and the period. <br />
There are two kinds of adaptation in the translation of this Chinese line. First, it is the domestication of the Chinese term “句读”. Actually, ancient Chinese classics do not have any punctuation marks and the “句读” refers to the longer or shorter pause in the classics according to the meaning of the text. All three translators domesticate the Chinese term by the concept of punctuation in the English language and render it respectively as “paragraphs and sentences”, “the periods and the punctuation” and “the comma and the period”. Although the three kinds of rendering differ from each other on the level of punctuation, they have much the same function—the target text reader can easily understand in what way “句读” functions in a Chinese text. Thus dynamic equivalence is achieved. The second adaptation is the change of parts of speech—the change from verb to noun. Giles changes the verbs “训”, “讲究” and “训诂” in the Chinese text into nouns “education”, “explanation and elucidation”, “interpretations” and “attention”.<br />
<br />
======Replacement======<br />
<br />
Example 4 <br />
<br />
ST:勤有功 戏无益 戒之哉 宜勉力 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br />
<br />
TT: Diligence has its reward; play has no advantages. Oh, be on your guard, and put forth your strength. <br />
<br />
This is an example of domestication on the lexical level. “哉” in Chinese is a particle of exclamatory or of interrogative value. In this line, it functions as an exclamatory particle. It helps to make up the syllable in the Chinese version and express the author’s emotion of instructing the young. Giles translates it into the correspondent English exclamatory particle “Oh” which retains the tone of a similar function as is in the source text. It achieves dynamic equivalence in terms of reader’s response to the rhetoric.<br />
<br />
=====Foreignization=====<br />
<br />
Foreignization designates the type of translation in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks the target conventions by retaining the foreignness of the original. It functions to preserve the foreignness and value of the foreign language culture in the source text. It takes the readers of the target language culture to a foreign culture, making the readers of the translated text feel the differences and enjoy the alien atmosphere. It is more faithful to the language features of the source text than domestication does, and it keeps the flavor of the original language. Venuti and other scholars who advocate foreignization hold that foreignization enable readers of the translated text to learn about the alien culture of the source language text, which is often the reading aim of the readers who are capable of understanding the alien culture. (Venuti, 1995)<br />
<br />
======phonetic compensation======<br />
<br />
Among the three translators, Giles is said to be an excellent English language master who was able to compose English poems. His translation of poems is generally in accordance with the composing and rhyming schemes of English poems, often with good rhythm. (Mu Shixiong, 2004:166) Though Giles is good at translating poems, he does not translate this text into a completely rhythmical one. Instead, he adds pronunciation to every Chinese character in the text to make a phonetic compensation so that the readers can still appreciate the ending rhyme of the original Chinese text. Giles does make an effort to create rhythmical effect whenever it is possible. In literary texts, phonetic compensation is always applied in translation of poem and prose. <br />
<br />
Example5 <br />
<br />
ST:养不教 父之过 教不严 师之惰 <br />
<br />
TT: To feed without teaching is the father’s fault. To teach without severity is the teacher’s laziness. <br />
<br />
Each line of the translation has a rhythmic focus. Respectively they are:“feed”,“without”and“teaching”in the first line; “father” and “fault” in the second line;“teach”,“without”and“severity” in the third line; and “teacher” and “laziness” in the fourth line. In this way, and together with the phonetic compensation, formal equivalence is achieved and by reading the phonetic compensation, target readers can feel the same rhythm of the original text and response the same as the readers of the source text. <br />
<br />
======Transliteration======<br />
<br />
Transliteration is a method that an item is translated according to its pronunciation rather than its meaning. This technique is often applied to translate ecological culture-loaded terms, like names of places, person, rivers, mountains or countries. There are two systems in use for transliteration Chinese characters: the Wade-Giles system of Romanization and the pinyin system of Romanization. For better transference of Chinese culture, the latter system is suggested. For some material culture-loaded terms, such as “仁”, “义”, “君子” and so on, transliteration might be preferable to any other methods. These terms represent the key concept of Confucianism, and any other English equivalent expressions may lead to misunderstanding. Thus, it is the most convenient and effective way to expose target readers in Chinese culture. For some time, the pinyin translation of these terms may be as acceptable and comprehensible as “kongfu” or “mahjong”. Certainly, for the sake of target readers’ understanding, an annotation is always needed to provide the further explanation of the cultural meanings of these terms. <br />
<br />
Example6<br />
<br />
ST: 南容三复“白圭”，孔子以其兄之子妻之。(Liu Dianjue, 46) <br />
<br />
TT1: Nan Jung in reciting the I Song repeated the verse about the sceptre of white jade three times. (In consequence of which) Master Kung gave him his elder brother’s daughter to marry. (Waley, 131)<br />
<br />
TT2: Nan Rong repeated over and over again the lines about the white jade sceptre. Confucius gave him his elder brother’s daughter in marriage. (D.C. Lau, 181)<br />
<br />
======Amplification======<br />
<br />
Amplification refers to add information behind some terms that is familiar to source language readers but unfamiliar to target language readers. By amplification, the connotation can be better conveyed to foreign readers. <br />
<br />
Example 7<br />
<br />
ST:论语者 二十篇 群弟子 记善言 <br />
<br />
TT: The Lunyu (the book of discourses and dialogues) contains twenty chapters. The disciples (of Confucius) have therein related his excellent sayings. <br />
<br />
In this example, the Chinese text does not mention the ancient Chinese sage Confucius, and the information on whose sayings had been recorded in the book “Lun-yu” is implicit, which can be inferred from the context by native Chinese, once they combine the notion of “论语”with their background knowledge. However, western readers do not have enough knowledge to appreciate the value of the “Lun-yu”if the title was translated without the mention of Confucius. <br />
<br />
==== Translation strategies in journalistic style====<br />
<br />
===== Amplification=====<br />
<br />
Sometimes, the translator needs to add proper words to complete the structure of the target texts, because mews sometimes needs more information to explain the inner meaning. The following examples are offered to illustrate the point. <br />
<br />
Example 8 <br />
<br />
ST: The real James Bond? (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 250) <br />
<br />
TT:谁是真正的邦德? <br />
<br />
There are no subject and predicate in the target text if the translator renders the headline by literal translation. Therefore,“谁是” is added in order to clarify the text. <br />
<br />
Example 9<br />
<br />
ST: Kings rout rockets, 101-74 (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 225) <br />
<br />
TT: 国王队击败火箭队，比分为 101 比 74 <br />
<br />
“比分为”is added in the target text to make the translation complete in sentence structure and meaning. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example 10<br />
ST:Reuters bests and worsts of the world cup (Huang Ruihong, 2004-06-15) <br />
<br />
TT:路透社评出世界最佳和最差球队 <br />
<br />
“评出” is added in the target text. Otherwise, there will be no predicate in the target text. Consequently, the translation will make no sense to the target reader. Translator should transfer new messages accurately and clearly to the target reader. To achieve this goal, amplification is often adopted to supplement necessary words or background information, which effectively avoids misunderstanding on the part of the target reader. <br />
<br />
=====Omission=====<br />
<br />
Omission refers to the strategy to delete unnecessary words or phrases from the target text. News headlines are featured by its brevity. Redundant words can be omitted either to conform to the norms of the target language or to achieve the effect of succinctness. <br />
<br />
Example11 <br />
ST: You need to sleep less than you think (Zou Shuang, 2005) <br />
TT: 适当少睡有益健康 <br />
As we know, English is a hypotactic language, which pays great attention to overt cohesion. Without the pronoun‘you’, the source text will be ungrammatical. By contrast, Chinese belongs to paratactic language, which attaches importance to covert coherence. When the translator does not render the word‘you’ into“你”, it won’t affect comprehension at all. In addition, the target text is succinct by leaving out the pronoun‘you’. Therefore, omission is adopted in this example. <br />
<br />
Example12 <br />
<br />
ST: Vogue says Queen Elizabeth II among world’s most glamorous (China Daily, 2007-11-07) <br />
<br />
TT:英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜 <br />
<br />
As it is well known to most Chinese readers that the Queen of UK is Elizabeth II (伊莉莎白二世), there is no need to keep it in the target text. Otherwise, the translation will be too long as a headline. The recommended version, thus, becomes 英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜. <br />
<br />
=====Imitation=====<br />
English news are featured by its vivid language, such as play on word, figures of speech, etc. They add special flavor to the text with the aim to attract readers’ eye. Obviously, to reproduce these aesthetic effect enjoys the privilege among the available methods. Throughout the history of translation theory, the idea of imitation has been manifested clearly by Alexander Fraser Tytler when he wrote: the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original in his famous essay on the Principles of Translation. (Munaday, 2001: 26) The following examples may illustrate the above idea.<br />
<br />
Example 13 <br />
<br />
ST:A tale of two hearts (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 199).<br />
<br />
TT:双心记 <br />
<br />
This headline tells a story that a patient has an artificial heart planted in his body. The headline is a parody of the novel A Tale of Two Cities written by Charles Dickens. The target text (双心记) is also a parody of “双城记”.<br />
<br />
Example14 <br />
<br />
ST: Soccer kicks off with violence (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 200) <br />
<br />
TT:足球开踢，拳打脚踢 <br />
<br />
This is a humorous news headline because of the use of pun. The phrase ‘kick off’ refers to the start of a football match, and it also implies that there is a fight in the football field. The meanings of the pun are successfully transferred by the target text with the recommended translation. The translator does a good job in reproducing the humorous sense.<br />
<br />
=====Restructure=====<br />
The target text should be acceptable and meaningful in a sense that it is coherent with the situation in which it is received. Once translated, the translator revises the order and rearranges all words into a perfect sentence. In doing so, the news is more logical and tuned with the habit of native readers' think and reading. It can be treated as an important technique used in translating news headline from Chinese into English or English to Chinese. <br />
<br />
Example 15 <br />
<br />
ST: A third of Londoners must work from home during Olympics to avoid tube <br />
<br />
TT: 奥运交通压力大 1/3伦敦人须在家上班 (2011-09-27 08:33)<br />
<br />
“A third” occurred in the beginning of the source text, but “奥运会” comes first in the target text. The source text can be translate into “1/3的伦敦人必须在家上班,在奥运会期间避免交通混乱”if there is not any translation strategies used. The translator rearranges the words order to emphasize the special time---Olympics. <br />
<br />
Example16<br />
<br />
ST: Mahfud proposes ‘Special Zoo’ for corrupt officials <br />
<br />
TT: 印尼高官提议建“贪官动物园” (2011-11-30 16:02)<br />
<br />
In order to satirize the corrupt officials, the translator exchanges the order of “special” and “贪官” during the translation process. It can be achieve some good effect to expose the corrupt officials in language sense. <br />
<br />
Example 17<br />
<br />
ST:‘Ready for winter’ campaign launches <br />
<br />
TT: 苏格兰打响“迎冬战役”(2011-10-24 12:06)<br />
<br />
The translator reorders the expression “Ready for winter” and “launches” during the translation process. Besides, the translator adds a subject to this sentence so that it can appeal to the readers’ thinking patterns. In order to make the readers or audiences understand the translated version smoothly and easily, the words or phrases are adjusted to accord with their thinking pattern. Restructuring refers to rearranging the words in logic order to make the translation more potential readers or audiences into the first consideration, making them understand the translated version easily.<br />
<br />
===== Adaptation=====<br />
Adaptation is a translation method, which refers to use an especially free translation, it relates to selecting, adding, deleting, and constructing cautiously instead of simply translating one word to another word. In order to make the translated version more proper to a certain readers or audiences, adaptation always make some essential changes for a special aim So adaptation is an activity which the news translators absorb the most important content from the source text on the basis of the particular requirement of the readers or audiences, then make some suitable adjustments. When the translators are doing some adaptation, though the form and style of the source text are altered in a way, the main idea of the source text must be kept.Though adaptation is not acted as a main translation method by some traditional translation theorists, adaptation is getting more and more popular and arousing more and more <br />
attention these days. You can see the term adaptation frequently showed in some authoritative journals and newspapers, etc. <br />
<br />
Example 18<br />
<br />
ST: Poor People May Be Quicker to Be Kind <br />
<br />
TT:穷人更有同情心 (2011-12-29 08:56)<br />
<br />
“Quicker”means“更快”, but here it is translated into “更有”, “快” is an adjective, “有”is a verb, they have different characters.“Kind”means“友善的”, it is an adjective, but it is translated into“同情心”, which is a noun. If the translator does not use some translation strategies like adaptation, the target text is unreadable. <br />
<br />
Example 19<br />
<br />
ST: Americans say Asia more important than EU: survey <br />
<br />
TT：多数美国人看好亚洲 (2011-09-16 08:43) <br />
<br />
“Important” is an adjective, and a comparative degree used in the source text. But the source text is translated in a totally different way, for it is translated into a verb “看好”. Adaptation should be used here to make sure the translation aim is achieved. <br />
<br />
Example 20<br />
<br />
ST: Lend your voices to ‘talking bins’ <br />
<br />
TT:“能说会唱垃圾桶”将亮相伦敦。<br />
<br />
If“talking bins” is translated into “会说话的垃圾桶”, it is so ordinary. But the translator adopt the adaptation strategy to translated it into“能说会唱垃圾桶”, it becomes very vivid, and it may leave a deep impression on the readers.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
The research conducted in this thesis is a fairly thorough study on the translation strategies of literary-style texts and journalistic-style texts. Through detailed discussion, several translation strategies have been analyzed and summarized. This thesis also studies the texts’ functions and main types of texts. The texts functions are referential function, expressive function and appellative function. The texts can be divided into three types- informative, expressive and vocative texts. On the basis of characteristics of different texts, detailed methods are applied. For literary-style texts, there are domestication and foreignization strategies. For journalistic-style texts, there are strategies like omission, restructure,adaption, imitation and amplification. Journalistic texts and literary texts are quite different, so the translation strategies are different. This thesis has a clear analysis about the translation strategies. However, it still owns a lot of drawbacks, such as the structure is too complicated, lack some of the former people’s study fruit. Hoping this thesis can make some contributions to the translation study and exercise process.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] McNair, Brain. ''The sociology of Journalism'' [M]. A Hodder Arnold Publication,1998.<br />
<br />
[2] Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' [M]. London and New York: Routledge,2001.<br />
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[3] Newmark, P. ''Approaches to Translation'' ［M］. New York: Prentice Hall, 1981: 39.<br />
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[4] Nord, Christiane. ''Translating as A Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained'' [M]. Shanghai : Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:6.<br />
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[5] Reiss, Katharina. ''Translation Criticism the Potentials & Limitations'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004:91.<br />
<br />
[6] Venuti, L. ''The Translator’s Invisibility—A History of Translation''[M]. London & New York: Routledge,1995.<br />
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[7] 黄瑞红.新闻英语的词汇特色和语法特征[J],《陕西广播电视大学学报》,2004 年第 6 卷第 2 期.<br />
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[8] 刘殿爵. 论语[M]. 北京:中华书局,2011.<br />
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[9] 穆诗雄.《跨文化传播——中国古典诗歌英译论》,合肥:中国科学技术大学出版社,2004.<br />
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[10]王应麟.《三字经》,长沙:岳麓书社,1986.<br />
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[11]许明武.新闻英语与翻译 [M],北京:中国对外翻译出版公司,2003.<br />
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[12]邹爽.浅谈英语新闻标题的翻译 [J],《湖北财经高等专科学校学报》,2005 年第 17 卷第 2 期.<br />
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[13]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-09/27/content_13797729.htm <br />
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[14]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-11/30/content_14191000.htm <br />
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[15]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-10/24/content_13962189.htm <br />
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[16]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-12/29/content_14347771.htm <br />
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[17]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-09/16/content_13712704.htm<br />
<br />
==Study on the Ideology of 2020 Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis 李泳珊 Li Yongshan 202020080614==<br />
<br />
<center>李泳珊 Li Yongshan 202020080614</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Ideology and translation studies always attract the attention of scholars in the field of translation studies. Nowadays, the empirical research method combining corpora and critical discourse analysis has provided more intuitive and convincing argument support for researches in this area. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies so as to substantially discuss the controlling role of ideology in the translation of Government Work Report. Due to limited time and energy, the author has not set up his/her own corpora and failed in applying SPSS, CiteSpace, NoteExpress, EmEditor and other statistical software to collect and analyze corpus. However, this research is carried out from the perspective of critical discourse analysis and solid evidence will be provided as much as possible. <br />
<br />
Ideology and translation studies has attracted the attention of scholars in the field of translation studies for a long time. Nowadays, the empirical research method combining corpora and critical discourse analysis has provided more intuitive and convincing argument support for researches in this area. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies so as to substantially discuss the controlling role of ideology in the translation of Government Work Report. Due to limited time and energy, the author has not set up his/her own corpora and failed in applying SPSS, CiteSpace, NoteExpress, EmEditor and other statistical software to collect and analyze corpus. However, this research is carried out from the perspective of critical discourse analysis and solid evidence will be provided as much as possible. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Critical Discourse Analysis; Government Work Report,;Ideology<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
意识形态与翻译研究一直在翻译研究领域受到学者关注。今天，以语料库和批评话语分析结合的实证研究方法更是为此方面的研究提供了更直观、更有考证依据的论据支撑。本文将批评性话语分析与翻译研究结合起来，重点探讨了意识形态对《政府工作报告》翻译的操控作用。但受限于时间和能力，笔者未能建立起自己的语料库，利用科学的统计软件如SPSS、CiteSpace、NoteExpress、EmEditor等进行语料收集和分析。本文将仅从批评话语分析视角进行研究，并尽可能地提供足够的实证。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
批评话语分析；政府工作报告；意识形态<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
===1.1 The Interpretation of Ideology===<br />
The meaning of ideology is multiple. As mentioned by L.Althusser in Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses, ''Ideology equals Illusion/Hint, (L.Althusser, Lenin and Philosophy, London: Monthly Review Press, 1971, p.162) meaning that the essence of the reality could be cracked by following the hint of illusion.'' <br />
<br />
The meaning of ideology is multiple.A lot of people have tried to explain it.As mentioned by L.Althusser in Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses, "Ideology equals Illusion/Hint, (L.Althusser, Lenin and Philosophy, London: Monthly Review Press, 1971, p.162) meaning that the essence of the reality could be cracked by following the hint of illusion."--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
''Kress and Hodge define ideology by depicting the ideological properties of language. They argue that ideology is "a systematic body of thought organized in a particular point of view" (Kress & Hodge, 1979: 6). While they lay stress on the relation between language and ideology, Fowler defines ideology as "something neutral" that refers to the general view and ideas of how people understand the world and their experiences and how they organize their lives. He adds that "these implicit beliefs constitute "common sense" and provide the normative basis for discourse"'' (Fowler, 1996: 10-11).<br />
<br />
"Kress and Hodge define ideology by depicting the ideological properties of language. They argue that ideology is a systematic body of thought organized in a particular point of view" (Kress & Hodge, 1979: 6). While they lay stress on the relation between language and ideology, Fowler defines ideology as "something neutral"which refers to the general view and ideas of how people understand the world and their experiences and how they organize their lives. He adds that "these implicit beliefs constitute 'common sense' and provide the normative basis for discourse" (Fowler, 1996: 10-11).--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
''However, according to Fairclough, ideology is "the result of power relations and power struggles" that are "implicit in the conventions with which people interact linguistically and of which they are often unaware"'' (Fairclough , 1989: 2). <br />
However, according to Fairclough, "ideology is the result of power relations and power struggles " that are "implicit in the conventions with which people interact linguistically and of which they are often unaware" (Fairclough , 1989: 2). --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chenhui<br />
<br />
''Furthermore, VanDijk (1993) broadens the definition of ideology, which includes three main elements, namely society, cognition and discourse. Among that, society refers to power relations and the interests of certain groups, cognition is in relation to beliefs and values in life, and discourse deals with the relationship between language use and ideology, involving concealment and manipulation. It is clear from the above description that critical discourse analysts disagree on the scope of ideology, but they still share a common rationale in the relationship between language and ideology. Ideology uses language as a vehicle to express itself, and language as a return reflects and hides or constructs ideology.''(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) <br />
<br />
"Furthermore, VanDijk (1993) expands the definition of "ideology", which includes three main elements, which are society, cognition and discourse. Among them, society refers to powerful relations and the interests of certain groups, cognition is in relation to beliefs and values in life, and discourse deals with the relationship between language use and ideology, involving concealment and manipulation. It is clear from the above description that critical discourse analysts disagree on the scope of ideology,but they still share a common rationale in the relationship between language and ideology. Ideology uses language as a vehicle to express itself, and language as a return reflects hides or constructs ideology."(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
<br />
''Rhetorically, ideology realizes its natural status via the mutual interference between denotation and connotation. If denotation equals the first meaning, connotation is the second implication. However, the signifier of connotation (the second implication) is denotation. Hence, a complete sentence can embody the ideology.'' (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 15)<br />
<br />
"Rhetorically, ideology achieves its natural status through the mutual interference between denotation and connotation. If denotation equals the first meaning, connotation is the second implication. However, the signifier of connotation (the second implication) is denotation. Hence, a complete sentence can embody the ideology." (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 15)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
''In S/Z, Roland Barthes divided articles into Articles Inspiring People to Write and Articles Attracting People to Read, and then made corresponding assessment. “Yet, the fundamental evaluation on articles could neither be carried out from the perspective of sciences because sciences were not applied for measurement, nor derive from ideology because an article’s ideological value (involving morality, aesthetics, politics and truth) is a kind of value of representation rather than value of production (ideology is “Reflection” rather than Creation).”'' (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 16)<br />
<br />
"In S/Z, Roland Barthes divided articles into Articles Inspiring People to Write and Articles, Attracting People to Read, and then made corresponding assessment. "Yet, the fundamental evaluation on articles could neither be carried out from the perspective of sciences because sciences were not applied for measurement, nor derive from ideology because an article's ideological value (involving morality, aesthetics, politics and truth) is a kind of value of representation rather than value of production (ideology is “Reflection” rather than Creation)." (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 16)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
<br />
''Barthes and Nietzsche held that the subject is a kind of fiction. Through such fiction, ideology can naturally form and hide. Language structure and ideological structure penetrate each other and establish a seamlessly intimate relationship. “The role of a complete sentence is to push the story forward while explanatory codes act in contravention, cut off, interrupt and suspend the sentence and delay the disclosure of truth. Seemingly, explanatory codes curb the natural extension of sentence, but the sentence’s effective composition is enhanced to play a stronger part. Nevertheless, the truth (predicate and object) is the completer and terminator and appears to terminate the narration (sentence).” From the perspective of sentence patterns, diverse and complicated narrations are exactly the embodiment of ideology. Also, continuous innovation of narration modes can be regarded as a breakthrough from the conventionalized ideology (pushing the limit and recognizing the generation).'' (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 17)<br />
<br />
"Barthes and Nietzsche held that the subject is a kind of fiction. Through this kind of fiction, ideology can naturally come and hide. Language structure and ideological structure penetrate each other and establish a seamlessly intimate relationship. 'The role of a complete sentence is to push the story forward while explanatory codes act in contravention, cut off, interrupt and suspend the sentence and delay the disclosure of truth. Seemingly, explanatory codes curb the natural extension of sentence, but the sentence's effective composition is enhanced to play a stronger part. Nevertheless, the truth (predicate and object) is the completer and terminator and appears to terminate the narration (sentence).' From the perspective of sentence patterns, diverse and complicated narrations are exactly the embodiment of ideology. Also, continuous innovation of narration modes can be regarded as a breakthrough from the conventionalized ideology (pushing the limit and recognizing the generation)." (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 17)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
===1.2 Ideology and Translation Studies===<br />
<br />
===1.2.1 Brief Introduction of Development Process of Ideology and Translation Studies===<br />
<br />
''In 1980s and 1990s, as the emergence of Manipulation School and the “Cultural Turn” of translation studies, scholars began to pay attention to the role played by ideology and other factors beyond the text in manipulating translation. From the publishing of The Manipulation of Literature (Hermans,1985), a work making the Manipulation School known to the world (Lefevere et. al. first pointed out that translation as a kind of rewriting would be restricted by the target language ideology and poetics rules), contemporary ideology and translation studies have developed a history of about 40 years. In two decades (from 1985 to 2005), many western and Chinese scholars published their works on this research subject, including Lefevere,1992, Hermans, 1999, Benjamin, 2004, Wang Xiaoyuan (1999), Yang Liu (2001), Sun Yifeng (2003), Zha Jianming (2004) and Fang Kaiduan (2005) etc..'' (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.71)<br />
<br />
"In 1980s and 1990s, as the emergence of Manipulation School and the "Cultural Turn" of translation studies, scholars began to pay attention to the role played by ideology and other factors beyond the text in manipulating translation. From the publishing of The Manipulation of Literature (Hermans,1985), a work making the Manipulation School known to the world (Lefevere et. al. first pointed out that translation as a kind of rewriting would be restricted by the target language ideology and poetics<br />
rules),contemporary ideology and translation studies have developed a history of about 40 years. In two decades (from 1985 to 2005), many western and Chinese scholars published their works on this research subject, including Lefevere,1992, Hermans, 1999, Benjamin, 2004, Wang Xiaoyuan (1999), Yang Liu (2001), Sun Yifeng (2003), Zha Jianming (2004) and Fang Kaiduan (2005) etc..." (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.71)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
<br />
''In the aspect of theoretical innovation, Lefevere, a representative figure of western manipulation school, first put forward the idea of “Translation is a rewriting” (Hermans, 1985) and then elaborated “Two Key Elements” influencing translations: Ideology (External Mechanism) and Poetics (Internal Mechanism). He further held that as the sponsor controlled ideology, professionals manipulated poetics (Lefevere, 1992a:14-15).'' (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)<br />
<br />
"In the aspect of theoretical innovation, Lefevere, a representative figure of western manipulation school, first put forward the idea of 'Translation is a rewriting' (Hermans, 1985) and then elaborated 'Two Key Elements' influencing translations: Ideology (External Mechanism) and Poetics (Internal Mechanism). He further held that as the sponsor controlled ideology, professionals manipulated poetics (Lefevere, 1992a:14-15)." (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
''Venuti, a structuralist, defined translation as the initiative restructuring of foreign text so as to reflect the difference between the target language and the original language in ideology, culture, language and politics. In the meantime, he appealed that translators should adopt the resistant translation strategy and translate by means of foreignization. (Venuti, 1992: 10-14)''(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)<br />
<br />
"Venuti, a structuralist, defined translation as the initiative restructuring of foreign text so as to reflect the difference between the target language and the original language in ideology, culture, language and politics. In the meantime, he appealed that translators should adopt the resistant translation strategy and translate by means of foreignization." (Venuti, 1992: 10-14)''(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
''Bassnett, another supporter of Manipulation School, indicated that restrained by ideology and certain cultural factors, original text sometimes was presented to readers in the form of translated version. Such translation could be pseudo-translation, and “collusion” existed between the author/translator and readers (Lefevere&Bassnett, 1998: 25-40).''(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)<br />
<br />
"Bassnett, another supporter of Manipulation School, indicated that restrained by ideology and certain cultural factors, original text sometimes was presented to readers in the form of translated version. Such translation could be pseudo-translation, and “collusion” existed between the author/translator and readers (Lefevere&Bassnett, 1998: 25-40)."(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
===1.2.2 Government Work Report Translation’s Requirements and Limitations on Ideological Expression===<br />
<br />
Government Work Report is the most representative literary form in the international publicity translation. In essence, it possesses distinctive political characteristics and sets extremely high requirements on translation language proficiency. Government Work Report (hereinafter refer to as GWR), as a typical political text, is mainly applied to summarize works completed last year and emphasize the next year’s tasks, which can intensively reflect the government’s priority of work during a certain period. As the institutional discourse, GWR largely reflects the then ideology and social development track. Since English Version of GWR serves as an important approach for the world to know China’s situation, the translation of GWR plays a vital role. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies to emphatically discuss the role of ideology in manipulating the GWR translation.<br />
<br />
Government Work Report is the most representative literary form in the international publicity translation. In essence, it possesses distinctive political characteristics and sets extremely high requirements on translation language proficiency. Government Work Report (hereinafter refer to as GWR), as a typical political text, is mainly applied to summarize works completed last year and emphasize the next year's tasks, which can intensively reflect the government's priority of work during a certain period. As the institutional discourse, GWR largely reflects the then ideology and social development track. Since English Version of GWR serves as an important approach for the world to know China's situation, the translation of GWR plays a vital role. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies to emphatically discuss the role of ideology in manipulating the GWR translation.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
<br />
=== 1.3 The Definition of Critical Discourse Analysis and Its Current Research and Application===<br />
<br />
''Originating from critical linguistics, Critical Discourse Analysis (hereinafter referred to as CDA) has absorbed many disciplines’ research results including linguistics, sociology and psychology and achieved a development at the end of 1970s, aiming at revealing the hidden ideology by analyzing the linguistic form and exploring the relationship between language/ideology and rights.'' (Fowler R., E. Hodge., E． Kress., Trew T. Language and control［M]., London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979.)<br />
<br />
"Originating from critical linguistics, Critical Discourse Analysis (hereinafter referred to as CDA) has absorbed many disciplines'research results including linguistics, sociology and psychology and achieved a development at the end of 1970s, aiming at revealing the hidden ideology by analyzing the linguistic form and exploring the relationship between language/ideology and rights." (Fowler R., E. Hodge., E． Kress., Trew T. Language and control［M]., London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979.)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
CDA has been widely applied to study the meaning of ideology in mass media discourse such as advertising, news report, political oration, official documents and laws and regulations, which has laid a foundation for this research. Besides, the impact of ideology is a main issue in GWRs translation and involves two different languages and ideologies, proving the availability of CDA in GWR translation. In this paper, the author has compared and analyzed the English Version and Chinese Version of GWR from the perspective of CDA, and further discussed the relationship between ideology and translation.<br />
<br />
CDA has been widely applied to study the meaning of ideology in mass media discourse such as advertising, news report, political oration, official documents and laws and regulations, which has laid a foundation for this research. Besides, the impact of ideology is a main issue in GWRs translation and involves two different languages and ideologies, which proves the availability of CDA in GWR translation. In this paper, the author has compared and at the same time analyzed the English Version and Chinese Version of GWR from the perspective of CDA, and further discussed the relationship between ideology and translation.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
''In recent two decades, more and more foreign scholars have applied the corpora technology to CDA and corresponding research content mainly involves the following four aspects:<br />
the First is News Media Discourse Studies: For example, Baker and McEnery adopted the corpora method to analyze the British media’s role in the refugee discourse construction and further investigated characteristics of British newspapers in reporting Muslim and Islam. Through making a comparison between English newspapers and French newspapers in Canada, Vessey analyzed and elaborated the ideology and national identity in different languages.<br />
<br />
In recent two decades, more and more foreign scholars have applied the corpora technology to CDA and corresponding research content mainly involves the following four aspects: First is News Media Discourse Studies: For example, Baker and McEnery adopted the corpora method to analyze the British media's role in the refugee discourse construction and further investigated characteristics of British newspapers in reporting Muslim and Islam. Through making a comparison between English newspapers and French newspapers in Canada, Vessey analyzed and elaborated the ideology and national identity in different languages.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
<br />
The Second is Political Discourse and War Discourse Studies. For example, Partington surveyed President Clinton’s assistants and wolf pack press corps in the white house during his early ruling. Jeffries & Walker revealed the ideological characteristics during the new labour period through analyzing key words of newspapers during Blair’s period. Similarly, through analyzing CNN, News Week and New York Times, Kim researched American Media’s discourse practice on the North Korea’s image. Bevitori conducted a diachronic study on presidential speeches and analyzed the discourse construction of presidential speeches. Salama researched the phenomena of American media’s context restructuring of Wahabee Religion before and after “9·11”, reflecting the changes in attitude.<br />
<br />
Second is Political Discourse and War Discourse Studies. For example, Partington surveyed President Clinton's assistants and wolf pack press corps in the white house during his early ruling. Jeffries & Walker revealed the ideological characteristics during the new labour period through analyzing key words of newspapers during Blair's period. Similarly, through analyzing CNN, News Week and New York Times, Kim researched American Media's discourse practice on the North Korea's image. Bevitori conducted a diachronic study on presidential speeches and analyzed the discourse construction of presidential speeches. Salama researched the phenomena of American media's context restructuring of Wahabee Religion before and after "9·11", reflecting the changes in attitude.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
The Third is Legal Discourse Studies. Potts and Kjur (2016) established their own corpora and analyzed the legal discourse construction made by the International Criminal Court of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.<br />
<br />
Third is Legal Discourse Studies. Potts and Kjur (2016) established their own corpora and analyzed the legal discourse construction made by the International Criminal Court of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
The Fourth is Climatic Discourse Studies. Nerlichet al. (2012) conducted a contrastive analysis of climatic discourse in The Times and Time and further probed into similarities and differences between British climate reports and American climate reports.'' (Kang Jiaping, Jiang Zhanhao, Study on the Ideology of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Corpora and Critical Discourse Analysis, Journal of Heilongjiang College of Education, March 2020, P123)<br />
<br />
Fourth is Climatic Discourse Studies. Nerlichet al. (2012) conducted a contrastive analysis of climatic discourse in The Times and Time and further probed into similarities and differences between British climate reports and American climate reports. (Kang Jiaping, Jiang Zhanhao, Study on the Ideology of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Corpora and Critical Discourse Analysis, Journal of Heilongjiang College of Education, March 2020, P123)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
<br />
This paper has chosen the English Version and Chinese Version of 2020 Government Work Report issued by Premier Li Keqiang as the research object and made a comparative analysis of GWRs and corresponding translated versions in the aspect of Classification, Mode and Conversion so as to conclude answers for the following questions: 1. Compared with the original text, which are changes in Classification, Mode and Conversion in the translated text? 2. From the perspective of CDA, what has triggered these changes? How can translators explain GWR from the perspective of CDA? As the relationship between ideology and translation is the research priority, answers to the following questions will be self-evident: 1) How does ideology control the translation process of GWRS? 2) Why are some parts of the original text altered and translated in another way? <br />
<br />
This paper has chosen the English Version and Chinese Version of 2020 Government Work Report issued by Premier Li Keqiang as the research object and made a comparative analysis of GWRs and corresponding translated versions in the aspect of Classification, Mode and Conversion so as to conclude answers for the following questions: <br />
1. Compared with the original text, which are changes in Classification, Mode and Conversion in the translated text? <br />
2. From the perspective of CDA, what has triggered these changes? How can translators explain GWR from the perspective of CDA? As the relationship between ideology and translation is the research priority, answers to the following questions will be self-evident: <br />
1) How does ideology control the translation process of GWRS? <br />
2) Why are some parts of the original text altered and translated in another way? --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
<br />
===2.Critical Discourse Analysis===<br />
<br />
=== 2.1 Classification===<br />
<br />
''According to the CDA, for the variations of "categories" in GWRs translation, the addressers intentionally or unintentionally incorporate their ideology into discourse at all levels of linguistic form, including lexical choice. A comparative analysis of the "categories" in GWRs and their translations reveals the variations of "categories", and the author will explain them from an ideological point of view.''(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) <br />
<br />
"According to the CDA, for the variations of 'categories' in GWRs translation, the addressers intentionally or unintentionally incorporate their ideology into discourse at all levels of linguistic form, including lexical choice. A comparative analysis of the 'categories' in GWRs and their translations reveals the variations of 'categories', and the author will explain them from an ideological point of view.'(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Example (1): The same one Chinese character "发展" in the Chinese version of GWR is translated differently in English. Different words denote different ideological meanings. A basic reason for this is that "发展" can be used as both a noun and a verb in Chinese. Therefore, there are different words used in English for a Chinese character with different parts of speech.<br />
<br />
For example, when used as a noun: a). 优化民营经济发展环境——We will foster an enabling environment for the development of the private sector.<br />
b).推动制造业升级和新兴产业发展。——We will encourage the upgrading of manufacturing and the growth of emerging industries.<br />
<br />
When used as a verb: a).发展工业互联网——We will promote the industrial internet<br />
b).发展社会研发机构——develop private R&D institutions<br />
c).发展创业投资——We will support the growth of venture capital investment<br />
<br />
For example, when used as a noun:<br />
a). 优化民营经济发展环境——We will foster an enabling environment for the development of the private sector.<br />
b).推动制造业升级和新兴产业发展。——We will encourage the upgrading of manufacturing and the growth of emerging industries.When used as a verb: 1)发展工业互联网——We will promote the industrial internet.2) 发展社会研发机构——develop private R&D institutions. 3) 发展创业投资——We will support the growth of venture capital investment--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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In the three examples of the verb, promote means "to advance", while support means "to back up and give aid to". In these two examples, both “promote” and “support the growth” signify assisting, weakening the role and status of the government in economic development, in a bid to express the idea that "support the free development of the market, and the government will also take the initiative to provide assistance". In the second example, in "develop private R&D institutions", the word “develop” is used to express a strong subjective initiative, which indicates that the state or the government will play a dominant role in the establishment and development of private R&D institutions, implying the national conditions and ideology of China.'<br />
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In the three examples of the verb, "promote" means "to advance", while "support" means "to back up and give aid to". In these two examples, both "promote" and "support the growth" signify assisting, weakening the role and status of the government in economic development, in a bid to express the idea that "support the free development of the market, and the government will also take the initiative "to provide assistance". In the second example, in "develop private R&D institutions", the word "develop" is used to express a strong subjective initiative, which indicates that the state or the government will play a dominant role in the establishment and development of private R&D institutions, implying the national conditions and ideology of China.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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(2) ''In the GWR translation, different lexical choices reveal different ideological meanings of the source, which is achieved due to the translators' accurate understanding of the source ideology.'' (Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) Such translation makes it easier for foreign readers to understand the context and policies of China.<br />
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Example (2) "In the GWR translation, different lexical choices reveal different ideological meanings of the source, which is achieved due to the translators' accurate understanding of the source ideology."(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) Such translation makes it easier for foreign readers to understand the context and policies of China.<br />
For example, "四风" in the source is translated as "formalities for formalities'sake, bureaucratism, hedonism, and extravagance"."四风" is a policy related to rectifying the discipline of Party members and cadres, but foreign readers do not know if it is translated literally. Therefore, a specific description is required so as to take care of foreign readers in a better way. It is obvious that a general character in Chinese is translated into a specific illustration in English.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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However, the translation technique for "四风" is not an one-off. For other expressions, such as the translation for “放管服”改革——reforms to streamline administration and delegate power, improve regulation, and upgrade services.<br />
The translators changes the choice of words out of consideration for the ideology of the readers, in a bid to take into account the ideological differences between the source readers and the target readers of the paper.<br />
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However, the translation technique for "四风" is not an one-off. For other expressions, such as the translation for “放管服”改革——reforms to streamline administration and delegate power, improve regulation, and upgrade services.The translators changes the choice of words out of consideration for the ideology of the readers, in a bid to take into account the ideological differences between the source readers and the target readers of the paper.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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(3) The English version of 促进祖国和平统一: The word "统一" in 促进统一（2020年） is translated as "reunification" in English. As we all know, the Chinese character "统一" means unification in English, but in this case, the prefix "re-" is added to it. According to Longman's Dictionary of Contemporary English, "re-" means "again" and the word “unification” with a prefix "re-" means "back to the previous country". Thus, the Chinese character "统一" here refers to reunite to the previous country. The purposeful addition of "re-" implies a different ideological meaning. <br />
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Example(3) The English version of "促进祖国和平统一": The word "统一" in "促进统一"（2020年） is translated as "reunification" in English. As we all know, the Chinese character "统一" means unification in English, but in this case, the prefix "re-" is added to it. According to Longman's Dictionary of Contemporary English, "re-" means "again" and the word “unification” with a prefix "re-" means "back to the previous country". Thus, the Chinese character "统一" here refers to reunite to the previous country. The purposeful addition of "re-" implies a different ideological meaning. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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For the Chinese people, there is no doubt that Taiwan has always been a part of China, even though it has been separated from the motherland for historical reasons and has not yet returned. However, since foreign readers may not know the history of China, and some Western countries even consider Taiwan as an "independent country," a word-for-word translation may lead to misunderstandings, so "reunification" is employed to emphasize the fact that Taiwan and the motherland belong to one China. In this case, the variation of lexical choice is explained in different socio-historical contexts of the source and the translated text.<br />
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For the Chinese people, there is no doubt that Taiwan has always been a part of China, even though it has been separated from the motherland for historical reasons and has not yet returned. However, since foreign readers may not know the history of China, and some Western countries even consider Taiwan as an "independent country", a word-for-word translation may lead to misunderstandings, so "reunification" is employed to emphasize the fact that Taiwan and the motherland belong to one China. In this case, the variation of lexical choice is explained in different socio-historical contexts of the source and the translated text.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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(4)“提高城乡居民基础养老金最低标准 ” is translated as We will increase the minimum basic old-age pension for rural and non-working urban residents.”<br />
The Chinese phrase “城乡居民” in this context is translated as "rural and non-working urban residents "<br />
And “将参保不足 1 年的农民工等失业人员都纳入常住地保障” is translated as “We will see that rural migrant workers and others out of work who are in the scheme less than a year are covered in the locality where they are living. ”<br />
“农民工” is translated as “rural migrant workers”. <br />
Through the change in lexical choice, the target reader can acquire the information more easily than through word-by-word translation. This case demonstrates that the variation of lexical choice in translated texts is vital for illustrating their meaning.<br />
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Example(4)"提高城乡居民基础养老金最低标准" is translated as "We will increase the minimum basic old-age pension for rural and non-working urban residents."The Chinese phrase “城乡居民” in this context is translated as "rural and non-working urban residents "And "将参保不足 1 年的农民工等失业人员都纳入常住地保障" is translated as "We will see that rural migrant workers and others out of work who are in the scheme less than a year are covered in the locality where they are living.""农民工" is translated as “rural migrant workers". Through the change in lexical choice, the target reader can acquire the information more easily than through word-by-word translation. This case demonstrates that the variation of lexical choice in translated texts is vital for illustrating their meaning.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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A critical analysis of the variations in lexical choice reveals the ideological impact on lexical choice in GWRS translation, despite the fact that some variations may occur due to Chinese-English language diversity. For example, some different lexical choices disclose different ideological meanings of the source text, some variations indicate ideological considerations for the target readers, while other variations may expose the influence of different historical contexts between China and Western countries.<br />
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Above all are critical analysis of the variations in lexical choice which reveals the ideological impact on lexical choice in GWRS translation, despite the fact that some variations may occur due to Chinese-English language diversity. For example, some different lexical choices disclose different ideological meanings of the source text, some variations indicate ideological considerations for the target readers, while other variations may expose the influence of different historical contexts between China and Western countries.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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=== 2.2 Mode===<br />
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===2.2.1 Modal verbs===<br />
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''Modal verbs and personal pronouns are bound up with an addressor's or writer's attitude and ideological implication in the discourse and will be used to analyze the potential ideological implications in the GWRS and their translation. As a direct grammatical means of representing "mood", modal verbs often denote a specific and important interpersonal meaning in discourse.<br />
In English modal verbs, such as "can, could, may, might, must, will, shall, should, need to, ought to", imply different meanings and degrees of ability, probability, willingness and obligation. Modal verbs also exist in Chinese to convey the attitude of the addressor or writer. <br />
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"Modal verbs and personal pronouns are bound up with an addressor's or writer's attitude and ideological implication in the discourse and will be used to analyze the potential ideological implications in the GWRS and their translation. As a direct grammatical means of representing "mood", modal verbs often denote a specific and important interpersonal meaning in discourse.In English modal verbs, such as "can, could, may, might, must, will, shall, should, need to, ought to", imply different meanings and degrees of ability, probability, willingness and obligation. Modal verbs also exist in Chinese to convey the attitude of the addressor or writer. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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Zhang Guanming counted 25 modal auxiliary verbs in Chinese, including “能，可以，会，可能，得，敢，肯，愿意，情愿，乐意，想，要，应，应该，应当，该，值得，配，别，甭，好，一定，得，必须".<br />
Different modal verbs express different degrees of attitude and implication to the addressor or writer. Therefore, an analysis of the use of modal verbs helps us perceive the meaning of the addressor or writer.''(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)<br />
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Zhang Guanming counted 25 modal auxiliary verbs in Chinese, including "能、可以、会、可能、得、敢、肯、愿意、情愿、乐意、想、要、应、应该、应当、该、值得、配、别、甭、好、一定、得、必须".Different modal verbs express different degrees of attitude and implication to the addressor or writer. Therefore, an analysis of the use of modal verbs helps us perceive the meaning of the addressor or writer.''(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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A).我们要更加紧密地团结在以习近平同志为核心的党中央周围，——We must rally more closely around the Party Central Committee with Comrade Xi Jinping at its core.<br />
B)各国应携手共进。——all countries should work together<br />
C)中国坚定不移走和平发展道路——China will continue to pursue peaceful development,<br />
D)各级政府必须真正过紧日子——Governments at all levels must truly tighten their belt.<br />
E)出台的政策既保持力度又考虑可持续性，根据形势变化还可完善——the policies we adopt should be both forceful and sustainable, and they may be adjusted as called for.<br />
F)我们一定能开创民族复兴的美好未来。——With these efforts, we can surely create a beautiful future for the rejuvenation of the Chinese nation.<br />
G)创新直达实体经济的货币政策工具——As we work to develop new monetary policy instruments that can directly stimulate the real economy.<br />
H)要用改革开放办法，稳就业、保民生、促消费，拉动市场、稳定增长,——We need to pursue reform and opening up as a means to stabilize employment, ensure people's well-being, stimulate consumption, energize the market, and achieve stable growth. <br />
I）走出一条有效应对冲击、实现良性循环的新路子。——We need to blaze a new path that enables us to respond effectively to shocks and sustain a positive growth cycle.<br />
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As can be seen in Example A, the translation uses the modal verb “must” to show the central government's resolute attitude toward adhering to Xi Jinping's leadership, as well as a strong call and implication to the people. It reflects the ideology and collectivist spirit of showing loyalty to the paramount leader of the CPC Central Committee that is unique to China.<br />
The use of “must” in Example D also demonstrates the Chinese government is demanding in implementing initiatives for combating corruption and building a clean government.<br />
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As can be seen in Example A, the translation uses the modal verb "must" to show the central government's resolute attitude toward adhering to Xi Jinping's leadership, as well as a strong call and implication to the people. It reflects the ideology and collectivist spirit of showing loyalty to the paramount leader of the CPC Central Committee that is unique to China.The use of "must" in Example D also demonstrates the Chinese government is demanding in implementing initiatives for combating corruption and building a clean government.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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As can be seen in Example B, the translation uses the modal verb “should”. It shows a tone of hope and appeal, which is a weaker tone of suggestion rather than a demanding tone of command as that in Example A. It expresses the wish of the Chinese government represented by the addressor.<br />
The translation of Example C uses the modal verb “will”, which expresses a firm determination and the action to be taken, indicating the Chinese government's impregnable belief in the peaceful rise of China.<br />
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As can be seen in Example B, the translation uses the modal verb "should". It shows a tone of hope and appeal, which is a weaker tone of suggestion rather than a demanding tone of command as that in Example A. It expresses the wish of the Chinese government represented by the addressor.The translation of Example C uses the modal verb "will", which expresses a firm determination and the action to be taken, indicating the Chinese government's impregnable belief in the peaceful rise of China.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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Example E employs the modal verbs “should” and “may” in a slightly weaker tone, because the context of economic and social development under the epidemic prevention and control is mentioned in the preceding sentence. Alongside that, since specific local policies for epidemic prevention and control and economic recovery are set by local governments individually, the central government uses a suggestive tone here.<br />
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Example E employs the modal verbs "should" and "may" in a slightly weaker tone, because the context of economic and social development under the epidemic prevention and control is mentioned in the preceding sentence. Alongside that, since specific local policies for epidemic prevention and control and economic recovery are set by local governments individually, the central government uses a suggestive tone here.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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Examples F and G both use “can”, indicating a possible situation and a capability of achieving the goal.<br />
Example H uses the modal verb “need to”, conveying an urgent need, a call for urgency.<br />
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Examples F and G both use “can”, indicating a possible situation and a capability of achieving the goal.Example H uses the modal verb “need to”, conveying an urgent need, a call for urgency.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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Modal verb variations can also be manifested in being added to the source text. For example, in I, the source text does not use the modal verb, but the subject “we” and the modal verb “need to” are added to the question, and the modal verb here also expresses the urgent desire to achieve the goal mentioned in the source sentence.<br />
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Modal verb variations can also be manifested in being added to the source text. For example, in "I", the source text does not use the modal verb, but the subject "we" and the modal verb "need to" are added to the question, and the modal verb here also<br />
expresses the urgent desire to achieve the goal mentioned in the source sentence.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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The different use of modal verbs may also imply different attitudes toward these policies. The social contexts in which they are produced and interpreted may provide some clues to the variation and change of modal verbs. Both the author and the translators are close to the Chinese, so that the modal meaning expressed in the Chinese version can be agreed with the readers.<br />
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The different use of modal verbs may also imply different attitudes toward these policies. The social contexts in which they are produced and interpreted may provide some clues to the variation and change of modal verbs. Both the author and the translators are pretty close to the Chinese, so that the modal meaning expressed in the Chinese version can be agreed with the readers.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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However, due to the distance from the foreign readers and their receptivity, the translators chose different expressions with less initiative and more objectivity. But in general, in the choice of modal verbs, the translators mainly chose auxiliary verbs that can convey the attitude of the source text, from which the ideology of their own side can be better interpreted, and taking care of the ideology of foreign readers is a secondary consideration.<br />
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However, due to the distance from the foreign readers and their receptivity, the translators have to chose different expressions with less initiative and more objectivity. But in general, in the choice of modal verbs, the translators mainly chose auxiliary verbs that can convey the attitude of the source text, from which the ideology of their own side can be better interpreted, and taking care of the ideology of foreign readers is a secondary consideration.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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===2.2.2 Personal pronouns===<br />
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''The use of personal pronouns is another way to show modal meaning. According to systematic functional grammar, personal pronouns have interpersonal and attitudinal functions in addition to their cohesion functions. Generally speaking, the choice of personal pronouns is influenced by concerns including power relations, social status, and the degree of intimacy between the participants involved in the communication. Different choices of personal pronouns reveal different attitudes of the speaker or writer toward the target audience or reader. <br />
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"The use of personal pronouns is another way to show modal meaning. According to systematic functional grammar, personal pronouns have interpersonal and attitudinal functions in addition to their cohesion functions. Generally speaking, the choice of personal pronouns is influenced by concerns including power relations, social status, and the degree of intimacy between the participants involved in the communication. Different choices of personal pronouns reveal different attitudes of the speaker or writer toward the target audience or reader."--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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From the perspective of critical discourse analysis, personal pronouns are not used in a random way, but are linked to certain ideological meanings. For example, the use of certain personal pronouns may have a certain political effect and produce a specific relationship between the addressor and the listener. This paper focuses on the analysis of the personal pronouns GWR and their translation from the viewpoint of critical discourse analysis, as a way to perceive the attitude and interpersonal meanings that the addressors or writers are trying to convey.'' (Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)<br />
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"From the perspective of critical discourse analysis, personal pronouns are not used in a random way, but are linked to certain ideological meanings. For example, the use of certain personal pronouns may have a certain political effect and produce a specific relationship between the addressor and the listener. This paper focuses on the analysis of the personal pronouns GWR and their translation from the viewpoint of critical discourse analysis, as a way to perceive the attitude and interpersonal meanings that the addressors or writers are trying to convey." (Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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（1）Translated Personal Pronouns ：<br />
A).我们要坚持对台工作大政方针——We will adhere to the major principles and policies on work related to Taiwan<br />
B).我们要全面准确贯彻“一国两制”、“港人治港”、“澳人治澳”、高度自治的方针——We will fully and faithfully implement the policy of One Country, Two Systems, under which the people of Hong Kong govern Hong Kong and the people of Macao govern Macao, with a high degree of autonomy for both regions. <br />
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（2）Added Personal Pronouns：<br />
A).支持港澳发展经济——We will support Hong Kong and Macao in growing their economies,<br />
B).完善促进两岸交流合作、深化两岸融合发展、保障台湾同胞福祉的制度安排和政策措施——We will improve institutional arrangements, policies, and measures to encourage exchanges and cooperation between the two sides of the Taiwan Strait, further cross-Strait integrated development, and protect the wellbeing of our fellow compatriots in Taiwan. <br />
C).需要说明的是，我们没有提出全年经济增速具体目标——I would like to point out that we have not set a specific target for economic growth this year.<br />
D).加强监管，防止资金“空转”套利。——We should tighten regulation and prevent funds from simply circulating in the financial sector for the sake of arbitrage. <br />
E）为把我国建设成为富强民主文明和谐美丽的社会主义现代化强国、实现中华民族伟大复兴的中国梦不懈奋斗！——Let all of us work together with perseverance to build China into a great modern socialist country that is prosperous, strong, democratic, culturally advanced, harmonious, and beautiful, and realize the Chinese Dream of national rejuvenation.<br />
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According to statistics, there are 308 “we” in the English translation. From the above examples, we can see that most of the personal pronouns “we” are used by the technique of amplification, including other personal pronouns I, all of us, etc. This is because in the Chinese version which is the source, there are mostly impersonal subjects, noun subjects, or imperative sentences that denote calls or orders. However, in English, except for the imperative sentences where the personal pronoun subject can be missing, generally it can not be omitted in other cases. <br />
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According to statistics, there are 308 "we" in the English translation. From the above examples, we can see that most of the personal pronouns "we" are used by the technique of amplification, including other personal pronouns "I", all of "us", etc. This is because in the Chinese version which is the source, there are mostly impersonal subjects, noun subjects, or imperative sentences that denote calls or orders. However, in English, except for the imperative sentences where the personal pronoun subject can be missing, generally it can not be omitted in any other cases. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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''Under most circumstances, “we” is the top priority in translation, because in political reports, the use of “we” is more authoritative than I. This usage is called "loyal we".'' (A Study of the Ideology of the <Government Work Report> under the Visual Threshold of Corpus and Critical Discourse Analysis, Kang Jiaping and Jiang Zhanyao, Journal of Heilongjiang Teachers' Development Institute, March 2020, p. 126) The Reports represents the Central People's Government, which is itself "authoritative". The "we" in the translation also naturally reflects "authority" correspondingly. <br />
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"Under most circumstances, 'we' is the top priority in translation, because in political reports, the use of 'we' is more authoritative than 'I'. This usage is called 'loyal we'."(A Study of the Ideology of the <Government Work Report> under the Visual Threshold of Corpus and Critical Discourse Analysis, Kang Jiaping and Jiang Zhanyao, Journal of Heilongjiang Teachers' Development Institute, March 2020, p. 126) The Reports represents the Central People's Government, which is itself "authoritative". The "we" in the translation also naturally reflects "authority" correspondingly. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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Secondly, most of the actions in the government work report are issued by the Chinese government, and the use of “we” also reflects the collectivist spirit of unified action of the government from top to bottom. Thirdly, although the Chinese government is the originator of most of the actions in the report, sometimes different departments are responsible for the implementation of specific measures; therefore, the use of “we” instead of "Chinese government" or "so-and-so department" is also slightly more colloquial and approachable, which makes it easier for domestic readers to immerse themselves in devoting into the construction of economic and social development. For foreign readers, “we” is also more easily accepted. Therefore, the translators also took into account the social and ideological significance of the language forms used when translating the Reports.<br />
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Secondly, most of the actions in the government work report are issued by the Chinese government, and the use of "we" also reflects the collectivist spirit of unified action of the government from top to bottom. Thirdly, although the Chinese government is the originator of most of the actions in the report, sometimes different departments are responsible for the implementation of specific measures; therefore, the use of "we" instead of "Chinese government" or "so-and-so department" is also slightly more colloquial and approachable, which makes it easier for domestic readers to immerse themselves in devoting into the construction of economic and social development. For foreign readers, "we" is also more easily accepted. Therefore, the translators also took into account the social and ideological significance of the language forms used when translating the Reports.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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=== 2.3 Conversion===<br />
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''Traditionally, "transformation" refers to the change of different grammatical structures, but in CDA, the meaning of "transformation" should be interpreted in terms of discourse, context and purpose"'' (Fowler, 1991: 90-91). This suggests that critical discourse analysis values the change of ideological meaning and the influence of context and purpose on "transformation"". Therefore, "transformation" can be applied to translation studies to investigate the ideological impact of translation by analyzing the changes of "transformation" between the source language and the translated one.<br />
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"Traditionally, 'transformation' refers to the change of different grammatical structures, but in CDA, the meaning of 'transformation' should be interpreted in terms of discourse, context and purpose." (Fowler, 1991: 90-91). This suggests that critical discourse analysis values the change of ideological meaning and the influence of context and purpose on "transformation". Therefore, "transformation" can be applied to translation studies to investigate the ideological impact of translation by analyzing the changes of "transformation" between the source language and the translated one.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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In the analysis of "transformation" in GWR and its translation process, nominalization and inactivation are used to disclose the ideological changes in translation. Nominalization refers to the process of converting verb structures into nouns or noun phrases. According to Fairclough (1995), this lack of mood, time, and participants caused by nominalization is considered ideologically significant because it obscures the reader's causality and responsibility, so that the addressor's or writer's attitude and perception of certain events is not yet clear. <br />
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In the analysis of "transformation" in GWR and its translation process, nominalization and inactivation are used to disclose the ideological changes in translation. Nominalization refers to the process of converting verb structures into nouns or noun phrases. According to Fairclough (1995). This lack of mood, time, and participants caused by nominalization is considered ideologically significant because it obscures the reader's causality and responsibility, so that the addressor's or writer's attitude and perception of certain events is not yet clear. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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Inactivation is the transformation of active voice into passive one in which the relevant participants are removed most of the time, making causality unclear. Thus, by using inactivation, discourse can become more objective and less subjective, leaving a different impression on the reader and thus expressing different ideological meanings. More importantly, inactivation also functions as thematization, in which the object is placed at the beginning of the sentence as a subject. In this way, by emphasizing the object and hiding the agent, the ideological purpose of shifting the reader's focus and hiding the cause-and-effect relationship is achieved.<br />
<br />
Inactivation is the transformation of active voice into passive one in which the relevant participants are removed for most of the time, making causality unclear. Thus, by using inactivation, discourse can become more objective and less subjective, leaving a different impression on the reader and thus expressing different ideological meanings. More importantly, inactivation also has functions as thematization, in which the object is placed at the beginning of the sentence as a subject. In this way, by emphasizing the object and hiding the agent, the ideological purpose of shifting the reader's focus and hiding the cause-and-effect relationship is achieved.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
<br />
For example: <br />
===2.3.1 Nominalization===<br />
<br />
A)传统产业加快升级。——upgrading in traditional industries accelerated.<br />
B)受全球疫情冲击，世界经济严重衰退，——The shock of the covid-19 pandemic has sent the world economy into severe recession, <br />
C)金融等领域风险有所积聚——There are increasing risks in the financial sector and other areas.<br />
D)政府工作存在不足——There is still room for improvement in the work of government. <br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above examples that in the original Chinese text, the subject and predicate in the four examples are very prominent. However, in the translation, nominalization is done, which emphasizes the emphasis of the original text.<br />
For example, in A), "upgrade" is a verb and serves as a predicate; but in the translation, upgrading is nominalized and used as the subject, and its status is more prominent than in the original.<br />
<br />
It can be shown from the above examples that in the original Chinese text, the subject and predicate in the four examples are very prominent. However, in the translation, nominalization is done, which emphasizes the emphasis of the original text.<br />
For example, in A), "upgrade" is a verb and serves as a predicate; but in the translation, upgrading is nominalized and used as the subject, and its status is more prominent than in the original.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
<br />
In B), "Affected by the global epidemic" was originally used as an adverbial of cause, but it was nominalized as the subject in the question, highlighting the direct impact of the epidemic on the world economic recession, and its status is higher than that of the adverbial in the original text. <br />
<br />
In B), "Affected by the global epidemic" was originally used as an adverbial of cause, but it was nominalized as the subject in the question, highlighting the direct impact of the epidemic on the world economic recession, and its status is much higher than that of the adverbial in the original text.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui <br />
<br />
C) The key word in the original text can be "risk accumulation", but because the adverbial term "finance and other fields" is in front, its position is weakened; and the sentence pattern "There be" is used in the translation, and the subject is nominalized as " The whole sentence of "increasing risks" is highlighted.<br />
<br />
C) The key word in the original text can be "risk accumulation", but due to the adverbial term "finance and other fields" is in front, its position is weakened; and the sentence pattern "There be" is used in the translation, and the subject is nominalized as The whole sentence of "increasing risks" is highlighted.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
D) The full expression of the original text should be "In the government work, there are deficiencies." The implied meaning is "I should improve and upgrade the government work." The translation directly points out the implied meaning, straightforward and straightforward, and the subject is treated as " "room for improvement" is also used in the sentence pattern "There be", and the points that the original text wants to emphasize are highlighted.<br />
<br />
D) The full expression of the original text can be "In the government work, there are deficiencies." The implied meaning is "I should improve and upgrade the government work." The translation directly points out the implied meaning, straightforward and straightforward, and the subject is treated as "room for improvement" is also used in the sentence pattern "There be", and the points that the original text wants to emphasize are highlighted.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
<br />
It can be seen that the processing of English translation is more flexible, and it also takes into account the ideology of foreign readers, that is, they prefer concise and direct expression, while the expression of domestic readers is more subtle and prefer verbs.<br />
<br />
It can be seen that the processing of English translation is more flexible, and it also takes into consideration the ideology of foreign readers, that is, they prefer concise and direct expression, while the expression of domestic readers is more subtle and prefer verbs.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
===2.3.2 Active to passive===<br />
<br />
A).城镇新增就业 1352 万人——Around 13.52 million new urban jobs were added.<br />
B).国际收支基本平衡。——A basic equilibrium was maintained in the balance of payments.<br />
C)..重大区域战略深入实施。——progress was made in implementing major development strategies for regions.<br />
D).改革开放迈出重要步伐。——Major headway was made in reform and opening up.<br />
E).供给侧结构性改革继续深化，—— Supply-side structural reform was further advanced.<br />
F).重要领域改革取得新突破。——and breakthroughs in reform were made in key areas.<br />
<br />
In the first part of the report, in the review of the work and achievements in 2019, a large number of passive voice translation methods are used to highlight the achievements since 2019 and weaken the reporter and the government as these achievements The presence of the promoter of In fact, in the Chinese context, the above example is also a kind of "active expression passive" sentence structure, which is more concise and more focused.<br />
<br />
In the first part of the report, in the review of the work and achievements in 2019, a large number of passive voice translation methods are used to highlight the achievements since 2019 and weaken the reporter and the government as these achievements The presence of the promoter. In fact, in the Chinese context, the above example is also a kind of "active expression passive" sentence structure, which is more concise and more focused.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
===3.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis, this article conducts a superficial and tentative analysis of the ideological influence reflected in the Chinese-English translation of the 2020 government work report.The analysis found that,<br />
<br />
From the veiw of Critical Discourse Analysis, this article conducts a superficial and tentative analysis of the ideological influence reflected in the Chinese-English translation of the 2020 government work report.The analysis found that,--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
<br />
(1) in terms of classification, <br />
a) the translation will choose different corresponding words in English depending on the situation for the same word in the original text. And this is because in English I like to use different words to show the richness and diversity of the words of the article, while in Chinese I like to use the same word to rhyme and compare to show momentum.<br />
b) In the process of translation, the translation will be selectively interpreted, that is, supplementary translation of some conventional abbreviations in the original text, so that foreign readers can better understand.<br />
c) Some specific words will be translated asymmetrically in the translation to reflect their own ideology. For example, the "reunification of the motherland" on the Taiwan issue is translated as "reunification" because China wants to convey to the world the principle that "the Taiwan issue is China's internal affair."<br />
<br />
(1) In terms of classification, <br />
a) the translation will choose different corresponding words in English depending on the situation for the same word in the original text. And this is because in English I like to use different words to show the richness and diversity of the words of the article, while in Chinese I like to use the same word to rhyme and compare to show momentum.<br />
b) In the process of translation, the translation will be selectively interpreted, that is, supplementary translation of some conventional abbreviations in the original text, so that foreign readers can better understand.<br />
c) Some specific words will be translated asymmetrically in the translation to reflect their own ideology. For example, the "reunification of the motherland" on the Taiwan issue is translated as "reunification" because China wants to convey to the world the principle that "the Taiwan issue is China's internal affair."--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
(2) In terms of modal<br />
a) The translation will choose different modal verbs according to the content and attitude of the original text. The choice of these different modal verbs expresses the different requirements and soft and hard attitudes of the Chinese government in various fields such as domestic economic development, epidemic prevention and control, motherland reunification, social problem resolution, diplomacy, and international issues, thus reflecting the Chinese government's ideology.<br />
b) There are a large number of additional translations of personal pronouns in the translation, and most of them have chosen the plural of the first personal pronoun "we". It shows the collectivism that the Chinese government is accustomed to, and God is also caring for foreign ideologies.<br />
<br />
(2) In terms of modal<br />
a) The translation will choose different modal verbs according to the content and attitude of the original text. The choice of these different modal verbs expresses the different requirements, soft and hard attitudes of the Chinese government in various fields such as domestic economic development, epidemic prevention and control, motherland reunification, social problem resolution, diplomacy, and international issues, thus reflecting the Chinese government's ideology.<br />
b) There are a large number of additional translations of personal pronouns in the translation, and most of them have chosen the plural of the first personal pronoun "we". It shows the collectivism that the Chinese government is accustomed to, While God is also caring for foreign ideologies.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
(3) In terms of conversion, there are many nominalizations and active-to-passive translations in the translation. These two kinds of translation processes make the key points to be emphasized in the original text more directly highlighted in the translation, and at the same time respect the expression habits of English, which are also caring for foreign ideologies.<br />
<br />
(3) In terms of conversion, there are many nominalizations and active-to-passive translations in the translation. These two kinds of translation processes make the key points be emphasized in the original text more directly highlighted in the translation, and at the same time respect the expression habits of English, which are also caring for foreign ideologies.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
<br />
In general, the translation of the 2020 government work report more reflects China's own ideology. The reason is also obvious. <br />
First, this is China's government work report, which also determines that the translation must reflect China's ideology. <br />
Second, the government work report is made at the two sessions each year. It is mainly a summary of the work of the past year and planning for the work of the next year. It is mainly for the domestic people, so it naturally has a strong Chinese ideology; <br />
but The translation is of course aimed at foreign readers, so translation processing will also show reasonable concern about foreign ideology and expression habits. As a political report, he must have a more obvious political ideology than other styles, which is inevitable in every country. Finally, the richness and variability of vocabulary in the translation of the 2020 government work report is still not as good as the report of the native English-speaking countries, which can be improved.<br />
<br />
In general, the translation of the 2020 government work report reflects China's own ideology. The reasons are also obvious. <br />
First, this is China's government work report, which also determines that the translation must reflect China's ideology. <br />
Second, the government work report is made at the two sessions each year. It is mainly a summary of the work of the past year and planning for the work of the next year. It is mainly for the domestic people, so it naturally has a strong Chinese ideology; <br />
but the translation is of course aimed at foreign readers, so translation processing will also show reasonable concern about foreign ideology and expression habits. As a political report, he must have a more obvious political ideology than other styles, which is inevitable in every country. Finally, the richness and variability of vocabulary in the translation of the 2020 government work report is still not as good as the report of the native English-speaking countries, which can be improved.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
<br />
===4.Limitations===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Insufficient data support===<br />
<br />
In this paper, a comparative analysis is conducted solely on the two versions of the government work report in English and Chinese in 2020. Firstly, the evidence is insufficient in the part of applied critical discourse analysis, which should be done to the best of its ability.<br />
<br />
In this paper, a comparative analysis is conducted on the two versions of the government work report in English and Chinese in 2020.<br />
Firstly, the evidence is insufficient in the part of applied critical discourse analysis, which should be done to the best of its ability.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
I envisaged to use data analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace to conduct a translation comparative analysis for the Chinese and English versions of the government work report for a total of 8 years since President Xi Jinping took office in 2013, and an analysis of ideological diachrony. By analyzing the change of top 10 high-frequency keywords in the reports over the past 8 years, we can get a glimpse of the socio-economic development of China and the shift of the government's focus during this period. By analyzing the changes in the choice and frequency of personal pronouns and modal verbs used in the reports over the years, and analyzing the frequency of nominalization and inactivation in the translation of sentences, we can see the changes in the ideology of the translators and the Chinese government they represent when translating the reports.<br />
<br />
The author envisage to use data analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace to conduct a translation comparative analysis for the Chinese and English versions of the government work report for a total of 8 years since President Xi Jinping took office in 2013, and an analysis of ideological diachrony. By analyzing the change of top 10 high-frequency keywords in the reports over the past 8 years, we can take a glimpse of the socio-economic development of China and the shift of the government's focus during this period. By analyzing the changes in the choice and frequency of personal pronouns and modal verbs used in the reports over the years, and by analyzing the frequency of nominalization and inactivation in the translation of sentences, we can see the changes in the ideology of the translators and the Chinese government they represent when translating the reports.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
However, since it is a need to use corpus construction software, such as EmEditor, to collect the corpus and classify and denoise the data before doing data analysis, it is not a task that can be accomplished at a stroke; only then is the analysis done with analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace. However, the author has a strong interest in this research method, and will make further efforts.<br />
<br />
However, since it is necessery to use corpus construction software, such as EmEditor, and to collect the corpus and classify and denoise the data before doing data analysis, it is not a task that can be accomplished at a stroke; only then it is the analysis done with analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace. However, the author has a strong interest in this research method, and will make further efforts.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
===4.2 Insufficient theoretical support===<br />
<br />
The author does not have a deep understanding of critical discourse analysis, nor does he/she expound the Introduction clearly. Her understanding of the specific analysis methods is also shallow, so she cannot do a comprehensive and accurate analysis in the Analysis section of the paper.<br />
Second, the author’s understanding of ideology is fuzzy. Therefore, in the latter part of the analysis, when it is necessary to return to the study of ideology at the end, she is unable to conduct the analysis in a precise way.<br />
<br />
The author does not have a profound understanding on critical discourse analysis, nor does she expound the Introduction clearly. Her knowledge of the specific analysis methods is also shallow, so she cannot do a comprehensive and accurate analysis in the Analysis section of the paper.<br />
Second, the author's understanding of ideology is fuzzy. Therefore, in the latter part of the analysis, when it is necessary to return to the study of ideology at the end, she is unable to conduct the analysis in a precise way.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
<br />
===5.Bibliography===<br />
<br />
[1].《意识形态与翻译研究》，王东风，中山大学出版社，2006年12月<br />
[2].《修辞学与意识形态》，屠有祥，人民出版社，2013年3月<br />
[3].《外宣翻译导论》，张健，国防工业出版社，2013年12月<br />
[4].《语料库和批评话语分析视阈下的<政府工作报告>意识形态研究》,康佳萍、姜占好，黑龙江教师发展学院学报，2020年3月<br />
[5].《基于CiteSpace的外交翻译暨外交话语研究的可视化分析(2000—2018)》，牛文惠、刘磊，黑河学院学报，2020年第二期<br />
[6].《国内翻译意识形态研究（1998-2018）——基于NoteExpress的可视化分析》，李志阳，2020年第二期<br />
[7].《翻译对意识形态的创构———以宇文所安《文心雕龙》英译本为例》，胡作友、张丁慧，外语学刊，2020年第四期<br />
[8].《批评性话语分析视角下的政府工作报告英译研究》，高媛，2016年<br />
[9].《从翻译操纵理论看2015年政府工作报告英译》，王海云、李慧慧，现代交际，2016年第五期<br />
[10].《论译者对政治文本的操控——以2009年政府工作报告为例》，徐静怡、陈思，2009年12月<br />
--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 18:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation Based on the Principle of “Faithfulness, Comprehensibility and Elegance” 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou 202020080628==<br />
<br />
<center>聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou 202020080628</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
English and Chinese belongs to two different language families. While the former belongs to Indo-European language family, the latter belongs to Sino-Tibetan language family. Therefore, they differ in many aspects--type, psychology, aesthetic, culture, rhetorical devices, syntactic pattern, lexical meaning, discourse organization, semantic structure, pragmatic structure, textual structure, textual cohesive devices and so on. Taking the English translations of Chinese essays by Zhang Peiji for example, this paper, based on the principle of “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and further provides appropriate translation strategies for Chinese-English translation. Readers can improve their translating ability after the acquisition of the knowledge of the differences between the two languages and corresponding translation strategies.<br />
<br />
<br />
English and Chinese belongs to two different language families. While the former belongs to Indo-European language family, the latter belongs to Sino-Tibetan language family. Therefore, they differ in many aspects--type, psychology, aesthetic, culture, rhetorical devices, syntactic pattern, lexical meaning, discourse organization, semantic structure, pragmatic structure, textual structure, textual cohesive devices and so on. Taking the English translations of Chinese essays by Zhang Peiji (as an) example, this paper, based on the principle of “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and further provides appropriate translation strategies for Chinese-English translation. Readers can improve their translating ability after the acquisition of the knowledge of the differences between (delete the) two languages and corresponding translation strategies.--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 14:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
English;Chinese; “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”<br />
<br />
<br />
English; Chinese; “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 13:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
英语属于印欧语系（Indo-European），汉语属于汉藏语系（Sino-Tibetan）。英汉两种语言在语言类型、语言心理、语言审美、文化、修辞、句法结构、词汇语义、话语组织、语义、语用、语篇结构以及语篇衔接手段等方面都存在差异。本文以张培基英译散文为例，以“信、达、雅”原则为指导，从英汉语言心理、英汉语言审美、英汉语篇结构、英汉语篇衔接手段等方面对比英语同汉语的不同之处，并提供相应的翻译策略。读者通过了解英汉两种语言在各方面的差异，并学习相应翻译策略，能够提高汉英翻译水平。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
英语;汉语;“信、达、雅”<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
Essay is a flexible and casual literary form, free from the restrictions of rhythm of poetry, plot of novel, and act and scene of drama. This paper focuses on English and Chinese essays. Based on Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, the paper makes an analysis of the original and translated texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts, and studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and therefore sums up a variety of translation strategies and methods for Chinese-English translation. <br />
<br />
===2. “Faithfulness, Comprehensibility and Elegance”===<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, comprehensibility and Elegance” is a translation principle put forward by YanFu in his work Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays. He stated that “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (xin), comprehensibility (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not comprehensible is no translation at all. Comprehensibility is therefore of prime importance” (Chan 2004: 69). “In addition to faithfulness and comprehensibility, we should strive for elegance in translation.” (Chan 2004: 70) <br />
<br />
This paper, based on the translation principle “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, compares English and Chinese through the analysis of some texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts. <br />
<br />
===3. Comparison of English and Chinese===<br />
<br />
A major difference between English and Chinese is that English is a hypotactic language while Chinese an paratactic language, which from the perspective of philosophy means that English people’s way of thinking is of rationality while Chinese people’s way of thinking is of wuxing (Pan 1997: 361). Rationality in English language means that English sentences emphasize overt morphology and the integrity of form, so we call English a morphological language. Instead, Chinese sentences do not have many hypotactic markers. Therefore, the meaning of Chinese sentences can only be understood through wuxing, in other words, intuition, thus we often call Chinese people’s way of thinking intuitive thinking (Liu 1992: 326). <br />
<br />
The inflected forms in modern English include mainly conjugation and declension, and affixation. However, there is no inflected forms in Chinese language and the grammatical meaning of Chinese sentences is expressed through the use of words, the arrangement of word order, the implied meaning etc.(连淑能, 1993: 4) Therefore, when translating Chinese into English, we are supposed to exhibit the implicit grammatical relation in the original texts through hypotactic markers. For example:<br />
<br />
Example 1:其中有些人是因为年事已高，力不从心。这不是艺术的死亡，而是艺术的离体，他自己无可自责，社会也会尊重他在艺术上曾经作出的贡献(Zhang 2007: 289)。<br />
Some writers lay down their pens because they are too old to be equal to the task. We call it retirement from art rather than death of art. They have nothing to blame themselves for. And society at large will pay tribute to the contributions they have already made to art (Zhang 2007: 291).<br />
<br />
The expression “有些人” in the first sentence is plural, which includes both men and women. While the word “他” in the second sentence is single, only including men. Actually, “有些人” and “他” in the original text refer to the same concept but they differ in number and gender. When translating the sentences into English, we have to take the harmony of form into consideration. <br />
<br />
Due to the difference between English and Chinese, Mr. Zhang translated “他” into “They” to be in agreement with the subject “they” in the first sentence, which characterizes hypotaxis in English language. Though it seems that the translation is not faithful to the original text, the former actually expresses what the latter means. That is to say, the translation is comprehensible.<br />
<br />
There is no inflected forms in Chinese while English is rich in inflected form. Therefore, when translating Chinese into English, translators are supposed to keep the consistency of gender, number, case, tense, style, voice, mood, comparatives, and person, etc. within the context, and to use the inflected forms in English to express the conceptual and grammatical meaning in the original Chinese text.<br />
<br />
Chinese pays attention to subjective narration, while English gives consideration to both subjective and objective description and tends to object description. Taking root in the psychology of Chinese people, the long standing thematic thinking always subtly reflects Chinese people’s consciousness of “everything exists for me”. <br />
<br />
Take the Chinese sentence “作业不写了” as an example. It is a human being rather than “作业” who performs the action “写”. That is to say, the subject should be a human being, which reflects Chinese people’s subject consciousness--Chinese speakers always discuss a topic which they make comments on. Since the agent in sentences with a “topic-comment” structure is self-explanatory, it is always deleted in a Chinese sentence. This well characterizes Chinese sentences as loose.<br />
<br />
English language, with the subject given priority in a sentence, has a strict “subject-predicate” structure which is highly grammaticalized. However, the topic rather than the subject is given priority in a Chinese sentence. It may not be in agreement with the subject since it is more grammaticalized than the latter. Therefore, the “topic-comment” structures in Chinese sentences should be translated into “subject-predicate” structures in English when we do Chinese-English translation.<br />
<br />
Example 2:页数不多的往往立刻通读，篇幅大的，只把正文任择一二章节略加翻阅，就插在书架上。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br />
If it happens to be a thin one, I often finish reading it at one sitting. Otherwise, I often browse through one or two chapters or sections before putting it onto my bookshelf. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br />
<br />
There are two “topic-comment” structures with the form of a clause in this example. In a “topic-comment” structure with the form of a clause, the meaning of the topic and that of the comment show a logical relation between two clauses. A “topic-comment” structure with the form of a clause has a close relationship with conditional clauses, and in this example conditional clauses serve as topics. The logical relation in this example is: If..., ... Otherwise..., ... The conditional relation should be translated in the corresponding English sentence with the addition of conjunctions between the original clauses in the process of Chinese-English translation.<br />
<br />
Example 3:线装书大概用笔加圈，洋装书竟用红铅笔划粗粗的线。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br />
If it is a threadbound Chinese book, I use a writing brush to draw small circles as markings. Otherwise, I use a red pencil to draw heavy underlines. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br />
<br />
There are also two “topic-comment” structures with the form of a clause in this example. Therefore, Mr. Zhang added the two conjunctions “if” and “Otherwise” to show the logical relation in the original sentences.<br />
<br />
Impersonal subjects always appear in English sentences, while personal subjects are used more frequently in Chinese sentences. <br />
<br />
Example 4:买到了几册新书，一册一册地加盖藏书印记，我最感到快悦的是这时候。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br />
Whenever I have some new acquisitions, it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to stamp my ex-libris on them one by one. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br />
<br />
It is obvious that the subject of the original sentence “我最感到快悦的是这时候” is “I” (我), which refers to the author. However, Mr. Zhang translates this sentence as “it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to...”, where the personal subject “I” is transformed into the impersonal subject “it”, according with English natural expressions.<br />
<br />
Example 5:这种死亡他自己感到很痛苦，别人看了心里也很难受。(Zhang 2007: 289)<br />
This kind of death causes not only much pain to the writer himself, but much sadness to other people as well. (Zhang 2007: 291)<br />
<br />
In this example, “这种死亡” serves as the topic and “他自己感到很痛苦” as well as “别人看了心里也很难受” serve as comments. Since the two comments take sentence as its form, they have separately “他” and “别人” as the subject. However, in the English translation by Mr. Zhang, “This kind of death” (这种死亡) serves as the subject with “他” and “别人” transforming into objects, which shows the tendency to use impersonal subjects in English sentences. The translation is not only faithful to the source text but also comprehensible.<br />
<br />
Chinese people’s subject consciousness brings about the tendency to use personal subjects. Instead, English people’s object consciousness explains why impersonal subjects are used frequently in English sentences. Therefore, when doing Chinese-English translation, we can transform personal subject into impersonal subject. That is to say, the subject can be abstract nouns, inanimate things or the impersonal subject “it” (Lian 2010: 106, 113). <br />
<br />
Chinese sentences always have a “topic-comment” structure, while English sentences always have a “subject-predicate” structure. Therefore, in a Chinese-English translation, the semantic relation between the topic and the comment in the original sentence should be presented through the use of conjunctions to accord with the syntactic features of English sentences.<br />
<br />
English sentences have a basic “subject-predicate” structure. English words are under the restraint of morphological changes; words and clauses are connected through cohesive devices; pronouns accord with the words mentioned above (Lian 2010: 90-91) .<br />
<br />
As a result, English sentences are closely related with each other. However, since Chinese sentences are free from the restraint of morphological changes, it is not necessary that the object should accord with the subject in a Chinese sentence. Chinese sentences are loose because of the diversity, complexity and flexibility of the “subject-object” structure. <br />
<br />
Example 6:借来的书，在我好像过不来瘾似的，必要是自己买的才满足。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br />
It seems that books bought can better satisfy my bibliomania than books borrowed. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br />
<br />
The original sentence is composed of three parts without conjunctions between them. But there exists the semantic relation in it--the comparative relation between “books borrowed” (借来的书) and “books bought” (自己买的). Therefore, the comparative relation should be expressed in English translation. Mr. Zhang employed the expression “rather than” to combine the original three parts into one sentence, expressing the beauty of the translation’s syntactic structure.<br />
<br />
Example 7:据说，任何爱吃糖果的人，只要叫他到糖果铺中去做事，见了糖果就会生厌。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br />
It is said that those who have a great liking for candies will sicken to see them when later they happen to work in a candy store. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br />
<br />
Mr. Zhang combined the four parts in the original texts into one sentence through the use of “who” and “when” to make the English sentences compact and coherent, expressing the beauty of the translation’s syntactic structure.<br />
<br />
Example 8:像针尖上一滴水滴在大海里，我的日子滴在时间的流里，没有声音，也没有影子。(Zhang 2007: 55)<br />
Like a drop of water falling off a needle point into the ocean, my days are quietly dripping into the stream of time without leaving a trace. (Zhang 2007: 57)<br />
<br />
There are four loose sentences in the original text. However, the two short sentences “没有声音” and “也没有影子” have been transformed separately into the adverb “quietly” and the propositional phrase “without leaving a trace” as an complement of the action “日子滴在时间的流里”, making the English sentences compact. Simile is employed in the translation as well as in the sour text, which shows faithfulness in the translation.<br />
<br />
Example 9:作家不能当隐士，适当的社会活动和文学活动可以开阔眼界，活跃思想，对创作也是有帮助的。(Zhang 2007: 290)<br />
Being no hermit, a writer stands to benefit in writing as long as he gets properly involved with social and literary activities to widen his field of vision and stimulate his thinking. (Zhang 2007: 292)<br />
<br />
The original text consists of four short sentences without overt conjunctions connecting them, and it includes two subjects “作家” and “适当的社会活动和文学活动”. Mr. Zhang combined the four parts into one sentence, “作家” (a writer) being the subject, “不能当隐士” being transformed into the absolute nominative construction “Being no hermit”. The addition of “as long as” in the translation indicates the semantic relationship between the second part and the fourth part. Besides, Mr. Zhang added “to” to transform “可以开阔眼界，活跃思想” into the adverbial of purpose. All the transformations made express what the author wanted to express.<br />
<br />
Sentences like loose sentences, compressed sentences, run-on sentences, short sentences, etc., are frequently used in Chinese. On the contrary, the grammatical relationship is expressed through the arrangement of word order and flexible use of various cohesive devices in English sentences, thus English sentences are compact with a clear logical relationship between the matrix clauses and the subordinate clauses.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in Chinese-English translation, the translator is supposed to add conjunctions appropriately to connect the short sentences in the original text, indicating the implicit grammatical and logical relationship. Consequently, readers are able to understand the sentence meaning without even relying on the context. <br />
<br />
Category words are used to express the category which behaviour, phenomenon, property and other factors belong to; they are often used to refer to other things in Chinese. For example, “情绪” in the Chinese sentence “那你的恹恹欲睡的情绪又将如何” and “情味” in “常不禁会感觉到难以名言的寂寞的情味” are category words. <br />
<br />
There are many category words in Chinese language for a better form of expression. Instead, category words are much less frequently used in English language. The sameness in number, property and other aspects are avoided in English language.<br />
<br />
Example 10:我一向没有对于任何问题作高深研究的野心，因之所买的书范围较广，宗教、艺术、文学、社会、哲学、历史、生物，各方面差不多都有一点。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br />
Since I have never entertained ambition for making a profound study of any subject, the books I have acquired cover almost everything--religion, art, literature, sociology, philosophy, history, biology, etc. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br />
<br />
“范围” in the original text belongs to category words. Thus, it is unnecessary to translate it in English. Therefore, the English translation should avoid the use of the corresponding English expression “the range of”. Compare the following sentence with Mr. Zhang’s translation:<br />
... the range of the books I have acquired covers almost everything...<br />
It is obvious that Mr. Zhang’s translation is more natural. Moreover, Mr. Zhang omitted the translation of “各方面差不多都有一点” because what the expression means has already been contained in “the books I have acquired cover almost everything”.<br />
<br />
Category words in Chinese always express objects’ categories. Though they are indispensable to the correctness of grammar and the expression of mood, they are of little practical significance in that they just repeat the semantic meaning of a precedent expression. When doing Chinese-English translation, we are supposed to omit the translation of category words and rather translate the content nouns before them.<br />
<br />
English language has the tendency to the use of nouns and thus is stative. On the contrary, verbs rather than nouns are more frequently used in Chinese sentences, thus Chinese language is dynamic (Lian 2010: 133). In Chinese-English translation, the dynamic Chinese sentences should be translated into stative English sentences.<br />
<br />
In Example 7, “爱吃糖果” is translated as “have a great liking for candies” rather than “like candies”. The verb “爱” is transformed into the noun “liking” and posited t after the verb “have” as its object（连淑能，P148）, which characterizes English language as stative.<br />
<br />
Example 11:自我入书店以后，对于书的贪念也已消除了不少......(Zhang 2007: 27)<br />
Likewise, ever since I began to work in a bookstore, my obsession with books has been very much on the decline. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br />
<br />
Prepositions are always posited before nouns or noun phrases. Therefore, English language uses prepositions as frequently as nouns. The priority to the use of both nouns and prepositions makes it more clear that English is a stative language (Lian 2010:145). The verb “消除” has been translated as the prepositional phrase “on the decline”, thus the dynamic Chinese sentence has been transformed into stative English sentence.<br />
<br />
Example 12:我自己就是浪费了很多时间的一个人。(Zhang 2007: 216)<br />
Personally, I am also a fritterer. (Zhang 2007: 218)<br />
<br />
Mr. Zhang translated the expression “浪费很多时间的一个人” as the noun phrase “a fritterer”, the noun derived from the verb “fritter”, rather than “a person who fritter a lot of time” in which the verb “fritter” is directly used, making the translation stative.<br />
<br />
Example 13:青翠的叶上已经凝集着细密的露珠，这显然是昨夜被人遗弃了的。(Zhang 2007: 119)<br />
The numerous fine dewdrops on the fresh green leaves clearly showed that the roses had just been cast away the previous night. (Zhang 2007: 120)<br />
<br />
The expression “凝集着” in the original sentence can be either translated or omitted. Generally, it is unnecessary to translate verbs of this kind. Mr. Zhang translated the first half part as “The numerous fine dewdrops on the fresh green leaves”, directly omitting the translation of “凝集着” since the prepositional phrase “on the fresh green leaves” has already expressed its meaning.<br />
<br />
Chinese language is dynamic while English language is stative. In Chinese-English translation, firstly, abstract nouns can be used to express actions, behaviors, changes, states and so on in the original texts; secondly, verbs in the original texts can be replaced by common nouns which express behaviors or actions (Lian 2010: 138); thirdly, translators can use prepositions more frequently; fourthly, grammaticalized verbs or weak verbs can be used instead. (Lian 2010: 147)<br />
<br />
Generally, English language avoids repetition; it repeats words or phrases only for emphasis or for the use of rhetorical devices. English natives are not interested in the repetition in syllables, words or sentence patterns (Lian 2010: 221). Translators are supposed to replace the repeated expression with a new one or omit the repeated part or explain it in a different way as long as the meaning of the original text is explicitly expressed. In this way, the translation will be concise and powerful, and it will fit more into English people’s language habits (Lian 2010: 223). <br />
<br />
Example 14:我虽爱买书，而对于书却不甚爱惜。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br />
Much as I love books, I take little care of them. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br />
<br />
The second part of the original sentence repeats the noun “书”. However, Mr. Zhang replaced “books” (书) with the pronoun “them”, avoiding the repetition of “books” and connecting the two sentences.<br />
<br />
Example 15:书籍到了我的手里，我的习惯是先看序文，次看目录。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br />
As soon as a new book comes to hand, I always read the preface first and then the table of contents. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br />
<br />
The repeated verb “read” (看) has been omitted in the translation. <br />
<br />
In the fourth example, Mr. Zhang added the subject “I” (“我” in Chinese) before the sentence “买到了几册新书”, making the English sentence complete in terms of syntactic structure.<br />
<br />
English language often uses pronouns to avoid repetition, while Chinese language uses less pronouns and tends to repeat words and phrases. In terms of coordination, repeated words or phrases are usually deleted in English but repeated in Chinese. Moreover, English sentences avoids repetition of words through the use of synonyms or hyponyms. Instead, Chinese sentences repeat the words to express the beauty of the balance in form. Therefore, when doing Chinese-English translation, translators are supposed to avoid the repetition in meaning through replacing, deleting, or transforming the repeated parts. <br />
<br />
Nevertheless, it is necessary to add the subject when translating Chinese sentences into English because the subject is often omitted in Chinese while English is a language with a strict “subject-predicate” structure.<br />
<br />
Because English is a hypotactic language but Chinese an paratactic language, cohesion in English and Chinese differs a lot. In terms of textual cohesion, there are mainly two differences between English and Chinese: one is that the cohesion in English is implicit while that in Chinese is explicit; the other is that the two languages differ in sentence division. There is no clear division between a phrase and a clause (which was previously called a simple sentence), between a clause and a sentence (which was previously called a compound sentence), between a sentence and sentence groups. (Shao 2013: 390)Because of this difference, the addition of conjunctions is needed in Chinese-English translation. <br />
<br />
Example 16:经我看过的书，统体干净的很少。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br />
Consequently, the books I have read are rarely clean. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br />
<br />
Mr. Zhang added the adverb “consequently” in the translation. According to the context, the reason for “经我看过的书，统体干净的很少” is explained in the preceding sentence “线装书大概用笔加圈，洋装书竟用红铅笔划粗粗的线”. Therefore, when translating these sentences, we should express the causality between the two sentences. The adverb “consequently” well expresses it. <br />
<br />
Example 17:我不禁头涔涔而泪潸潸了。(Zhang 2007: 55)<br />
At the thought of this, sweat oozes from my forehead and tears trickle down my cheeks. (Zhang 2007: 57)<br />
<br />
Mr. Zhang added the expression “At the thought of this” in the translation, which links the preceding sentence and the following sentence and expresses the implicit meaning in the original text.<br />
<br />
Example 18:我觉察他去的匆匆了，伸出手遮挽时，他又从遮挽着的手边过去......(Zhang 2007: 55)<br />
Aware of its fleeting presence, I reach out for it only to find it brushing past my outstretched hands. (Zhang 2007: 57)<br />
<br />
The translation adds the expression “only to find” to connect the second and third parts of the original text, making overt the implicit meaning that the author was regretful for his failing to grasp his time.<br />
<br />
Example 19:怕只怕三杯下肚，豪情大发，嘟嘟嘟，来个瓶底朝天......(Zhang 2007: 290)<br />
The trouble is after three cups of alcohol he will get wild and unrestrained and end in gulping down a whole bottle. (Zhang 2007: 289)<br />
<br />
Mr. Zhang combined the four parts in the original text into one English sentence, showing the logical relationship between these parts. In the original text, “来个瓶底朝天” is the result of “三杯下肚，豪情大发”; the semantic relationship between the two parts has been shown through the addition of the verb phrase “end in” in the English translation. Actually, Mr. Zhang deleted the translation of “嘟嘟嘟”, which seems not to be faithful to the original text. However, it is unnecessary to translate this expression since it means nothing here.<br />
<br />
Words, phrases and clauses are often connected through various cohesive devices in English, which shows that English emphasizes overt cohesion. On the contrary, much less or even no cohesive devices are used in Chinese, which shows the tendency toward implicit cohesion in Chinese. In Chinese-English translation, it is necessary to add relational words, conjunctions, prepositions and so on, or change the form of words in the translation to express the grammatical and logical relationship in the original text.<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This paper first makes a brief introduction of essay, and then provides the definition of Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”. Then, it compares the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc., and makes an analysis of the original and translated texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts to see whether the translation is faithful, comprehensive and elegant. Finally, the paper provides some strategies for Chinese-English Translation. However, the paper only compares English and Chinese from limited aspects and it only covers several texts. There remains some problems to be solved. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Leo Tak-hung Chan. (2004). Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory. John Benjamin Publishing Company. <br />
Lian Shuneng连淑能. (2010). 英汉对比研究 [Contrastive Studies of English and Chinese]. Beijing: 高等教育出版社.<br />
Liu Miqing刘宓庆. (1992). 汉英对比与翻译 Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press江西教育出版社.<br />
Pan Wenguo 潘文国. (1997/2002) 汉英语对比纲要 [An Outline of Chinese-English Contrastive Study]，Beijing: Beijing Language and Culture University Press北京语言文化大学出版社.<br />
Shao Zhihong 邵志洪. (2013). 新编英汉研究对比 [Contrastive Studies Between English and Chinese]. Shanghai: East China University of Science and TechnologyPress 华东理工大学出版社.<br />
Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2007) 英译中国现代散文选（一） [Selected Modern Chinese Essays 1]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou</div>Hu Huifanghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=116963History of Translation Studies 92020-12-21T01:07:07Z<p>Hu Huifang: /* Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
<br />
='''Comparative Studies'''=<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan <br />
易欢 202020080663<br />
(1.between should be Between; 2. Please add your student number and major here)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 06:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC) ==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language is under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, makes a comparative study of English and Chinese language forms and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
(Sentence 3 the both should be both; Sentence 4 beween should be between --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 07:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC))<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显然，语言，文化与思维之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. That is to say, language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921:12)<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, language is part of culture. And language, as a system of signs with its own cultural substances and values, may be viewed as a symbol of culture identity. For example, a person who moves from his or her speech community to another one, will easily exposes himself or herself as a newcomer in communication since the language he uses may betray his culture identity. Also each culture has its own peculiarities and throws influence on the language system. Hence, language is the carrier and the representation of culture, and as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture.<br />
<br />
（Sentence 2 culture identity should be cultural identity, same mistake in Sentence 3; exposes should be expose )--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 13:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properties and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. <br />
<br />
(Sentence 2 is known as should be are known as)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 13:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br />
<br />
===2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese===<br />
<br />
The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. And in different countries, there exist different thinking patterns, then it is going to illustrate four types of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present the reflection upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. <br />
<br />
===2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking===<br />
When Premier Zhou and Secretary of State Kissinger drafted “Shanghai Sino-US Communique,” Kissinger once said that the thought of Oriental is to seek the common ground among differences, while the thought of the Occidental are accustomed to seeking differences among the similarities. To some extent, it shows that Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical. Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. <br />
<br />
(Sentence 2 are accustomed to should be is accustomed to )--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Actually, the formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. Then such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking.<br />
<br />
(Sentence 1 the nature——nature ; Sentence 5 towards——of; Sentence 6 develop——to develop)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analyzing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively.<br />
<br />
(Sentence 1 “subject-object~”——the “subject-object~”; explain ——explains; Sentence 3 logic——logical)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relatiobnships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking.<br />
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(Sentence 4 wrong spelling of relationships)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis, is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. <br />
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Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br />
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(1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br />
我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br />
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(2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br />
Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face.(Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br />
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From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one prominent feature is the abundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. <br />
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Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br />
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(Sentence 2 some of——some)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking===<br />
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It is well known that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking. As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the opposite side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” (Tao Te Ching, chapter 25) Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” (Mencius, chapter 1)<br />
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(Sentence 1stress——stresses; Sentence 2 sever——severe; think——think of; Sentence 3 Chinese Confucian school——the Chinese Confucian school)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1971: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. <br />
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(Sentence 3 is——are)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature. On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conquer nature. <br />
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(Sentence 3 has looked upon at—— have looked upon )--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism advocates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974: 25 ) <br />
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(Sentence 2 truth ——the truth)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br />
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( Sentence 1 used of ——used)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br />
一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br />
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A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br />
我突然想出了一个好主意。<br />
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The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br />
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Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. <br />
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(Sentence 1 show——to show; its——their; Sentence 2 are ——is)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br />
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(Sentence 2 pattern——patterns)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(1) 公交车来了。<br />
There comes the bus.<br />
(2) 我家有五口人。<br />
There are 5 people in my family.<br />
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Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by) “为人所骗” (be cheated by). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br />
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(Sentence 3 use ——uses)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking===<br />
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Thinking in images and thinking in notions are two forms of thought activities. Generally speaking, Chinese people are well good at thinking in images, while English–speaking people are well developed in thinking in notions. These two tendencies are rooted in their own cultures (包惠南, 2001: 26). Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration. As we all know Chinese language is vivid and full of images and the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. <br />
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Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgment and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences.<br />
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Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. <br />
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Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M.Young once pointed，“an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end, detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness.” <br />
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(Sentence 2 tend to——tends to)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” (1946: 15-16) The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br />
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Sentence 2 devices——device; Sentence 3 medonstrated ——demonstrated; Sentence 4 examplify ——exemplify)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br />
欲饮琵琶马上催。<br />
— 王翰《凉州词》<br />
With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br />
Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br />
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无边落木萧萧下，<br />
不尽长江滚滚来。<br />
—杜甫《登高》<br />
The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br />
The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br />
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In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br />
“To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br />
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“为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br />
是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br />
There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to govern the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br />
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Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br />
智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br />
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In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br />
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===2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking===<br />
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According to Robert Kaplan who analyzes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br />
Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. <br />
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And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging.<br />
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While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotelian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. <br />
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(Sentence 4 view——views ; superior ——as superior)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br />
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(Sentence 1 has——have)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br />
足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br />
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There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br />
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(2) 各位来宾，<br />
女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br />
Distinguished Guests,<br />
Ladies and Gentlemen,<br />
Dear Friends,<br />
在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br />
With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br />
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Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br />
诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br />
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Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delight in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br />
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Although the distinction is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of Composition above Middle School, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines.<br />
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===3. Conclusion===<br />
The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other.<br />
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( Sentence 1 comparison on——comparison of)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 15:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, and we can not lump together under one head. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people view about the world around them, and then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br />
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( Sentence 3 about——of; two language——two languages ; Sentence 4 view about——view)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 15:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Bibliography===<br />
*Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br />
*Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br />
*Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br />
*Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br />
*Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br />
*Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br />
* Lian Shuneng. 连淑能. (2002) 论中西思维方式【J】 On Chinese and Western modes of thinking. 大连：外语与外语教学. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching.<br />
*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1992) 《汉英对比翻译》【M】 Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese, 南昌: 江西教育出版社, Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press.<br />
*Qian Mu. 钱穆，(1977)《世界局势与中国文化》The World Situation and Chinese Culture【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD.<br />
*Shen Xiaolong. 申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters《学术月刊》 1994 第14期, 74. Academic Monthly, 1994 (14), 74.<br />
*Wang Dehua. 汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36. Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br />
*Zhang Li. 张 黎. (1994) 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】on Chinese Parataxis Grammar. 长春：吉林教育出版社Changchun: Jilin Education Press.<br />
*Zhang Sijie & Zhang Boran. 张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, 中国翻译 Chinese Translation. 2001 (7), 13.<br />
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==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 英语笔译 MTI 202070080578==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed the theory of functional equivalence, which has boosted the development of translation theory. The theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory. Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between the original language and the target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the key in translation, exerting great guiding significance for translators.<br />
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With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, Chinese translators also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators.<br />
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Nida's functional equivalence and Yan Fu's faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences between these two theories will be presented, aiming to have a better understanding in translation.<br />
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===Key words=== <br />
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Functional Equivalence; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; similarities and differences; ''Vanity Fair''<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。<br />
<br />
随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
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功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, it can be seen that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His "Functional equivalence" theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reaching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43).<br />
<br />
Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).<br />
<br />
Despite the different social environment and the imperfect translation standards, it is undeniable that these two are still the most authoritative and vital ones in Chinese and Western translation circles(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).<br />
<br />
====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible, and a translation theorist as well. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). <br />
<br />
In 1964, Nida put forward "formal equivalence" and "dynamic equivalence" in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of "dynamic equivalence" until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression "dynamic equivalence" was superseded by "functional equivalence" in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined "in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). "<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). It is impossible to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translators can cause differences in translation.<br />
<br />
In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level(Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as "The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it". The maximal level is stated as "The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did"(Nida 1993,118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. According to Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida,1995,224).<br />
<br />
====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as the essential criteria for understanding translation since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898)（Zhang Xi 2014,1):<br />
<br />
"Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so(Yan Fu 2009, 202)."<br />
<br />
Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of Chinese translation theory in the 20th century (Zhang Xi 2014, 2). <br />
<br />
According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. "Faithfulness" emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. "Expressiveness" stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. "Elegance" reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics''(Yan Fu 2009, 202):<br />
<br />
"Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also added, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for translators. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek for elegance.(Yan Fu 2009, 202)"<br />
<br />
Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticism comes from the denial of standard "elegance". According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese characters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons. Firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br />
<br />
Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. "Elegance" now has been modified by later generations, which refers to that the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard "elegance", the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br />
<br />
===Theoretial Foundation===<br />
<br />
====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====<br />
<br />
=====Modern Linguistic===== <br />
<br />
Based on modern linguistic, functional equivalence has a close relationship with linguistics(Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately(Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process（Zhu Haotong 2006,64).<br />
<br />
According to Nida, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure(Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).<br />
<br />
=====Information Theory=====<br />
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Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information(Nida 1964, 68).<br />
<br />
Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and the target language belong to different language systems and cultures(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original text for the target readers to better understand the translation(Nida 1984, 34).<br />
<br />
=====Social Semiotics=====<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning(Zhu Haotong 2006,65).<br />
<br />
In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods(Nida 1993, 67). <br />
<br />
====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br />
<br />
=====Chinese Aesthetics=====<br />
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Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty（Guo dingju 2013, 18). It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today.<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. "Expressiveness" means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. "Elegance" refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. "Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" reveal the essence of translation(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters(Guo Dingju 2013, 18).<br />
<br />
Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance(Guo Dingju 2013, 19).<br />
<br />
=====Literary Criticism=====<br />
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Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods(Guo Dingju 2013, 19). <br />
<br />
On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is the body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered around the craftmanship of literary works(Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation(Li Jianzhong 2009, 46). <br />
<br />
There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of criticism functions. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism, Lu Xun being one of the representative. The second type aims at the independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism serving politics, which works well in the period of political struggels(Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).<br />
<br />
===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===<br />
<br />
====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====<br />
<br />
=====About ''Vanity Fair''=====<br />
<br />
''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the stories of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition(Guo Dingju 2013, 21).<br />
<br />
At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again(Thackeray 2006，178).<br />
<br />
This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater living in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time(Guo Dingju 2013, 21). <br />
<br />
The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at that time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveals the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, he doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness(Thackeray 2006, 89).<br />
<br />
=====Yang Bi’s Translation of ''Vanity Fair''=====<br />
<br />
There are many Chinese translation versions of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of ''Vanity Fair'' was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957, then re-published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br />
<br />
Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of the original text appropriately to Chinese readers, hence having a great response from Chinese readers.(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br />
<br />
====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br />
<br />
Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator when translating. When comparing the English and Chinese version of ''Vanity Fair'', it’s easy to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.<br />
<br />
=====At Lexical Level=====<br />
<br />
In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943，89), those are <br />
<br />
(1) entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on; <br />
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(2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on; <br />
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(3) states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on; <br />
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(4) characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on; <br />
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(5) processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on; <br />
<br />
(6) links, such as when, during, below and so on; <br />
<br />
(7) deictics, such as that, there, this and so on(Nida 1986, 20). <br />
<br />
From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language(Zhang Yanmei 2019,16). <br />
<br />
Exampe 1: <br />
<br />
ST1: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br />
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TT1: ……痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br />
<br />
In ST1, "Love" and "Beauty" are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words "Love" and "Beauty" to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates "Love" and "Beauty" into "痴情男子" and "美貌佳人" to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate "Love" and "Beauty" into "爱情" and "美人", the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.<br />
<br />
=====At Syntactical Level=====<br />
<br />
A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences (Nida, 1946). Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence(Nida 1946, 55). He think there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:<br />
<br />
(1) subject + predicate + adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;<br />
<br />
(2) subject + predicate + object, such as, John hit Bill;<br />
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(3) subject + predicate + object + object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;<br />
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(4) subject + be + subject complement, such as, John is in the restaurant;<br />
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(5) subject + be + attributive, such as, John is kind;<br />
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(6) subject + be + indefinite article + noun, such as, John is a man;<br />
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(7) subject + be + pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend. <br />
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The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences(Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text(Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation. <br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
<br />
ST2: His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury. <br />
(Thackeray 2016,75) <br />
<br />
TT2: 他第一次结婚的时候,奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐,是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br />
(Yang Bi 2013,76) <br />
<br />
In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences(Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.<br />
<br />
(1) 他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。<br />
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His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.<br />
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(2) 他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。<br />
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He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.<br />
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(3) 她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。<br />
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She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade. <br />
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(4) 她死后，他许下承诺。<br />
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He was hanged after her death.<br />
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(5) 他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。<br />
<br />
He would never take another of her sort.<br />
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(6) 妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。<br />
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At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.<br />
<br />
(7) 他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br />
<br />
He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.<br />
<br />
In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.<br />
<br />
====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br />
<br />
The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.<br />
<br />
=====At Lexical level=====<br />
<br />
Literary words demands that the translator has good command of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence(Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
<br />
ST3: …for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty?(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br />
<br />
TT3: ……痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br />
<br />
In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words "an image of Love" and "Beauty" to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br />
<br />
If the words "prettier", "an image of Love" and "Beauty" are translated into "更好看" "爱情形象" "美人" respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, "痴情男子" "美貌佳人" and "赏心悦目" reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br />
<br />
=====At Sentence Level===== <br />
<br />
English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis(Guo Dingju 2013,40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br />
<br />
Example 4: <br />
<br />
ST4: The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley. (Thackeray 2006, 74)<br />
<br />
TT4: 布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)<br />
<br />
In the original sentence, the abstract words "behavior" and "reception" are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into "克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……" without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.<br />
<br />
====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====<br />
<br />
===== Similarities =====<br />
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Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.<br />
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One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent(Nida&Taber 1969, 22).<br />
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Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers. The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty(Guo Dingju 2013, 43). Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.<br />
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The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating(Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information(Nida 1969,30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent.<br />
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Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely(Guo Dingju 2013,44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.<br />
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By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.<br />
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===== Differences =====<br />
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Although there are many similarities between these two thoeries, there are still some differences because of the different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence, which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of "elegance". What’s more, the concrete explanation of "faithfulness" is not clear. Whether the target text should only be "faithful" to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as the translation standard. <br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class(Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of the differences between these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translation. <br />
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From the comparison above, it is known that there are some similarities and differences between these two thoeries. It is believed that these two translation theories both play an important role in translation, guiding us to better understand different cultures. <br />
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====Implements====<br />
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Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). <br />
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What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper(Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.<br />
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====Limitations====<br />
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Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions. <br />
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===References===<br />
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Nida, Eugene Albert. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Leiden: Brill Archive.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene Albert. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Leiden: Brill Archive.<br />
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Nida, Eugene Albert, and Charles Russell Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill Archive.<br />
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Nida, Eugene Albert, and Jan de Waard. (1986) ''From One Language to Another''. Nashville: Thomas Nelson.<br />
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Nida, Eugene Albert. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press. <br />
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Thackeray, William. (2006）. ''Vanity Fair''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
<br />
Chen Minjie 陈岷婕. (2013). 浅谈严复的信达雅与奈达的功能对等[On Yan Fu’s "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Nida’s "Functional Equivalence"].''科教文汇'' The Science Education Article Collects(236)94-97.<br />
<br />
Guo Dingju 郭丁菊. (2013). 功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness Expressiveand Elegance]. Harbin: Northeast Forestry University 东北农业大学.<br />
<br />
Li Jianzhong 李建中. (2009). 中国文学批评史[History of Chinese Literary Criticism]. Beijing: Peking University Press 北京大学出版社.<br />
<br />
Tan Kai 谭凯. (2011). 严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Yan Fu’s "Faithfulness Expressive and Elegance" and Nida’s "Functional Equivalence"].''青年作家'' Young Writers(1)43-44.<br />
<br />
Wang Yunxi 王运熙, Gu Yisheng 顾易生. (2007). 中国文学批评史新编[A New History of Chinese Literary Criticism]. Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.<br />
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Yan Fu 严复 (2009). 《天演论》译例言[Preface to ''Evolution and Ethics'']. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
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Yang Bi 杨必. (2013)《名利场》[''Vanity Fair'']. Beijing: People’s Literature Publishing House 人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yanmei 张妍梅. (2019). 功能对等理论视角下《名利场》的翻译[A Study on The Translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory]. Lanzhou: Lanzhou Jiaotong University 兰州交通大学.<br />
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Zhang Xi 张曦. (2014). 翻译硕士备考指南[A Guide Book to MTI]. Shanghai: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press 上海交通大学出版社.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yimei 张忆美. (2020). 对比“信达雅”与功能对等[A Comparison on "Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance" and Functional Equivalence]. ''中国学术期刊电子出版社'' China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House(2)180-181.<br />
<br />
Zhu Haotong 朱浩彤. (2006). 奈达“功能对等”理论基础的再思考[Some Thoughts on the Theoretical Bases of Nida’s "Functional Equivalence"]. ''福建医科大学学报'' Journal of Fujiann Medical University(3)62-65.<br />
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--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br />
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===Abstract=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br />
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In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the Government Work Report has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of 2019 Government Work Report .--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key words=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br />
<br />
===摘要===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br />
<br />
近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。 --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The ''Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the ''National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference'', including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）<br />
<br />
The Government Work Report of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the National People's Congress on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China.Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials. In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. （Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）<br />
<br />
As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, the essay interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials. In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. （Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）<br />
<br />
In order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. The essay includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===1.Introduction of Government Work Report===<br />
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''Government Work Report'' has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, ''Government Work Report'' manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br />
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Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, using the data to tell the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.(Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.1 Lexical Level ====<br />
For ''Government Work Report'' has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br />
<br />
For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====1.1.1Formal and Concise Words=====<br />
The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)<br />
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The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many kinds of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics=====<br />
As the ''Government Work Reports'' involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br />
<br />
As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment. (Zhou Ji,2006) (什么是elcological environment？上文应先简单介绍一下)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====1.1.3 New and Popular Words=====<br />
The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br />
<br />
The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2 Syntactic Level====<br />
In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. (Zhou Ji,2006)<br />
Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br />
It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br />
<br />
In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.) It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. (Zhou Ji,2006) （GWR斜体）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br />
In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br />
<br />
In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently adopted. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis=====<br />
Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br />
Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) <br />
“获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) <br />
“增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) <br />
<br />
Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br />
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Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )<br />
“在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)<br />
“放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)<br />
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Repetition and parataxis structure have reinforced that makes the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure. （GWR斜体）<br />
Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two. Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )“在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)“放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology===<br />
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Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br />
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Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.（Hu Gengshen，2001）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology====<br />
Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br />
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Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks translation as a brandnew perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed. （Hu Gengshen，2001）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology====<br />
=====2.2.1 Adaption and Selection=====<br />
The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection". The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br />
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The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.(Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation=====<br />
Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br />
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Adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid literal translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation. (Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br />
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Cultural dimension is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so as various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation. (Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br />
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Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.(Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br />
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By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text. In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be. (Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective===<br />
From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br />
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From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.1 Linguistic Dimension====<br />
The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports(Tong Xiaohua,2006) <br />
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The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports(Tong Xiaohua,2006) --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)<br />
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Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear(Tong Xiaohua,2006)<br />
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Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear(Tong Xiaohua,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)<br />
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Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 Cultural Dimension====<br />
The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br />
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The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural forms. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.) It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br />
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Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.) It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public into the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.) In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br />
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Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.) In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.) “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers(Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br />
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Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.) “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers(Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.3 Communicative Dimension====<br />
From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.(Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br />
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From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br />
For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
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Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”) For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication. --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br />
“保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br />
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Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.) “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)<br />
In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br />
In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be.(Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br />
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Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1] In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br />
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During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns. (Yang Guang,2017)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention<br />
<br />
Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report (斜体)in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention. (Yang Guang,2017)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br />
However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br />
<br />
First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay. In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation. (Yang Guang,2017) GWR都要斜体--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report. (Yang Guang,2017)基于不足分析上再增加一个与其他著名理论对比的part会更好<br />
--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br />
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Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br />
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Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br />
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Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 1999. <br />
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Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003 (4): 283-291.<br />
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Joan Pinkham. The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br />
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程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br />
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方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br />
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胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br />
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黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br />
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胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br />
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刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br />
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童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br />
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王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br />
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王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br />
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周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br />
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周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br />
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杨广,吉鑫悦. 生态视角下的政府工作报告英译解读[J]. 海外英语,2017(13):108-109<br />
中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br />
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==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603 MTI英语笔译==<br />
<center>欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspectives. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. <br />
<br />
Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。<br />
<br />
另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br />
Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed out the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. The two approaches were put forward to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors(Munday, 2008: 42).<br />
<br />
By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure. And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory(Munday, 2008: 42).<br />
<br />
His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies(Munday, 2008: 42).<br />
<br />
====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br />
Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' that the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated from his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). <br />
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In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory( Catford, 1965: 20). <br />
<br />
If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies(Catford, 1965: 20).<br />
<br />
===2.Similarities and Differences===<br />
<br />
====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br />
As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistics was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible, the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible(Nida, 1984: 14).<br />
<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br />
Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar. Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes(Munday, 2008: 40). <br />
<br />
Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language, and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language. To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels(Catford, 1965: 20). <br />
<br />
Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process, and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement(Li Yang, 2014: 94).<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br />
The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40).<br />
<br />
He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br />
<br />
The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence''. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable(Li Zhidan, 2014:93). <br />
<br />
Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language, which means, in a sense, he wanted to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above(Catford, 1965: 73).<br />
<br />
====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br />
Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42).<br />
<br />
Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factor to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). <br />
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By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence. And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods(Catford, 1965: 22). <br />
<br />
=====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br />
Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented in front of its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. (Munday, 2008: 42)<br />
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Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response. These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. (Munday, 2008: 42)<br />
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Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to be achieved between source language and target language.From this we can know that it's difficult to achieve the same meaning at a linguistic level between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49).<br />
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In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings. To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made(Catford, 1965: 49). <br />
<br />
=====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br />
Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence. These two types actually reflect a shallow to deep tendency of Nida's researches on structure of language. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). <br />
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In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory ,Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation. Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts(Munday, 2008: 43). <br />
<br />
<br />
In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20).<br />
<br />
Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language(Catford, 1965: 20).<br />
<br />
=====2.2.3.Different Research Approaches=====<br />
To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). <br />
<br />
In another aspect, Nida held a view that "meaning is universal" and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). <br />
<br />
By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was defined by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). <br />
<br />
Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language. In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework(Catford, 1965: 27).<br />
<br />
===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br />
<br />
=====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br />
In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspectives. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics. Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages(Tan, 2017: 132). <br />
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Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect. This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators.Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence have offered a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language(Nida, 1964: 159). <br />
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=====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br />
Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully. Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory(Munday, 2008: 38). <br />
<br />
What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors. However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators(Munday, 2008: 42). <br />
<br />
====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br />
Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved, he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature wayCaford, 1965:22).<br />
<br />
====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br />
Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials. Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators(Wang, 2008: 166). <br />
<br />
Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinguish linguistic untranslatability from cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language. This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete(Catford, 1965: 101).<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion===<br />
In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence. The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possessing many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27).<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br />
<br />
Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br />
<br />
Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br />
<br />
Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br />
<br />
Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br />
<br />
Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br />
<br />
Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science & Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 14:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605==<br />
<center>石海瑶 Shi Haiyao </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people's overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'' was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, ''On the Construction of the System of Translatology''. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br />
<br />
<br />
===摘要=== <br />
一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br />
<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
====Tan Zaixi’s Translation System====<br />
<br />
In his book ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'', Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, it should also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.<br />
<br />
Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, the study of human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.<br />
<br />
In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable, knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:21-22)<br />
<br />
From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br />
<br />
[[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]<br />
<br />
====Yi Jing’s Translation System====<br />
According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology.<br />
<br />
The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology.<br />
<br />
The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself.<br />
<br />
The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.<br />
<br />
The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. <br />
<br />
The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:197-287).<br />
<br />
From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br />
[[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]<br />
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The translations of the above terms are as following:<br />
<br />
[[File:Shu Yu.jpg]]<br />
<br />
===Similarities and Differences===<br />
<br />
====The Similarities between the Two systems====<br />
<br />
=====Both deem translatology as an independent discipline=====<br />
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In 1951, Dong Qiusi published ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper ''Translatology must be established'', which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br />
<br />
From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br />
<br />
It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br />
<br />
=====Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation=====<br />
<br />
In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br />
<br />
For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br />
<br />
Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br />
<br />
=====Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation=====<br />
The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that "all translations must be faithful to the original text". Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as "faithful to the original content ", " faithful to the original form ", " faithful to the original effect ", " faithful to the original function" and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that "comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style" is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br />
Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br />
<br />
<br />
====The differences between the Two Translation Systems====<br />
<br />
=====Different structures of translation system=====<br />
<br />
From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br />
<br />
Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br />
<br />
=====Different views on the study of translation history=====<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br />
<br />
we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br />
<br />
=====Different views on translation process=====<br />
<br />
For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br />
<br />
From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive. <br />
<br />
<br />
===My Thoughts on the Two Systems===<br />
<br />
====My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System====<br />
<br />
=====Contributions of Tan’s Translation System=====<br />
<br />
First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word "translatology" is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br />
<br />
Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that "translatology is an independent discipline" is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br />
<br />
Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of "harmony in diversity", which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br />
<br />
=====Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System=====<br />
<br />
As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br />
<br />
Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br />
<br />
Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br />
<br />
=====My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System=====<br />
<br />
The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br />
<br />
<br />
====My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System====<br />
<br />
=====Contributions of Yi’s Translation System=====<br />
First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br />
In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br />
<br />
=====Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System=====<br />
<br />
However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br />
<br />
Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br />
<br />
Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br />
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=====My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System=====<br />
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Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies. <br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Refrences===<br />
<br />
[1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外国语大学出版社,2000.<br />
<br />
[2]方梦之.当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起 [J]. 外语教学理论与实践，2016（3）：55-63.<br />
<br />
[3]蓝红军. "从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017)." 中国翻译 39.1 (2018): 7-16.<br />
<br />
[4]谭载喜.必须建立翻译学[J].中国翻译,1987b3: 2-7.<br />
<br />
[5]谭载喜.翻译学[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005.<br />
<br />
[6]许钧,穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京:译林出版社,2009.<br />
<br />
[7]易经.试论翻译学体系的构建[D].湖南师范大学,2009.<br />
<br />
==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang 202020080604==<br />
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胡慧芳 Hu Huifang 20202008060<br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of "dynamic equivalence", and Bassnett proposed the concept of "cultural equivalence". Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of "equivalence" or "equivalence" in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br />
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==='''Key Words'''=== <br />
Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br />
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===摘要===<br />
尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br />
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===关键词=== <br />
尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek "Bible New Testament" studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society.<br />
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In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is "Toward a Science of Translation" "The Theory and Practice of translation" etc. <br />
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His "dynamic equivalence" translation theory and "reader's response theory" translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br />
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Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, author and Courier at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation at the University of Warwick, United Kingdom. As a leading figure in the school of Translation culture, her concept of "cultural equivalence" and related translation theories have exerted a great influence on contemporary translation studies.<br />
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There are some similarities between Nida's "dynamic equivalence" and Barnett's "cultural equivalence", but there are also many differences. This paper starts with the "similarities and differences" and "differences" between the two, in order to have a more comprehensive understanding of these two theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to deepen the understanding and understanding of their translation purposes. Theory.<br />
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===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br />
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Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. <br />
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But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br />
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Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values embodied in translated texts.<br />
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===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br />
Nida's "dynamic equivalence" translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. <br />
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Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research.<br />
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Since the 1950s, Nida has been the executive secretary of the Translation Department of the American Bible Society for many years. Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the practical work of "Bible" translation. In translation projects organized by the American Bible Society since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the theory of dynamic equivalence (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br />
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===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br />
As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to "Translation, History and Culure" (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that "Culural lurn" (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br />
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According to Bassnett, the linguistics of translation faces the following problems: Machine translation method is an effective method, but it is not applicable to literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett points out that translation research methods should undergo a cultural turn (cultural turn). In her opinion, translators must carry out their translation activities in a specific cultural context, and they should not carry out their translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's view of cultural translation is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, but is rooted in and influenced by linguistic culture.<br />
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===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br />
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===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence" Theory===<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence" is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term "equivalence".<br />
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3.1.1The nature of "equivalence"<br />
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"Equivalence" is an important proposition in translation, because it involves the essence of translation, translation norms, quality and translation evaluation and other key issues. "Mathematical equivalence" is the relationship between absolute symmetry and equivalence in mathematics. But in many English dictionaries it has an obscure meaning that something is similar or essentially the same. So, does the concept of equivalence in translation theory derive from its absolute mathematical reference, or is it borrowed from its vague meaning as a word in general linguistics? According to many translation theorists, including Nida, the latter may mean more than the former.<br />
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" Equivalence" is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that "loyalty" or "faith", for the concept of "loyalty"or "faith" refers to attitudes of translators while "faithful translation" indicates the quality of translation. But "equivalence" involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The "equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. <br />
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The historic contribution of Nida's" dynamic equivalence" is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s "dynamic equivalence". however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br />
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3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of " dynamic equivalence”<br />
It has been mentioned above that Nida s "dynamic equivalence" theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br />
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3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br />
What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence" is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( Yang Liu， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved." (Jin Ti,,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence " focuses mainly onthe relative side of " equivalence " rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br />
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As a relative conception, the goal " dynamic equivalence" pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching.<br />
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To sum up, those who oppose the theory believe that the equivalence in translation is impossible forever, because the translation involves at least two different languages, cultures, etc., it is rather difficult for the locals, while in favor of people think equivalence can be realized on the senses and style not only, and in effect can be achieved. Nida made it very clear that "reactions can never be the same," but that "a high degree of reaction equivalence" is required and possible; As for "functional equivalence", Nida explained that no translation can be completely equivalent.<br />
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Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, "equivalence" doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida holds that the expression“functional equivalence" is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something " identical" or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness" to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. <br />
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He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity". Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term " equivalence" in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from "identity", and " equivalence"is a relative conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (Jin Ti,, 1998:44).<br />
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3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of "Functional Equivalence" in China-A Comment on the Translation of "A Madman's Diary"<br />
Here are three examples to analyze the theory of "functional equivalence" used in the "Madman's Diary" in the translation of "The Call" by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br />
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（1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br />
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“what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers.." (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br />
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If this example is literally translated "赵贵翁", it may be translated as "Zhao Guiweng" in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated "Mr. Zhao" in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The "old-year running book" here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means "old account book". If literally translated as "aged jour-nal", obviously there is no "old ledgers" which is more suitable for the time.<br />
Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br />
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(2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br />
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“Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home." (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br />
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The personal pronoun "陈老五", if translated literally, might be translated as "Chen Laowu". Yang Xianyi translated "Old Chen", which is more authentic. "Chen Lao Wu" may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as "Lao Chen" here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br />
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(3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br />
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“a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop..." ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br />
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"狼子村" is a place noun. If it is simply translated as "The Wolf Child Village", it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of "Cub" in "Wolf Cub Village" of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. "Cub" means "cub" and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br />
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===3.2 Bassnett's "cultural equivalence" theory===<br />
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According to Bassnett, the goal of translation should be to shift from the generally accepted text to culture, which is called cultural transformation. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. The mind, language and body coordinate with each other to maintain vitality and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must consider the patient's overall physical condition. The same is true of translation practice. In the process of translating a target language into a target language, parliamentarians must consider double standards of linguistic accuracy and cultural adaptation, and must not deprive cultures and treat translations separately.<br />
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3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br />
Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br />
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Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br />
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3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br />
As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content.<br />
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But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. <br />
Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br />
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3.2.3 "Intelligibility" of the translation<br />
Before the rise of the school of cultural Translation, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into simple and clear language so that readers could better understand the translation and thus remove the metaphor and association in the literature. In this way, the translation will indeed become easier to understand, but the literariness of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth of the work cannot achieve the effect of the original text. Therefore, According to Bassnett, the "intelligibility" of translation should not be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but on striving to maintain the original style.<br />
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3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br />
For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br />
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3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br />
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原文:<br />
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“六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br />
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辜译: "Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,"<br />
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韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons." (Waley, 1999:37 )<br />
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"六亲" in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as "the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it "sixnear ons" , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of "six relatives". (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br />
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原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br />
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辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses." ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br />
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韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e.."(Waley,1999:131 )<br />
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Both translators translated "驷马" into "four horses", which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br />
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===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br />
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Nida's translation thought is mainly influenced by the structuralist translator, which is reflected in his use of syntactic structure analysis method, the semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core ideas similar to Chomsky's deep structure syntactic analysis. From the perspective of language translation (interlingual translation), this paper makes a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation programs. However, the essence of Nida's translation thoughts lies not only in his view of language structuralism, but also in "translation is science", "translation and communication", "translation must emphasize readers' reflection" and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contributions to translation theory, especially to Bible translation theory, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br />
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But Bassnett's "cultural translation view" focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br />
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===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br />
Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br />
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Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the process of translation, form should give way to content. Bethnet also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, translators will not be limited by literary images. It can be seen that two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of translation.<br />
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Nida pointed out that the languages and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br />
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===6. Conclusion===<br />
Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br />
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===References===<br />
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[1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br />
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[2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br />
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[3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br />
<br />
[4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br />
<br />
[5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br />
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[6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br />
<br />
[7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br />
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[8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br />
<br />
[9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's "Cultural Translation" Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br />
<br />
[10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br />
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[11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br />
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[12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br />
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[13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br />
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--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:34, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 01:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610 MTI ==<br />
<center> 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br />
<br />
===目的论和严复理论的比较研究===<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating. The theory holds the idea that translating and interpreting should primarily take the function of target text into full consideration. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. (Dun Guangang 2011, 248) <br />
<br />
In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (that are Xin, Da, Ya in Chinese), which has an influence on the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107）With the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their similarities, differences and influences, so as to deepen our understanding of translation theory study.<br />
<br />
===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br />
<br />
“Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances”. (Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work and the production of the target text. All translation behaviours should take purpose into consideration.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br />
<br />
The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 255) Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br />
<br />
(1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br />
<br />
The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation for Skopos theory.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 257)<br />
<br />
(2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br />
<br />
Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Functional Equivalence, thought that “translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose.” According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. It is readers that determine translation purpose. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br />
<br />
(3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br />
<br />
Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br />
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There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br />
<br />
The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “skopos rule”, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina & Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) <br />
<br />
Whether the function of the source text or passages of the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. <br />
<br />
The last rule, fidelity rule, is also called as inter-textual rule which means the ‘inter-textual coherence’ should exists between the source text and target text. Just like Nord (2001) said a translation is an “offer of information”about “a preceding offer of information”, it is expected to bear some kind of relationship with the corresponding source text. It means that the source text and target text should be coherent with each other, and the coherent aspects between them including special collocations, sentence length, grammatical features, or even rhetorical devices, in style, in function, etc. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose. (Dun Guangang 2011,251) <br />
<br />
These three rules connect with each other. From the three basic rules above mentioned we can see that the fidelity rule is considered subordinate to the coherence rule, and the both of rules are subordinated to skopos rule. (Vermeer, Hans J. 1989,187) From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard —rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. (Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br />
<br />
Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 113）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br />
<br />
(1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br />
<br />
The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. <br />
<br />
The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br />
<br />
(2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br />
<br />
Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br />
<br />
The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. (Chen Fukang 2000, 108) Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it, while there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory.<br />
<br />
Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br />
<br />
Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made. (Chen Fukang 2000, 112)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br />
<br />
Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor.(Yan Fu, 1987)<br />
<br />
There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. (Yan Fu, 1987)<br />
<br />
And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br />
<br />
In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br />
<br />
===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br />
<br />
====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br />
<br />
=====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br />
<br />
The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory.<br />
<br />
Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 256)<br />
<br />
In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br />
<br />
This coincides with Yan Fu's "Faithfulness", which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And "Faithfulness" is the premise and foundation of translation. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of "Faithfulness", as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br />
<br />
=====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br />
<br />
The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. <br />
<br />
In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) <br />
<br />
Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br />
<br />
This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. <br />
<br />
At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. (Yan Fu, 1987) Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br />
<br />
=====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br />
<br />
The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. <br />
<br />
The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and "one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation". Translation is "the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br />
<br />
While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br />
<br />
Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. (Dun Guangang 2011. 242) Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. <br />
<br />
Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br />
<br />
But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that "Faithfulness" refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br />
<br />
Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br />
<br />
Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the "faithfulness principle" as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. "Skopos" usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, "the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers". Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br />
<br />
In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br />
<br />
For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)<br />
<br />
So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 257) Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity. (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)<br />
<br />
However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156) This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. <br />
<br />
As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br />
<br />
===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br />
<br />
====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach .(Tan Zaixi 2004, 242) <br />
<br />
In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a "source of information", which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation. ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. <br />
<br />
More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the function of translated work and translators’ subjectivity. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br />
<br />
Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. <br />
<br />
In particular, there are various new interpretations of "Elegance" in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”.(Shen Suru 2001,7)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory. (Pym Anthony, 1996) <br />
<br />
Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. (Dun Guangang 2011, 247) Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable. <br />
<br />
Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced.<br />
<br />
In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br />
<br />
Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord. (1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity''. Kinderhook: St. Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Reiss Katharina & Vermeer Hans J. (1984). Groundwork for a general theory of translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br />
<br />
Pochhacker Franz. (1995). Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, (14): 31-53.<br />
<br />
Pym, Anthony. (1996). Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics.<br />
<br />
Vermeer Hans J. (1982a). Translation als informationsangebot. Lebende sprachen, 27(3)97-101.<br />
<br />
Vermeer Hans J. (1987a). What does it mean to translate. ''Indian journal of applied linguistic'', 13(2):25-33.<br />
<br />
Vermeer Hans J. (1989a). Skopos and Commission in Translational Action. Andrew Chersterman: ''The Translation Studies Reader'', 173-187.<br />
<br />
Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2000). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [A History of Translation Theory in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
Dun Guangang 顿官刚.（2011). ''西方翻译理论文献宣读'' [Selected Readings in Western Translation Theory]. Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press 湖南师范大学出版社.<br />
<br />
He Xiaoling 閤小玲. (2012). 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性 [An Analysis of Translator Subjectivity in the Perspective of Purpose Theory]. Journal of Liuzhou Teachers College ''柳州师专学报''. (4):45-47.<br />
<br />
Liu Qijia 刘期家. (2000). 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹 [On the historical development trajectory of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Journal of Sichuan International Studies University ''四川外语学院学报''. (2):96-101.<br />
<br />
Shen Suru 沈苏儒.(2001). 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈 [The Highest Level of Translation - A Compendium of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [ A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
Yan Fu严复. (1897). ''天演论·译例言'' [Evolution and Ethics· Yiliyan]. News Collection ''国闻汇编''.<br />
<br />
Zhou Mengzhen 周锰珍. (2007). “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较 ['Skopos Theory' and 'Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance': A Comparison of Two Translation Theories in China and the West]. Academic Forum ''学术论坛''. (8):154-158.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian 202020080605==<br />
<br />
<center>纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract=== <br />
<br />
As a representative of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it is also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br />
<br />
===Key words=== <br />
<br />
Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要=== <br />
<br />
张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br />
<br />
===关键词=== <br />
<br />
张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and [[prose]] have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1)1.proses<br />
<br />
In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in [[that]] she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone [[has]] talent in creation”（Luo Xinzhang & Chen Yingnian 2009：413）, and [[looking through]] the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so [[much]] Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. 1.which 2.who has 3.looking back 4.many<br />
<br />
She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, [[prose]] and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1)1.proses 2. the translations will-the translations that will <br />
<br />
Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity, in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as the author or the translator, represents different gender identities. (Ma Yue & Mu Lei 2010: 67)1. profoundly embodied-is profoundly embodied 2. an author or a translator--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 14:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. Gender and Translation===<br />
<br />
Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminist translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women' s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23) Feminist-feminism <br />
<br />
During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23)<br />
<br />
As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity. when developed-when it developed<br />
<br />
This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang' s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this chapter breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences different gender identities make to the translation. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 46) influence-influence that--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 15:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang' s Self-translation -- ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br />
<br />
As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Hsia, while Fu Lei (whose early pseudonym is Xun Yu) also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun Yu 1994: 121). <br />
<br />
In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''(1921).<br />
<br />
Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor' s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted. She destroys her son' s marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. Besides, her daughter' s marriage is put an end to by her. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)<br />
<br />
Eileen Chang' s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation.<br />
<br />
====3.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br />
<br />
In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Chiang Chi-tse. However, the reality proves to her that Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)<br />
<br />
ST： <br />
（七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！(Eileen Chang 1992: 108)<br />
<br />
TT：<br />
( Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. (Eileen Chang 1971: 163)<br />
<br />
Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Chiang Chi-tse all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Chiang Chi-tse for love. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)<br />
<br />
However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity====<br />
<br />
In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passive and helpless of female characters under a specific era background. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145)<br />
<br />
ST：<br />
娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)<br />
<br />
TT：<br />
Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)<br />
<br />
The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by others. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145)<br />
<br />
In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)<br />
<br />
Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br />
<br />
ST：<br />
长安和长白分了家搬出来住。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)<br />
<br />
TT：<br />
Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)<br />
<br />
The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color. <br />
<br />
Instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)<br />
<br />
====3.3 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes. <br />
<br />
ST：<br />
（去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。(Eileen Chang 1992: 104)<br />
<br />
TT：<br />
（Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. (Eileen Chang 1971: 157)<br />
<br />
The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Chiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)<br />
<br />
Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, and everyone is a survivor of suffering. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)<br />
<br />
<br />
Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts. (Wang Jing 2011: 104)<br />
<br />
===4. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Conventional Translation -- ''The Old Man and the Sea''===<br />
<br />
''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway also won the Nobel Prize of Literature. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br />
<br />
Once the work was published, it attracted a wide attention. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br />
<br />
''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton.<br />
<br />
When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.(Eileen Chang 1979: 5) <br />
<br />
====4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br />
<br />
It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br />
<br />
ST：<br />
“Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” (Hemingway 1985: 39)<br />
<br />
TT：<br />
“再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱? 好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 29)<br />
<br />
Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br />
<br />
====4.2 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br />
<br />
As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. (Wang Jing 2011: 103)<br />
<br />
To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br />
<br />
ST: <br />
It is what a man must do．(Hemingway 1985: 23)<br />
<br />
TT: <br />
男子汉就应该这样。(Hai Guan 1979: 15) <br />
<br />
男子汉就该这么干。(Wu Lao 2009: 21) <br />
<br />
活总是要干的。(Eileen Chang 1979: 16) <br />
<br />
Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br />
<br />
====4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity====<br />
<br />
For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br />
<br />
ST：<br />
“But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”(Hemingway 1985: 96)<br />
<br />
TT：<br />
“但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 81）<br />
<br />
“可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（Hai Guan 1979: 79）<br />
<br />
“不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（Wu Lao 2009: 99）<br />
<br />
Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br />
<br />
Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br />
<br />
Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br />
<br />
===5. Reasons for the Transformation of Gender Identity===<br />
<br />
====5.1 Cultural Context====<br />
<br />
Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua 2017, 121)<br />
<br />
The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity.<br />
<br />
For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words. However, when the text is taken into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)<br />
<br />
For example, the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the differences of context. Therefore, in her translation, Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)<br />
<br />
====5.2 The Gender of the Translator and the Purpose of Translation====<br />
<br />
As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.<br />
<br />
And in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface that the old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)<br />
<br />
Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chang Eileen, trans. (1971). ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. <br />
<br />
Eileen Chang 张爱玲. (1955). 金锁记[M]. [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. [Shanghai Press].<br />
<br />
Ma Ruofei 马若飞. (2007). 张爱玲翻译研究[D]. [Eileen Chang Translation Studies]. 北京语言大学. [Beijing Language and Culture University]. <br />
<br />
Ernest Hemingway. (1985). ''The Old Man and the Sea''[M]. Printed in Great Britain by St Edmundsbury Press, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk.<br />
<br />
Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. [Hong Kong: Hong Kong Today World Press].<br />
<br />
Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 海观译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br />
<br />
Ernest Hemingway. (2009). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 吴劳译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br />
<br />
Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. (2009). 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection'']. 北京: 商务印书馆. [Beijing: The Commercial Press].<br />
<br />
Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. (2010). 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. [Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies]. 解放军外国语学院学报. [Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages]. 66-70.<br />
<br />
Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. (2018). 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J]. [Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 大众文艺. [Popular Literature]. 171-173.<br />
<br />
Meng Lingzi 孟令子. (2016). 从女性主义翻译到性别翻译[J]. [From Feminist Translation to Gender and Translation]. 中国翻译. [Chinese Translators Journal]. 23-31. <br />
<br />
Simon, Sherry. (1996). Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge. <br />
<br />
Wang Jing 王璟. (2011). 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. [Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation]. 中国外语. [Chinese Foreign Language]. 102-106.<br />
<br />
Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. (2015). 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. [''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation'']. 广州:中山大学出版社. [Guangzhou: Sun Yat-sen University Press].<br />
<br />
Xi Peihua 席培华. (2017). 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. [On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. [Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education]. 121-123.<br />
<br />
='''Art of Translation'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics Gui Yizhi 桂一枝 202070080587==<br />
<br />
桂一枝 202070080587<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works ''Bian Cheng'' has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of ''Bian Cheng'' translated by Gladys Yang and Ching Ti & Robert Payne respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.<br />
<br />
Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as cross-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works ''Bian Cheng'' has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of ''Bian Cheng'' translated by Gladys Yang and Ching Ti & Robert Payne respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Translation ethics, ''Bian Cheng'', Chesterman<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文将从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——戴乃迭和金堤与白英的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。<br />
<br />
翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生进行跨文化行为，就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文将从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——戴乃迭和金堤与白英的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼<br />
<br />
===1. Research Background===<br />
<br />
Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms. <br />
<br />
Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms.quote missing--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the "cultural turn". (Luo 2009: 61)<br />
<br />
From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the "cultural turn". (Luo, 2009 61)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the "cultural turn" in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a "cultural mediator" has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br />
It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym claims in his article: "ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle." It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.(Pym 2001:129-138)<br />
<br />
With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the "cultural turn" in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a "cultural mediator" has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br />
It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym claims in his article: "ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle." It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.(Pym, 2001 129-138)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2. Literature Review===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====<br />
<br />
After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br />
It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of "translation ethics" in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on "transmitting sense" and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.(Berman 1992: 3)<br />
<br />
After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br />
It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of "translation ethics" in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on "transmitting sense" and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.(Berman, 1992 3)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating "an ethics of difference". He invents the two words "domestication" and "resistancy" to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of "resistancy" seem more realistic and profound.(Venuti 2004)<br />
<br />
<br />
Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating "an ethics of difference". He invents the two words "domestication" and "resistancy" to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of "resistancy" seem more realistic and profound.(Venuti, 2004 page missing)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As the initiator of "the return to ethics" in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman's theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about "how to translate" over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other's work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (Pym 2001:129-138). <br />
<br />
As the initiator of "the return to ethics" in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman's theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about "how to translate" over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other's work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances(Pym, 2001129-138).--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman published a paper "Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath" in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled "the return to Ethics". In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.(Chesterman 2001:139-153)<br />
<br />
<br />
In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman published a paper "Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath" in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled "the return to Ethics". In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.(Chesterman, 2001 139-153)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====<br />
<br />
With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose "translation ethics" based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book ''Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel'' written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as "a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics". (Lu 2001: 272)<br />
<br />
With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose "translation ethics" based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book ''Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel'' written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as "a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics". (Lu, 2001 272)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics. <br />
<br />
Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics. (quoteing missing)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.(Sun 2007: 14-18)<br />
<br />
With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.(Sun, 2007 14-18)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article ''essay on three levels of translation activities'' in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by "willingness", "reality", and "morality", he proposes that "the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level".(Xu 1998: 49-54)<br />
<br />
<br />
Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article ''essay on three levels of translation activities'' in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by "willingness", "reality", and "morality", he proposes that "the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level".(Xu, 1998 49-54)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.3. the Translation of ''Bian Cheng''====<br />
<br />
The thesis adopts the classic modern novel ''Bian Cheng'' owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as "one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature" (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the "Nobel Literature Prize" in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. <br />
<br />
The thesis adopts the classic modern novel ''Bian Cheng'' owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as "one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature" (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the "Nobel Literature Prize" in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. quote missing--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are four English version of ''Bian Cheng''. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled ''Green Jade and Green Jade'' translated by Xing Molei (the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girlfriend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled ''The Frontier City'' contained in T''he Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen'' translated by Ching Ti & Robert Payne and published by George Allen & Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Bian Cheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called "Panda Books" to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included ''The Border Town and Other Stories'' translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.<br />
<br />
There are four English version of ''Bian Cheng''. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled ''Green Jade and Green Jade'' translated by Xing Molei (the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girlfriend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled ''The Frontier City'' contained in T''he Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen'' translated by Ching Ti & Robert Payne and published by George Allen & Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Bian Cheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called "Panda Books" to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included ''The Border Town and Other Stories'' translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature. quote missing--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Ching Ti & Robert Payne and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics. <br />
<br />
Based on the previous studies, this thesis chooses these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Ching Ti & Robert Payne and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===<br />
<br />
Chesterman's five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.<br />
<br />
Chesterman's five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.quote missing--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman's words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author's intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text.(Chesterman 2001: 139) <br />
<br />
Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman's words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author's intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text.(Chesterman, 2001139) --[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The ethics of service requires the translator to "act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator", and the translator should be "loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer".(Chesterman 2001: 140)<br />
<br />
The ethics of service requires the translator to "act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator", and the translator should be "loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer".(Chesterman, 2001 140)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The ethics of communication sees translation as "an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication" and asks the translator to be "a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding".(Chesterman 2001: 141) <br />
<br />
The ethics of communication sees translation as "an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication" and asks the translator to be "a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding".(Chesterman, 2001 141) --[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of "descriptive translation studies". Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like "the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations". That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.(Chesterman 2001: 142)<br />
<br />
Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of "descriptive translation studies". Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like "the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations". That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.(Chesterman, 2001 142)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: "I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator". He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.(Chesterman 2001: 147)<br />
<br />
The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: "I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator". He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.(Chesterman, 2001 147)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Comparison of the Two English Versions of ''Bian Cheng''===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Different Translator Focuses on Different Translation Ethics====<br />
<br />
Ching & Payne's translation was published in ''the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen The Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Ts'ung-wen'' in 1947 by George Allen & Unwin Ltd in London, England. The author aims to introduce Chinese novels to English readers, making the Border Town known to readers in Western countries. Since then, western readers have gradually know Shen Congwen. The translation was republished by Columbia University Press in 1982. After the founding of New China, Shen Congwen's works were once banned. It was not until the 1980s that his books returned to people's vision. Gladys 's translation is contained in ''Border Town and Other Stories'', published by China Literature Publishing House in 1981, which aims to promote representative Chinese literary works to the world.(Xiang 2019:92)<br />
<br />
Ching & Payne's translation was published in ''The Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen The Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Ts'ung-wen'' in 1947 by George Allen & Unwin Ltd in London, England. The author aims to introduce Chinese novels to English readers, making the Border Town known to readers in Western countries. Since then, western readers have gradually know Shen Congwen. The translation was republished by Columbia University Press in 1982. After the founding of New China, Shen Congwen's works were once banned. It was not until the 1980s that his books returned to people's vision. Gladys 's translation is contained in ''Border Town and Other Stories'', published by China Literature Publishing House in 1981, which aims to promote representative Chinese literary works to the world.(Xiang 2019:92)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Different translations deal with the frame structure of the original work differently. The Ching & Payne translation adds an 8-page translation preface to the front of the text. In the translation preface, the translator first explains the reason and importance of adding the preface to the translation. Furthermore, the translator introduced the writing styles of Shen Congwen and Lu Xun; third, the translator introduced Shen Congwen’s life and his position in the Chinese literary world; finally, the translator analyzed the theme and content of ''Border Town''. However, Gladys 's version only has a short preface about brief introduction of Shen Congwen. The Ching & Payne translation was published in 1947. In order to meet the needs of translation service ethics and communication ethics, based on the fact that Western world and western readers did not know much about Chinese culture as well as Shen Congwen, so the translator gave a lot of introduction Shen Congwen and Border Town. Gladys’s version was published in 1981. Before this time, Shen Congwen’s works were once listed as banned books. During this period, overseas research on Shen Congwen has never stopped. In the 1980s, there was even Overseas Shen Congwen Craze. So based on the relationship between the translator, the sponsor and the readers, different translator will focus on different translation ethics during their translation activities.(Xiang 2019:92)<br />
<br />
Different translations deal with the frame structure of the original work differently. The Ching & Payne translation adds an 8-page translation preface to the front of the text. In the translation preface, the translator first explains the reason and importance of adding the preface to the translation. Furthermore, the translator introduced the writing styles of Shen Congwen and Lu Xun; third, the translator introduced Shen Congwen’s life and his position in the Chinese literary world; finally, the translator analyzed the theme and content of ''Border Town''. However, Gladys 's version only has a short preface about brief introduction of Shen Congwen. The Ching & Payne translation was published in 1947. In order to meet the needs of translation service ethics and communication ethics, based on the fact that Western world and western readers did not know much about Chinese culture as well as Shen Congwen, so the translator gave a lot of introduction Shen Congwen and Border Town. Gladys’s version was published in 1981. Before this time, Shen Congwen’s works were once listed as banned books. During this period, overseas research on Shen Congwen has never stopped. In the 1980s, there was even Overseas Shen Congwen Craze. So based on the relationship between the translator, the sponsor and the readers, different translator will focus on different translation ethics during their translation activities.(Xiang, 2019 92)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====4.2 Places and Culture-loaded Words Translation====<br />
<br />
Table1 comparison of places names in two versions <br />
<br />
源语/金白译/戴译 <br />
<br />
四川/ Szechuan/ Szechuan <br />
<br />
辰州/ Chenshow/ Chenshow <br />
<br />
桃源/ Taoyuan/ Taoyuan <br />
<br />
沅水/ Yua Sui/ River Yuan <br />
<br />
白河/ White Stream/ White River <br />
<br />
湖南/ Hunan/ Hunan<br />
<br />
秀山/ Hsiushan Mountain/ Mount Xiu<br />
<br />
茶峒/ Ch’a-t’ung/ Chatong<br />
<br />
酉水/ Yu Sui/ The You<br />
<br />
洞庭湖/ T-ung-ting Lake/ Lake Dongting<br />
<br />
The ethics of communication believes that translation is a cross-cultural and cross-language communication activity. The translator should first be faithful to the translation ethics in the "cultural communication space", not the source or target culture. The ultimate goal of translation is promoting communication and cooperation between the two parties. Therefore, the two translators followed different communicative ethics in different times. In order to effectively achieve the purpose of communication, Ching & Payne adopted Wade-Giles Romanization, which was acceptable to the English world. This way is easy to be taken by readers and promotes effective communication. At that time, Gladys was commissioned by the magazine Chinese Literature at the time, and her translation had to serve as her "patron". For the translation of place names, Gladys 's translation used the phonetic system which was the standard rules for translating names of places and persons at that time. When personal ethics conflict with social ethics, the subjectivity of the translator will be controlled by the "patron". Ching & Payne translated earlier, and their version was published by George Allen & Unwin Ltd. Therefore, compared to Gladys, the "patron" of the Ching & Payne’s version are themselves.(Xiang 2019:93)<br />
<br />
The ethics of communication believes that translation is a cross-cultural and cross-language communication activity. The translator should first be faithful to the translation ethics in the "cultural communication space", not the source or target culture. The ultimate goal of translation is promoting communication and cooperation between the two parties. Therefore, the two translators followed different communicative ethics in different times. In order to effectively achieve the purpose of communication, Ching & Payne adopted Wade-Giles Romanization, which was acceptable to the English world. This way is easy to be taken by readers and promotes effective communication. At that time, Gladys was commissioned by the magazine Chinese Literature at the time, and her translation had to serve as her "patron". For the translation of place names, Gladys 's translation used the phonetic system which was the standard rules for translating names of places and persons at that time. When personal ethics conflict with social ethics, the subjectivity of the translator will be controlled by the "patron". Ching & Payne translated earlier, and their version was published by George Allen & Unwin Ltd. Therefore, compared to Gladys, the "patron" of the Ching & Payne’s version are themselves.(Xiang, 2019 93)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Table 2 comparison of culture-loaded words in two versions<br />
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源语/ 金白译/ 戴译 <br />
<br />
油坊/ Oilshops/ Tung oil presses <br />
<br />
桐油/ Wood-oil/ Tung oil <br />
<br />
唢呐/ Flute/ Trumpet <br />
<br />
糍粑/ Cake/ Ciba <br />
<br />
纤夫/ Haulers/ Towman <br />
<br />
上帝/ God/ Jade Emperor <br />
<br />
蓬船/ Junk/ Craft<br />
<br />
青盐/ Green salt/ Rock salt <br />
<br />
法器/ Musical instrument/ Stock-in-trade<br />
<br />
粉条/ Rice noddles/ Bean-vermicelli<br />
<br />
喽啰/ bandit/ Whirligig <br />
<br />
陀螺/ Delicate silk gowns/ Dark satin jackets over long gowns<br />
<br />
From Table2 we can see that Gladys's translation adopts the strategy of foreignization, preserving Chinese culture and following the ethic of representation. It also contains serving factors for the "patron". In a sense, it unifies the ethics of representation and service. While Ching & Payne’s version focuses more on the target language readers’ understanding, and give up to represent the culture-loaded words that are unfamiliar to target language readers by using the translation strategy of domestication. Its aim is to entertain the readers. In order to effectively achieve better communication with target language readers, he mainly follows the communication ethics in translation ethics.(Xiang 2019:93)<br />
<br />
From Table2 we can see that Gladys's translation adopts the strategy of foreignization, preserving Chinese culture and following the ethic of representation. It also contains serving factors for the "patron". In a sense, it unifies the ethics of representation and service. While Ching & Payne’s version focuses more on the target language readers’ understanding, and give up to represent the culture-loaded words that are unfamiliar to target language readers by using the translation strategy of domestication. Its aim is to entertain the readers. In order to effectively achieve better communication with target language readers, he mainly follows the communication ethics in translation ethics.(Xiang, 2019 93)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Representation of the Aesthetic Prospect====<br />
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One of the most distinctive features of Bian Cheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Contemporary literary theorist Tong Qingbing defines the aesthetic prospect as “an image system of a fusion of feelings with the scenery depicted represented in the lyrical works, which can evoke readers’ association and imagination, and surpasses the concrete vision and ascends an extensive artistic space.” So, it's the translators’ responsibility to represent the aesthetic prospect of the source text. Now, let’s take a look at the following examples.(Tong 1998: 194)<br />
<br />
One of the most distinctive features of Bian Cheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Contemporary literary theorist Tong Qingbing defines the aesthetic prospect as “an image system of a fusion of feelings with the scenery depicted represented in the lyrical works, which can evoke readers’ association and imagination, and surpasses the concrete vision and ascends an extensive artistic space.” So, it's the translators’ responsibility to represent the aesthetic prospect of the source text. Now, let’s take a look at the following examples.(Tong, 1998 194)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[Example 1]<br />
<br />
[STI]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶峒”的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文，1981:1)<br />
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[TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys, 1981:5)<br />
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[TT-2] From Szechuan there is a highway running east to Hunan. When the road reaches the small mountain city of Ch'a-t'ung, just inside the border of Hunan, it crosses a river, near the river you will find a white pagoda and a small isolated cottage, where there once lived a family which consisted of an old man, a girl and a yellow dog. (Ching, 1982:190)<br />
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This is the beginning paragraph of Bian Cheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images -- "官路", "小山城"，"小溪", "白色", "小塔七", "单独的人家", "老人", "女孩子" and "黄狗", making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character "一". The character "一" embodies the "blue" aesthetic mentality and literary creation view of Shen Congwen, who once said: I feel so lonely, perhaps from which I hope to be close to the beauty still left in my impression? Here in the beginning of the novel, by using his usual simple and plain writing style, the author successfully fuses his feelings with the natural setting to convey his deep love and concern towards the characters and what will happen next. (Wang 2012: 25)<br />
<br />
In Gladys Yang’s version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character "一" in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven "a (an)" and one "the" to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates "单独" (的人家)into a "solitary" household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of "alone" and "lonely"，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original.(Wang 2012: 25)<br />
<br />
Compared with Gladys Yang's version, Ching Ti's also fully represents the eight images of the original. But with the translation of "单独"(的人家)into an "isolated" cottage which conveys less emotional overtones than "solitary" and the use of complicated and rambling sentences with nearly five verbs, the original aesthetic connotations are involuntarily broken by him. To sum up, Gladys’s translation better represents the aesthetic prospect of the original than Ching Ti's.(Wang 2012: 25)<br />
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====4.4 Conflict between the Ethics of Representation and the Norm-based Ethics====<br />
<br />
As Chesterman argues: "the representation model is vulnerable to arguments about the impossibility of totally true representation, about the relative status of the original and translations, about the illusion of perfect equivalence". Accordingly, the ethics of representation can easily conflict with other models of translation ethics, especially the norm-based ethics.(Chesterman 2001:39-154)<br />
<br />
As Chesterman argues: "the representation model is vulnerable to arguments about the impossibility of totally true representation, about the relative status of the original and translations, about the illusion of perfect equivalence". Accordingly, the ethics of representation can easily conflict with other models of translation ethics, especially the norm-based ethics.(Chesterman, 2001 39-154)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From the linguistic point of view, the vital difference between Chinese and English lies in parataxis and hypotaxis which are two different devices that help realize the cohesion in language. Chinese prefers parataxis which depend coherence in meaning and sentences are organized in a topic-comment structure without overt logical markers in many cases. While English favors hypotaxis which lays great emphasis on logical relation and sentences are organized in the S-P (subject-predicate) patterns with various explicit logical markers of overt cohesion. Inevitably translators have to notice and deal with such a difference between Chinese and English.(Wang 2012: 34)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of linguistics, the vital difference between Chinese and English lies in parataxis and hypotaxis which are two different devices that help realize the cohesion in language. Chinese prefers parataxis which depend coherence in meaning and sentences are organized in a topic-comment structure without overt logical markers in many cases. While English favors hypotaxis which lays great emphasis on logical relation and sentences are organized in the S-P (subject-predicate) patterns with various explicit logical markers of overt cohesion. Inevitably translators have to notice and deal with such a difference between Chinese and English.(Wang, 2012 34)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Let's look at the following examples:<br />
<br />
[Example 1]<br />
<br />
[STI] 话虽轻轻的，那男的却听得出，且从声音上听得出翠翠年纪，便带笑道：“怎么， 你骂人！你不愿意上去，要呆在这儿，回头水里大鱼来咬了你，可不要叫喊！”<br />
翠翠说：“鱼咬了我也不管你的事。” (沈从文，1981:24)<br />
<br />
[TTl-l] Low as the words were, he caught them, and realized that she was no more than a girl. "Such language from a child!" he teased, chuckling, "you stay here, mind a big fish doesn't bite you—don't expect me to rescue you!"<br />
"Whether it bites me or not, that's none of your business!" (Gladys, 1981:26)<br />
<br />
[TTl-2] She spoke under her breath, but the man heard her. He guessed her age from her voice, and answered laughingly: "So you like cursing, eh? Wbll if you don't want to go, you can wait here、 but don't be surprised if a fish comes out of the water and bites you."<br />
<br />
"Eyen if a fish does bite me, I'll never have anything to do with you!" the girl retorted. (Ching, 1982: 211)<br />
<br />
Under such conflict, taking the target readers’ maximum acceptability into consideration, Gladys Yang has adopted relatively flexible translation strategies to try to retain the linguistic feature of Chinese by using as less overt logical markers as possible. While Ching Ti chooses to meet target readers, expectations by fully employing the hypotactic structure of the English language, for he exchanges the original diffusive structure into long and complicated sentences with logical markers.(Wang 2012: 35)<br />
<br />
Under such conflict, taking the target readers’ maximum acceptability into consideration, Gladys Yang has adopted relatively flexible translation strategies to try to retain the linguistic feature of Chinese by using as less overt logical markers as possible. While Ching Ti chooses to meet target readers, expectations by fully employing the hypotactic structure of the English language, for he exchanges the original diffusive structure into long and complicated sentences with logical markers.(Wang, 2012 35)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
After a theoretical study of translation ethics and a practical analysis of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' within the framework of Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics, we 'can conclude that the present study of translation ethics, with Chesterman's five models as its representative, does open a new perspective for not only translation studies but also for the translation practice and evaluation. This chapter mainly deals with the major findings as well as some limitations and suggestions for further study.<br />
<br />
After the theoretical study of translation ethics and practical analysis of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' within the framework of Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics, we 'can conclude that the present study of translation ethics, with Chesterman's five models as its representative, does open a new perspective for not only translation studies but also for the translation practice and evaluation. This chapter mainly deals with the major findings as well as some limitations and suggestions for further study.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This thesis focuses on the comparison of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' under Chesterman's five models of ethics namely the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, and the ethics of communication, norm-based ethics and the ethics of professional commitment.<br />
<br />
This thesis focuses on the comparison of two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' under Chesterman's five models of ethics namely the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, and the ethics of communication, norm-based ethics and the ethics of professional commitment.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It mainly applies the ethics of representation into evaluation from the aspects of the representation of the aesthetic prospect, the ethnological color, the character images through dialogues, and the cultural-specific of the original, based on which the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics at certain linguistic and cultural levels and the mediation by the ethics of service & communication under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole are also examined carefully. Generally speaking, both of the translators put the ethics of representation in an important position, though Gladys Yang has done better jobs in representing the original, both in form and spirit, than Ching Ti. It's not only because Gladys Yang is more highly skilled in translating than Ching Tii but also because they put different factors into first consideration in translation with the former being faithful and loyal to the original and the latter meeting the target readers' expectations.<br />
<br />
It mainly applies the ethics of representation into evaluation from the aspects of the representation of the aesthetic prospect, the ethnological color, the character images through dialogues, and the cultural-specific of the original, based on which the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics at certain linguistic and cultural levels and the mediation by the ethics of service & communication under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole are also examined carefully. Generally speaking, both of the translators put the ethics of representation in an important position, though Gladys Yang has done better jobs in representing the original, both in form and spirit, than Ching Ti. It's not only because Gladys Yang is more highly skilled in translating than Ching Tii but also because they put different factors into first consideration in translation with the former being faithful and loyal to the original and the latter meeting the target readers' expectations.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
And when the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics emerges, the ethics of service & communication will serve as mediators to guide their translation, generally, Gladys Yang chooses to preserve the original to a maximum, that is to say, she prefers to take the ethics of representation into first consideration, based on which she will adopt relatively flexible translation strategies to make her translation acceptable by conforming to norm-based ethics to some extent. While Ching Ti lays primary emphasis on norm-based ethics, always putting target readers' expectations first by violating the ethics of representation. But both of their coordination or mediation is under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole from a higher level, instead of abusing their professional power to mediate arbitrarily.<br />
<br />
And when the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics emerges, the ethics of service & communication will serve as mediators to guide their translation, generally, Gladys Yang chooses to preserve the original to a maximum, that is to say, she prefers to take the ethics of representation into first consideration, based on which she will adopt relatively flexible translation strategies to make her translation acceptable by conforming to norm-based ethics to some extent. While Ching Ti lays primary emphasis on norm-based ethics, always putting target readers' expectations first by violating the ethics of representation. But both of their coordination or mediation is under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole from a higher level, instead of abusing their professional power to mediate arbitrarily.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In a word, with different ethics influencing the translators most, the two English versions possess different characteristics. Guided mainly by the norm-based ethics, Ching Ti tends to take the strategy of "domestication" to make his version colloquial, smooth and simple for the target public to get amusement. While Gladys Yang highlights the ethics of representation to adopt the strategy of foreignization mostly to make her version formal, exquisite, serious and academic to some extent, which mainly appeal to those target readers who are interested in Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
In a word, with different ethics influencing the translators most, the two English versions possess different characteristics. Guided mainly by the norm-based ethics, Ching Ti tends to take the strategy of "domestication" to make his version colloquial, smooth and simple for the target public to get amusement. While Gladys Yang highlights the ethics of representation to adopt the strategy of foreignization mostly to make her version formal, exquisite, serious and academic to some extent, which mainly appeal to those target readers who are interested in Chinese culture.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Berman, A. 1992. The Experience of the Foreign: Cultural and Translation in Romantic Germany [M], Trans. S. Heyvaert. Albany: State University of New York Press.<br />
<br />
Venuti, L. 2004. The Translator Invisibility: A History of Translation [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Pym, A. 2001. The Return to Ethics in Translation Studies [J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .<br />
<br />
Chesterman, A. 2001. Proposal for a hieronymic oath [J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .<br />
<br />
Shen Congwen. 1982. The Frontier City in the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Tsfung wen [M], trans. Ching Ti & R. Payne. New York: Columbia University Press.<br />
<br />
Shen Congwen. 1981. The Border Town and Other Stories [M]. Translated by Gladys Yang. Beijing: Chinese Literature Press.<br />
<br />
骆贤凤（2009）。中西翻译伦理研究述评。《中国翻译》。3，13-17。 <br />
<br />
吕俊，2001,《跨越文化障碍一巴比塔的重建》Mo南京：东南大学出版社。<br />
<br />
孙致礼（2007）。译者的职责。《中国翻译》，4, 14-18。<br />
<br />
沈从文，1981,《边城》Mo南昌：江西人民出版社<br />
<br />
向仍东.翻译伦理视角下《边城》英译研究[J].语文学刊,2019,39(04):91-95.<br />
<br />
童庆炳，1998,《文学理论教程》Mo北京：高等教育出版社。<br />
<br />
王卫萍. 翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究[D].南京师范大学,2012.<br />
<br />
<br />
Berman, A. (1992). ''The Experience of the Foreign: Cultural and Translation in Romantic Germany''[M], Trans. S. Heyvaert. Albany: State University of New York Press.<br />
<br />
Venuti, L. (2004). ''The Translator Invisibility: A History of Translation''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Pym, A. (2001). ''The Return to Ethics in Translation Studies''[J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .<br />
<br />
Chesterman, A. (2001). ''Proposal for a hieronymic oath''[J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .<br />
<br />
Shen Congwen. (1982). ''The Frontier City in the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Tsfung wen''[M], trans. Ching Ti & R. Payne. New York: Columbia University Press.<br />
<br />
Shen Congwen. (1981). ''The Border Town and Other Stories''[M]. Translated by Gladys Yang. Beijing: Chinese Literature Press.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br />
<br />
==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 202070080597 (<span style="color:red"> 专业</span>)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)==<br />
<center>刘欧 Liu Ou</center><br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to witness the world, meanwhile, an increasing number of foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Culture Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promoting Sino-foreign friendship and enhancing the world's understanding of China.<br />
<br />
With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to witness the world, meanwhile, an increasing number of foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Culture Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promoting (<span style="color:red">promote</span>)Sino-foreign friendship and enhancing (<span style="color:red">enhance</span>)the world's understanding of China.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
English Translation Hunan Scenic Spots Names the View of Culture Translation (<span style="color:red">semicolon should be added.</span>)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
随着改革开放的不断深化，中国与世界的联系日益紧密。大批中国人走出国门开眼看世界的同时，越来越多的外国友人也来中国游览观光。湖南作为旅游资源大省，拥有许多风光迤逦的旅游景点。在欢迎国外游客的同时，旅游景点名翻译也应当准确达意。巴斯奈特的文化翻译观认为，汉语翻译成英语的过程不但是两种不同语言之间的转换，更是两种语言的跨文化交流。采用文化翻译观作为湖南旅游景点的指导思想，有利于增进外国游客在饱览景区美景的同时，了解景区背后的文化内涵。这对于促进中外友谊，增进世界对中国的了解都大有裨益。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
英语翻译 湖南旅游景点 文化翻译观<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year. (Xin Xin, 2012) Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of Culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardize the translation of scenic spots names is an important opportunity to show the most beautiful side of Hunan culture to foreign tourists. (Xiao Fuliang, 2016)<br />
<br />
Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year. (Xin Xin, 2012) Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of Culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardize the translation of scenic spots names is an important opportunity to show the most beautiful side of Hunan culture to foreign tourists.(<span style="color:red">语法有错误。</span>) --[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)(Xiao Fuliang, 2016)<br />
<br />
The name of tourist attractions refers to the names of natural and cultural landscapes in tourist attractions. Some of these names are engraved on stone tablets, some are engraved on the signboards of scenic spots, and some appear in various publicity materials such as tourist brochures, scenic maps and websites. In order to leave a good impression on tourists and attract them to visit, the names of tourist attractions are usually short, concise, vivid and attractive. (Pan Hong, 2016)<br />
<br />
This paper attempts to analyze whether the English translations of some scenic spots in Hunan Province have achieved the desired effect of publicity from the perspective of cultural translation. At the same time, if there were some improper translation in the English translation of Hunan scenic spots, the author will give his own translation for reference.<br />
<br />
=== The Introduction of the View of Culture Translation ===<br />
Before the emergence of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralism school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory. Jakobson, Catford and Nida, the representatives of the linguistic school, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation. They claim that translation is to replace another language with an equivalent language material; while Les, Nord and Mantari, the representatives of functional school, believe that the focus of translation studies should be on the target text rather than the original text. Their research sources are communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics theory. But whether it is linguistic school, functional school or structuralism school, in their research process, all try to achieve language equivalence more or less from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers hope to find a scientific and effective way to solve the various problems in translation, but the cultural diversity determines the cultural connotation of the text. Therefore, these researchers encounter great difficulties when they encounter the context which is quite different from their own cultural background, and the emergence of cultural translation school is meant to solve such problems.<br />
<br />
After the 1970s and 1980s, with the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination and the diversification of communication modes, the relationship between language and culture has become closer. In the process of information dissemination, differences among language become more and more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diversity of cultural values embodied in the translated text. <br />
<br />
In 1990, Translation, History and Culture, co-edited by Andre Lefevere and Bassnett, was published, marking a cultural turn in the field of translation. The concept of cultural translation emphasizes that translation is not only a bilingual communication, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication; the purpose of translation is to break through language barriers and promote cultural exchange; the essence of translation is to transmit cross-cultural information and reproduce the cultural activities of the original with the target language; the main purpose of translation is cultural transplantation and cultural blending, but cultural transplantation is a process; Language is not the operation form of translation, but the cultural information . (Bassnett Susan, 1992: 13) Bassnett emphasizes that “translation is the communication within and between cultures”. (Bassnett Susan, 1990: 10-11) She believes that translators should carry out translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators should never carry out translation activities in isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's “cultural translation view” is that translation is not a mere language activity. It is rooted in and influenced by the culture in which the language is located. <br />
<br />
==== The Purpose of Translation ====<br />
As for the purpose of translation, Bassnett thinks that the primary purpose of translation is to allow readers from two or more different cultural backgrounds to communicate with each other through the medium of text, and the exchange of information should be placed in the second place of translation purpose. Through effective translation, translators can not only introduce the cultural characteristics of different nationalities to other readers, but also promote the communication between different cultures and promote the comparative study between the two cultures. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br />
<br />
====Translation Methods and Strategies====<br />
As for the translation method, Bassnett thinks that the language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological, the translator should try to use literal translation from the perspective of culture. If the source text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play a relatively free role in translation, make more use of translation skills and pay less attention to the restrictions of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high. As for translation strategy, Bassnett considers that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find out the cultural factors in the original text which are different from those in the target language, and then deeply understand these factors, and try to retain these factors. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and make them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br />
<br />
====Content and Form of Translation ====<br />
As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposed that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br />
<br />
As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposed (<span style="color:red">时态要统一。</span>)(<span style="color:red">efficient can be deleted</span>)that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br />
<br />
====“Intelligibility” of Translation ====<br />
Before the rise of cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated literary language into plain language and deleted literary metaphor and association in order to make the translation better understood by readers. In this way, the translation will become very easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth can not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett thinks that the “intelligibility” of the translation should not be based on the abandonment of the style and artistry of the original text, but should try to keep the original flavor of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br />
<br />
====Evaluation Criteria of Translation ====<br />
As for the evaluation standard of translation, Bassnett thinks that the evaluation standard of translation is not unique. The standard of translating academic articles is different from that of practical and literary articles. When examining and evaluating the standards of translation, we should start from the service object of the translation, and judge whether the translation can meet the needs of the service object. In short, translation should be based on meeting the needs of readers in different cultural contexts, and appropriate translation should be used to meet the needs.(Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br />
<br />
===2.The Existing English Translated Versions of Names of Hunan Scenic Spots===<br />
There are 15 major tourist areas and many tourist spots in Hunan, and there are many historic sites with a long history. Such as Mountain Heng, one of the Five Sacred Mountains in China. Dongting Lake, Shaoshan Mountain, the former residence of Chairman Mao Zedong, Wulingyuan, which shows the characteristics of strangeness, danger, seclusion, beauty and wildness, and Yuelu Academy with a thousand years of history. (Chen Jiao, 2013) In order to publicize and spread the culture of Hunan Province all over the world, we should standardize the English translation of Hunan scenic spots names. Meanwhile, we should translate these scenic spot names understandable from the guiding theory of the View of Culture Translation. <br />
<br />
====Improper English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names====<br />
When tourists enjoy the beautiful scenery, the name of the scenic spot is the first information that leaps into the their sight. In order to attract the attention of tourists, induce the tourists of English speaking countries to have a strong interest in the culture and landscape of the tourist destination, stimulate their desire to buy tourism products and promote the development of tourism, translators should pay attention to the cross-cultural awareness when translating the names of scenic spots, so as to provide accurate information as well as the cultural connotation to the tourists from English speaking countries and those who understand English. <br />
<br />
However, the author finds that there are many improper translations in the English translation of scenic spots nemes in Hunan Province, which brings a lot of inconvenience to tourists from English speaking countries, and also has a negative impact on the publicity of scenic spots. These improper translations mainly exist in the following aspects:<br />
<br />
Firstly, the different versions of translation in the same or different scenic spots.<br />
For example, as one of the four wonders of Mountain Heng, scenic spot “水帘洞” has two translated names, which are translated as “water screen cave” in the official website of Mountain Heng tourism website, while it is translated into “waterfall cave” on the route map. The English translation of “雁峰寺” on Hengyang tourism route map is Yan Feng Si, while on Hengyang tourism website it is “The Goose Mountain Temple”. There are also two different versions of the English translation of the name of the scenic spot “烟雨池”. It was translated as “Yanyuchi” on Hengyang tourism route map, but on Hengyang tourism website, the free translation method is adopted, that is, “Misty Rain Pond”. (Wang Zaiyu, Jiang Shihong, 2012)<br />
<br />
Secondly, the overuse of transliteration.<br />
Huiyan Peak, located on the Bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng, also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and rank the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归 雁 亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.<br />
<br />
Huiyan Peak, located on the Bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng, also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and rank the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. (<span style="color:red">第一句话语法有错误。</span>)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归 雁 亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.<br />
<br />
Of course, transliteration is one of the common translation methods of scenic spot names translation, but if transliteration is used too much that without considering the cultural connotation of the original language, the name of scenic spot will be obscure and foreign tourists will be confused. Standing in front of these Pinyin, foreign tourists can not understand the cultural connotation of the names of scenic spots. So it is difficult for them to realize the historical and cultural stories of these scenic spot according to the transliterated names. Therefore, excessive transliteration will affect the transmission of scenic spot name information, make it difficult for English speaking tourists to understand the rich cultural connotation of scenic spot names, which will reduce the readability of the translations and thus affect the development of China's tourism industry and the spread of culture abroad. Therefore, the translator should carefully consider and choose the appropriate translation method.<br />
<br />
===3. The Strategies of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation ===<br />
Tourism translation is a cross language, cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication activities. Compared with other types of translation, it is more direct, more prominent, more typical and more comprehensive in cross-cultural and cross psychological communication. (Chen Gang, 2004)(<span style="color:red">举例较少，没有分析。</span>)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==== Characteristics and Methods of Tourism English Translation ====<br />
According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents, the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.<br />
<br />
According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents(<span style="color:red">前半部分语法有错误</span>)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC), the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.<br />
<br />
==== Characteristics of Tourism English Translation ====<br />
The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br />
<br />
The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes(<span style="color:red">主谓不一致。</span>)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC) style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br />
<br />
==== Methods of English Translation of Scenic Spot Name ==== <br />
In the translation of scenic spot name, in order to let foreign tourists understand Chinese culture and scenic spots, flexible translation methods should be adopted to effectively convey tourism information and Chinese culture. (Jia Wenbo, 2004) The translation of the scenic spot name is of great significance although the names are not contain too much vocabularies. How to use translation methods and skills flexibly by following the translation theory becomes very important. This requires the translators to be faithful to the content and style of the original materials in the process of translation, try to retain the cultural factors in the original text, and at the same time make it easy for the target readers to accept.<br />
<br />
In the translation of scenic spot name, in order to let foreign tourists understand Chinese culture and scenic spots, flexible translation methods should be adopted to effectively convey tourism information and Chinese culture. (Jia Wenbo, 2004) The translation of the scenic spot name is of great significance although the names are not contain too much vocabularies. How to use translation methods and skills flexibly by following the translation theory becomes very important. This requires the translators to be faithful to the content and style of the original materials in the process of translation, try to retain the cultural factors in the original text, and at the same time make it easy for the target readers to accept.(<span style="color:red">最后一句话语法错误。</span>)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Literal translation, free translation, literal translation+transliteration, transliteration+ explanation and cultural analogy are commonly used in scenic spot name translation. Through the study of the translation methods of translating the names of these scenic spots, we can use the translation skills more accurately and ultimately improve the translation ability. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br />
<br />
1. Literal Translation<br />
Literal translation is helpful to convey the information of the source language such as place names, characters and events. (Chen Jiao, 2013) For these particular names or general names of scenic spots, it’s better to adopt the literal translation, namely word for word translation. The allusions of the figures in Nanyue Temple such as “苏武牧羊”（Su Wu Shepherding Sheep）”、“达摩东渡”（Dharm Sailing Eastward）；Fairy tale such as“后羿射日”（Houyi Shooting the Suns）、“盘古开天”（Pangu Creating the Universe）、“精卫填海”（Jingwei Filling the Sea）.<br />
<br />
2. Free Translation<br />
Free translation refers to the translation method to translate the connotative meaning when the literal meaning and connotative meaning of the original text are inconsistent (Niu Xinsheng, 2013). In addition, translation techniques such as domestication and free translation are also discussed. Due to the differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, there are differences in language form and content between the two languages. Therefore, translators need to grasp the differences between the two languages and cultures to ensure that the information of the original text are properly transmitted to the target readers. If the names of some scenic spots contain rich cultural connotations and cannot be translated by literal translation, then the names of such scenic spots are mostly translated by free translation, that is, words with the same meaning but different forms are translated. For example,“爱晚亭”, the name was originated from a famous poem written by Du Mu (803-853) in Tang dynasty. But the official translation in the scenic spot was “the Lovely Evening Pavilion”. However, the real meaning of “晚” in the name was not evening but late autumn. Hence some scholars translate it as “the Autumn-Admiring Pavilion” and “the Maple-leaves Admiring Pavilion”.(Chen Jiao, 2013).<br />
<br />
3.Transliteration + Literal Translation<br />
The front contains the proper name for a specific person or place name, and a fixed general name for the name of a scenic spot. Transliteration and literal translation can be used in translation. For example, "南岳庙" (Nanyue Temple), "洞庭湖" (Dongting Lake), "岳麓山"(Yuelu Mountain),"崀山" (Langshan Mountain), "湘江"(Xiangjiang Rive) etc.<br />
<br />
4.Transliteration + Explanation<br />
The advantage of transliteration is that it does not need any explanation, and its disadvantage is that it can not fully arouse people's interest and attention. For foreign tourists, it is difficult to connect the original meaning of the original text with the Chinese pronunciation of the scenic spot. In order to follow the original author's intention and its own pronunciation, we adopt the method of combining the two to make up for the shortcomings. For example,"柳浪闻莺"liu'lang'wen'ying (listening to Orioles Singing in the willows), "鬼见愁"gui'jian'chou (sight that disorders devils). (Xin Xin, 2012) in order to help foreign tourists understand the background knowledge of China's human history, local conditions and customs, some relevant information can be appropriately added to the original text when translating. For example, when introducing "吊脚楼", if we just translate it as Diaojiaolou , it is difficult for tourists to understand the literal translation of it, so it is advisable that supplement the explanation of “suspended wood house built on stilts”. For example, in the introduction of traditional festivals in Zhangjiajie, “六月六” is translated into Liu Yue Liu Festival. In order to help tourists understand the specific connotation of the festival, the translation should be followed by an appropriate explanation: It usually takes place on the sixth day of the lunar six month, when all the members of the family get together to have dinner and hold a rite to pay sacrifice to their ancestors. This supplement can help foreign tourists understand the meaning of these traditional festivals quickly. (Chen Jiao, 2013)<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, cultural analogy is also an effective skill in explanation. Analogy refers to the transformation of unfamiliar cultural information in the source language into similar information in the cultural context of the target language in order to eliminate the cultural strangeness contained in the source language and arouse the sense of similarity for the English speaking tourists. In other words, borrow the similar places of interest, legends and historical stories in English to translate the scenic spot name in Chinese, which can narrow the distance between the two different language for the readers and they can better understand the meaning of the original text. For example, Mountain Hengshan the scenic spot “祝融峰” is said to be the residence of Zhu Rong, the God of Fire. Its translation is "Zhu Rong peak", Zhu Rong, the Chinese Prometheus. (Chen Jiao, 2013) Prometheus, the hero of stealing fire in ancient Roman legend, is a familiar figure for Western tourists. It has great similarity with Zhu Rong, the Chinese God of Fire. When the tourists look at this translated name, they will have a better understanding of the the scenic spot.<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion ===<br />
Under the background of globalization, peace and development have become the theme of the times, and the revise of the traditional translation theory is needed. On the other hand, cultural translation, based on the cultural theory of anthropology, advocates that the connotation of other cultures should be properly conveyed in translation, showing respect and understanding of other cultures; translators should highlight the characteristics of different cultures through translation, so that people from different cultural backgrounds can truly realize the communication and exchange in the cultural sense. Therefore, it is in line with the mainstream of the times to deeply study and understand Bassnett's cultural translation theory, which can help us better carry out translation activities under the background of globalization, so as to promote the exchange and dialogue between the Eastern and Western cultures from a macro perspective. <br />
<br />
As a part of the translation of tourist materials, the translation of scenic spot names should not only convey the basic tourism information, but also show the Chinese culture to foreign tourists. One of the main purposes of tourists coming to China is to understand the Chinese culture. Therefore, translators need to have a keen cross-cultural awareness, make the translation conform to the target language, enhance the readability to the target language readers, and choose the most suitable translation method to convey the historical and cultural connotation contained in the name of scenic spots to the greatest extent, so as to promote the development of China's tourism industry globally and spread China's tourism culture abroad. <br />
<br />
=== Bibliography ===<br />
<br />
*Bassnett Susan. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge，1992: 13.<br />
<br />
* Bassnett Susan. Translation, History and Culture[M]. 上海:上海外语教育出版社，1990: 10-11．<br />
<br />
*黄艳娇.2018.浅谈巴斯奈特文化翻译理论，佳木斯职业学院学报<br />
<br />
*肖付良.2016.16(06),43-45.湖南主要旅游景点公示语翻译现状与对策研究,英语教师.<br />
<br />
*潘虹.2016，跨文化意识对旅游景点名称汉英翻译的影响，艺术文化交流<br />
<br />
*陈娇.2013.从文化角度看湖南旅游景点的翻译，西南农业大学学报（社会科学版）<br />
<br />
*辛欣.2012.论旅游英语中景点名称的翻译，长春教育学院学报<br />
<br />
*陈刚.旅游翻译与涉外导游［M］． 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2004，59．<br />
<br />
*王再玉，蒋柿红. 2012.从跨文化意识角度看旅游景点名称的英译———以衡阳旅游景点名称的英译为例,北京城市学院学报<br />
<br />
*林玉华. 2008. 从文化角度看旅游景点名称的翻译 ［J］．重庆交通大学学报，2008 ( 02) : 105．<br />
<br />
*熊玲. 2013. 对张家界景点名称英译的探析，长春教育学院学报<br />
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*贾文波．应用翻译功能论［M］．北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2004：134－156．<br />
<br />
*湖南文物名胜概览.湖南省文化和旅游厅 http://whhlyt.hunan.gov.cn/whhlyt/wlxx/fwms/201407/t20140717_5385818.html<br />
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(<span style="color:red">参考文献格式错误。</span>)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
<br />
==A Contrastive Study on the Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Shengshengman and Zuihuayin from the Perspective of Defamiliarization 祝美梅 student no. 202070080632== <br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
Poetry is what lost in translation as Robert Frost said, for it’s concise words, specific form, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study with poetry translation under the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)<br />
<br />
Poetry is what lost in translation. As Robert Frost said, for its concise words, specific forms, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind as has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study poetry translation according to the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:39, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization, though a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period. (Fang Xiaoyuan, 2011, 13-15)<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization, a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period. (Fang Xiaoyuan, 2011, 13-15)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Key Words'''===<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization Theory; Shengshengman; Zuihuayin; English Versions<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
译诗则诗。诗歌以其凝练的词语，特定的形式，涵盖的独特文化典故和意象，是否可译一直是译界极具争论的话题。本文旨在由俄国形式主义什克洛夫斯基提出的陌生化理论下研究诗歌翻译。陌生化，虽然是文学写作技巧，同样适应于翻译。在文学作品中，作家通过使熟悉的事物陌生化引起读者的兴趣和好奇，延长审美感知长度。勒菲弗尔说，翻译即改写。这一翻译策略尤其适合于诗歌翻译。直译只会是译诗平淡乏味，如同兑水之酒，甚至产生误解。李清照，作为历史上最有名的女词人之一，其“易安体”本就以其化故为新，以俗为雅的特点与“陌生化”有异曲同工之处。《声声慢》、《醉花阴》是她前后截然不同两个时期的代表作。本文试以俄国形式主义者什克洛夫斯基提出的“陌生化”为理论指导，以李清照词《声声慢》、《醉花阴》的多个译本为研究对象，分析对比不同译者的英译，尝试研究在译文中怎样重现文本陌生化和制造译本的陌生化，以期证明陌生化理论对李清照词英译的指导作用。(Ge Yunfeng, 2008, 34-35)<br />
<br />
本文共分为四部分，由引论、正文、结论三部分构成。引论部分主要介绍陌生化理论，优势和劣势，李清照词特点和国内外研究现状。正文分为两个部分，词和意象两个方向并辅以具体实例。结论部分将主要总结陌生化理论在诗歌翻译的应用，本文作者认为用陌生化理论研究翻译文本仍有很大的发掘空间，对诗歌翻译有启迪意义。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
陌生化理论；《声声慢》；《醉花阴》；英译版本<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasury of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.<br />
<br />
The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasure of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’s consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’ consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, and her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.1 Shklovsky’s Definition of Defamiliarization====<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by the Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:"The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.(Zhang Jintong, 1987, 78-79)<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by a Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:"The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.(Zhang Jintong, 1987, 78-79)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Features of Defamiliarization in Translation====<br />
<br />
In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named up two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. <br />
<br />
Alienization, is the similarity among defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.<br />
<br />
Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, it has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)<br />
<br />
In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Alienization is the similarity amid defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, which has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====1.2.1 Advantages of Defamiliarization=====<br />
<br />
To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural-turn proposed by Susan Bassinet, against the culture invasion, this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)<br />
<br />
To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural turn proposed by Susan Bassinet against the culture invasion, and this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====1.2.2 Disadvantages of Defamiliarization=====<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new express or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new expression or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2. A brief Introduction of Li Qingzhao===<br />
<br />
Before analyzing the translation versions of Li Qingzhao’s Ci, a general understanding of the characteristics and aesthetic value of Li’s Ci is very necessary. <br />
<br />
====2.1. Li Qingzhao’s life and her Poem====<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influence on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influences on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---Zuihuayin, is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism. <br />
<br />
Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---''Zuihuayin'', is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2Research on Li’s Poem in Domestic and Abroad====<br />
<br />
A comprehensive knowledge of history and state quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.<br />
<br />
The study of Li Qingzhao’s poem in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. <br />
<br />
A comprehensive knowledge of history and status quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The study of Li Qingzhao’s poems in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3. Defamiliarization on Words Level in Shengshengman and Zuihuayin===<br />
<br />
Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, the word has greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.<br />
<br />
Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, words are of greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.1 Analysis of Translation of Reduplicated Words====<br />
<br />
Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character two or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.<br />
<br />
Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character twice or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Her typical work which applies reduplicated words is Shengshengman. <br />
<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。乍暖还寒时候，最难将息。<br />
<br />
三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急？雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识。<br />
<br />
满地黄花堆积。憔悴损，如今有谁堪摘？守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑？<br />
<br />
梧桐更兼细雨，到黄昏、点点滴滴。这次第，怎一个、愁字了得！”（陈祖美 2003：108）<br />
<br />
This piece of work enjoys the largest number of translation versions from different translators among all her works. The first fourteen characters are: “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”,they precisely describe the loneliness , melancholy and nostalgia of the homeland of the poetess after losing her husband. Six different translation versions collected are as follows:<br />
<br />
1. I seek but seek in vain,<br />
<br />
I search but search again.<br />
<br />
I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
<br />
So lonely, without cheer. (Xu Yuanchong)<br />
<br />
2. So dim, so dark.<br />
<br />
So dense, so dull,<br />
<br />
So damp, so dank, so dead! (Lin Yutang)<br />
<br />
3. Seeking,seeking,<br />
<br />
Chilly and quite,<br />
<br />
Desolate, painful and miserable. (Yang Xianyi）<br />
<br />
4. Searching and searching, seeking and seeking,<br />
<br />
So chill, so clear,<br />
<br />
dreary,<br />
<br />
and dismal,<br />
<br />
and forlorn. (Stephen Owen)<br />
<br />
5. Seeking<br />
<br />
seeking<br />
<br />
Searching<br />
<br />
searching<br />
<br />
over and over<br />
<br />
lonely and forlorn <br />
<br />
Sighing;<br />
<br />
grieving<br />
<br />
sighing<br />
<br />
In the same round (Kwock&McHugh) <br />
<br />
<br />
6. Seek…seek, search....search;<br />
<br />
Lone...lone, cold...cold;<br />
<br />
Sad...sad, pain...pain, moan...moan. (Liu Wuji) <br />
<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heart-broken feeling and her worry about the convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heartbroken feeling and her worry about her convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrases them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem. <br />
<br />
For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrased them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem. --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another example is “点点滴滴”,also from the same verse. Following are translation versions collected:<br />
<br />
1.On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
<br />
As twilight grizzles. (Xu Yuanchong)<br />
<br />
2.In a drizzle so light, dripping-dropping into the oncoming night,<br />
<br />
In the garden wutong trees stand blurred. (Zhu Chunsheng)<br />
<br />
3.On drying leaves of plane trees should there be<br />
<br />
A drizzle pattering, pattering towards the eve! (Liu Guoshan)<br />
<br />
4.Against the tung and plane trees, the wind rises high.<br />
<br />
The drizzle becomes trickles, as eve draws nigh. (Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
5.And the drizzle on the kola nut, keeps on droning: Pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat! (Lin Yutang)<br />
<br />
6.The drizzles falls on the wutong trees, raindrops drip down at dusk. (Yang Xianyi)<br />
<br />
No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu uses drizzles describing the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.<br />
<br />
No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu used drizzles to describe the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Translation of Verbs====<br />
<br />
Unlike English, Chinese poetry is skillfully using verb to vivify the image, often linked with rhetorical devices. Word transformation is mostly common, such as adjective or noun transformed to verb. There existed many instances; the author would like to choose two verbs from the Zuihuayin which would analyzed in this paper.<br />
Taking “帘卷西风”from Zuihuayin as an example:<br />
<br />
“薄雾浓云愁永昼，瑞脑消金兽。佳节又重阳，玉枕纱厨，半夜凉初透。东篱把酒黄昏后，<br />
有暗香盈袖。莫道不消魂，帘卷西风，人比黄花瘦。”<br />
<br />
This verse was written to express Li Qingzhao’s yearning for her husband. It’s the Double Ninth Day---the Chinese festival of the senior and family get-together. The west wind blows, makes people feel chilly and distressed, especially when the poetess was alone. Translation versions are assembled as following:<br />
<br />
1. What with curtains being folded—<br />
by violent blasts from the west (Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
2. The curtain lifted by the western wind (Qiu Xiaolong)<br />
<br />
3. When the west wind rolls up my bamboo curtain (Mao Yumei)<br />
<br />
4. With the door-curtains flapping in the west wind (Gong Jinghao)<br />
<br />
5. Only, when the west wind stir the curtain (Lucy Chow Ho)<br />
<br />
In the original, there is hyperbaton used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.<br />
<br />
In the original, hyperbaton was used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急?”The verb in this sentence used very vividly, how few cups of liquor withstand the wind at the dusk; Li Qingzhao personifies the natural thing, which is widely applied to express defamiliarization. Follows are various translation versions.<br />
<br />
1.By cup on cup of wine so dry oh,<br />
How can I endure at dusk the drift<br />
Of wind so swift? (Xu Yuanchong）<br />
<br />
2.Three cups of thin wine would utterly fail.<br />
To cope with the rising evening gale. (Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
3.How can a few cups of thin wine,<br />
Bring warmth against the chilly winds of sunset? (Lin Yutang)<br />
<br />
4.Three or two cups of light wine,<br />
How can they ward off the strong? (Yang Xianyi)<br />
<br />
Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by poet, which slash the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.<br />
<br />
Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by the poet, which slashed the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Translation of Colloquialism====<br />
<br />
Colloquialism refer to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.<br />
<br />
Colloquialism refers to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised for the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:<br />
<br />
Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised as the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1. Sitting alone at the window, how could I but quicken the pace of darkness <br />
Which won’t thicken? (Xu Yuanchong）<br />
<br />
2. Standing by the window---watching in anguish stark.<br />
Could I bear alone the sight until it is dark? (Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
3. I remain by my window. Why is the day so dark, all alone? (Mao Yumei)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and causal as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and casual as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Another sentence is“这次第，怎一个、愁字了得?”<br />
<br />
1.How, in the word “Miserable,” can one find------<br />
The total effects of all these on the mind! (Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
2.Oh, what can I do with a grief<br />
Beyond belief! (Xu Yuanchong)<br />
<br />
3.Is this the kind of mood and moment, to be expressed by one word “sad”? <br />
(Lin Yutang)<br />
<br />
4.At the time like this, what immense sorrow I must bear! (Yang Xianyi)<br />
<br />
The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different word to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.<br />
<br />
The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different words to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4. Defamiliarization on Image Level====<br />
<br />
Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.<br />
<br />
Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore it can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====4.1 Cultural-Loaded images=====<br />
<br />
This kind of category is the juxtaposition of allusion and complicated sentiment in certain culture.<br />
<br />
1.Translation the image of “雁” in the Shengshengman<br />
<br />
The sentence “雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识.”The translation versions collected as follow:<br />
<br />
1. Myself, into woe, a flight of wild geese has thrown.<br />
<br />
But with them, very familiar I have grown. (Xu Zhongjie) <br />
<br />
2.I recognize the geese flying overhead:<br />
<br />
My old friends,<br />
<br />
Bring not the old memories back! (Lin Yutang)<br />
<br />
3. It breaks my heart, alas,<br />
<br />
To see the wild geese pass,<br />
<br />
For they are my acquaintances of old. (Xu Yuanchong)<br />
<br />
4. Wild geese fly past, while I’am broken-hearted;<br />
<br />
But I recognize they are my old friends. (Yang Xianyi&Gladys Yang) <br />
<br />
5. Overhead,a heart-rending line<br />
<br />
South-bound wild geese at morn<br />
<br />
Yet old acquaintances of mine. (Zhu Chunshen)<br />
<br />
After study some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.<br />
<br />
After studying some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is a straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.<br />
<br />
Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Natural Images====<br />
<br />
Pure scenery depiction means the scene is universe, such as some flower, tree, mountain, stream but usually combined with emotional revelation.<br />
<br />
The image “黄花” usually translated into “yellow flower”, “chrysanthemum”, “yellow chrysanthemum”. Different versions are collected as follow:<br />
<br />
1. As compared with chrysanthemums,<br />
<br />
I look slimmer e’en at my best. (Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
2. I would show a thinner face than yellow flowers. (Xu Yuanchong)<br />
<br />
3. I look thinner than the chrysanthemum. (Mao Yumei)<br />
<br />
4. I find myself thinner than the yellow flowers. (Chu Dagao)<br />
<br />
Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is more blurred, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)<br />
<br />
Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is a more blurred one, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====Conclusion====<br />
<br />
Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of it’s terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)<br />
<br />
Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of its terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulate the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)<br />
<br />
The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulates the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
* Eugene A.Nida. Language and Culture Contexts in Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2001. <br />
<br />
* Gan Wanni.A Defamiliarization Perspective to the Study of Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Ci[D].Southwest Jiaotong University,2012.<br />
<br />
* Peter Newmark.A Textbook of Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2011.<br />
<br />
* Schulte,R.and John Biguenet.Theories of Translation:An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida[C].Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1992.<br />
<br />
* Xu Yuanchong. 300 Tang Poems [M].China Intercontinental Press，2011.<br />
<br />
* Zhan Chongyang. Defamiliarization and Translation:A Case Study of the Chinese Versions of Jamaica Inn [D].Nanjing University，2013.<br />
<br />
*陈琳.论陌生化翻译[J].中国翻译，2010(1).<br />
<br />
* 陈琳.文学翻译审美的陌生化性[D].清华大学学报，2006(06)：21.<br />
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*房孝园,李清照:一言难尽的花与酒——《李清照词两首》个性解读[J].语文教学之友,2011,06:34-35.<br />
<br />
* 葛云峰,季淑凤.中国典籍英译的风格再现，易安词英译个案分析[J].淮北煤炭师范学院外国语学报，2008(5):30.<br />
<br />
*胡银根.文化语境视角下李清照八首词翻译的对比研究[D].湖南工业大学，2012.<br />
<br />
* 刘晰.拥抱差异：诗歌翻译的“陌生化”取向[J].淮南师范学院学报,2013（04）:15.<br />
<br />
* 李学欣.易安词作中叠词的美感传译[J].作家杂志，2009(12).<br />
<br />
* 李睿婕,张轶前.许渊冲译者主体性在李清照《声声慢》英译本中的体现.[J].河北联合大学学报，2012(6):12.<br />
<br />
*孙国华.鲁迅作品中的陌生化语言现象[J].无锡高等师范学校，2012.<br />
<br />
* 张冰.陌生化诗学：俄国形式主义研究[M].北京师范大学出版社，2000.<br />
<br />
* 朱纯深.宋词英译(2)[J].中国翻译,2002(3):93-94.<br />
<br />
*郑恩岳,李清照《声声慢》词英译研究[J].浙江教育学院学报，2003(05).<br />
<br />
*张金同.“怎一个愁字了得”——读李清照的《醉花阴》和《声声慢》[J].固原师专学报(社会科学版),1987,04:41-46.<br />
<br />
==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan 202070080642 MTI==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br />
<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
摘要:<br />
由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
口译，文化差异，应对策略--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略（格式错误）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as "global consciousness" and "global values". However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健,2012）<br />
<br />
The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as "global consciousness" and "global values". However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（Jian Fang，Zhang Jian,2012）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
No matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br />
<br />
===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br />
<br />
Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that "the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures." He believes that "the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word." The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能,1993） <br />
<br />
Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that "the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures." He believes that "the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word." The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（Lian Shuneng,1993）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, "For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used." Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation. (Jia Dejiang,1998)<br />
<br />
====Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking====<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br />
<br />
Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.(Edward Spir,2006)<br />
<br />
For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.(Jia Dejiang,1998)<br />
<br />
====Cultural barriers caused from values====<br />
<br />
Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br />
<br />
A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br />
<br />
====Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery====<br />
<br />
Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
<br />
For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval".“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word "龙" means something evil in the West, but "auspicious" in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase "望子成龙" should never be translated as “to hope one"'s child can become a dragon"，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br />
<br />
====Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs====<br />
<br />
Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give "New Year's Lucky money" to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but "Chinese New Year" does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. <br />
<br />
Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. “Sleep with father" is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as "go the heaven" and "kick the bucket". It means the same as "go the heaven" and "kick the bucket", but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as "与父亲睡觉", which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng,1993）<br />
<br />
Look at the following example:<br />
If this sentence is understood as<br />
"约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏", it is because the translator failed to understand " eats no fish " and "play the game". After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So "" means "loyalty" and " to eat no fish " means "loyalty" and " to play the game "means "race",The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is "John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright".<br />
<br />
====Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors====<br />
<br />
The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文,2002）<br />
<br />
The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（Zhang Wen,2002）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology. <br />
Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive. (Bai Jingyu,2000)（段落过长）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology. <br />
<br />
Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br />
<br />
Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of "functional equivalence". This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. <br />
<br />
Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of "functional equivalence". This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (Ye Zinan，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. --[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of "accuracy, smoothness and speed" and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as "on-site, present and limited time", the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the "nearest natural equivalence" between English and Chinese, and to try to find the "nearest natural equivalence" from the target language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
<br />
In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the "nearest natural equivalents" between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br />
<br />
====Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation====<br />
<br />
Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
<br />
The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the "nearest natural equivalent" to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions "三个和尚没水吃" into " Everyone‘s business is no one"s business." is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.(Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing,2006)<br />
<br />
However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌" by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang,2006）<br />
<br />
Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
<br />
In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir,2006）<br />
<br />
====Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods====<br />
<br />
The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a "purpose-oriented" approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
<br />
The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
<br />
=====Direct translation method=====<br />
<br />
Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, " Let sleeping dogs lie" is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br />
<br />
=====Substitution Method=====<br />
The substitution method is also called the "reciprocity method". It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom "冰冻三尺非一日之寒" is translated into " Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom "to spend money like water " translated into "挥金如土" is a good example.(Wang Kefei,1997)<br />
<br />
====Intentional translation method=====<br />
<br />
When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
<br />
For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the "U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology," Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that "The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, "天方夜谭" is not translated directly as"TheArabianNights"，but is instead translated as " fiction ". This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word "天方夜谭" has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）（段落过长）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the "U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology," Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that "The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, "天方夜谭" is not translated directly as"TheArabianNights"，but is instead translated as " fiction ". <br />
<br />
This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word "天方夜谭" has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
=====Interpretation=====<br />
<br />
Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language.(Bao Huinan,2001) When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
<br />
1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br />
诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br />
Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br />
<br />
2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br />
三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br />
and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br />
An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br />
<br />
3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br />
解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br />
<br />
4)Special cultural words<br />
<br />
敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br />
the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br />
<br />
=====Simple translation and no translation=====<br />
<br />
Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use "no translation" or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: "我姓张，弓长张。"Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.(Lu Naisheng,1993)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. <br />
<br />
Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.(Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br />
<br />
连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br />
<br />
刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br />
<br />
熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br />
<br />
杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br />
<br />
张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br />
<br />
Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br />
<br />
Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000.<br />
<br />
Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br />
<br />
Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br />
<br />
Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br />
<br />
Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br />
<br />
Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br />
--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:59, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br />
（少了学号）--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 12:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Wei Yafei<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the consistent development of the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, translation plays a more and more pivotal role in the world stage. It can not only help Chinese to have a better understanding of foreign cultures and promote the cooperation, but also spread the Chinese cultures to the international world. Translation strategies are the focus of translation works, especially during the process of translating Chinese to English. It’s very necessary to have a thorough study about the translation strategies. While towards different styles of text, different translation strategies should be applied relatively. This thesis focuses on translation strategies of two styles - journalistic style and literary style. <br />
The thesis firstly introduces main functons and types of texts. Then it depicts the characteristics and translation principles of journalistic style text and literary style text. In the main part, the thesis explores the translation strategies that suits for the two types based on different characteristics, including domestication, foreignization, omission,restructure and etc. This thesis is expected to make some contributions to the study of translation strategies and the practice of translation.<br />
<br />
===KEY WORDS===<br />
<br />
Translation strategies; text-types; journalistic style; literary style.<br />
（Key Words）注意大小写--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 12:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Wei Yafei<br />
<br />
<br />
===中文摘要===<br />
<br />
随着中外文化交流的不断发展，翻译在世界舞台上扮演着越来越重要的角色。它不仅可以帮助中国人更好地了解外国文化，促进合作，而且可以将中国文化传播到世界。翻译策略是翻译工作的重点，特别是在汉译英过程中。对翻译策略进行深入研究是有必要的。在针对不同样式的文本时，应相对地采用不同的翻译策略。本文主要研究两种体裁的翻译策略：新闻体裁和文学体裁。<br />
本文首先介绍主要的文本功能以及文本类型，然后探讨新闻风格文本和文学风格文本的语言特点及翻译原则。论文的主体部分结合了两种文本的特点，探讨了归化，异化，省译，重构等翻译策略。本文有望为翻译策略的研究和翻译的实践做出贡献。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
翻译策略; 文本类型; 新闻体裁; 文学体裁.<br />
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<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Translation strategies are critical in translation process. Towards texts in different styles which have different models of texts’ structure and communicative functions, translation strategies are quite variable. There are a great number of scholars both from China and the international world who have devoted themselves to dive into and research the most effective and practical strategies. <br />
<br />
Translation strategies are critical in translation process. Towards texts in different styles that have different models of texts’ structure and communicative functions, translation strategies are quite variable. There are a great number of scholars both from China and the international world who have devoted themselves to dive into and research the most effective and practical strategies. --[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 12:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Wei Yafei<br />
<br />
However, there are still lack of thorough researches about translation strategies for different text styles. In this thesis, the first part is about the introduction and analysis of former scholars’ researches and the whole picture of this thesis. Then, the thesis will discuss the development, characteristics and functions of different-style texts from the perspective of linguistics.From the perspective of language characteristics,literary style texts are vivid,full of feelings and connotation-contained, while journalistic style texts are new, objective,true and political-related. From the perspective of translation principles, literary style texts are based on equivalence priciple and accuracy,while journalistic style texts are based on accuracy,purpose and readability. The main part is about the translation strategies of source texts in journalistic style and literary style respectively and the analysis of examples, such as the domestication, foreignization in literary-style texts and the omission , restructure, amplification and imitation in journalistic-style text. In concluding part, the thesis will generalize the main idea and make an objective appreciation about the thesis.<br />
<br />
However, there are still lack of thorough researches about translation strategies for different text styles. In this thesis, the first part is about the introduction and analysis of former scholars’ researches and the whole picture of this thesis. Then, the thesis will discusses the development, characteristics and functions of different-style texts from the perspective of linguistics.From the perspective of language characteristics,literary style texts are vivid,full of feelings and connotation-contained, while journalistic style texts are new, objective,true and political-related. From the perspective of translation principles, literary style texts are based on equivalence priciple and accuracy,while journalistic style texts are based on accuracy,purpose and readability. The main part is about the translation strategies of source texts in journalistic style and literary style respectively and the analysis of examples, such as the domestication, foreignization in literary-style texts and the omission , restructure, amplification and imitation in journalistic-style text. In concluding part, the thesis will generalize the main idea and make an objective appreciation about the thesis.--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 12:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Wei Yafei<br />
<br />
===Theoretical Framework===<br />
====Background and development of Texts’ styles====<br />
<br />
According to the research, there is still no specific definition of distinguishing differences of texts styles. Some scholars claim texts’ styles to be registers, even some equal them to speech events. Qin Xiubai, a famous Chinese language and teaching professor, introduced that there were two main schools of the study of Texts styles’- the Swalesian School represented by John M.S wales and V.K.Bhatia and the Australian School represented by J.R.Martin. John Martin believes that styles of texts means a bunch of social events in which the members have the same communicative goal. While V.K.Bhatia believes that styles of texts are identifiable communicative events that have obvious inner structural features, conventionally happening in specific careers or academic communities. We can tell from the two schools’ views that styles of texts are a kind of communicative events with its special communicative purpose and clear structures. From this point, translators or interpreters can exert theory to analyze texts’ styles and recognize the intentions of writers as well as keep the functional and sense equivalence between the source texts and target texts. J.R.Martin take texts’ styles as a communication-orientated process of social communication with steps. Eggins view texts of styles as a type of activity with steps that orientated on communicative purposes. So that the difference of texts styles is on the level of values in use rather than the contents of discourse, characteristics of forms or other rules.<br />
<br />
According to the research, there is still no specific definition of distinguishing differences of texts styles. Some scholars claim texts’ styles to be registers, even some equal them to speech events. Qin Xiubai, a famous Chinese language and teaching professor, introduced that there were two main schools of the study of Texts styles’- the Swalesian School represented by John M.S wales and V.K.Bhatia and the Australian School represented by J.R.Martin. John Martin believes that styles of texts mean a bunch of social events in which the members have the same communicative goal. While V.K.Bhatia believes that styles of texts are identifiable communicative events that have obvious inner structural features, conventionally happening in specific careers or academic communities. <br />
We can tell from the two schools’ views that styles of texts are a kind of communicative events with its special communicative purpose and clear structures. From this point, translators or interpreters can exert theory to analyze texts’ styles and recognize the intentions of writers as well as keep the functional and sense equivalence between the source texts and target texts. J.R.Martin take texts’ styles as a communication-orientated process of social communication with steps. Eggins view texts of styles as a type of activity with steps that orientated on communicative purposes. So that the difference of texts styles is on the level of values in use rather than the contents of discourse, characteristics of forms or other rules.<br />
（段落过长 建议分成两段） （存在单复数语法错误）--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 13:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Wei yafei<br />
<br />
Huang Guowen once said that every text plays a communicative role in a specific social and cultural environment, and people belonging to a specific social and cultural background can usually see its communicative purpose. (Huang Guowen,2001) The text is a combination of communicative symbols for the exchange of information between the sender and the recipient. In order to achieve a certain communicative purpose, the sender must choose an appropriate genre and corresponding manifestation to convey the information, and the recipient is expected to respond accordingly. Thus, the function of texts can be realized. Christiane Nord summarized four functions of texts from the perspective of translation. They are referential function, expressive function, appellative function and phatic function. (Nord, 1997)<br />
<br />
====Main functions of texts==== <br />
<br />
=====The Referential Function=====<br />
The referential function of a text means the reference to or description of objects or phenomena of the world. It is mainly expressed through the denotative value of the lexical items presented in the text and can be analyzed through the nature of the objects. It is orientated toward objects in real or fictitious worlds. There are several functions of referential function: informative function, directive function and didactic function. If the referent is a fact or state of things unknown to the receiver, such as an accident, the text function may consist in informing the readers. If the referent is the description of an object, such as the illustration of using a washing machine, the text function may be directive. If it is a whole field that the receivers are to learn, such as physics, the function may be didactic.<br />
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=====The Expressive Function=====<br />
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The expressive function refers to the sender’s attitude to toward the objects or phenomena. This function is sender-orientated. The expressive function of the text may be subdivided according to what it is expressed. If the sender expresses individual feelings or emotions, such as a public speech, it will be an emotive sub-function. If what is expressed is an evaluation, like comments, the sub-function will be evaluative.<br />
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=====The Appellative Function=====<br />
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The appellative function refers to use of language to make the receiver feel or do something. The appellative function “receiver-orientated. It aims at the receivers’ sensitivity or disposition to act and tries to induce receivers to respond in a particular way. It can be broken into several sub-functions: illustrative function, persuasive function, advertising function and pedagogical function. If we want to illustrate a hypothesis by an example, we appeal to the reader’s previous experience to knowledge, That’s what called illustrative function. If we want to persuade someone to do something or to share a particular viewpoint, we appeal to their sensitivity and their secret desires. That’s what called persuasive function. If we want to let someone by a particular product, we tend to describe those qualities of the product that are presumed to have positive values in receivers’ value system. That’s advertising function. If we wan to educate a person, we may appeal to their susceptibility to ethical and moral principles. That’s pedagogical function.<br />
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====Main Text - types====<br />
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Katharina Reiss, founder of German translation functionalism, put forward text-typology theory in Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism. She believes that there are four texts, including the context-focused text, the form-focused text, the appeal-focused text and the audio-media text. <br />
Peter Newmark, representative of the British linguistic school of translation theory, based on the study of former linguisticians, he put forward the following six functions of texts - expressive function, informative function, the vocative function, the aesthetic function, the phatic function and the meta-lingual function. A text may has several functions at the same time, but only has one major function. Taking a whole consideration of the two theories, the main texts are the following three, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts. Journalistic-style texts and literary-style texts are mainly connected with the informative and expressive function respectively. <br />
<br />
=====The Expressive Texts=====<br />
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Language is a tool for people to communicate with each other. Through language, people can express their thoughts, affection, wills, desires, opinions, attitude, etc. This is the expressive function of language. The core of expressive function is the speaker's thoughts. The speaker uses words to express feelings, regardless of the reaction of others.Typical expressive-function texts include the following three types. The first ones are serious and imaginative literature which contain lyrics, short stories, long novels and plays. The second type is authoritative texts, including a variety of genres, whose authority comes from the status of the author or language skills, such as senior government officials and political party leaders’ speeches, such as declarations, legal regulations, documents as well as literary and academic works written by authority figures etc. The third type is texts that express writers’ ideas directly, without direct readers, like autobiography, private letters, etc. <br />
<br />
===== The Informative Texts=====<br />
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In interactions, people often have to describe, narrate or explain the situation of relevant things. This involves the information function of language. The core is the external environment, which is the reported insights and theories. The informative text usually has a fixed format, such as textbook, technical reports, newspaper articles, scientific papers, meeting minutes, etc. <br />
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===== The Vocative Texts=====<br />
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People often use words to evoke others' sympathy or prompt them to take some actions. That shows the imperative function of language. The core of this function is the readers or audiences. The speaker wants readers or audiences to feel and follow the intent of the text and act as expected. Typical vocative texts are notices, advertisements, instructions, requests, appeals, etc.<br />
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===Literary Stylistics and Journalistic Stylistics=== <br />
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With the appearance of societal pragmatics, pragmatics and functional grammar, scholars recognized the importance of language functions. They tried to classify the texts in the light of language functions and divided them into two main types. One is literary style, the other is non-literary style. Snell-Hornby classified literary texts as Bible, drama, film, lyric poetry, modern literature, classic works, children literature, literature in 1990 and pastime novel. <br />
<br />
====Language Characteristics====<br />
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=====For literary style=====<br />
======Vividness======<br />
In literary works, writers use words or language to vividly describe or portray people, objects, things to reflect the world’s various situations or expose social reality, they will use appropriate techniques to render the atmosphere and create an immersive feeling for readers. For Example, “The bullfrogs trump to usher in the night, and the note of the whip-poor-will is borne on the rippling wind from over the water.” Through the use of verbs such as "trump", "usher" and "is borne", the images of frogs, hawks and wind blowing on the water surface in the evening are vividly depicted. That happens a lot in literary works.<br />
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======Emotional expression======<br />
As we all know, all things and objects are embodiment of writers’ feelings and emotions. In literary creation, whether it is to portray characters or to describe scenery, often inadvertently or intentionally contains or carries the writer’s own emotions. In other words, expressing emotion includes direct expression and indirect expression. The lyricism of this kind of literature can effectively arouse the emotional resonance of readers.<br />
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======Connotation======<br />
Connotation means that writers do not always describe people or things in all-round aspects with every details, but can depict in limited number of words to show or imply infinite meaning or artistic conception, leaving readers with imagination. That will be unforgettable for a long time. For example, “ From my mother’s sleep I fell into the State. And I hunched in its belly till my wet fur froze.” In this two sentences, “Sleep” metaphorically means in the mother’s womb, can also refer to the poet’s lofty ideals and ambitions. The capitalized "State" can refer to both the world and the poet’s motherland - The United States.<br />
<br />
<br />
===== For journalistic style=====<br />
Journalistic-style texts vary a lot from the the literary-style texts. As an unique texts which are shown to billions of audience, the characteristics of news are mainly in following four aspects: Truth, objective, new and political-related.<br />
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======Truthfulness======<br />
First, as the definition indicates news is about facts，which first should be true. “News lays claim to the qualities of truthfulness and accuracy-properties often implied by the term objectivity, a concept used to legitimize the journalistic text while at the same time recognizing the multidimensional and elusive nature of truth. News asks to be accepted as, at the very least, an approximation to truth, and certainly close enough to the truth to be worthy of our trust in its integrity”(McNair, 1998:2)<br />
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======Newness======<br />
If the news isn’t new, it should have been called “olds”. This is more than a joke. News is reported to make a contrast to the convention, strike people by surprise and keep them in suspense. “News is not about somebody bitten by a dog, but about a dog bitten by a man”, “News is just something that can move women to scream: My Gosh!” The two old sayings have been taken as most vivid descriptions of news, featuring its distinctive characteristics of newness.<br />
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======Objectivity======<br />
The objectivity is one of the most important professional concepts of news and has caught great attention in news circle. “The basic content of this principle is the content must be completely true, fair and neutral, not fictitious, and not biased or subjective” (Yang Xiyou 2009, 6)When writing news or reports, media workers shouldn’t put their subjective feelings into the reports. And the use of vocabulary should also be fair and neutral. When international news media, such as BBC and VOA, report about China Diaoyu Islands issue, they generally use Sankaku Islands and Diaoyu Island. When translating these words, the translator should be faithful to the original text and translate these two names. However, due to ideological, political or historical reasons, the use of vocabulary may deviate from the principle of objectivity, such as: in the report of Russia and Japan’s dispute on islands, only the Russian address- “ Kuril Islands” was used, but the Japanese address- “Four Northern Islands” was not used. When translating, the translator should add “Thousand Southern Islands” and “Four Northern”.<br />
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======Political Relevance======<br />
Although news is objective, absolutely objective and fair reports do not exist. The media has never been able to completely get rid of the shackles of political and economic power or ideology. The content of the report tends to obey the interests of the country. The use of political vocabulary in English current affairs news must also faithfully reflect the country’s political standpoint. Regarding to the English translation of the Diaoyu Islands, the Chinese news media translate into “Diaoyu Islands”, while the Japanese news media and some Western news media call it “Senkaku Islands”. From the usage of these words, it is obvious to see the political stance. When translating these political words, translators must be very cautious. In addition to be faithful to the original text, translators or interpreters should also consider our country’s interests.<br />
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====Translation principles==== <br />
Translation is the process of transforming signs or representations into another signs or representations.(Nord, 2001:6) Generally speaking, according to the object of translation, translation can be divided into two kinds: literary translation and non-literary translation. In literary translation the object is only the literary work, such as pot, novel and so on, and it focuses on the expression of contents, emotions and rhetoric of the original.<br />
<br />
===== For literary style=====<br />
Although literary translation and non-literary translation share basic principles, literary translation which has its unique ways, is rather different from non-literary translation. Translating literary works is not only a process of transforming languages but also a process of recreating because literature belongs to a part of art. This is the most important feature of literary translation and also the basic translation principles.<br />
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======Equivalence-based principle======<br />
Equivalence-based principle equals to “Dynamic equivalence” proposed by Eugene A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist. This principle points that translators should work hard in different languages and different cultures to find translation equivalents between them, and use appropriate methods to reorganize the form and semantic structure of the original text. Dynamic equivalence includes four aspects: one is lexical equivalence, the other is syntactic equivalence, the third is textual equivalence, the fourth is sense equivalence. In literary translation, sense equivalence is the core. For example, the Chinese sentence “青年小伙子们，有事没事，总想和小芹说句话” can be translated in to “Young men sought every excuse to talk with Xiao Qin”.This shows sense equivalence.<br />
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======Accuracy-based principle======<br />
No matter how beautiful the texts are, the accuracy is always the most important, rather than the forms. Be Faithful to the content of the original text, the translator must fully express the content of the original text without any tampering, distortion, omission or arbitrary deletion. The more accurate the words be chosen, the better the translation texts will be. For example, when translating “ 微风”, we’d better translate it into “breeze” or “gentle breeze” rather than “gentle wind” since the breeze is more accurate.<br />
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=====For Journalistic style=====<br />
Journalistic-style texts belong to the informative texts according to the above analysis. Translation principles of Journalistic are mainly mainly purposiveness, accuracy and readability.<br />
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======Purpose-based principle======<br />
Purpose" is the basic principle of journalistic-style texts translation, and other principles are based on this principle. For information-based texts, “ translation skopos ”, the German functionalist translation theory, was put forward by Rice, Vermeer, and Nord. Skopos has great significance in guiding of translation. This is because the purpose of information-based translation is very strong, that is, the translation has a clear goal - to provide information. Snell Hornby believes: “More practical the texts is, more clear its function is. The more the translation tends to focus on the target language.” As far as the journalistic text is concerned, the purpose of its translation is conveying the information and communication, allowing readers to easily understand the intention of the speaker. The translation should conform to the audience’s needs, cultural expectations, beliefs and cognitive status as much as possible, and it is meaningful in the communication environment of the target language culture. For example, in news, sometimes vocabulary vacancies are caused by the absence of equivalence in the translation, and it is impossible to use completely equivalent and accurate words to express its connotation during translation. In this case, domestication can be applied. Considering the specific translation purpose, context and characteristics of the target language, if the purpose of translation is to spread foreign cultures, foreignization strategies can be adopted. That’s the purpose-based translation principle.<br />
<br />
Purpose" is the basic principle of journalistic-style texts translation, and other principles are based on this principle. For information-based texts, “ translation skopos ”, the German functionalist translation theory, was put forward by Rice, Vermeer, and Nord. Skopos has great significance in guiding of translation. This is because the purpose of information-based translation is very strong, that is, the translation has a clear goal - to provide information. Snell Hornby believes: “More practical the texts is, more clear its function is. The more the translation tends to focus on the target language.” <br />
As far as the journalistic text is concerned, the purpose of its translation is conveying the information and communication, allowing readers to easily understand the intention of the speaker. The translation should conform to the audience’s needs, cultural expectations, beliefs and cognitive status as much as possible, and it is meaningful in the communication environment of the target language culture. For example, in news, sometimes vocabulary vacancies are caused by the absence of equivalence in the translation, and it is impossible to use completely equivalent and accurate words to express its connotation during translation. In this case, domestication can be applied. Considering the specific translation purpose, context and characteristics of the target language, if the purpose of translation is to spread foreign cultures, foreignization strategies can be adopted. That’s the purpose-based translation principle.（建议截成两段，段落过长）--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 12:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Wei Yafei<br />
<br />
<br />
======Accuracy-based principle====== <br />
The purpose of informative text is to convey information. Therefore, the translation work of the information text should be accurate, clear and precise. The translator can’t deliberately or unintentionally miss any original author’s information. In journalistic style, the accuracy is critical. A slight difference of words can make huge results. Especially, for those news related with politics and business. A word with different emotional sense can make a complete opposite statement. A small movement of a point can cause millions capital loss. For example, 1.33 million and 13.3 million has the huge difference. This principle is similar to the “faith” proposed by Yan Fu. “Faith” means “faithfulness”. The translation of linguistic-style texts should confirm to accuracy.<br />
<br />
======Readability-based principle======<br />
Generally speaking, the terminology of information-based texts is neutral and has no obvious personal characteristics or regional colors. In news, even though there are more facts that personal emotions and feeling, translators or interpreters can make small adjustment of the speakers to make the report readable. In short, when translating, based on the readers’ language level, various translation methods should be mobilized on the premise of not changing the original intent of the article and report. It may make the content and layout of the article easier to understand, fluent and concise. But be sure to keep the source language texts’ characteristics. <br />
<br />
===Translation strategies===<br />
Translation strategies refer to the thoughts, process, methods and procedure during the process of translation. Towards original texts with different texts styles, translation strategies also vary in a large degree. The thesis will discuss from two typical stylistic texts - literary style and journalistic style. According to The Modern Chinese Dictionary, strategies indicate guidelines and means which are deigned on the basis of the situations concerned. While methods are the ways and procedures in solving real problems. However, the two are relative to each other. In simple words strategies are the guidelines of the concrete methods. The concrete methods should be adopted in the direction of their strategies. Based on the above, a conclusion in drawn that translation strategies are the guidelines for realizing a particular translation aim, yet translation methods the concrete ways employed by translators to make the particular translation aim come true.<br />
<br />
====Translation strategies in literary style====<br />
In the book Translation Criticism the Potentials & Limitations, Reiss pointed out that “Translation of literary works would better be called free rendering than translations, especially when the personality of the translator and the force of his artistic temperament result in a TL version standing on its own, indebted to the original as a model and a source of inspiration. (Reiss, 2004:91) This description indicates the characteristics of literary translation. <br />
<br />
===== Domestication=====<br />
Domestication is firstly coined by L.Venuti in his book The Translator’s Invisibility called “guihua” in Chinese. Domestication is a strategy by which the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the original text is erased in the translation in order to meet its readers’ aesthetic and reception psychology. As Venuti argues the adoption of domesticating strategy is the cultural disparity and imperialism. In the 1980s translation studies underwent “cultural turn”, and since then translation has being studied in the cultural and social contexts. The dominance of transparent discourse in English-language translation was decisively challenged at the turn of the twentieth century.<br />
Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication by his assertion on dynamic equivalence that “A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness <br />
of expression… and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture.” (Nida, 2004:159) He maintains that the function of translation is to communicate and it is important for the reader to understand what is conveyed by the translation, which takes the reader’s response into consideration. He claims that the reader of the target text should have the similar comprehension and appreciation as does the reader of the source text. Domestication tries to avoid cultural dispute and eliminate cultural barriers to achieve successful cross-cultural communication. The domesticating translation is one of naturalness and smoothness, <br />
which is the advantage of domestication. Here are three main methods that can achieve domestication strategy. They are paraphrasing, adaptation and replacement.<br />
Domestication is firstly coined by L.Venuti in his book T《he Translator’s Invisibility》 called “guihua” in Chinese. Domestication is a strategy by which the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the original text is erased in the translation in order to meet its readers’ aesthetic and reception psychology. As Venuti argues the adoption of domesticating strategy is the cultural disparity and imperialism. In the 1980s translation studies underwent “cultural turn”, and since then translation has being studied in the cultural and social contexts. The dominance of transparent discourse in English-language translation was decisively challenged at the turn of the twentieth century.<br />
Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication by his assertion on dynamic equivalence that “A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness <br />
of expression… and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture.” (Nida, 2004:159) He maintains that the function of translation is to communicate and it is important for the reader to understand what is conveyed by the translation, which takes the reader’s response into consideration. He claims that the reader of the target text should have the similar comprehension and appreciation as does the reader of the source text. Domestication tries to avoid cultural dispute and eliminate cultural barriers to achieve successful cross-cultural communication. The domesticating translation is one of naturalness and smoothness, <br />
which is the advantage of domestication. Here are three main methods that can achieve domestication strategy. They are paraphrasing, adaptation and replacement.（书籍需要加书名号）--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 13:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Wei yafei<br />
======paraphrasing======<br />
<br />
Domestication by the method of paraphrasing is effective in dealing with a simple expression behind which there is a heavy cultural load. We should adapt paraphrasing strategy.<br />
<br />
Example1<br />
<br />
ST: 如囊萤 如映雪 家虽贫 学不辍 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br />
<br />
TT1: Then we have one who put fireflies in a bag, and again another who used the white glare from snow. Although their families were poor, these men studied <br />
unceasingly.<br />
<br />
TT2: One enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag, another read by the light reflected by the snow. Although their families were poor, they never ceased learning. <br />
Annotation: in order to read by their light. <br />
<br />
TT3: Che-yin, when a boy, being poor, read his book by the light of a glow-worm which he confined. And Sun-kang, in winter, read his book by the light reflected from snow. Though their families were poor they studied incessantly. <br />
<br />
The original text is from a classical book in china named Three-Character Classic.“囊萤”and “映雪” are Chinese allusions urging children to work hard at their study. Each of the contracted expressions has a story behind it. By reading T1 and T2, readers cannot understand the allusion to the full and the logic between the expressions of “put fireflies in a bag/enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag”and“used the white glare from snow”and the expressions about the persons’ industry at their studies. T3 paraphrases the sentence and makes logic explicit by introducing the heroes in the allusions and explaining what they used the fireflies/glow-worms for. This is effective in translation.<br />
<br />
======Adaptation======<br />
<br />
In order to achieve naturalness of expression, grammar, lexicon and culture. Adaptations are necessary. For terms which identify culturally different objects but with somewhat similar functions, adaptation shows its advantage in translation.<br />
<br />
Example2 <br />
<br />
ST: 老少爷们，从麻木的状态中苏醒过来吧。(Moyan，2003:85)<br />
<br />
TT: Come out of your stupor, my friends. ( Goldblatt, 2004:293)<br />
<br />
Address terms, as an indispensable part of conversations and communications, can reflect the tradition and culture of a nation. In all languages, address terms play an important role in social intercourse. Set in Northeast countryside of China, “ 老少爷们”is a typical address term of China’s northern dialect. And it is usually used by a man, showing some masculinity. It’s an oral expression often addressed to males. Goldblatt translate it as “my friends”, often used in an English speech to strike a chord in listeners and get them united or in favor of the speaker, conspicuously in an adaptation way. <br />
<br />
Example3<br />
<br />
ST: 凡训蒙 须讲究 详训诂 明句读 （Wang Yinglin,1986）<br />
<br />
TT1: In the education of the young, there should be explanation and elucidation, careful teaching of the interpretations of commentators, and due attention to paragraphs and sentences. <br />
<br />
TT2: Whoever teaches boys, ought to discuss and examine deeply (the meaning of the characters); Explain their derivation, mark distinctly the periods and the punctuation. <br />
<br />
TT3: Every one that instructs youth should explain fully what he teaches; should illustrate the present and the past, and distinguish clearly the comma and the period. <br />
There are two kinds of adaptation in the translation of this Chinese line. First, it is the domestication of the Chinese term “句读”. Actually, ancient Chinese classics do not have any punctuation marks and the “句读” refers to the longer or shorter pause in the classics according to the meaning of the text. All three translators domesticate the Chinese term by the concept of punctuation in the English language and render it respectively as “paragraphs and sentences”, “the periods and the punctuation” and “the comma and the period”. Although the three kinds of rendering differ from each other on the level of punctuation, they have much the same function—the target text reader can easily understand in what way “句读” functions in a Chinese text. Thus dynamic equivalence is achieved. The second adaptation is the change of parts of speech—the change from verb to noun. Giles changes the verbs “训”, “讲究” and “训诂” in the Chinese text into nouns “education”, “explanation and elucidation”, “interpretations” and “attention”.<br />
<br />
======Replacement======<br />
<br />
Example 4 <br />
<br />
ST:勤有功 戏无益 戒之哉 宜勉力 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br />
<br />
TT: Diligence has its reward; play has no advantages. Oh, be on your guard, and put forth your strength. <br />
<br />
This is an example of domestication on the lexical level. “哉” in Chinese is a particle of exclamatory or of interrogative value. In this line, it functions as an exclamatory particle. It helps to make up the syllable in the Chinese version and express the author’s emotion of instructing the young. Giles translates it into the correspondent English exclamatory particle “Oh” which retains the tone of a similar function as is in the source text. It achieves dynamic equivalence in terms of reader’s response to the rhetoric.<br />
<br />
=====Foreignization=====<br />
<br />
Foreignization designates the type of translation in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks the target conventions by retaining the foreignness of the original. It functions to preserve the foreignness and value of the foreign language culture in the source text. It takes the readers of the target language culture to a foreign culture, making the readers of the translated text feel the differences and enjoy the alien atmosphere. It is more faithful to the language features of the source text than domestication does, and it keeps the flavor of the original language. Venuti and other scholars who advocate foreignization hold that foreignization enable readers of the translated text to learn about the alien culture of the source language text, which is often the reading aim of the readers who are capable of understanding the alien culture. (Venuti, 1995)<br />
<br />
======phonetic compensation======<br />
<br />
Among the three translators, Giles is said to be an excellent English language master who was able to compose English poems. His translation of poems is generally in accordance with the composing and rhyming schemes of English poems, often with good rhythm. (Mu Shixiong, 2004:166) Though Giles is good at translating poems, he does not translate this text into a completely rhythmical one. Instead, he adds pronunciation to every Chinese character in the text to make a phonetic compensation so that the readers can still appreciate the ending rhyme of the original Chinese text. Giles does make an effort to create rhythmical effect whenever it is possible. In literary texts, phonetic compensation is always applied in translation of poem and prose. <br />
<br />
Example5 <br />
<br />
ST:养不教 父之过 教不严 师之惰 <br />
<br />
TT: To feed without teaching is the father’s fault. To teach without severity is the teacher’s laziness. <br />
<br />
Each line of the translation has a rhythmic focus. Respectively they are:“feed”,“without”and“teaching”in the first line; “father” and “fault” in the second line;“teach”,“without”and“severity” in the third line; and “teacher” and “laziness” in the fourth line. In this way, and together with the phonetic compensation, formal equivalence is achieved and by reading the phonetic compensation, target readers can feel the same rhythm of the original text and response the same as the readers of the source text. <br />
<br />
======Transliteration======<br />
<br />
Transliteration is a method that an item is translated according to its pronunciation rather than its meaning. This technique is often applied to translate ecological culture-loaded terms, like names of places, person, rivers, mountains or countries. There are two systems in use for transliteration Chinese characters: the Wade-Giles system of Romanization and the pinyin system of Romanization. For better transference of Chinese culture, the latter system is suggested. For some material culture-loaded terms, such as “仁”, “义”, “君子” and so on, transliteration might be preferable to any other methods. These terms represent the key concept of Confucianism, and any other English equivalent expressions may lead to misunderstanding. Thus, it is the most convenient and effective way to expose target readers in Chinese culture. For some time, the pinyin translation of these terms may be as acceptable and comprehensible as “kongfu” or “mahjong”. Certainly, for the sake of target readers’ understanding, an annotation is always needed to provide the further explanation of the cultural meanings of these terms. <br />
<br />
Example6<br />
<br />
ST: 南容三复“白圭”，孔子以其兄之子妻之。(Liu Dianjue, 46) <br />
<br />
TT1: Nan Jung in reciting the I Song repeated the verse about the sceptre of white jade three times. (In consequence of which) Master Kung gave him his elder brother’s daughter to marry. (Waley, 131)<br />
<br />
TT2: Nan Rong repeated over and over again the lines about the white jade sceptre. Confucius gave him his elder brother’s daughter in marriage. (D.C. Lau, 181)<br />
<br />
======Amplification======<br />
<br />
Amplification refers to add information behind some terms that is familiar to source language readers but unfamiliar to target language readers. By amplification, the connotation can be better conveyed to foreign readers. <br />
<br />
Example 7<br />
<br />
ST:论语者 二十篇 群弟子 记善言 <br />
<br />
TT: The Lunyu (the book of discourses and dialogues) contains twenty chapters. The disciples (of Confucius) have therein related his excellent sayings. <br />
<br />
In this example, the Chinese text does not mention the ancient Chinese sage Confucius, and the information on whose sayings had been recorded in the book “Lun-yu” is implicit, which can be inferred from the context by native Chinese, once they combine the notion of “论语”with their background knowledge. However, western readers do not have enough knowledge to appreciate the value of the “Lun-yu”if the title was translated without the mention of Confucius. <br />
<br />
==== Translation strategies in journalistic style====<br />
<br />
===== Amplification=====<br />
<br />
Sometimes, the translator needs to add proper words to complete the structure of the target texts, because mews sometimes needs more information to explain the inner meaning. The following examples are offered to illustrate the point. <br />
<br />
Example 8 <br />
<br />
ST: The real James Bond? (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 250) <br />
<br />
TT:谁是真正的邦德? <br />
<br />
There are no subject and predicate in the target text if the translator renders the headline by literal translation. Therefore,“谁是” is added in order to clarify the text. <br />
<br />
Example 9<br />
<br />
ST: Kings rout rockets, 101-74 (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 225) <br />
<br />
TT: 国王队击败火箭队，比分为 101 比 74 <br />
<br />
“比分为”is added in the target text to make the translation complete in sentence structure and meaning. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example 10<br />
ST:Reuters bests and worsts of the world cup (Huang Ruihong, 2004-06-15) <br />
<br />
TT:路透社评出世界最佳和最差球队 <br />
<br />
“评出” is added in the target text. Otherwise, there will be no predicate in the target text. Consequently, the translation will make no sense to the target reader. Translator should transfer new messages accurately and clearly to the target reader. To achieve this goal, amplification is often adopted to supplement necessary words or background information, which effectively avoids misunderstanding on the part of the target reader. <br />
<br />
=====Omission=====<br />
<br />
Omission refers to the strategy to delete unnecessary words or phrases from the target text. News headlines are featured by its brevity. Redundant words can be omitted either to conform to the norms of the target language or to achieve the effect of succinctness. <br />
<br />
Example11 <br />
ST: You need to sleep less than you think (Zou Shuang, 2005) <br />
TT: 适当少睡有益健康 <br />
As we know, English is a hypotactic language, which pays great attention to overt cohesion. Without the pronoun‘you’, the source text will be ungrammatical. By contrast, Chinese belongs to paratactic language, which attaches importance to covert coherence. When the translator does not render the word‘you’ into“你”, it won’t affect comprehension at all. In addition, the target text is succinct by leaving out the pronoun‘you’. Therefore, omission is adopted in this example. <br />
<br />
Example12 <br />
<br />
ST: Vogue says Queen Elizabeth II among world’s most glamorous (China Daily, 2007-11-07) <br />
<br />
TT:英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜 <br />
<br />
As it is well known to most Chinese readers that the Queen of UK is Elizabeth II (伊莉莎白二世), there is no need to keep it in the target text. Otherwise, the translation will be too long as a headline. The recommended version, thus, becomes 英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜. <br />
<br />
=====Imitation=====<br />
English news are featured by its vivid language, such as play on word, figures of speech, etc. They add special flavor to the text with the aim to attract readers’ eye. Obviously, to reproduce these aesthetic effect enjoys the privilege among the available methods. Throughout the history of translation theory, the idea of imitation has been manifested clearly by Alexander Fraser Tytler when he wrote: the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original in his famous essay on the Principles of Translation. (Munaday, 2001: 26) The following examples may illustrate the above idea.<br />
<br />
Example 13 <br />
<br />
ST:A tale of two hearts (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 199).<br />
<br />
TT:双心记 <br />
<br />
This headline tells a story that a patient has an artificial heart planted in his body. The headline is a parody of the novel A Tale of Two Cities written by Charles Dickens. The target text (双心记) is also a parody of “双城记”.<br />
<br />
Example14 <br />
<br />
ST: Soccer kicks off with violence (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 200) <br />
<br />
TT:足球开踢，拳打脚踢 <br />
<br />
This is a humorous news headline because of the use of pun. The phrase ‘kick off’ refers to the start of a football match, and it also implies that there is a fight in the football field. The meanings of the pun are successfully transferred by the target text with the recommended translation. The translator does a good job in reproducing the humorous sense.<br />
<br />
=====Restructure=====<br />
The target text should be acceptable and meaningful in a sense that it is coherent with the situation in which it is received. Once translated, the translator revises the order and rearranges all words into a perfect sentence. In doing so, the news is more logical and tuned with the habit of native readers' think and reading. It can be treated as an important technique used in translating news headline from Chinese into English or English to Chinese. <br />
<br />
Example 15 <br />
<br />
ST: A third of Londoners must work from home during Olympics to avoid tube <br />
<br />
TT: 奥运交通压力大 1/3伦敦人须在家上班 (2011-09-27 08:33)<br />
<br />
“A third” occurred in the beginning of the source text, but “奥运会” comes first in the target text. The source text can be translate into “1/3的伦敦人必须在家上班,在奥运会期间避免交通混乱”if there is not any translation strategies used. The translator rearranges the words order to emphasize the special time---Olympics. <br />
<br />
Example16<br />
<br />
ST: Mahfud proposes ‘Special Zoo’ for corrupt officials <br />
<br />
TT: 印尼高官提议建“贪官动物园” (2011-11-30 16:02)<br />
<br />
In order to satirize the corrupt officials, the translator exchanges the order of “special” and “贪官” during the translation process. It can be achieve some good effect to expose the corrupt officials in language sense. <br />
<br />
Example 17<br />
<br />
ST:‘Ready for winter’ campaign launches <br />
<br />
TT: 苏格兰打响“迎冬战役”(2011-10-24 12:06)<br />
<br />
The translator reorders the expression “Ready for winter” and “launches” during the translation process. Besides, the translator adds a subject to this sentence so that it can appeal to the readers’ thinking patterns. In order to make the readers or audiences understand the translated version smoothly and easily, the words or phrases are adjusted to accord with their thinking pattern. Restructuring refers to rearranging the words in logic order to make the translation more potential readers or audiences into the first consideration, making them understand the translated version easily.<br />
<br />
===== Adaptation=====<br />
Adaptation is a translation method, which refers to use an especially free translation, it relates to selecting, adding, deleting, and constructing cautiously instead of simply translating one word to another word. In order to make the translated version more proper to a certain readers or audiences, adaptation always make some essential changes for a special aim So adaptation is an activity which the news translators absorb the most important content from the source text on the basis of the particular requirement of the readers or audiences, then make some suitable adjustments. When the translators are doing some adaptation, though the form and style of the source text are altered in a way, the main idea of the source text must be kept.Though adaptation is not acted as a main translation method by some traditional translation theorists, adaptation is getting more and more popular and arousing more and more <br />
attention these days. You can see the term adaptation frequently showed in some authoritative journals and newspapers, etc. <br />
<br />
Example 18<br />
<br />
ST: Poor People May Be Quicker to Be Kind <br />
<br />
TT:穷人更有同情心 (2011-12-29 08:56)<br />
<br />
“Quicker”means“更快”, but here it is translated into “更有”, “快” is an adjective, “有”is a verb, they have different characters.“Kind”means“友善的”, it is an adjective, but it is translated into“同情心”, which is a noun. If the translator does not use some translation strategies like adaptation, the target text is unreadable. <br />
<br />
Example 19<br />
<br />
ST: Americans say Asia more important than EU: survey <br />
<br />
TT：多数美国人看好亚洲 (2011-09-16 08:43) <br />
<br />
“Important” is an adjective, and a comparative degree used in the source text. But the source text is translated in a totally different way, for it is translated into a verb “看好”. Adaptation should be used here to make sure the translation aim is achieved. <br />
<br />
Example 20<br />
<br />
ST: Lend your voices to ‘talking bins’ <br />
<br />
TT:“能说会唱垃圾桶”将亮相伦敦。<br />
<br />
If“talking bins” is translated into “会说话的垃圾桶”, it is so ordinary. But the translator adopt the adaptation strategy to translated it into“能说会唱垃圾桶”, it becomes very vivid, and it may leave a deep impression on the readers.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
The research conducted in this thesis is a fairly thorough study on the translation strategies of literary-style texts and journalistic-style texts. Through detailed discussion, several translation strategies have been analyzed and summarized. This thesis also studies the texts’ functions and main types of texts. The texts functions are referential function, expressive function and appellative function. The texts can be divided into three types- informative, expressive and vocative texts. On the basis of characteristics of different texts, detailed methods are applied. For literary-style texts, there are domestication and foreignization strategies. For journalistic-style texts, there are strategies like omission, restructure,adaption, imitation and amplification. Journalistic texts and literary texts are quite different, so the translation strategies are different. This thesis has a clear analysis about the translation strategies. However, it still owns a lot of drawbacks, such as the structure is too complicated, lack some of the former people’s study fruit. Hoping this thesis can make some contributions to the translation study and exercise process.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] McNair, Brain. ''The sociology of Journalism'' [M]. A Hodder Arnold Publication,1998.<br />
<br />
[2] Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' [M]. London and New York: Routledge,2001.<br />
<br />
[3] Newmark, P. ''Approaches to Translation'' ［M］. New York: Prentice Hall, 1981: 39.<br />
<br />
[4] Nord, Christiane. ''Translating as A Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained'' [M]. Shanghai : Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:6.<br />
<br />
[5] Reiss, Katharina. ''Translation Criticism the Potentials & Limitations'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004:91.<br />
<br />
[6] Venuti, L. ''The Translator’s Invisibility—A History of Translation''[M]. London & New York: Routledge,1995.<br />
<br />
[7] 黄瑞红.新闻英语的词汇特色和语法特征[J],《陕西广播电视大学学报》,2004 年第 6 卷第 2 期.<br />
<br />
[8] 刘殿爵. 论语[M]. 北京:中华书局,2011.<br />
<br />
[9] 穆诗雄.《跨文化传播——中国古典诗歌英译论》,合肥:中国科学技术大学出版社,2004.<br />
<br />
[10]王应麟.《三字经》,长沙:岳麓书社,1986.<br />
<br />
[11]许明武.新闻英语与翻译 [M],北京:中国对外翻译出版公司,2003.<br />
<br />
[12]邹爽.浅谈英语新闻标题的翻译 [J],《湖北财经高等专科学校学报》,2005 年第 17 卷第 2 期.<br />
<br />
[13]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-09/27/content_13797729.htm <br />
<br />
[14]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-11/30/content_14191000.htm <br />
<br />
[15]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-10/24/content_13962189.htm <br />
<br />
[16]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-12/29/content_14347771.htm <br />
<br />
[17]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-09/16/content_13712704.htm<br />
<br />
==Study on the Ideology of 2020 Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis 李泳珊 Li Yongshan 202020080614==<br />
<br />
<center>李泳珊 Li Yongshan 202020080614</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Ideology and translation studies always attract the attention of scholars in the field of translation studies. Nowadays, the empirical research method combining corpora and critical discourse analysis has provided more intuitive and convincing argument support for researches in this area. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies so as to substantially discuss the controlling role of ideology in the translation of Government Work Report. Due to limited time and energy, the author has not set up his/her own corpora and failed in applying SPSS, CiteSpace, NoteExpress, EmEditor and other statistical software to collect and analyze corpus. However, this research is carried out from the perspective of critical discourse analysis and solid evidence will be provided as much as possible. <br />
<br />
Ideology and translation studies has attracted the attention of scholars in the field of translation studies for a long time. Nowadays, the empirical research method combining corpora and critical discourse analysis has provided more intuitive and convincing argument support for researches in this area. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies so as to substantially discuss the controlling role of ideology in the translation of Government Work Report. Due to limited time and energy, the author has not set up his/her own corpora and failed in applying SPSS, CiteSpace, NoteExpress, EmEditor and other statistical software to collect and analyze corpus. However, this research is carried out from the perspective of critical discourse analysis and solid evidence will be provided as much as possible. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Critical Discourse Analysis; Government Work Report,;Ideology<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
意识形态与翻译研究一直在翻译研究领域受到学者关注。今天，以语料库和批评话语分析结合的实证研究方法更是为此方面的研究提供了更直观、更有考证依据的论据支撑。本文将批评性话语分析与翻译研究结合起来，重点探讨了意识形态对《政府工作报告》翻译的操控作用。但受限于时间和能力，笔者未能建立起自己的语料库，利用科学的统计软件如SPSS、CiteSpace、NoteExpress、EmEditor等进行语料收集和分析。本文将仅从批评话语分析视角进行研究，并尽可能地提供足够的实证。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
批评话语分析；政府工作报告；意识形态<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
===1.1 The Interpretation of Ideology===<br />
The meaning of ideology is multiple. As mentioned by L.Althusser in Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses, ''Ideology equals Illusion/Hint, (L.Althusser, Lenin and Philosophy, London: Monthly Review Press, 1971, p.162) meaning that the essence of the reality could be cracked by following the hint of illusion.'' <br />
<br />
The meaning of ideology is multiple.A lot of people have tried to explain it.As mentioned by L.Althusser in Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses, "Ideology equals Illusion/Hint, (L.Althusser, Lenin and Philosophy, London: Monthly Review Press, 1971, p.162) meaning that the essence of the reality could be cracked by following the hint of illusion."--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
''Kress and Hodge define ideology by depicting the ideological properties of language. They argue that ideology is "a systematic body of thought organized in a particular point of view" (Kress & Hodge, 1979: 6). While they lay stress on the relation between language and ideology, Fowler defines ideology as "something neutral" that refers to the general view and ideas of how people understand the world and their experiences and how they organize their lives. He adds that "these implicit beliefs constitute "common sense" and provide the normative basis for discourse"'' (Fowler, 1996: 10-11).<br />
<br />
"Kress and Hodge define ideology by depicting the ideological properties of language. They argue that ideology is a systematic body of thought organized in a particular point of view" (Kress & Hodge, 1979: 6). While they lay stress on the relation between language and ideology, Fowler defines ideology as "something neutral"which refers to the general view and ideas of how people understand the world and their experiences and how they organize their lives. He adds that "these implicit beliefs constitute 'common sense' and provide the normative basis for discourse" (Fowler, 1996: 10-11).--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
''However, according to Fairclough, ideology is "the result of power relations and power struggles" that are "implicit in the conventions with which people interact linguistically and of which they are often unaware"'' (Fairclough , 1989: 2). <br />
However, according to Fairclough, "ideology is the result of power relations and power struggles " that are "implicit in the conventions with which people interact linguistically and of which they are often unaware" (Fairclough , 1989: 2). --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chenhui<br />
<br />
''Furthermore, VanDijk (1993) broadens the definition of ideology, which includes three main elements, namely society, cognition and discourse. Among that, society refers to power relations and the interests of certain groups, cognition is in relation to beliefs and values in life, and discourse deals with the relationship between language use and ideology, involving concealment and manipulation. It is clear from the above description that critical discourse analysts disagree on the scope of ideology, but they still share a common rationale in the relationship between language and ideology. Ideology uses language as a vehicle to express itself, and language as a return reflects and hides or constructs ideology.''(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) <br />
<br />
"Furthermore, VanDijk (1993) expands the definition of "ideology", which includes three main elements, which are society, cognition and discourse. Among them, society refers to powerful relations and the interests of certain groups, cognition is in relation to beliefs and values in life, and discourse deals with the relationship between language use and ideology, involving concealment and manipulation. It is clear from the above description that critical discourse analysts disagree on the scope of ideology,but they still share a common rationale in the relationship between language and ideology. Ideology uses language as a vehicle to express itself, and language as a return reflects hides or constructs ideology."(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
<br />
''Rhetorically, ideology realizes its natural status via the mutual interference between denotation and connotation. If denotation equals the first meaning, connotation is the second implication. However, the signifier of connotation (the second implication) is denotation. Hence, a complete sentence can embody the ideology.'' (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 15)<br />
<br />
"Rhetorically, ideology achieves its natural status through the mutual interference between denotation and connotation. If denotation equals the first meaning, connotation is the second implication. However, the signifier of connotation (the second implication) is denotation. Hence, a complete sentence can embody the ideology." (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 15)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
''In S/Z, Roland Barthes divided articles into Articles Inspiring People to Write and Articles Attracting People to Read, and then made corresponding assessment. “Yet, the fundamental evaluation on articles could neither be carried out from the perspective of sciences because sciences were not applied for measurement, nor derive from ideology because an article’s ideological value (involving morality, aesthetics, politics and truth) is a kind of value of representation rather than value of production (ideology is “Reflection” rather than Creation).”'' (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 16)<br />
<br />
"In S/Z, Roland Barthes divided articles into Articles Inspiring People to Write and Articles, Attracting People to Read, and then made corresponding assessment. "Yet, the fundamental evaluation on articles could neither be carried out from the perspective of sciences because sciences were not applied for measurement, nor derive from ideology because an article's ideological value (involving morality, aesthetics, politics and truth) is a kind of value of representation rather than value of production (ideology is “Reflection” rather than Creation)." (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 16)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
<br />
''Barthes and Nietzsche held that the subject is a kind of fiction. Through such fiction, ideology can naturally form and hide. Language structure and ideological structure penetrate each other and establish a seamlessly intimate relationship. “The role of a complete sentence is to push the story forward while explanatory codes act in contravention, cut off, interrupt and suspend the sentence and delay the disclosure of truth. Seemingly, explanatory codes curb the natural extension of sentence, but the sentence’s effective composition is enhanced to play a stronger part. Nevertheless, the truth (predicate and object) is the completer and terminator and appears to terminate the narration (sentence).” From the perspective of sentence patterns, diverse and complicated narrations are exactly the embodiment of ideology. Also, continuous innovation of narration modes can be regarded as a breakthrough from the conventionalized ideology (pushing the limit and recognizing the generation).'' (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 17)<br />
<br />
"Barthes and Nietzsche held that the subject is a kind of fiction. Through this kind of fiction, ideology can naturally come and hide. Language structure and ideological structure penetrate each other and establish a seamlessly intimate relationship. 'The role of a complete sentence is to push the story forward while explanatory codes act in contravention, cut off, interrupt and suspend the sentence and delay the disclosure of truth. Seemingly, explanatory codes curb the natural extension of sentence, but the sentence's effective composition is enhanced to play a stronger part. Nevertheless, the truth (predicate and object) is the completer and terminator and appears to terminate the narration (sentence).' From the perspective of sentence patterns, diverse and complicated narrations are exactly the embodiment of ideology. Also, continuous innovation of narration modes can be regarded as a breakthrough from the conventionalized ideology (pushing the limit and recognizing the generation)." (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 17)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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===1.2 Ideology and Translation Studies===<br />
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===1.2.1 Brief Introduction of Development Process of Ideology and Translation Studies===<br />
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''In 1980s and 1990s, as the emergence of Manipulation School and the “Cultural Turn” of translation studies, scholars began to pay attention to the role played by ideology and other factors beyond the text in manipulating translation. From the publishing of The Manipulation of Literature (Hermans,1985), a work making the Manipulation School known to the world (Lefevere et. al. first pointed out that translation as a kind of rewriting would be restricted by the target language ideology and poetics rules), contemporary ideology and translation studies have developed a history of about 40 years. In two decades (from 1985 to 2005), many western and Chinese scholars published their works on this research subject, including Lefevere,1992, Hermans, 1999, Benjamin, 2004, Wang Xiaoyuan (1999), Yang Liu (2001), Sun Yifeng (2003), Zha Jianming (2004) and Fang Kaiduan (2005) etc..'' (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.71)<br />
<br />
"In 1980s and 1990s, as the emergence of Manipulation School and the "Cultural Turn" of translation studies, scholars began to pay attention to the role played by ideology and other factors beyond the text in manipulating translation. From the publishing of The Manipulation of Literature (Hermans,1985), a work making the Manipulation School known to the world (Lefevere et. al. first pointed out that translation as a kind of rewriting would be restricted by the target language ideology and poetics<br />
rules),contemporary ideology and translation studies have developed a history of about 40 years. In two decades (from 1985 to 2005), many western and Chinese scholars published their works on this research subject, including Lefevere,1992, Hermans, 1999, Benjamin, 2004, Wang Xiaoyuan (1999), Yang Liu (2001), Sun Yifeng (2003), Zha Jianming (2004) and Fang Kaiduan (2005) etc..." (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.71)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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''In the aspect of theoretical innovation, Lefevere, a representative figure of western manipulation school, first put forward the idea of “Translation is a rewriting” (Hermans, 1985) and then elaborated “Two Key Elements” influencing translations: Ideology (External Mechanism) and Poetics (Internal Mechanism). He further held that as the sponsor controlled ideology, professionals manipulated poetics (Lefevere, 1992a:14-15).'' (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)<br />
<br />
"In the aspect of theoretical innovation, Lefevere, a representative figure of western manipulation school, first put forward the idea of 'Translation is a rewriting' (Hermans, 1985) and then elaborated 'Two Key Elements' influencing translations: Ideology (External Mechanism) and Poetics (Internal Mechanism). He further held that as the sponsor controlled ideology, professionals manipulated poetics (Lefevere, 1992a:14-15)." (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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''Venuti, a structuralist, defined translation as the initiative restructuring of foreign text so as to reflect the difference between the target language and the original language in ideology, culture, language and politics. In the meantime, he appealed that translators should adopt the resistant translation strategy and translate by means of foreignization. (Venuti, 1992: 10-14)''(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)<br />
<br />
"Venuti, a structuralist, defined translation as the initiative restructuring of foreign text so as to reflect the difference between the target language and the original language in ideology, culture, language and politics. In the meantime, he appealed that translators should adopt the resistant translation strategy and translate by means of foreignization." (Venuti, 1992: 10-14)''(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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''Bassnett, another supporter of Manipulation School, indicated that restrained by ideology and certain cultural factors, original text sometimes was presented to readers in the form of translated version. Such translation could be pseudo-translation, and “collusion” existed between the author/translator and readers (Lefevere&Bassnett, 1998: 25-40).''(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)<br />
<br />
"Bassnett, another supporter of Manipulation School, indicated that restrained by ideology and certain cultural factors, original text sometimes was presented to readers in the form of translated version. Such translation could be pseudo-translation, and “collusion” existed between the author/translator and readers (Lefevere&Bassnett, 1998: 25-40)."(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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===1.2.2 Government Work Report Translation’s Requirements and Limitations on Ideological Expression===<br />
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Government Work Report is the most representative literary form in the international publicity translation. In essence, it possesses distinctive political characteristics and sets extremely high requirements on translation language proficiency. Government Work Report (hereinafter refer to as GWR), as a typical political text, is mainly applied to summarize works completed last year and emphasize the next year’s tasks, which can intensively reflect the government’s priority of work during a certain period. As the institutional discourse, GWR largely reflects the then ideology and social development track. Since English Version of GWR serves as an important approach for the world to know China’s situation, the translation of GWR plays a vital role. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies to emphatically discuss the role of ideology in manipulating the GWR translation.<br />
<br />
Government Work Report is the most representative literary form in the international publicity translation. In essence, it possesses distinctive political characteristics and sets extremely high requirements on translation language proficiency. Government Work Report (hereinafter refer to as GWR), as a typical political text, is mainly applied to summarize works completed last year and emphasize the next year's tasks, which can intensively reflect the government's priority of work during a certain period. As the institutional discourse, GWR largely reflects the then ideology and social development track. Since English Version of GWR serves as an important approach for the world to know China's situation, the translation of GWR plays a vital role. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies to emphatically discuss the role of ideology in manipulating the GWR translation.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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=== 1.3 The Definition of Critical Discourse Analysis and Its Current Research and Application===<br />
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''Originating from critical linguistics, Critical Discourse Analysis (hereinafter referred to as CDA) has absorbed many disciplines’ research results including linguistics, sociology and psychology and achieved a development at the end of 1970s, aiming at revealing the hidden ideology by analyzing the linguistic form and exploring the relationship between language/ideology and rights.'' (Fowler R., E. Hodge., E． Kress., Trew T. Language and control［M]., London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979.)<br />
<br />
"Originating from critical linguistics, Critical Discourse Analysis (hereinafter referred to as CDA) has absorbed many disciplines'research results including linguistics, sociology and psychology and achieved a development at the end of 1970s, aiming at revealing the hidden ideology by analyzing the linguistic form and exploring the relationship between language/ideology and rights." (Fowler R., E. Hodge., E． Kress., Trew T. Language and control［M]., London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979.)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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CDA has been widely applied to study the meaning of ideology in mass media discourse such as advertising, news report, political oration, official documents and laws and regulations, which has laid a foundation for this research. Besides, the impact of ideology is a main issue in GWRs translation and involves two different languages and ideologies, proving the availability of CDA in GWR translation. In this paper, the author has compared and analyzed the English Version and Chinese Version of GWR from the perspective of CDA, and further discussed the relationship between ideology and translation.<br />
<br />
CDA has been widely applied to study the meaning of ideology in mass media discourse such as advertising, news report, political oration, official documents and laws and regulations, which has laid a foundation for this research. Besides, the impact of ideology is a main issue in GWRs translation and involves two different languages and ideologies, which proves the availability of CDA in GWR translation. In this paper, the author has compared and at the same time analyzed the English Version and Chinese Version of GWR from the perspective of CDA, and further discussed the relationship between ideology and translation.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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''In recent two decades, more and more foreign scholars have applied the corpora technology to CDA and corresponding research content mainly involves the following four aspects:<br />
the First is News Media Discourse Studies: For example, Baker and McEnery adopted the corpora method to analyze the British media’s role in the refugee discourse construction and further investigated characteristics of British newspapers in reporting Muslim and Islam. Through making a comparison between English newspapers and French newspapers in Canada, Vessey analyzed and elaborated the ideology and national identity in different languages.<br />
<br />
In recent two decades, more and more foreign scholars have applied the corpora technology to CDA and corresponding research content mainly involves the following four aspects: First is News Media Discourse Studies: For example, Baker and McEnery adopted the corpora method to analyze the British media's role in the refugee discourse construction and further investigated characteristics of British newspapers in reporting Muslim and Islam. Through making a comparison between English newspapers and French newspapers in Canada, Vessey analyzed and elaborated the ideology and national identity in different languages.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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The Second is Political Discourse and War Discourse Studies. For example, Partington surveyed President Clinton’s assistants and wolf pack press corps in the white house during his early ruling. Jeffries & Walker revealed the ideological characteristics during the new labour period through analyzing key words of newspapers during Blair’s period. Similarly, through analyzing CNN, News Week and New York Times, Kim researched American Media’s discourse practice on the North Korea’s image. Bevitori conducted a diachronic study on presidential speeches and analyzed the discourse construction of presidential speeches. Salama researched the phenomena of American media’s context restructuring of Wahabee Religion before and after “9·11”, reflecting the changes in attitude.<br />
<br />
Second is Political Discourse and War Discourse Studies. For example, Partington surveyed President Clinton's assistants and wolf pack press corps in the white house during his early ruling. Jeffries & Walker revealed the ideological characteristics during the new labour period through analyzing key words of newspapers during Blair's period. Similarly, through analyzing CNN, News Week and New York Times, Kim researched American Media's discourse practice on the North Korea's image. Bevitori conducted a diachronic study on presidential speeches and analyzed the discourse construction of presidential speeches. Salama researched the phenomena of American media's context restructuring of Wahabee Religion before and after "9·11", reflecting the changes in attitude.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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The Third is Legal Discourse Studies. Potts and Kjur (2016) established their own corpora and analyzed the legal discourse construction made by the International Criminal Court of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.<br />
<br />
Third is Legal Discourse Studies. Potts and Kjur (2016) established their own corpora and analyzed the legal discourse construction made by the International Criminal Court of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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The Fourth is Climatic Discourse Studies. Nerlichet al. (2012) conducted a contrastive analysis of climatic discourse in The Times and Time and further probed into similarities and differences between British climate reports and American climate reports.'' (Kang Jiaping, Jiang Zhanhao, Study on the Ideology of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Corpora and Critical Discourse Analysis, Journal of Heilongjiang College of Education, March 2020, P123)<br />
<br />
Fourth is Climatic Discourse Studies. Nerlichet al. (2012) conducted a contrastive analysis of climatic discourse in The Times and Time and further probed into similarities and differences between British climate reports and American climate reports. (Kang Jiaping, Jiang Zhanhao, Study on the Ideology of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Corpora and Critical Discourse Analysis, Journal of Heilongjiang College of Education, March 2020, P123)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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This paper has chosen the English Version and Chinese Version of 2020 Government Work Report issued by Premier Li Keqiang as the research object and made a comparative analysis of GWRs and corresponding translated versions in the aspect of Classification, Mode and Conversion so as to conclude answers for the following questions: 1. Compared with the original text, which are changes in Classification, Mode and Conversion in the translated text? 2. From the perspective of CDA, what has triggered these changes? How can translators explain GWR from the perspective of CDA? As the relationship between ideology and translation is the research priority, answers to the following questions will be self-evident: 1) How does ideology control the translation process of GWRS? 2) Why are some parts of the original text altered and translated in another way? <br />
<br />
This paper has chosen the English Version and Chinese Version of 2020 Government Work Report issued by Premier Li Keqiang as the research object and made a comparative analysis of GWRs and corresponding translated versions in the aspect of Classification, Mode and Conversion so as to conclude answers for the following questions: <br />
1. Compared with the original text, which are changes in Classification, Mode and Conversion in the translated text? <br />
2. From the perspective of CDA, what has triggered these changes? How can translators explain GWR from the perspective of CDA? As the relationship between ideology and translation is the research priority, answers to the following questions will be self-evident: <br />
1) How does ideology control the translation process of GWRS? <br />
2) Why are some parts of the original text altered and translated in another way? --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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===2.Critical Discourse Analysis===<br />
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=== 2.1 Classification===<br />
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''According to the CDA, for the variations of "categories" in GWRs translation, the addressers intentionally or unintentionally incorporate their ideology into discourse at all levels of linguistic form, including lexical choice. A comparative analysis of the "categories" in GWRs and their translations reveals the variations of "categories", and the author will explain them from an ideological point of view.''(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) <br />
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"According to the CDA, for the variations of 'categories' in GWRs translation, the addressers intentionally or unintentionally incorporate their ideology into discourse at all levels of linguistic form, including lexical choice. A comparative analysis of the 'categories' in GWRs and their translations reveals the variations of 'categories', and the author will explain them from an ideological point of view.'(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui <br />
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Example (1): The same one Chinese character "发展" in the Chinese version of GWR is translated differently in English. Different words denote different ideological meanings. A basic reason for this is that "发展" can be used as both a noun and a verb in Chinese. Therefore, there are different words used in English for a Chinese character with different parts of speech.<br />
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For example, when used as a noun: a). 优化民营经济发展环境——We will foster an enabling environment for the development of the private sector.<br />
b).推动制造业升级和新兴产业发展。——We will encourage the upgrading of manufacturing and the growth of emerging industries.<br />
<br />
When used as a verb: a).发展工业互联网——We will promote the industrial internet<br />
b).发展社会研发机构——develop private R&D institutions<br />
c).发展创业投资——We will support the growth of venture capital investment<br />
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For example, when used as a noun:<br />
a). 优化民营经济发展环境——We will foster an enabling environment for the development of the private sector.<br />
b).推动制造业升级和新兴产业发展。——We will encourage the upgrading of manufacturing and the growth of emerging industries.When used as a verb: 1)发展工业互联网——We will promote the industrial internet.2) 发展社会研发机构——develop private R&D institutions. 3) 发展创业投资——We will support the growth of venture capital investment--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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In the three examples of the verb, promote means "to advance", while support means "to back up and give aid to". In these two examples, both “promote” and “support the growth” signify assisting, weakening the role and status of the government in economic development, in a bid to express the idea that "support the free development of the market, and the government will also take the initiative to provide assistance". In the second example, in "develop private R&D institutions", the word “develop” is used to express a strong subjective initiative, which indicates that the state or the government will play a dominant role in the establishment and development of private R&D institutions, implying the national conditions and ideology of China.'<br />
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In the three examples of the verb, "promote" means "to advance", while "support" means "to back up and give aid to". In these two examples, both "promote" and "support the growth" signify assisting, weakening the role and status of the government in economic development, in a bid to express the idea that "support the free development of the market, and the government will also take the initiative "to provide assistance". In the second example, in "develop private R&D institutions", the word "develop" is used to express a strong subjective initiative, which indicates that the state or the government will play a dominant role in the establishment and development of private R&D institutions, implying the national conditions and ideology of China.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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(2) ''In the GWR translation, different lexical choices reveal different ideological meanings of the source, which is achieved due to the translators' accurate understanding of the source ideology.'' (Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) Such translation makes it easier for foreign readers to understand the context and policies of China.<br />
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Example (2) "In the GWR translation, different lexical choices reveal different ideological meanings of the source, which is achieved due to the translators' accurate understanding of the source ideology."(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) Such translation makes it easier for foreign readers to understand the context and policies of China.<br />
For example, "四风" in the source is translated as "formalities for formalities'sake, bureaucratism, hedonism, and extravagance"."四风" is a policy related to rectifying the discipline of Party members and cadres, but foreign readers do not know if it is translated literally. Therefore, a specific description is required so as to take care of foreign readers in a better way. It is obvious that a general character in Chinese is translated into a specific illustration in English.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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However, the translation technique for "四风" is not an one-off. For other expressions, such as the translation for “放管服”改革——reforms to streamline administration and delegate power, improve regulation, and upgrade services.<br />
The translators changes the choice of words out of consideration for the ideology of the readers, in a bid to take into account the ideological differences between the source readers and the target readers of the paper.<br />
<br />
However, the translation technique for "四风" is not an one-off. For other expressions, such as the translation for “放管服”改革——reforms to streamline administration and delegate power, improve regulation, and upgrade services.The translators changes the choice of words out of consideration for the ideology of the readers, in a bid to take into account the ideological differences between the source readers and the target readers of the paper.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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(3) The English version of 促进祖国和平统一: The word "统一" in 促进统一（2020年） is translated as "reunification" in English. As we all know, the Chinese character "统一" means unification in English, but in this case, the prefix "re-" is added to it. According to Longman's Dictionary of Contemporary English, "re-" means "again" and the word “unification” with a prefix "re-" means "back to the previous country". Thus, the Chinese character "统一" here refers to reunite to the previous country. The purposeful addition of "re-" implies a different ideological meaning. <br />
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Example(3) The English version of "促进祖国和平统一": The word "统一" in "促进统一"（2020年） is translated as "reunification" in English. As we all know, the Chinese character "统一" means unification in English, but in this case, the prefix "re-" is added to it. According to Longman's Dictionary of Contemporary English, "re-" means "again" and the word “unification” with a prefix "re-" means "back to the previous country". Thus, the Chinese character "统一" here refers to reunite to the previous country. The purposeful addition of "re-" implies a different ideological meaning. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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For the Chinese people, there is no doubt that Taiwan has always been a part of China, even though it has been separated from the motherland for historical reasons and has not yet returned. However, since foreign readers may not know the history of China, and some Western countries even consider Taiwan as an "independent country," a word-for-word translation may lead to misunderstandings, so "reunification" is employed to emphasize the fact that Taiwan and the motherland belong to one China. In this case, the variation of lexical choice is explained in different socio-historical contexts of the source and the translated text.<br />
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For the Chinese people, there is no doubt that Taiwan has always been a part of China, even though it has been separated from the motherland for historical reasons and has not yet returned. However, since foreign readers may not know the history of China, and some Western countries even consider Taiwan as an "independent country", a word-for-word translation may lead to misunderstandings, so "reunification" is employed to emphasize the fact that Taiwan and the motherland belong to one China. In this case, the variation of lexical choice is explained in different socio-historical contexts of the source and the translated text.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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(4)“提高城乡居民基础养老金最低标准 ” is translated as We will increase the minimum basic old-age pension for rural and non-working urban residents.”<br />
The Chinese phrase “城乡居民” in this context is translated as "rural and non-working urban residents "<br />
And “将参保不足 1 年的农民工等失业人员都纳入常住地保障” is translated as “We will see that rural migrant workers and others out of work who are in the scheme less than a year are covered in the locality where they are living. ”<br />
“农民工” is translated as “rural migrant workers”. <br />
Through the change in lexical choice, the target reader can acquire the information more easily than through word-by-word translation. This case demonstrates that the variation of lexical choice in translated texts is vital for illustrating their meaning.<br />
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Example(4)"提高城乡居民基础养老金最低标准" is translated as "We will increase the minimum basic old-age pension for rural and non-working urban residents."The Chinese phrase “城乡居民” in this context is translated as "rural and non-working urban residents "And "将参保不足 1 年的农民工等失业人员都纳入常住地保障" is translated as "We will see that rural migrant workers and others out of work who are in the scheme less than a year are covered in the locality where they are living.""农民工" is translated as “rural migrant workers". Through the change in lexical choice, the target reader can acquire the information more easily than through word-by-word translation. This case demonstrates that the variation of lexical choice in translated texts is vital for illustrating their meaning.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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A critical analysis of the variations in lexical choice reveals the ideological impact on lexical choice in GWRS translation, despite the fact that some variations may occur due to Chinese-English language diversity. For example, some different lexical choices disclose different ideological meanings of the source text, some variations indicate ideological considerations for the target readers, while other variations may expose the influence of different historical contexts between China and Western countries.<br />
<br />
Above all are critical analysis of the variations in lexical choice which reveals the ideological impact on lexical choice in GWRS translation, despite the fact that some variations may occur due to Chinese-English language diversity. For example, some different lexical choices disclose different ideological meanings of the source text, some variations indicate ideological considerations for the target readers, while other variations may expose the influence of different historical contexts between China and Western countries.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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=== 2.2 Mode===<br />
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===2.2.1 Modal verbs===<br />
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''Modal verbs and personal pronouns are bound up with an addressor's or writer's attitude and ideological implication in the discourse and will be used to analyze the potential ideological implications in the GWRS and their translation. As a direct grammatical means of representing "mood", modal verbs often denote a specific and important interpersonal meaning in discourse.<br />
In English modal verbs, such as "can, could, may, might, must, will, shall, should, need to, ought to", imply different meanings and degrees of ability, probability, willingness and obligation. Modal verbs also exist in Chinese to convey the attitude of the addressor or writer. <br />
<br />
"Modal verbs and personal pronouns are bound up with an addressor's or writer's attitude and ideological implication in the discourse and will be used to analyze the potential ideological implications in the GWRS and their translation. As a direct grammatical means of representing "mood", modal verbs often denote a specific and important interpersonal meaning in discourse.In English modal verbs, such as "can, could, may, might, must, will, shall, should, need to, ought to", imply different meanings and degrees of ability, probability, willingness and obligation. Modal verbs also exist in Chinese to convey the attitude of the addressor or writer. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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Zhang Guanming counted 25 modal auxiliary verbs in Chinese, including “能，可以，会，可能，得，敢，肯，愿意，情愿，乐意，想，要，应，应该，应当，该，值得，配，别，甭，好，一定，得，必须".<br />
Different modal verbs express different degrees of attitude and implication to the addressor or writer. Therefore, an analysis of the use of modal verbs helps us perceive the meaning of the addressor or writer.''(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)<br />
<br />
Zhang Guanming counted 25 modal auxiliary verbs in Chinese, including "能、可以、会、可能、得、敢、肯、愿意、情愿、乐意、想、要、应、应该、应当、该、值得、配、别、甭、好、一定、得、必须".Different modal verbs express different degrees of attitude and implication to the addressor or writer. Therefore, an analysis of the use of modal verbs helps us perceive the meaning of the addressor or writer.''(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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A).我们要更加紧密地团结在以习近平同志为核心的党中央周围，——We must rally more closely around the Party Central Committee with Comrade Xi Jinping at its core.<br />
B)各国应携手共进。——all countries should work together<br />
C)中国坚定不移走和平发展道路——China will continue to pursue peaceful development,<br />
D)各级政府必须真正过紧日子——Governments at all levels must truly tighten their belt.<br />
E)出台的政策既保持力度又考虑可持续性，根据形势变化还可完善——the policies we adopt should be both forceful and sustainable, and they may be adjusted as called for.<br />
F)我们一定能开创民族复兴的美好未来。——With these efforts, we can surely create a beautiful future for the rejuvenation of the Chinese nation.<br />
G)创新直达实体经济的货币政策工具——As we work to develop new monetary policy instruments that can directly stimulate the real economy.<br />
H)要用改革开放办法，稳就业、保民生、促消费，拉动市场、稳定增长,——We need to pursue reform and opening up as a means to stabilize employment, ensure people's well-being, stimulate consumption, energize the market, and achieve stable growth. <br />
I）走出一条有效应对冲击、实现良性循环的新路子。——We need to blaze a new path that enables us to respond effectively to shocks and sustain a positive growth cycle.<br />
<br />
<br />
As can be seen in Example A, the translation uses the modal verb “must” to show the central government's resolute attitude toward adhering to Xi Jinping's leadership, as well as a strong call and implication to the people. It reflects the ideology and collectivist spirit of showing loyalty to the paramount leader of the CPC Central Committee that is unique to China.<br />
The use of “must” in Example D also demonstrates the Chinese government is demanding in implementing initiatives for combating corruption and building a clean government.<br />
<br />
As can be seen in Example A, the translation uses the modal verb "must" to show the central government's resolute attitude toward adhering to Xi Jinping's leadership, as well as a strong call and implication to the people. It reflects the ideology and collectivist spirit of showing loyalty to the paramount leader of the CPC Central Committee that is unique to China.The use of "must" in Example D also demonstrates the Chinese government is demanding in implementing initiatives for combating corruption and building a clean government.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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<br />
As can be seen in Example B, the translation uses the modal verb “should”. It shows a tone of hope and appeal, which is a weaker tone of suggestion rather than a demanding tone of command as that in Example A. It expresses the wish of the Chinese government represented by the addressor.<br />
The translation of Example C uses the modal verb “will”, which expresses a firm determination and the action to be taken, indicating the Chinese government's impregnable belief in the peaceful rise of China.<br />
<br />
As can be seen in Example B, the translation uses the modal verb "should". It shows a tone of hope and appeal, which is a weaker tone of suggestion rather than a demanding tone of command as that in Example A. It expresses the wish of the Chinese government represented by the addressor.The translation of Example C uses the modal verb "will", which expresses a firm determination and the action to be taken, indicating the Chinese government's impregnable belief in the peaceful rise of China.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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Example E employs the modal verbs “should” and “may” in a slightly weaker tone, because the context of economic and social development under the epidemic prevention and control is mentioned in the preceding sentence. Alongside that, since specific local policies for epidemic prevention and control and economic recovery are set by local governments individually, the central government uses a suggestive tone here.<br />
<br />
Example E employs the modal verbs "should" and "may" in a slightly weaker tone, because the context of economic and social development under the epidemic prevention and control is mentioned in the preceding sentence. Alongside that, since specific local policies for epidemic prevention and control and economic recovery are set by local governments individually, the central government uses a suggestive tone here.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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Examples F and G both use “can”, indicating a possible situation and a capability of achieving the goal.<br />
Example H uses the modal verb “need to”, conveying an urgent need, a call for urgency.<br />
<br />
Examples F and G both use “can”, indicating a possible situation and a capability of achieving the goal.Example H uses the modal verb “need to”, conveying an urgent need, a call for urgency.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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Modal verb variations can also be manifested in being added to the source text. For example, in I, the source text does not use the modal verb, but the subject “we” and the modal verb “need to” are added to the question, and the modal verb here also expresses the urgent desire to achieve the goal mentioned in the source sentence.<br />
<br />
Modal verb variations can also be manifested in being added to the source text. For example, in "I", the source text does not use the modal verb, but the subject "we" and the modal verb "need to" are added to the question, and the modal verb here also<br />
expresses the urgent desire to achieve the goal mentioned in the source sentence.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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The different use of modal verbs may also imply different attitudes toward these policies. The social contexts in which they are produced and interpreted may provide some clues to the variation and change of modal verbs. Both the author and the translators are close to the Chinese, so that the modal meaning expressed in the Chinese version can be agreed with the readers.<br />
<br />
The different use of modal verbs may also imply different attitudes toward these policies. The social contexts in which they are produced and interpreted may provide some clues to the variation and change of modal verbs. Both the author and the translators are pretty close to the Chinese, so that the modal meaning expressed in the Chinese version can be agreed with the readers.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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<br />
However, due to the distance from the foreign readers and their receptivity, the translators chose different expressions with less initiative and more objectivity. But in general, in the choice of modal verbs, the translators mainly chose auxiliary verbs that can convey the attitude of the source text, from which the ideology of their own side can be better interpreted, and taking care of the ideology of foreign readers is a secondary consideration.<br />
<br />
However, due to the distance from the foreign readers and their receptivity, the translators have to chose different expressions with less initiative and more objectivity. But in general, in the choice of modal verbs, the translators mainly chose auxiliary verbs that can convey the attitude of the source text, from which the ideology of their own side can be better interpreted, and taking care of the ideology of foreign readers is a secondary consideration.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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===2.2.2 Personal pronouns===<br />
<br />
''The use of personal pronouns is another way to show modal meaning. According to systematic functional grammar, personal pronouns have interpersonal and attitudinal functions in addition to their cohesion functions. Generally speaking, the choice of personal pronouns is influenced by concerns including power relations, social status, and the degree of intimacy between the participants involved in the communication. Different choices of personal pronouns reveal different attitudes of the speaker or writer toward the target audience or reader. <br />
<br />
"The use of personal pronouns is another way to show modal meaning. According to systematic functional grammar, personal pronouns have interpersonal and attitudinal functions in addition to their cohesion functions. Generally speaking, the choice of personal pronouns is influenced by concerns including power relations, social status, and the degree of intimacy between the participants involved in the communication. Different choices of personal pronouns reveal different attitudes of the speaker or writer toward the target audience or reader."--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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From the perspective of critical discourse analysis, personal pronouns are not used in a random way, but are linked to certain ideological meanings. For example, the use of certain personal pronouns may have a certain political effect and produce a specific relationship between the addressor and the listener. This paper focuses on the analysis of the personal pronouns GWR and their translation from the viewpoint of critical discourse analysis, as a way to perceive the attitude and interpersonal meanings that the addressors or writers are trying to convey.'' (Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)<br />
<br />
"From the perspective of critical discourse analysis, personal pronouns are not used in a random way, but are linked to certain ideological meanings. For example, the use of certain personal pronouns may have a certain political effect and produce a specific relationship between the addressor and the listener. This paper focuses on the analysis of the personal pronouns GWR and their translation from the viewpoint of critical discourse analysis, as a way to perceive the attitude and interpersonal meanings that the addressors or writers are trying to convey." (Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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<br />
（1）Translated Personal Pronouns ：<br />
A).我们要坚持对台工作大政方针——We will adhere to the major principles and policies on work related to Taiwan<br />
B).我们要全面准确贯彻“一国两制”、“港人治港”、“澳人治澳”、高度自治的方针——We will fully and faithfully implement the policy of One Country, Two Systems, under which the people of Hong Kong govern Hong Kong and the people of Macao govern Macao, with a high degree of autonomy for both regions. <br />
<br />
<br />
（2）Added Personal Pronouns：<br />
A).支持港澳发展经济——We will support Hong Kong and Macao in growing their economies,<br />
B).完善促进两岸交流合作、深化两岸融合发展、保障台湾同胞福祉的制度安排和政策措施——We will improve institutional arrangements, policies, and measures to encourage exchanges and cooperation between the two sides of the Taiwan Strait, further cross-Strait integrated development, and protect the wellbeing of our fellow compatriots in Taiwan. <br />
C).需要说明的是，我们没有提出全年经济增速具体目标——I would like to point out that we have not set a specific target for economic growth this year.<br />
D).加强监管，防止资金“空转”套利。——We should tighten regulation and prevent funds from simply circulating in the financial sector for the sake of arbitrage. <br />
E）为把我国建设成为富强民主文明和谐美丽的社会主义现代化强国、实现中华民族伟大复兴的中国梦不懈奋斗！——Let all of us work together with perseverance to build China into a great modern socialist country that is prosperous, strong, democratic, culturally advanced, harmonious, and beautiful, and realize the Chinese Dream of national rejuvenation.<br />
<br />
According to statistics, there are 308 “we” in the English translation. From the above examples, we can see that most of the personal pronouns “we” are used by the technique of amplification, including other personal pronouns I, all of us, etc. This is because in the Chinese version which is the source, there are mostly impersonal subjects, noun subjects, or imperative sentences that denote calls or orders. However, in English, except for the imperative sentences where the personal pronoun subject can be missing, generally it can not be omitted in other cases. <br />
<br />
According to statistics, there are 308 "we" in the English translation. From the above examples, we can see that most of the personal pronouns "we" are used by the technique of amplification, including other personal pronouns "I", all of "us", etc. This is because in the Chinese version which is the source, there are mostly impersonal subjects, noun subjects, or imperative sentences that denote calls or orders. However, in English, except for the imperative sentences where the personal pronoun subject can be missing, generally it can not be omitted in any other cases. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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''Under most circumstances, “we” is the top priority in translation, because in political reports, the use of “we” is more authoritative than I. This usage is called "loyal we".'' (A Study of the Ideology of the <Government Work Report> under the Visual Threshold of Corpus and Critical Discourse Analysis, Kang Jiaping and Jiang Zhanyao, Journal of Heilongjiang Teachers' Development Institute, March 2020, p. 126) The Reports represents the Central People's Government, which is itself "authoritative". The "we" in the translation also naturally reflects "authority" correspondingly. <br />
<br />
"Under most circumstances, 'we' is the top priority in translation, because in political reports, the use of 'we' is more authoritative than 'I'. This usage is called 'loyal we'."(A Study of the Ideology of the <Government Work Report> under the Visual Threshold of Corpus and Critical Discourse Analysis, Kang Jiaping and Jiang Zhanyao, Journal of Heilongjiang Teachers' Development Institute, March 2020, p. 126) The Reports represents the Central People's Government, which is itself "authoritative". The "we" in the translation also naturally reflects "authority" correspondingly. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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<br />
Secondly, most of the actions in the government work report are issued by the Chinese government, and the use of “we” also reflects the collectivist spirit of unified action of the government from top to bottom. Thirdly, although the Chinese government is the originator of most of the actions in the report, sometimes different departments are responsible for the implementation of specific measures; therefore, the use of “we” instead of "Chinese government" or "so-and-so department" is also slightly more colloquial and approachable, which makes it easier for domestic readers to immerse themselves in devoting into the construction of economic and social development. For foreign readers, “we” is also more easily accepted. Therefore, the translators also took into account the social and ideological significance of the language forms used when translating the Reports.<br />
<br />
Secondly, most of the actions in the government work report are issued by the Chinese government, and the use of "we" also reflects the collectivist spirit of unified action of the government from top to bottom. Thirdly, although the Chinese government is the originator of most of the actions in the report, sometimes different departments are responsible for the implementation of specific measures; therefore, the use of "we" instead of "Chinese government" or "so-and-so department" is also slightly more colloquial and approachable, which makes it easier for domestic readers to immerse themselves in devoting into the construction of economic and social development. For foreign readers, "we" is also more easily accepted. Therefore, the translators also took into account the social and ideological significance of the language forms used when translating the Reports.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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=== 2.3 Conversion===<br />
<br />
''Traditionally, "transformation" refers to the change of different grammatical structures, but in CDA, the meaning of "transformation" should be interpreted in terms of discourse, context and purpose"'' (Fowler, 1991: 90-91). This suggests that critical discourse analysis values the change of ideological meaning and the influence of context and purpose on "transformation"". Therefore, "transformation" can be applied to translation studies to investigate the ideological impact of translation by analyzing the changes of "transformation" between the source language and the translated one.<br />
<br />
"Traditionally, 'transformation' refers to the change of different grammatical structures, but in CDA, the meaning of 'transformation' should be interpreted in terms of discourse, context and purpose." (Fowler, 1991: 90-91). This suggests that critical discourse analysis values the change of ideological meaning and the influence of context and purpose on "transformation". Therefore, "transformation" can be applied to translation studies to investigate the ideological impact of translation by analyzing the changes of "transformation" between the source language and the translated one.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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In the analysis of "transformation" in GWR and its translation process, nominalization and inactivation are used to disclose the ideological changes in translation. Nominalization refers to the process of converting verb structures into nouns or noun phrases. According to Fairclough (1995), this lack of mood, time, and participants caused by nominalization is considered ideologically significant because it obscures the reader's causality and responsibility, so that the addressor's or writer's attitude and perception of certain events is not yet clear. <br />
<br />
In the analysis of "transformation" in GWR and its translation process, nominalization and inactivation are used to disclose the ideological changes in translation. Nominalization refers to the process of converting verb structures into nouns or noun phrases. According to Fairclough (1995). This lack of mood, time, and participants caused by nominalization is considered ideologically significant because it obscures the reader's causality and responsibility, so that the addressor's or writer's attitude and perception of certain events is not yet clear. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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Inactivation is the transformation of active voice into passive one in which the relevant participants are removed most of the time, making causality unclear. Thus, by using inactivation, discourse can become more objective and less subjective, leaving a different impression on the reader and thus expressing different ideological meanings. More importantly, inactivation also functions as thematization, in which the object is placed at the beginning of the sentence as a subject. In this way, by emphasizing the object and hiding the agent, the ideological purpose of shifting the reader's focus and hiding the cause-and-effect relationship is achieved.<br />
<br />
Inactivation is the transformation of active voice into passive one in which the relevant participants are removed for most of the time, making causality unclear. Thus, by using inactivation, discourse can become more objective and less subjective, leaving a different impression on the reader and thus expressing different ideological meanings. More importantly, inactivation also has functions as thematization, in which the object is placed at the beginning of the sentence as a subject. In this way, by emphasizing the object and hiding the agent, the ideological purpose of shifting the reader's focus and hiding the cause-and-effect relationship is achieved.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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<br />
For example: <br />
===2.3.1 Nominalization===<br />
<br />
A)传统产业加快升级。——upgrading in traditional industries accelerated.<br />
B)受全球疫情冲击，世界经济严重衰退，——The shock of the covid-19 pandemic has sent the world economy into severe recession, <br />
C)金融等领域风险有所积聚——There are increasing risks in the financial sector and other areas.<br />
D)政府工作存在不足——There is still room for improvement in the work of government. <br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above examples that in the original Chinese text, the subject and predicate in the four examples are very prominent. However, in the translation, nominalization is done, which emphasizes the emphasis of the original text.<br />
For example, in A), "upgrade" is a verb and serves as a predicate; but in the translation, upgrading is nominalized and used as the subject, and its status is more prominent than in the original.<br />
<br />
It can be shown from the above examples that in the original Chinese text, the subject and predicate in the four examples are very prominent. However, in the translation, nominalization is done, which emphasizes the emphasis of the original text.<br />
For example, in A), "upgrade" is a verb and serves as a predicate; but in the translation, upgrading is nominalized and used as the subject, and its status is more prominent than in the original.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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<br />
In B), "Affected by the global epidemic" was originally used as an adverbial of cause, but it was nominalized as the subject in the question, highlighting the direct impact of the epidemic on the world economic recession, and its status is higher than that of the adverbial in the original text. <br />
<br />
In B), "Affected by the global epidemic" was originally used as an adverbial of cause, but it was nominalized as the subject in the question, highlighting the direct impact of the epidemic on the world economic recession, and its status is much higher than that of the adverbial in the original text.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui <br />
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C) The key word in the original text can be "risk accumulation", but because the adverbial term "finance and other fields" is in front, its position is weakened; and the sentence pattern "There be" is used in the translation, and the subject is nominalized as " The whole sentence of "increasing risks" is highlighted.<br />
<br />
C) The key word in the original text can be "risk accumulation", but due to the adverbial term "finance and other fields" is in front, its position is weakened; and the sentence pattern "There be" is used in the translation, and the subject is nominalized as The whole sentence of "increasing risks" is highlighted.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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D) The full expression of the original text should be "In the government work, there are deficiencies." The implied meaning is "I should improve and upgrade the government work." The translation directly points out the implied meaning, straightforward and straightforward, and the subject is treated as " "room for improvement" is also used in the sentence pattern "There be", and the points that the original text wants to emphasize are highlighted.<br />
<br />
D) The full expression of the original text can be "In the government work, there are deficiencies." The implied meaning is "I should improve and upgrade the government work." The translation directly points out the implied meaning, straightforward and straightforward, and the subject is treated as "room for improvement" is also used in the sentence pattern "There be", and the points that the original text wants to emphasize are highlighted.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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<br />
It can be seen that the processing of English translation is more flexible, and it also takes into account the ideology of foreign readers, that is, they prefer concise and direct expression, while the expression of domestic readers is more subtle and prefer verbs.<br />
<br />
It can be seen that the processing of English translation is more flexible, and it also takes into consideration the ideology of foreign readers, that is, they prefer concise and direct expression, while the expression of domestic readers is more subtle and prefer verbs.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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===2.3.2 Active to passive===<br />
<br />
A).城镇新增就业 1352 万人——Around 13.52 million new urban jobs were added.<br />
B).国际收支基本平衡。——A basic equilibrium was maintained in the balance of payments.<br />
C)..重大区域战略深入实施。——progress was made in implementing major development strategies for regions.<br />
D).改革开放迈出重要步伐。——Major headway was made in reform and opening up.<br />
E).供给侧结构性改革继续深化，—— Supply-side structural reform was further advanced.<br />
F).重要领域改革取得新突破。——and breakthroughs in reform were made in key areas.<br />
<br />
In the first part of the report, in the review of the work and achievements in 2019, a large number of passive voice translation methods are used to highlight the achievements since 2019 and weaken the reporter and the government as these achievements The presence of the promoter of In fact, in the Chinese context, the above example is also a kind of "active expression passive" sentence structure, which is more concise and more focused.<br />
<br />
In the first part of the report, in the review of the work and achievements in 2019, a large number of passive voice translation methods are used to highlight the achievements since 2019 and weaken the reporter and the government as these achievements The presence of the promoter. In fact, in the Chinese context, the above example is also a kind of "active expression passive" sentence structure, which is more concise and more focused.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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===3.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis, this article conducts a superficial and tentative analysis of the ideological influence reflected in the Chinese-English translation of the 2020 government work report.The analysis found that,<br />
<br />
From the veiw of Critical Discourse Analysis, this article conducts a superficial and tentative analysis of the ideological influence reflected in the Chinese-English translation of the 2020 government work report.The analysis found that,--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
<br />
(1) in terms of classification, <br />
a) the translation will choose different corresponding words in English depending on the situation for the same word in the original text. And this is because in English I like to use different words to show the richness and diversity of the words of the article, while in Chinese I like to use the same word to rhyme and compare to show momentum.<br />
b) In the process of translation, the translation will be selectively interpreted, that is, supplementary translation of some conventional abbreviations in the original text, so that foreign readers can better understand.<br />
c) Some specific words will be translated asymmetrically in the translation to reflect their own ideology. For example, the "reunification of the motherland" on the Taiwan issue is translated as "reunification" because China wants to convey to the world the principle that "the Taiwan issue is China's internal affair."<br />
<br />
(1) In terms of classification, <br />
a) the translation will choose different corresponding words in English depending on the situation for the same word in the original text. And this is because in English I like to use different words to show the richness and diversity of the words of the article, while in Chinese I like to use the same word to rhyme and compare to show momentum.<br />
b) In the process of translation, the translation will be selectively interpreted, that is, supplementary translation of some conventional abbreviations in the original text, so that foreign readers can better understand.<br />
c) Some specific words will be translated asymmetrically in the translation to reflect their own ideology. For example, the "reunification of the motherland" on the Taiwan issue is translated as "reunification" because China wants to convey to the world the principle that "the Taiwan issue is China's internal affair."--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
(2) In terms of modal<br />
a) The translation will choose different modal verbs according to the content and attitude of the original text. The choice of these different modal verbs expresses the different requirements and soft and hard attitudes of the Chinese government in various fields such as domestic economic development, epidemic prevention and control, motherland reunification, social problem resolution, diplomacy, and international issues, thus reflecting the Chinese government's ideology.<br />
b) There are a large number of additional translations of personal pronouns in the translation, and most of them have chosen the plural of the first personal pronoun "we". It shows the collectivism that the Chinese government is accustomed to, and God is also caring for foreign ideologies.<br />
<br />
(2) In terms of modal<br />
a) The translation will choose different modal verbs according to the content and attitude of the original text. The choice of these different modal verbs expresses the different requirements, soft and hard attitudes of the Chinese government in various fields such as domestic economic development, epidemic prevention and control, motherland reunification, social problem resolution, diplomacy, and international issues, thus reflecting the Chinese government's ideology.<br />
b) There are a large number of additional translations of personal pronouns in the translation, and most of them have chosen the plural of the first personal pronoun "we". It shows the collectivism that the Chinese government is accustomed to, While God is also caring for foreign ideologies.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
(3) In terms of conversion, there are many nominalizations and active-to-passive translations in the translation. These two kinds of translation processes make the key points to be emphasized in the original text more directly highlighted in the translation, and at the same time respect the expression habits of English, which are also caring for foreign ideologies.<br />
<br />
(3) In terms of conversion, there are many nominalizations and active-to-passive translations in the translation. These two kinds of translation processes make the key points be emphasized in the original text more directly highlighted in the translation, and at the same time respect the expression habits of English, which are also caring for foreign ideologies.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
<br />
In general, the translation of the 2020 government work report more reflects China's own ideology. The reason is also obvious. <br />
First, this is China's government work report, which also determines that the translation must reflect China's ideology. <br />
Second, the government work report is made at the two sessions each year. It is mainly a summary of the work of the past year and planning for the work of the next year. It is mainly for the domestic people, so it naturally has a strong Chinese ideology; <br />
but The translation is of course aimed at foreign readers, so translation processing will also show reasonable concern about foreign ideology and expression habits. As a political report, he must have a more obvious political ideology than other styles, which is inevitable in every country. Finally, the richness and variability of vocabulary in the translation of the 2020 government work report is still not as good as the report of the native English-speaking countries, which can be improved.<br />
<br />
In general, the translation of the 2020 government work report reflects China's own ideology. The reasons are also obvious. <br />
First, this is China's government work report, which also determines that the translation must reflect China's ideology. <br />
Second, the government work report is made at the two sessions each year. It is mainly a summary of the work of the past year and planning for the work of the next year. It is mainly for the domestic people, so it naturally has a strong Chinese ideology; <br />
but the translation is of course aimed at foreign readers, so translation processing will also show reasonable concern about foreign ideology and expression habits. As a political report, he must have a more obvious political ideology than other styles, which is inevitable in every country. Finally, the richness and variability of vocabulary in the translation of the 2020 government work report is still not as good as the report of the native English-speaking countries, which can be improved.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
<br />
===4.Limitations===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Insufficient data support===<br />
<br />
In this paper, a comparative analysis is conducted solely on the two versions of the government work report in English and Chinese in 2020. Firstly, the evidence is insufficient in the part of applied critical discourse analysis, which should be done to the best of its ability.<br />
<br />
In this paper, a comparative analysis is conducted on the two versions of the government work report in English and Chinese in 2020.<br />
Firstly, the evidence is insufficient in the part of applied critical discourse analysis, which should be done to the best of its ability.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
I envisaged to use data analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace to conduct a translation comparative analysis for the Chinese and English versions of the government work report for a total of 8 years since President Xi Jinping took office in 2013, and an analysis of ideological diachrony. By analyzing the change of top 10 high-frequency keywords in the reports over the past 8 years, we can get a glimpse of the socio-economic development of China and the shift of the government's focus during this period. By analyzing the changes in the choice and frequency of personal pronouns and modal verbs used in the reports over the years, and analyzing the frequency of nominalization and inactivation in the translation of sentences, we can see the changes in the ideology of the translators and the Chinese government they represent when translating the reports.<br />
<br />
The author envisage to use data analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace to conduct a translation comparative analysis for the Chinese and English versions of the government work report for a total of 8 years since President Xi Jinping took office in 2013, and an analysis of ideological diachrony. By analyzing the change of top 10 high-frequency keywords in the reports over the past 8 years, we can take a glimpse of the socio-economic development of China and the shift of the government's focus during this period. By analyzing the changes in the choice and frequency of personal pronouns and modal verbs used in the reports over the years, and by analyzing the frequency of nominalization and inactivation in the translation of sentences, we can see the changes in the ideology of the translators and the Chinese government they represent when translating the reports.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
However, since it is a need to use corpus construction software, such as EmEditor, to collect the corpus and classify and denoise the data before doing data analysis, it is not a task that can be accomplished at a stroke; only then is the analysis done with analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace. However, the author has a strong interest in this research method, and will make further efforts.<br />
<br />
However, since it is necessery to use corpus construction software, such as EmEditor, and to collect the corpus and classify and denoise the data before doing data analysis, it is not a task that can be accomplished at a stroke; only then it is the analysis done with analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace. However, the author has a strong interest in this research method, and will make further efforts.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
===4.2 Insufficient theoretical support===<br />
<br />
The author does not have a deep understanding of critical discourse analysis, nor does he/she expound the Introduction clearly. Her understanding of the specific analysis methods is also shallow, so she cannot do a comprehensive and accurate analysis in the Analysis section of the paper.<br />
Second, the author’s understanding of ideology is fuzzy. Therefore, in the latter part of the analysis, when it is necessary to return to the study of ideology at the end, she is unable to conduct the analysis in a precise way.<br />
<br />
The author does not have a profound understanding on critical discourse analysis, nor does she expound the Introduction clearly. Her knowledge of the specific analysis methods is also shallow, so she cannot do a comprehensive and accurate analysis in the Analysis section of the paper.<br />
Second, the author's understanding of ideology is fuzzy. Therefore, in the latter part of the analysis, when it is necessary to return to the study of ideology at the end, she is unable to conduct the analysis in a precise way.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
<br />
===5.Bibliography===<br />
<br />
[1].《意识形态与翻译研究》，王东风，中山大学出版社，2006年12月<br />
[2].《修辞学与意识形态》，屠有祥，人民出版社，2013年3月<br />
[3].《外宣翻译导论》，张健，国防工业出版社，2013年12月<br />
[4].《语料库和批评话语分析视阈下的<政府工作报告>意识形态研究》,康佳萍、姜占好，黑龙江教师发展学院学报，2020年3月<br />
[5].《基于CiteSpace的外交翻译暨外交话语研究的可视化分析(2000—2018)》，牛文惠、刘磊，黑河学院学报，2020年第二期<br />
[6].《国内翻译意识形态研究（1998-2018）——基于NoteExpress的可视化分析》，李志阳，2020年第二期<br />
[7].《翻译对意识形态的创构———以宇文所安《文心雕龙》英译本为例》，胡作友、张丁慧，外语学刊，2020年第四期<br />
[8].《批评性话语分析视角下的政府工作报告英译研究》，高媛，2016年<br />
[9].《从翻译操纵理论看2015年政府工作报告英译》，王海云、李慧慧，现代交际，2016年第五期<br />
[10].《论译者对政治文本的操控——以2009年政府工作报告为例》，徐静怡、陈思，2009年12月<br />
--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 18:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation Based on the Principle of “Faithfulness, Comprehensibility and Elegance” 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou 202020080628==<br />
<br />
<center>聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou 202020080628</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
English and Chinese belongs to two different language families. While the former belongs to Indo-European language family, the latter belongs to Sino-Tibetan language family. Therefore, they differ in many aspects--type, psychology, aesthetic, culture, rhetorical devices, syntactic pattern, lexical meaning, discourse organization, semantic structure, pragmatic structure, textual structure, textual cohesive devices and so on. Taking the English translations of Chinese essays by Zhang Peiji for example, this paper, based on the principle of “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and further provides appropriate translation strategies for Chinese-English translation. Readers can improve their translating ability after the acquisition of the knowledge of the differences between the two languages and corresponding translation strategies.<br />
<br />
<br />
English and Chinese belongs to two different language families. While the former belongs to Indo-European language family, the latter belongs to Sino-Tibetan language family. Therefore, they differ in many aspects--type, psychology, aesthetic, culture, rhetorical devices, syntactic pattern, lexical meaning, discourse organization, semantic structure, pragmatic structure, textual structure, textual cohesive devices and so on. Taking the English translations of Chinese essays by Zhang Peiji (as an) example, this paper, based on the principle of “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and further provides appropriate translation strategies for Chinese-English translation. Readers can improve their translating ability after the acquisition of the knowledge of the differences between (delete the) two languages and corresponding translation strategies.--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 14:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
English;Chinese; “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”<br />
<br />
<br />
English; Chinese; “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 13:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
英语属于印欧语系（Indo-European），汉语属于汉藏语系（Sino-Tibetan）。英汉两种语言在语言类型、语言心理、语言审美、文化、修辞、句法结构、词汇语义、话语组织、语义、语用、语篇结构以及语篇衔接手段等方面都存在差异。本文以张培基英译散文为例，以“信、达、雅”原则为指导，从英汉语言心理、英汉语言审美、英汉语篇结构、英汉语篇衔接手段等方面对比英语同汉语的不同之处，并提供相应的翻译策略。读者通过了解英汉两种语言在各方面的差异，并学习相应翻译策略，能够提高汉英翻译水平。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
英语;汉语;“信、达、雅”<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
Essay is a flexible and casual literary form, free from the restrictions of rhythm of poetry, plot of novel, and act and scene of drama. This paper focuses on English and Chinese essays. Based on Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, the paper makes an analysis of the original and translated texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts, and studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and therefore sums up a variety of translation strategies and methods for Chinese-English translation. <br />
<br />
===2. “Faithfulness, Comprehensibility and Elegance”===<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, comprehensibility and Elegance” is a translation principle put forward by YanFu in his work Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays. He stated that “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (xin), comprehensibility (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not comprehensible is no translation at all. Comprehensibility is therefore of prime importance” (Chan 2004: 69). “In addition to faithfulness and comprehensibility, we should strive for elegance in translation.” (Chan 2004: 70) <br />
<br />
This paper, based on the translation principle “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, compares English and Chinese through the analysis of some texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts. <br />
<br />
===3. Comparison of English and Chinese===<br />
<br />
A major difference between English and Chinese is that English is a hypotactic language while Chinese an paratactic language, which from the perspective of philosophy means that English people’s way of thinking is of rationality while Chinese people’s way of thinking is of wuxing (Pan 1997: 361). Rationality in English language means that English sentences emphasize overt morphology and the integrity of form, so we call English a morphological language. Instead, Chinese sentences do not have many hypotactic markers. Therefore, the meaning of Chinese sentences can only be understood through wuxing, in other words, intuition, thus we often call Chinese people’s way of thinking intuitive thinking (Liu 1992: 326). <br />
<br />
The inflected forms in modern English include mainly conjugation and declension, and affixation. However, there is no inflected forms in Chinese language and the grammatical meaning of Chinese sentences is expressed through the use of words, the arrangement of word order, the implied meaning etc.(连淑能, 1993: 4) Therefore, when translating Chinese into English, we are supposed to exhibit the implicit grammatical relation in the original texts through hypotactic markers. For example:<br />
<br />
Example 1:其中有些人是因为年事已高，力不从心。这不是艺术的死亡，而是艺术的离体，他自己无可自责，社会也会尊重他在艺术上曾经作出的贡献(Zhang 2007: 289)。<br />
Some writers lay down their pens because they are too old to be equal to the task. We call it retirement from art rather than death of art. They have nothing to blame themselves for. And society at large will pay tribute to the contributions they have already made to art (Zhang 2007: 291).<br />
<br />
The expression “有些人” in the first sentence is plural, which includes both men and women. While the word “他” in the second sentence is single, only including men. Actually, “有些人” and “他” in the original text refer to the same concept but they differ in number and gender. When translating the sentences into English, we have to take the harmony of form into consideration. <br />
<br />
Due to the difference between English and Chinese, Mr. Zhang translated “他” into “They” to be in agreement with the subject “they” in the first sentence, which characterizes hypotaxis in English language. Though it seems that the translation is not faithful to the original text, the former actually expresses what the latter means. That is to say, the translation is comprehensible.<br />
<br />
There is no inflected forms in Chinese while English is rich in inflected form. Therefore, when translating Chinese into English, translators are supposed to keep the consistency of gender, number, case, tense, style, voice, mood, comparatives, and person, etc. within the context, and to use the inflected forms in English to express the conceptual and grammatical meaning in the original Chinese text.<br />
<br />
Chinese pays attention to subjective narration, while English gives consideration to both subjective and objective description and tends to object description. Taking root in the psychology of Chinese people, the long standing thematic thinking always subtly reflects Chinese people’s consciousness of “everything exists for me”. <br />
<br />
Take the Chinese sentence “作业不写了” as an example. It is a human being rather than “作业” who performs the action “写”. That is to say, the subject should be a human being, which reflects Chinese people’s subject consciousness--Chinese speakers always discuss a topic which they make comments on. Since the agent in sentences with a “topic-comment” structure is self-explanatory, it is always deleted in a Chinese sentence. This well characterizes Chinese sentences as loose.<br />
<br />
English language, with the subject given priority in a sentence, has a strict “subject-predicate” structure which is highly grammaticalized. However, the topic rather than the subject is given priority in a Chinese sentence. It may not be in agreement with the subject since it is more grammaticalized than the latter. Therefore, the “topic-comment” structures in Chinese sentences should be translated into “subject-predicate” structures in English when we do Chinese-English translation.<br />
<br />
Example 2:页数不多的往往立刻通读，篇幅大的，只把正文任择一二章节略加翻阅，就插在书架上。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br />
If it happens to be a thin one, I often finish reading it at one sitting. Otherwise, I often browse through one or two chapters or sections before putting it onto my bookshelf. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br />
<br />
There are two “topic-comment” structures with the form of a clause in this example. In a “topic-comment” structure with the form of a clause, the meaning of the topic and that of the comment show a logical relation between two clauses. A “topic-comment” structure with the form of a clause has a close relationship with conditional clauses, and in this example conditional clauses serve as topics. The logical relation in this example is: If..., ... Otherwise..., ... The conditional relation should be translated in the corresponding English sentence with the addition of conjunctions between the original clauses in the process of Chinese-English translation.<br />
<br />
Example 3:线装书大概用笔加圈，洋装书竟用红铅笔划粗粗的线。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br />
If it is a threadbound Chinese book, I use a writing brush to draw small circles as markings. Otherwise, I use a red pencil to draw heavy underlines. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br />
<br />
There are also two “topic-comment” structures with the form of a clause in this example. Therefore, Mr. Zhang added the two conjunctions “if” and “Otherwise” to show the logical relation in the original sentences.<br />
<br />
Impersonal subjects always appear in English sentences, while personal subjects are used more frequently in Chinese sentences. <br />
<br />
Example 4:买到了几册新书，一册一册地加盖藏书印记，我最感到快悦的是这时候。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br />
Whenever I have some new acquisitions, it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to stamp my ex-libris on them one by one. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br />
<br />
It is obvious that the subject of the original sentence “我最感到快悦的是这时候” is “I” (我), which refers to the author. However, Mr. Zhang translates this sentence as “it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to...”, where the personal subject “I” is transformed into the impersonal subject “it”, according with English natural expressions.<br />
<br />
Example 5:这种死亡他自己感到很痛苦，别人看了心里也很难受。(Zhang 2007: 289)<br />
This kind of death causes not only much pain to the writer himself, but much sadness to other people as well. (Zhang 2007: 291)<br />
<br />
In this example, “这种死亡” serves as the topic and “他自己感到很痛苦” as well as “别人看了心里也很难受” serve as comments. Since the two comments take sentence as its form, they have separately “他” and “别人” as the subject. However, in the English translation by Mr. Zhang, “This kind of death” (这种死亡) serves as the subject with “他” and “别人” transforming into objects, which shows the tendency to use impersonal subjects in English sentences. The translation is not only faithful to the source text but also comprehensible.<br />
<br />
Chinese people’s subject consciousness brings about the tendency to use personal subjects. Instead, English people’s object consciousness explains why impersonal subjects are used frequently in English sentences. Therefore, when doing Chinese-English translation, we can transform personal subject into impersonal subject. That is to say, the subject can be abstract nouns, inanimate things or the impersonal subject “it” (Lian 2010: 106, 113). <br />
<br />
Chinese sentences always have a “topic-comment” structure, while English sentences always have a “subject-predicate” structure. Therefore, in a Chinese-English translation, the semantic relation between the topic and the comment in the original sentence should be presented through the use of conjunctions to accord with the syntactic features of English sentences.<br />
<br />
English sentences have a basic “subject-predicate” structure. English words are under the restraint of morphological changes; words and clauses are connected through cohesive devices; pronouns accord with the words mentioned above (Lian 2010: 90-91) .<br />
<br />
As a result, English sentences are closely related with each other. However, since Chinese sentences are free from the restraint of morphological changes, it is not necessary that the object should accord with the subject in a Chinese sentence. Chinese sentences are loose because of the diversity, complexity and flexibility of the “subject-object” structure. <br />
<br />
Example 6:借来的书，在我好像过不来瘾似的，必要是自己买的才满足。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br />
It seems that books bought can better satisfy my bibliomania than books borrowed. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br />
<br />
The original sentence is composed of three parts without conjunctions between them. But there exists the semantic relation in it--the comparative relation between “books borrowed” (借来的书) and “books bought” (自己买的). Therefore, the comparative relation should be expressed in English translation. Mr. Zhang employed the expression “rather than” to combine the original three parts into one sentence, expressing the beauty of the translation’s syntactic structure.<br />
<br />
Example 7:据说，任何爱吃糖果的人，只要叫他到糖果铺中去做事，见了糖果就会生厌。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br />
It is said that those who have a great liking for candies will sicken to see them when later they happen to work in a candy store. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br />
<br />
Mr. Zhang combined the four parts in the original texts into one sentence through the use of “who” and “when” to make the English sentences compact and coherent, expressing the beauty of the translation’s syntactic structure.<br />
<br />
Example 8:像针尖上一滴水滴在大海里，我的日子滴在时间的流里，没有声音，也没有影子。(Zhang 2007: 55)<br />
Like a drop of water falling off a needle point into the ocean, my days are quietly dripping into the stream of time without leaving a trace. (Zhang 2007: 57)<br />
<br />
There are four loose sentences in the original text. However, the two short sentences “没有声音” and “也没有影子” have been transformed separately into the adverb “quietly” and the propositional phrase “without leaving a trace” as an complement of the action “日子滴在时间的流里”, making the English sentences compact. Simile is employed in the translation as well as in the sour text, which shows faithfulness in the translation.<br />
<br />
Example 9:作家不能当隐士，适当的社会活动和文学活动可以开阔眼界，活跃思想，对创作也是有帮助的。(Zhang 2007: 290)<br />
Being no hermit, a writer stands to benefit in writing as long as he gets properly involved with social and literary activities to widen his field of vision and stimulate his thinking. (Zhang 2007: 292)<br />
<br />
The original text consists of four short sentences without overt conjunctions connecting them, and it includes two subjects “作家” and “适当的社会活动和文学活动”. Mr. Zhang combined the four parts into one sentence, “作家” (a writer) being the subject, “不能当隐士” being transformed into the absolute nominative construction “Being no hermit”. The addition of “as long as” in the translation indicates the semantic relationship between the second part and the fourth part. Besides, Mr. Zhang added “to” to transform “可以开阔眼界，活跃思想” into the adverbial of purpose. All the transformations made express what the author wanted to express.<br />
<br />
Sentences like loose sentences, compressed sentences, run-on sentences, short sentences, etc., are frequently used in Chinese. On the contrary, the grammatical relationship is expressed through the arrangement of word order and flexible use of various cohesive devices in English sentences, thus English sentences are compact with a clear logical relationship between the matrix clauses and the subordinate clauses.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in Chinese-English translation, the translator is supposed to add conjunctions appropriately to connect the short sentences in the original text, indicating the implicit grammatical and logical relationship. Consequently, readers are able to understand the sentence meaning without even relying on the context. <br />
<br />
Category words are used to express the category which behaviour, phenomenon, property and other factors belong to; they are often used to refer to other things in Chinese. For example, “情绪” in the Chinese sentence “那你的恹恹欲睡的情绪又将如何” and “情味” in “常不禁会感觉到难以名言的寂寞的情味” are category words. <br />
<br />
There are many category words in Chinese language for a better form of expression. Instead, category words are much less frequently used in English language. The sameness in number, property and other aspects are avoided in English language.<br />
<br />
Example 10:我一向没有对于任何问题作高深研究的野心，因之所买的书范围较广，宗教、艺术、文学、社会、哲学、历史、生物，各方面差不多都有一点。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br />
Since I have never entertained ambition for making a profound study of any subject, the books I have acquired cover almost everything--religion, art, literature, sociology, philosophy, history, biology, etc. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br />
<br />
“范围” in the original text belongs to category words. Thus, it is unnecessary to translate it in English. Therefore, the English translation should avoid the use of the corresponding English expression “the range of”. Compare the following sentence with Mr. Zhang’s translation:<br />
... the range of the books I have acquired covers almost everything...<br />
It is obvious that Mr. Zhang’s translation is more natural. Moreover, Mr. Zhang omitted the translation of “各方面差不多都有一点” because what the expression means has already been contained in “the books I have acquired cover almost everything”.<br />
<br />
Category words in Chinese always express objects’ categories. Though they are indispensable to the correctness of grammar and the expression of mood, they are of little practical significance in that they just repeat the semantic meaning of a precedent expression. When doing Chinese-English translation, we are supposed to omit the translation of category words and rather translate the content nouns before them.<br />
<br />
English language has the tendency to the use of nouns and thus is stative. On the contrary, verbs rather than nouns are more frequently used in Chinese sentences, thus Chinese language is dynamic (Lian 2010: 133). In Chinese-English translation, the dynamic Chinese sentences should be translated into stative English sentences.<br />
<br />
In Example 7, “爱吃糖果” is translated as “have a great liking for candies” rather than “like candies”. The verb “爱” is transformed into the noun “liking” and posited t after the verb “have” as its object（连淑能，P148）, which characterizes English language as stative.<br />
<br />
Example 11:自我入书店以后，对于书的贪念也已消除了不少......(Zhang 2007: 27)<br />
Likewise, ever since I began to work in a bookstore, my obsession with books has been very much on the decline. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br />
<br />
Prepositions are always posited before nouns or noun phrases. Therefore, English language uses prepositions as frequently as nouns. The priority to the use of both nouns and prepositions makes it more clear that English is a stative language (Lian 2010:145). The verb “消除” has been translated as the prepositional phrase “on the decline”, thus the dynamic Chinese sentence has been transformed into stative English sentence.<br />
<br />
Example 12:我自己就是浪费了很多时间的一个人。(Zhang 2007: 216)<br />
Personally, I am also a fritterer. (Zhang 2007: 218)<br />
<br />
Mr. Zhang translated the expression “浪费很多时间的一个人” as the noun phrase “a fritterer”, the noun derived from the verb “fritter”, rather than “a person who fritter a lot of time” in which the verb “fritter” is directly used, making the translation stative.<br />
<br />
Example 13:青翠的叶上已经凝集着细密的露珠，这显然是昨夜被人遗弃了的。(Zhang 2007: 119)<br />
The numerous fine dewdrops on the fresh green leaves clearly showed that the roses had just been cast away the previous night. (Zhang 2007: 120)<br />
<br />
The expression “凝集着” in the original sentence can be either translated or omitted. Generally, it is unnecessary to translate verbs of this kind. Mr. Zhang translated the first half part as “The numerous fine dewdrops on the fresh green leaves”, directly omitting the translation of “凝集着” since the prepositional phrase “on the fresh green leaves” has already expressed its meaning.<br />
<br />
Chinese language is dynamic while English language is stative. In Chinese-English translation, firstly, abstract nouns can be used to express actions, behaviors, changes, states and so on in the original texts; secondly, verbs in the original texts can be replaced by common nouns which express behaviors or actions (Lian 2010: 138); thirdly, translators can use prepositions more frequently; fourthly, grammaticalized verbs or weak verbs can be used instead. (Lian 2010: 147)<br />
<br />
Generally, English language avoids repetition; it repeats words or phrases only for emphasis or for the use of rhetorical devices. English natives are not interested in the repetition in syllables, words or sentence patterns (Lian 2010: 221). Translators are supposed to replace the repeated expression with a new one or omit the repeated part or explain it in a different way as long as the meaning of the original text is explicitly expressed. In this way, the translation will be concise and powerful, and it will fit more into English people’s language habits (Lian 2010: 223). <br />
<br />
Example 14:我虽爱买书，而对于书却不甚爱惜。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br />
Much as I love books, I take little care of them. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br />
<br />
The second part of the original sentence repeats the noun “书”. However, Mr. Zhang replaced “books” (书) with the pronoun “them”, avoiding the repetition of “books” and connecting the two sentences.<br />
<br />
Example 15:书籍到了我的手里，我的习惯是先看序文，次看目录。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br />
As soon as a new book comes to hand, I always read the preface first and then the table of contents. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br />
<br />
The repeated verb “read” (看) has been omitted in the translation. <br />
<br />
In the fourth example, Mr. Zhang added the subject “I” (“我” in Chinese) before the sentence “买到了几册新书”, making the English sentence complete in terms of syntactic structure.<br />
<br />
English language often uses pronouns to avoid repetition, while Chinese language uses less pronouns and tends to repeat words and phrases. In terms of coordination, repeated words or phrases are usually deleted in English but repeated in Chinese. Moreover, English sentences avoids repetition of words through the use of synonyms or hyponyms. Instead, Chinese sentences repeat the words to express the beauty of the balance in form. Therefore, when doing Chinese-English translation, translators are supposed to avoid the repetition in meaning through replacing, deleting, or transforming the repeated parts. <br />
<br />
Nevertheless, it is necessary to add the subject when translating Chinese sentences into English because the subject is often omitted in Chinese while English is a language with a strict “subject-predicate” structure.<br />
<br />
Because English is a hypotactic language but Chinese an paratactic language, cohesion in English and Chinese differs a lot. In terms of textual cohesion, there are mainly two differences between English and Chinese: one is that the cohesion in English is implicit while that in Chinese is explicit; the other is that the two languages differ in sentence division. There is no clear division between a phrase and a clause (which was previously called a simple sentence), between a clause and a sentence (which was previously called a compound sentence), between a sentence and sentence groups. (Shao 2013: 390)Because of this difference, the addition of conjunctions is needed in Chinese-English translation. <br />
<br />
Example 16:经我看过的书，统体干净的很少。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br />
Consequently, the books I have read are rarely clean. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br />
<br />
Mr. Zhang added the adverb “consequently” in the translation. According to the context, the reason for “经我看过的书，统体干净的很少” is explained in the preceding sentence “线装书大概用笔加圈，洋装书竟用红铅笔划粗粗的线”. Therefore, when translating these sentences, we should express the causality between the two sentences. The adverb “consequently” well expresses it. <br />
<br />
Example 17:我不禁头涔涔而泪潸潸了。(Zhang 2007: 55)<br />
At the thought of this, sweat oozes from my forehead and tears trickle down my cheeks. (Zhang 2007: 57)<br />
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Mr. Zhang added the expression “At the thought of this” in the translation, which links the preceding sentence and the following sentence and expresses the implicit meaning in the original text.<br />
<br />
Example 18:我觉察他去的匆匆了，伸出手遮挽时，他又从遮挽着的手边过去......(Zhang 2007: 55)<br />
Aware of its fleeting presence, I reach out for it only to find it brushing past my outstretched hands. (Zhang 2007: 57)<br />
<br />
The translation adds the expression “only to find” to connect the second and third parts of the original text, making overt the implicit meaning that the author was regretful for his failing to grasp his time.<br />
<br />
Example 19:怕只怕三杯下肚，豪情大发，嘟嘟嘟，来个瓶底朝天......(Zhang 2007: 290)<br />
The trouble is after three cups of alcohol he will get wild and unrestrained and end in gulping down a whole bottle. (Zhang 2007: 289)<br />
<br />
Mr. Zhang combined the four parts in the original text into one English sentence, showing the logical relationship between these parts. In the original text, “来个瓶底朝天” is the result of “三杯下肚，豪情大发”; the semantic relationship between the two parts has been shown through the addition of the verb phrase “end in” in the English translation. Actually, Mr. Zhang deleted the translation of “嘟嘟嘟”, which seems not to be faithful to the original text. However, it is unnecessary to translate this expression since it means nothing here.<br />
<br />
Words, phrases and clauses are often connected through various cohesive devices in English, which shows that English emphasizes overt cohesion. On the contrary, much less or even no cohesive devices are used in Chinese, which shows the tendency toward implicit cohesion in Chinese. In Chinese-English translation, it is necessary to add relational words, conjunctions, prepositions and so on, or change the form of words in the translation to express the grammatical and logical relationship in the original text.<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This paper first makes a brief introduction of essay, and then provides the definition of Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”. Then, it compares the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc., and makes an analysis of the original and translated texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts to see whether the translation is faithful, comprehensive and elegant. Finally, the paper provides some strategies for Chinese-English Translation. However, the paper only compares English and Chinese from limited aspects and it only covers several texts. There remains some problems to be solved. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Leo Tak-hung Chan. (2004). Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory. John Benjamin Publishing Company. <br />
Lian Shuneng连淑能. (2010). 英汉对比研究 [Contrastive Studies of English and Chinese]. Beijing: 高等教育出版社.<br />
Liu Miqing刘宓庆. (1992). 汉英对比与翻译 Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press江西教育出版社.<br />
Pan Wenguo 潘文国. (1997/2002) 汉英语对比纲要 [An Outline of Chinese-English Contrastive Study]，Beijing: Beijing Language and Culture University Press北京语言文化大学出版社.<br />
Shao Zhihong 邵志洪. (2013). 新编英汉研究对比 [Contrastive Studies Between English and Chinese]. Shanghai: East China University of Science and TechnologyPress 华东理工大学出版社.<br />
Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2007) 英译中国现代散文选（一） [Selected Modern Chinese Essays 1]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou</div>Hu Huifanghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=116960History of Translation Studies 92020-12-21T01:02:42Z<p>Hu Huifang: /* Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang */</p>
<hr />
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学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
<br />
='''Comparative Studies'''=<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan <br />
易欢 202020080663<br />
(1.between should be Between; 2. Please add your student number and major here)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 06:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC) ==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language is under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, makes a comparative study of English and Chinese language forms and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br />
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(Sentence 3 the both should be both; Sentence 4 beween should be between --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 07:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC))<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br />
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===摘要===<br />
英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显然，语言，文化与思维之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. That is to say, language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921:12)<br />
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Meanwhile, language is part of culture. And language, as a system of signs with its own cultural substances and values, may be viewed as a symbol of culture identity. For example, a person who moves from his or her speech community to another one, will easily exposes himself or herself as a newcomer in communication since the language he uses may betray his culture identity. Also each culture has its own peculiarities and throws influence on the language system. Hence, language is the carrier and the representation of culture, and as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture.<br />
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（Sentence 2 culture identity should be cultural identity, same mistake in Sentence 3; exposes should be expose )--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 13:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properties and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. <br />
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(Sentence 2 is known as should be are known as)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 13:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br />
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===2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese===<br />
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The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. And in different countries, there exist different thinking patterns, then it is going to illustrate four types of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present the reflection upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. <br />
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===2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking===<br />
When Premier Zhou and Secretary of State Kissinger drafted “Shanghai Sino-US Communique,” Kissinger once said that the thought of Oriental is to seek the common ground among differences, while the thought of the Occidental are accustomed to seeking differences among the similarities. To some extent, it shows that Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical. Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. <br />
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(Sentence 2 are accustomed to should be is accustomed to )--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Actually, the formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. Then such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking.<br />
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(Sentence 1 the nature——nature ; Sentence 5 towards——of; Sentence 6 develop——to develop)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analyzing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively.<br />
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(Sentence 1 “subject-object~”——the “subject-object~”; explain ——explains; Sentence 3 logic——logical)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relatiobnships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking.<br />
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(Sentence 4 wrong spelling of relationships)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis, is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. <br />
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Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br />
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(1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br />
我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br />
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(2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br />
Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face.(Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br />
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From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one prominent feature is the abundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. <br />
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Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br />
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(Sentence 2 some of——some)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking===<br />
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It is well known that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking. As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the opposite side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” (Tao Te Ching, chapter 25) Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” (Mencius, chapter 1)<br />
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(Sentence 1stress——stresses; Sentence 2 sever——severe; think——think of; Sentence 3 Chinese Confucian school——the Chinese Confucian school)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1971: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. <br />
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(Sentence 3 is——are)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature. On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conquer nature. <br />
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(Sentence 3 has looked upon at—— have looked upon )--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism advocates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974: 25 ) <br />
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(Sentence 2 truth ——the truth)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br />
<br />
( Sentence 1 used of ——used)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br />
一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br />
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A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br />
我突然想出了一个好主意。<br />
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The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br />
<br />
Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. <br />
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(Sentence 1 show——to show; its——their; Sentence 2 are ——is)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br />
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(Sentence 2 pattern——patterns)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(1) 公交车来了。<br />
There comes the bus.<br />
(2) 我家有五口人。<br />
There are 5 people in my family.<br />
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Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by) “为人所骗” (be cheated by). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br />
<br />
(Sentence 3 use ——uses)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking===<br />
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Thinking in images and thinking in notions are two forms of thought activities. Generally speaking, Chinese people are well good at thinking in images, while English–speaking people are well developed in thinking in notions. These two tendencies are rooted in their own cultures (包惠南, 2001: 26). Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration. As we all know Chinese language is vivid and full of images and the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. <br />
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Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgment and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences.<br />
<br />
Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. <br />
<br />
Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M.Young once pointed，“an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end, detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness.” <br />
<br />
(Sentence 2 tend to——tends to)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” (1946: 15-16) The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br />
<br />
Sentence 2 devices——device; Sentence 3 medonstrated ——demonstrated; Sentence 4 examplify ——exemplify)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br />
欲饮琵琶马上催。<br />
— 王翰《凉州词》<br />
With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br />
Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br />
<br />
无边落木萧萧下，<br />
不尽长江滚滚来。<br />
—杜甫《登高》<br />
The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br />
The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br />
<br />
<br />
In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br />
“To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br />
<br />
“为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br />
是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br />
There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to govern the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br />
<br />
Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br />
智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br />
<br />
In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br />
<br />
===2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking===<br />
<br />
According to Robert Kaplan who analyzes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br />
Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. <br />
<br />
And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging.<br />
<br />
While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotelian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. <br />
<br />
(Sentence 4 view——views ; superior ——as superior)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br />
<br />
(Sentence 1 has——have)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br />
足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br />
<br />
There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br />
<br />
(2) 各位来宾，<br />
女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br />
Distinguished Guests,<br />
Ladies and Gentlemen,<br />
Dear Friends,<br />
在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br />
With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br />
<br />
Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br />
诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br />
<br />
Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delight in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br />
<br />
Although the distinction is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of Composition above Middle School, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines.<br />
<br />
===3. Conclusion===<br />
The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other.<br />
<br />
( Sentence 1 comparison on——comparison of)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 15:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, and we can not lump together under one head. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people view about the world around them, and then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br />
<br />
( Sentence 3 about——of; two language——two languages ; Sentence 4 view about——view)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 15:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Bibliography===<br />
*Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br />
*Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br />
*Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br />
*Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br />
*Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br />
*Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br />
* Lian Shuneng. 连淑能. (2002) 论中西思维方式【J】 On Chinese and Western modes of thinking. 大连：外语与外语教学. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching.<br />
*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1992) 《汉英对比翻译》【M】 Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese, 南昌: 江西教育出版社, Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press.<br />
*Qian Mu. 钱穆，(1977)《世界局势与中国文化》The World Situation and Chinese Culture【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD.<br />
*Shen Xiaolong. 申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters《学术月刊》 1994 第14期, 74. Academic Monthly, 1994 (14), 74.<br />
*Wang Dehua. 汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36. Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br />
*Zhang Li. 张 黎. (1994) 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】on Chinese Parataxis Grammar. 长春：吉林教育出版社Changchun: Jilin Education Press.<br />
*Zhang Sijie & Zhang Boran. 张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, 中国翻译 Chinese Translation. 2001 (7), 13.<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 英语笔译 MTI 202070080578==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed the theory of functional equivalence, which has boosted the development of translation theory. The theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory. Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between the original language and the target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the key in translation, exerting great guiding significance for translators.<br />
<br />
With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, Chinese translators also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators.<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence and Yan Fu's faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences between these two theories will be presented, aiming to have a better understanding in translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words=== <br />
<br />
Functional Equivalence; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; similarities and differences; ''Vanity Fair''<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。<br />
<br />
随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, it can be seen that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His "Functional equivalence" theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reaching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43).<br />
<br />
Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).<br />
<br />
Despite the different social environment and the imperfect translation standards, it is undeniable that these two are still the most authoritative and vital ones in Chinese and Western translation circles(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).<br />
<br />
====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible, and a translation theorist as well. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). <br />
<br />
In 1964, Nida put forward "formal equivalence" and "dynamic equivalence" in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of "dynamic equivalence" until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression "dynamic equivalence" was superseded by "functional equivalence" in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined "in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). "<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). It is impossible to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translators can cause differences in translation.<br />
<br />
In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level(Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as "The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it". The maximal level is stated as "The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did"(Nida 1993,118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. According to Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida,1995,224).<br />
<br />
====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as the essential criteria for understanding translation since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898)（Zhang Xi 2014,1):<br />
<br />
"Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so(Yan Fu 2009, 202)."<br />
<br />
Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of Chinese translation theory in the 20th century (Zhang Xi 2014, 2). <br />
<br />
According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. "Faithfulness" emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. "Expressiveness" stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. "Elegance" reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics''(Yan Fu 2009, 202):<br />
<br />
"Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also added, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for translators. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek for elegance.(Yan Fu 2009, 202)"<br />
<br />
Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticism comes from the denial of standard "elegance". According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese characters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons. Firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br />
<br />
Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. "Elegance" now has been modified by later generations, which refers to that the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard "elegance", the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br />
<br />
===Theoretial Foundation===<br />
<br />
====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====<br />
<br />
=====Modern Linguistic===== <br />
<br />
Based on modern linguistic, functional equivalence has a close relationship with linguistics(Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately(Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process（Zhu Haotong 2006,64).<br />
<br />
According to Nida, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure(Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).<br />
<br />
=====Information Theory=====<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information(Nida 1964, 68).<br />
<br />
Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and the target language belong to different language systems and cultures(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original text for the target readers to better understand the translation(Nida 1984, 34).<br />
<br />
=====Social Semiotics=====<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning(Zhu Haotong 2006,65).<br />
<br />
In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods(Nida 1993, 67). <br />
<br />
====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br />
<br />
=====Chinese Aesthetics=====<br />
<br />
Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty（Guo dingju 2013, 18). It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today.<br />
<br />
"Faithfulness" means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. "Expressiveness" means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. "Elegance" refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. "Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" reveal the essence of translation(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters(Guo Dingju 2013, 18).<br />
<br />
Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance(Guo Dingju 2013, 19).<br />
<br />
=====Literary Criticism=====<br />
<br />
Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods(Guo Dingju 2013, 19). <br />
<br />
On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is the body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered around the craftmanship of literary works(Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation(Li Jianzhong 2009, 46). <br />
<br />
There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of criticism functions. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism, Lu Xun being one of the representative. The second type aims at the independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism serving politics, which works well in the period of political struggels(Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).<br />
<br />
===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===<br />
<br />
====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====<br />
<br />
=====About ''Vanity Fair''=====<br />
<br />
''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the stories of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition(Guo Dingju 2013, 21).<br />
<br />
At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again(Thackeray 2006，178).<br />
<br />
This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater living in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time(Guo Dingju 2013, 21). <br />
<br />
The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at that time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveals the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, he doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness(Thackeray 2006, 89).<br />
<br />
=====Yang Bi’s Translation of ''Vanity Fair''=====<br />
<br />
There are many Chinese translation versions of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of ''Vanity Fair'' was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957, then re-published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br />
<br />
Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of the original text appropriately to Chinese readers, hence having a great response from Chinese readers.(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br />
<br />
====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br />
<br />
Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator when translating. When comparing the English and Chinese version of ''Vanity Fair'', it’s easy to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.<br />
<br />
=====At Lexical Level=====<br />
<br />
In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943，89), those are <br />
<br />
(1) entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on; <br />
<br />
(2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on; <br />
<br />
(3) states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on; <br />
<br />
(4) characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on; <br />
<br />
(5) processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on; <br />
<br />
(6) links, such as when, during, below and so on; <br />
<br />
(7) deictics, such as that, there, this and so on(Nida 1986, 20). <br />
<br />
From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language(Zhang Yanmei 2019,16). <br />
<br />
Exampe 1: <br />
<br />
ST1: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br />
<br />
TT1: ……痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br />
<br />
In ST1, "Love" and "Beauty" are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words "Love" and "Beauty" to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates "Love" and "Beauty" into "痴情男子" and "美貌佳人" to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate "Love" and "Beauty" into "爱情" and "美人", the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.<br />
<br />
=====At Syntactical Level=====<br />
<br />
A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences (Nida, 1946). Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence(Nida 1946, 55). He think there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:<br />
<br />
(1) subject + predicate + adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;<br />
<br />
(2) subject + predicate + object, such as, John hit Bill;<br />
<br />
(3) subject + predicate + object + object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;<br />
<br />
(4) subject + be + subject complement, such as, John is in the restaurant;<br />
<br />
(5) subject + be + attributive, such as, John is kind;<br />
<br />
(6) subject + be + indefinite article + noun, such as, John is a man;<br />
<br />
(7) subject + be + pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend. <br />
<br />
The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences(Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text(Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation. <br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
<br />
ST2: His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury. <br />
(Thackeray 2016,75) <br />
<br />
TT2: 他第一次结婚的时候,奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐,是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br />
(Yang Bi 2013,76) <br />
<br />
In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences(Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.<br />
<br />
(1) 他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。<br />
<br />
His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.<br />
<br />
(2) 他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。<br />
<br />
He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.<br />
<br />
(3) 她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。<br />
<br />
She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade. <br />
<br />
(4) 她死后，他许下承诺。<br />
<br />
He was hanged after her death.<br />
<br />
(5) 他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。<br />
<br />
He would never take another of her sort.<br />
<br />
(6) 妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。<br />
<br />
At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.<br />
<br />
(7) 他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br />
<br />
He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.<br />
<br />
In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.<br />
<br />
====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br />
<br />
The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.<br />
<br />
=====At Lexical level=====<br />
<br />
Literary words demands that the translator has good command of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence(Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
<br />
ST3: …for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty?(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br />
<br />
TT3: ……痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br />
<br />
In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words "an image of Love" and "Beauty" to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br />
<br />
If the words "prettier", "an image of Love" and "Beauty" are translated into "更好看" "爱情形象" "美人" respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, "痴情男子" "美貌佳人" and "赏心悦目" reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br />
<br />
=====At Sentence Level===== <br />
<br />
English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis(Guo Dingju 2013,40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br />
<br />
Example 4: <br />
<br />
ST4: The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley. (Thackeray 2006, 74)<br />
<br />
TT4: 布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)<br />
<br />
In the original sentence, the abstract words "behavior" and "reception" are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into "克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……" without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.<br />
<br />
====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====<br />
<br />
===== Similarities =====<br />
<br />
Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.<br />
<br />
One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent(Nida&Taber 1969, 22).<br />
<br />
Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers. The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty(Guo Dingju 2013, 43). Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.<br />
<br />
The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating(Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information(Nida 1969,30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent.<br />
<br />
Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely(Guo Dingju 2013,44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.<br />
<br />
By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.<br />
<br />
===== Differences =====<br />
<br />
Although there are many similarities between these two thoeries, there are still some differences because of the different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence, which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of "elegance". What’s more, the concrete explanation of "faithfulness" is not clear. Whether the target text should only be "faithful" to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as the translation standard. <br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class(Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of the differences between these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translation. <br />
<br />
From the comparison above, it is known that there are some similarities and differences between these two thoeries. It is believed that these two translation theories both play an important role in translation, guiding us to better understand different cultures. <br />
<br />
====Implements====<br />
<br />
Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). <br />
<br />
What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper(Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.<br />
<br />
====Limitations====<br />
<br />
Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene Albert. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Leiden: Brill Archive.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene Albert. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Leiden: Brill Archive.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene Albert, and Charles Russell Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill Archive.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene Albert, and Jan de Waard. (1986) ''From One Language to Another''. Nashville: Thomas Nelson.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene Albert. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press. <br />
<br />
Thackeray, William. (2006）. ''Vanity Fair''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
<br />
Chen Minjie 陈岷婕. (2013). 浅谈严复的信达雅与奈达的功能对等[On Yan Fu’s "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and Nida’s "Functional Equivalence"].''科教文汇'' The Science Education Article Collects(236)94-97.<br />
<br />
Guo Dingju 郭丁菊. (2013). 功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness Expressiveand Elegance]. Harbin: Northeast Forestry University 东北农业大学.<br />
<br />
Li Jianzhong 李建中. (2009). 中国文学批评史[History of Chinese Literary Criticism]. Beijing: Peking University Press 北京大学出版社.<br />
<br />
Tan Kai 谭凯. (2011). 严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Yan Fu’s "Faithfulness Expressive and Elegance" and Nida’s "Functional Equivalence"].''青年作家'' Young Writers(1)43-44.<br />
<br />
Wang Yunxi 王运熙, Gu Yisheng 顾易生. (2007). 中国文学批评史新编[A New History of Chinese Literary Criticism]. Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.<br />
<br />
Yan Fu 严复 (2009). 《天演论》译例言[Preface to ''Evolution and Ethics'']. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
Yang Bi 杨必. (2013)《名利场》[''Vanity Fair'']. Beijing: People’s Literature Publishing House 人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yanmei 张妍梅. (2019). 功能对等理论视角下《名利场》的翻译[A Study on The Translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory]. Lanzhou: Lanzhou Jiaotong University 兰州交通大学.<br />
<br />
Zhang Xi 张曦. (2014). 翻译硕士备考指南[A Guide Book to MTI]. Shanghai: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press 上海交通大学出版社.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yimei 张忆美. (2020). 对比“信达雅”与功能对等[A Comparison on "Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance" and Functional Equivalence]. ''中国学术期刊电子出版社'' China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House(2)180-181.<br />
<br />
Zhu Haotong 朱浩彤. (2006). 奈达“功能对等”理论基础的再思考[Some Thoughts on the Theoretical Bases of Nida’s "Functional Equivalence"]. ''福建医科大学学报'' Journal of Fujiann Medical University(3)62-65.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br />
<br />
In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the Government Work Report has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of 2019 Government Work Report .--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br />
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===摘要===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br />
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近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。 --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===关键词===生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
The ''Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the ''National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference'', including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）<br />
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The Government Work Report of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the National People's Congress on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China.Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials. In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. （Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）<br />
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As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, the essay interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials. In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. （Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）<br />
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In order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. The essay includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===1.Introduction of Government Work Report===<br />
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''Government Work Report'' has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, ''Government Work Report'' manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br />
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Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, using the data to tell the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.(Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.1 Lexical Level ====<br />
For ''Government Work Report'' has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br />
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For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====1.1.1Formal and Concise Words=====<br />
The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)<br />
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The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many kinds of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics=====<br />
As the ''Government Work Reports'' involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br />
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As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment. (Zhou Ji,2006) (什么是elcological environment？上文应先简单介绍一下)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====1.1.3 New and Popular Words=====<br />
The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br />
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The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2 Syntactic Level====<br />
In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. (Zhou Ji,2006)<br />
Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br />
It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br />
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In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.) It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. (Zhou Ji,2006) （GWR斜体）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br />
In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br />
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In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently adopted. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis=====<br />
Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br />
Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) <br />
“获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) <br />
“增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) <br />
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Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br />
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Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )<br />
“在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)<br />
“放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)<br />
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Repetition and parataxis structure have reinforced that makes the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure. （GWR斜体）<br />
Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two. Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )“在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)“放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology===<br />
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Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br />
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Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.（Hu Gengshen，2001）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology====<br />
Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br />
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Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks translation as a brandnew perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed. （Hu Gengshen，2001）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology====<br />
=====2.2.1 Adaption and Selection=====<br />
The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection". The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br />
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The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.(Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation=====<br />
Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br />
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Adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid literal translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation. (Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br />
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Cultural dimension is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so as various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation. (Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br />
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Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.(Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br />
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By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text. In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be. (Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective===<br />
From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br />
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From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.1 Linguistic Dimension====<br />
The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports(Tong Xiaohua,2006) <br />
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The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports(Tong Xiaohua,2006) --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)<br />
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Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear(Tong Xiaohua,2006)<br />
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Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear(Tong Xiaohua,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)<br />
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Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 Cultural Dimension====<br />
The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br />
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The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural forms. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.) It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br />
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Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.) It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public into the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.) In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br />
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Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.) In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.) “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers(Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br />
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Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.) “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers(Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.3 Communicative Dimension====<br />
From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.(Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br />
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From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br />
For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
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Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”) For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication. --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br />
“保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br />
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Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.) “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)<br />
In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br />
In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be.(Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br />
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Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1] In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br />
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During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns. (Yang Guang,2017)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention<br />
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Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report (斜体)in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention. (Yang Guang,2017)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br />
However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br />
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First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay. In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation. (Yang Guang,2017) GWR都要斜体--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report. (Yang Guang,2017)基于不足分析上再增加一个与其他著名理论对比的part会更好<br />
--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603 MTI英语笔译==<br />
<center>欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspectives. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. <br />
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Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br />
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===题目===<br />
《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br />
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===摘要===<br />
奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。<br />
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另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
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====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br />
Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed out the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. The two approaches were put forward to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors(Munday, 2008: 42).<br />
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By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure. And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory(Munday, 2008: 42).<br />
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His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies(Munday, 2008: 42).<br />
<br />
====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br />
Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' that the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated from his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). <br />
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In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory( Catford, 1965: 20). <br />
<br />
If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies(Catford, 1965: 20).<br />
<br />
===2.Similarities and Differences===<br />
<br />
====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br />
As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistics was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible, the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible(Nida, 1984: 14).<br />
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<br />
=====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br />
Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar. Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes(Munday, 2008: 40). <br />
<br />
Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language, and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language. To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels(Catford, 1965: 20). <br />
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Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process, and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement(Li Yang, 2014: 94).<br />
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=====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br />
The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40).<br />
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He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br />
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The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence''. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable(Li Zhidan, 2014:93). <br />
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Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language, which means, in a sense, he wanted to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above(Catford, 1965: 73).<br />
<br />
====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br />
Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42).<br />
<br />
Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factor to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). <br />
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By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence. And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods(Catford, 1965: 22). <br />
<br />
=====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br />
Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented in front of its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. (Munday, 2008: 42)<br />
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Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response. These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. (Munday, 2008: 42)<br />
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Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to be achieved between source language and target language.From this we can know that it's difficult to achieve the same meaning at a linguistic level between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49).<br />
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In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings. To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made(Catford, 1965: 49). <br />
<br />
=====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br />
Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence. These two types actually reflect a shallow to deep tendency of Nida's researches on structure of language. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). <br />
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In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory ,Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation. Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts(Munday, 2008: 43). <br />
<br />
<br />
In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20).<br />
<br />
Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language(Catford, 1965: 20).<br />
<br />
=====2.2.3.Different Research Approaches=====<br />
To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). <br />
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In another aspect, Nida held a view that "meaning is universal" and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). <br />
<br />
By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was defined by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). <br />
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Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language. In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework(Catford, 1965: 27).<br />
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===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br />
<br />
=====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br />
In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspectives. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics. Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages(Tan, 2017: 132). <br />
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Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect. This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators.Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence have offered a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language(Nida, 1964: 159). <br />
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=====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br />
Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully. Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory(Munday, 2008: 38). <br />
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What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors. However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators(Munday, 2008: 42). <br />
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====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br />
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=====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br />
Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved, he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature wayCaford, 1965:22).<br />
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====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br />
Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials. Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators(Wang, 2008: 166). <br />
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Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinguish linguistic untranslatability from cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language. This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete(Catford, 1965: 101).<br />
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===4.Conclusion===<br />
In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence. The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possessing many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27).<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br />
<br />
Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br />
<br />
Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br />
<br />
Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br />
<br />
Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br />
<br />
Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br />
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Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science & Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br />
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--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 14:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605==<br />
<center>石海瑶 Shi Haiyao </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people's overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'' was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, ''On the Construction of the System of Translatology''. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br />
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<br />
===摘要=== <br />
一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br />
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===关键词===<br />
谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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====Tan Zaixi’s Translation System====<br />
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In his book ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'', Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, it should also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.<br />
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Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, the study of human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.<br />
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In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable, knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:21-22)<br />
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From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br />
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[[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]<br />
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====Yi Jing’s Translation System====<br />
According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology.<br />
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The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology.<br />
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The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself.<br />
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The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.<br />
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The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. <br />
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The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:197-287).<br />
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From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br />
[[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]<br />
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The translations of the above terms are as following:<br />
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[[File:Shu Yu.jpg]]<br />
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===Similarities and Differences===<br />
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====The Similarities between the Two systems====<br />
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=====Both deem translatology as an independent discipline=====<br />
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In 1951, Dong Qiusi published ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper ''Translatology must be established'', which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br />
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From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br />
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It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br />
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=====Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation=====<br />
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In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br />
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For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br />
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Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br />
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=====Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation=====<br />
The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that "all translations must be faithful to the original text". Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as "faithful to the original content ", " faithful to the original form ", " faithful to the original effect ", " faithful to the original function" and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that "comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style" is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br />
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As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br />
Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br />
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====The differences between the Two Translation Systems====<br />
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=====Different structures of translation system=====<br />
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From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br />
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Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br />
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=====Different views on the study of translation history=====<br />
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Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br />
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we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br />
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=====Different views on translation process=====<br />
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For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br />
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From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive. <br />
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===My Thoughts on the Two Systems===<br />
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====My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System====<br />
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=====Contributions of Tan’s Translation System=====<br />
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First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word "translatology" is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br />
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Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that "translatology is an independent discipline" is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br />
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Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of "harmony in diversity", which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br />
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=====Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System=====<br />
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As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br />
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Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br />
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Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br />
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=====My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System=====<br />
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The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br />
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====My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System====<br />
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=====Contributions of Yi’s Translation System=====<br />
First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br />
In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br />
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=====Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System=====<br />
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However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br />
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Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br />
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Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br />
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=====My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System=====<br />
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Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies. <br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br />
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<br />
===Refrences===<br />
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[1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外国语大学出版社,2000.<br />
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[2]方梦之.当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起 [J]. 外语教学理论与实践，2016（3）：55-63.<br />
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[3]蓝红军. "从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017)." 中国翻译 39.1 (2018): 7-16.<br />
<br />
[4]谭载喜.必须建立翻译学[J].中国翻译,1987b3: 2-7.<br />
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[5]谭载喜.翻译学[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005.<br />
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[6]许钧,穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京:译林出版社,2009.<br />
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[7]易经.试论翻译学体系的构建[D].湖南师范大学,2009.<br />
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==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of "dynamic equivalence", and Bassnett proposed the concept of "cultural equivalence". Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of "equivalence" or "equivalence" in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br />
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==='''Key Words'''=== <br />
Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br />
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===摘要===<br />
尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br />
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===关键词=== <br />
尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek "Bible New Testament" studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society.<br />
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In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is "Toward a Science of Translation" "The Theory and Practice of translation" etc. <br />
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His "dynamic equivalence" translation theory and "reader's response theory" translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br />
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Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, author and Courier at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation at the University of Warwick, United Kingdom. As a leading figure in the school of Translation culture, her concept of "cultural equivalence" and related translation theories have exerted a great influence on contemporary translation studies.<br />
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There are some similarities between Nida's "dynamic equivalence" and Barnett's "cultural equivalence", but there are also many differences. This paper starts with the "similarities and differences" and "differences" between the two, in order to have a more comprehensive understanding of these two theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to deepen the understanding and understanding of their translation purposes. Theory.<br />
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===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br />
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Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. <br />
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But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br />
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Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values embodied in translated texts.<br />
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===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br />
Nida's "dynamic equivalence" translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. <br />
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Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research.<br />
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Since the 1950s, Nida has been the executive secretary of the Translation Department of the American Bible Society for many years. Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the practical work of "Bible" translation. In translation projects organized by the American Bible Society since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the theory of dynamic equivalence (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br />
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===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br />
As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to "Translation, History and Culure" (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that "Culural lurn" (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br />
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According to Bassnett, the linguistics of translation faces the following problems: Machine translation method is an effective method, but it is not applicable to literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett points out that translation research methods should undergo a cultural turn (cultural turn). In her opinion, translators must carry out their translation activities in a specific cultural context, and they should not carry out their translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's view of cultural translation is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, but is rooted in and influenced by linguistic culture.<br />
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===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br />
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===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence" Theory===<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence" is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term "equivalence".<br />
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3.1.1The nature of "equivalence"<br />
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"Equivalence" is an important proposition in translation, because it involves the essence of translation, translation norms, quality and translation evaluation and other key issues. "Mathematical equivalence" is the relationship between absolute symmetry and equivalence in mathematics. But in many English dictionaries it has an obscure meaning that something is similar or essentially the same. So, does the concept of equivalence in translation theory derive from its absolute mathematical reference, or is it borrowed from its vague meaning as a word in general linguistics? According to many translation theorists, including Nida, the latter may mean more than the former.<br />
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" Equivalence" is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that "loyalty" or "faith", for the concept of "loyalty"or "faith" refers to attitudes of translators while "faithful translation" indicates the quality of translation. But "equivalence" involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The "equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. <br />
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The historic contribution of Nida's" dynamic equivalence" is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s "dynamic equivalence". however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br />
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3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of " dynamic equivalence”<br />
It has been mentioned above that Nida s "dynamic equivalence" theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br />
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3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br />
What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence" is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( Yang Liu， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved." (Jin Ti,,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence " focuses mainly onthe relative side of " equivalence " rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br />
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As a relative conception, the goal " dynamic equivalence" pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching.<br />
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To sum up, those who oppose the theory believe that the equivalence in translation is impossible forever, because the translation involves at least two different languages, cultures, etc., it is rather difficult for the locals, while in favor of people think equivalence can be realized on the senses and style not only, and in effect can be achieved. Nida made it very clear that "reactions can never be the same," but that "a high degree of reaction equivalence" is required and possible; As for "functional equivalence", Nida explained that no translation can be completely equivalent.<br />
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Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, "equivalence" doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida holds that the expression“functional equivalence" is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something " identical" or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness" to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. <br />
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He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity". Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term " equivalence" in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from "identity", and " equivalence"is a relative conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (Jin Ti,, 1998:44).<br />
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3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of "Functional Equivalence" in China-A Comment on the Translation of "A Madman's Diary"<br />
Here are three examples to analyze the theory of "functional equivalence" used in the "Madman's Diary" in the translation of "The Call" by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br />
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（1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br />
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“what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers.." (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br />
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If this example is literally translated "赵贵翁", it may be translated as "Zhao Guiweng" in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated "Mr. Zhao" in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The "old-year running book" here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means "old account book". If literally translated as "aged jour-nal", obviously there is no "old ledgers" which is more suitable for the time.<br />
Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br />
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(2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br />
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“Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home." (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br />
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The personal pronoun "陈老五", if translated literally, might be translated as "Chen Laowu". Yang Xianyi translated "Old Chen", which is more authentic. "Chen Lao Wu" may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as "Lao Chen" here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br />
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(3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br />
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“a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop..." ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br />
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"狼子村" is a place noun. If it is simply translated as "The Wolf Child Village", it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of "Cub" in "Wolf Cub Village" of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. "Cub" means "cub" and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br />
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===3.2 Bassnett's "cultural equivalence" theory===<br />
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According to Bassnett, the goal of translation should be to shift from the generally accepted text to culture, which is called cultural transformation. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. The mind, language and body coordinate with each other to maintain vitality and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must consider the patient's overall physical condition. The same is true of translation practice. In the process of translating a target language into a target language, parliamentarians must consider double standards of linguistic accuracy and cultural adaptation, and must not deprive cultures and treat translations separately.<br />
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3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br />
Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br />
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Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br />
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3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br />
As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content.<br />
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But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. <br />
Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br />
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3.2.3 "Intelligibility" of the translation<br />
Before the rise of the school of cultural Translation, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into simple and clear language so that readers could better understand the translation and thus remove the metaphor and association in the literature. In this way, the translation will indeed become easier to understand, but the literariness of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth of the work cannot achieve the effect of the original text. Therefore, According to Bassnett, the "intelligibility" of translation should not be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but on striving to maintain the original style.<br />
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3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br />
For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br />
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3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br />
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原文:<br />
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“六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br />
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辜译: "Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,"<br />
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韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons." (Waley, 1999:37 )<br />
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"六亲" in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as "the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it "sixnear ons" , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of "six relatives". (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br />
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原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br />
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辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses." ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br />
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韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e.."(Waley,1999:131 )<br />
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Both translators translated "驷马" into "four horses", which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br />
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===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br />
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Nida's translation thought is mainly influenced by the structuralist translator, which is reflected in his use of syntactic structure analysis method, the semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core ideas similar to Chomsky's deep structure syntactic analysis. From the perspective of language translation (interlingual translation), this paper makes a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation programs. However, the essence of Nida's translation thoughts lies not only in his view of language structuralism, but also in "translation is science", "translation and communication", "translation must emphasize readers' reflection" and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contributions to translation theory, especially to Bible translation theory, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br />
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But Bassnett's "cultural translation view" focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br />
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===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br />
Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br />
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Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the process of translation, form should give way to content. Bethnet also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, translators will not be limited by literary images. It can be seen that two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of translation.<br />
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Nida pointed out that the languages and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br />
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===6. Conclusion===<br />
Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br />
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===References===<br />
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[1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br />
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[2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br />
<br />
[3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br />
<br />
[4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br />
<br />
[5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br />
<br />
[6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br />
<br />
[7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br />
<br />
[8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br />
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[9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's "Cultural Translation" Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br />
<br />
[10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br />
<br />
[11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br />
<br />
[12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br />
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[13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br />
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--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:34, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610 MTI ==<br />
<center> 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610</center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
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Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br />
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===目的论和严复理论的比较研究===<br />
===摘要===<br />
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目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
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Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating. The theory holds the idea that translating and interpreting should primarily take the function of target text into full consideration. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. (Dun Guangang 2011, 248) <br />
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In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (that are Xin, Da, Ya in Chinese), which has an influence on the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107）With the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their similarities, differences and influences, so as to deepen our understanding of translation theory study.<br />
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===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br />
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====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br />
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“Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances”. (Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work and the production of the target text. All translation behaviours should take purpose into consideration.<br />
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=====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br />
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The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 255) Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br />
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(1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br />
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The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation for Skopos theory.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 257)<br />
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(2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br />
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Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Functional Equivalence, thought that “translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose.” According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. It is readers that determine translation purpose. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br />
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(3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br />
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Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br />
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=====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br />
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There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br />
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The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “skopos rule”, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina & Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) <br />
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Whether the function of the source text or passages of the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. <br />
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The last rule, fidelity rule, is also called as inter-textual rule which means the ‘inter-textual coherence’ should exists between the source text and target text. Just like Nord (2001) said a translation is an “offer of information”about “a preceding offer of information”, it is expected to bear some kind of relationship with the corresponding source text. It means that the source text and target text should be coherent with each other, and the coherent aspects between them including special collocations, sentence length, grammatical features, or even rhetorical devices, in style, in function, etc. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose. (Dun Guangang 2011,251) <br />
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These three rules connect with each other. From the three basic rules above mentioned we can see that the fidelity rule is considered subordinate to the coherence rule, and the both of rules are subordinated to skopos rule. (Vermeer, Hans J. 1989,187) From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard —rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br />
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====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br />
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Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. (Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br />
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Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 113）<br />
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=====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br />
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(1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br />
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The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. <br />
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The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br />
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(2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br />
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Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br />
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The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. (Chen Fukang 2000, 108) Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it, while there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory.<br />
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Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br />
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Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made. (Chen Fukang 2000, 112)<br />
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=====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br />
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Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor.(Yan Fu, 1987)<br />
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There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. (Yan Fu, 1987)<br />
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And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br />
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In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br />
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===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br />
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====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br />
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Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br />
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=====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br />
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The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory.<br />
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Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 256)<br />
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In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br />
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This coincides with Yan Fu's "Faithfulness", which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And "Faithfulness" is the premise and foundation of translation. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of "Faithfulness", as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br />
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=====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br />
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The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. <br />
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In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) <br />
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Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br />
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This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. <br />
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At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. (Yan Fu, 1987) Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br />
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=====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br />
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The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. <br />
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The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and "one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation". Translation is "the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br />
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While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br />
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====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br />
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Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br />
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=====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br />
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Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. (Dun Guangang 2011. 242) Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. <br />
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Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br />
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But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that "Faithfulness" refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br />
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Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br />
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=====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br />
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Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the "faithfulness principle" as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. "Skopos" usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, "the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers". Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br />
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In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br />
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=====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br />
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For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)<br />
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So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 257) Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity. (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)<br />
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However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156) This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. <br />
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As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br />
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===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br />
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Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br />
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====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br />
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When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach .(Tan Zaixi 2004, 242) <br />
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In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a "source of information", which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation. ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. <br />
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More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the function of translated work and translators’ subjectivity. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br />
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Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. <br />
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In particular, there are various new interpretations of "Elegance" in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”.(Shen Suru 2001,7)<br />
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====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br />
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Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory. (Pym Anthony, 1996) <br />
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Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. (Dun Guangang 2011, 247) Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable. <br />
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Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced.<br />
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In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
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There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br />
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Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br />
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Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br />
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===Reference===<br />
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Christiane Nord. (1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity''. Kinderhook: St. Jerome Publishing.<br />
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Reiss Katharina & Vermeer Hans J. (1984). Groundwork for a general theory of translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br />
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Pochhacker Franz. (1995). Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, (14): 31-53.<br />
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Pym, Anthony. (1996). Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics.<br />
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Vermeer Hans J. (1982a). Translation als informationsangebot. Lebende sprachen, 27(3)97-101.<br />
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Vermeer Hans J. (1987a). What does it mean to translate. ''Indian journal of applied linguistic'', 13(2):25-33.<br />
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Vermeer Hans J. (1989a). Skopos and Commission in Translational Action. Andrew Chersterman: ''The Translation Studies Reader'', 173-187.<br />
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Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2000). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [A History of Translation Theory in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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Dun Guangang 顿官刚.（2011). ''西方翻译理论文献宣读'' [Selected Readings in Western Translation Theory]. Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press 湖南师范大学出版社.<br />
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He Xiaoling 閤小玲. (2012). 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性 [An Analysis of Translator Subjectivity in the Perspective of Purpose Theory]. Journal of Liuzhou Teachers College ''柳州师专学报''. (4):45-47.<br />
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Liu Qijia 刘期家. (2000). 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹 [On the historical development trajectory of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Journal of Sichuan International Studies University ''四川外语学院学报''. (2):96-101.<br />
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Shen Suru 沈苏儒.(2001). 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈 [The Highest Level of Translation - A Compendium of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [ A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
Yan Fu严复. (1897). ''天演论·译例言'' [Evolution and Ethics· Yiliyan]. News Collection ''国闻汇编''.<br />
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Zhou Mengzhen 周锰珍. (2007). “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较 ['Skopos Theory' and 'Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance': A Comparison of Two Translation Theories in China and the West]. Academic Forum ''学术论坛''. (8):154-158.<br />
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--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian 202020080605==<br />
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<center>纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian </center><br />
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===Abstract=== <br />
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As a representative of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it is also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br />
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===Key words=== <br />
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Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br />
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===题目===<br />
性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究<br />
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===摘要=== <br />
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张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br />
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===关键词=== <br />
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张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
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Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and [[prose]] have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1)1.proses<br />
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In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in [[that]] she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone [[has]] talent in creation”（Luo Xinzhang & Chen Yingnian 2009：413）, and [[looking through]] the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so [[much]] Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. 1.which 2.who has 3.looking back 4.many<br />
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She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, [[prose]] and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1)1.proses 2. the translations will-the translations that will <br />
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Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity, in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as the author or the translator, represents different gender identities. (Ma Yue & Mu Lei 2010: 67)1. profoundly embodied-is profoundly embodied 2. an author or a translator--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 14:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2. Gender and Translation===<br />
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Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminist translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women' s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23) Feminist-feminism <br />
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During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23)<br />
<br />
As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity. when developed-when it developed<br />
<br />
This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang' s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this chapter breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences different gender identities make to the translation. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 46) influence-influence that--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 15:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang' s Self-translation -- ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br />
<br />
As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Hsia, while Fu Lei (whose early pseudonym is Xun Yu) also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun Yu 1994: 121). <br />
<br />
In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''(1921).<br />
<br />
Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor' s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted. She destroys her son' s marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. Besides, her daughter' s marriage is put an end to by her. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)<br />
<br />
Eileen Chang' s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation.<br />
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====3.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br />
<br />
In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Chiang Chi-tse. However, the reality proves to her that Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)<br />
<br />
ST： <br />
（七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！(Eileen Chang 1992: 108)<br />
<br />
TT：<br />
( Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. (Eileen Chang 1971: 163)<br />
<br />
Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Chiang Chi-tse all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Chiang Chi-tse for love. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)<br />
<br />
However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)<br />
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====3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity====<br />
<br />
In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passive and helpless of female characters under a specific era background. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145)<br />
<br />
ST：<br />
娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)<br />
<br />
TT：<br />
Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)<br />
<br />
The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by others. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145)<br />
<br />
In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)<br />
<br />
Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br />
<br />
ST：<br />
长安和长白分了家搬出来住。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)<br />
<br />
TT：<br />
Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)<br />
<br />
The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color. <br />
<br />
Instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)<br />
<br />
====3.3 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes. <br />
<br />
ST：<br />
（去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。(Eileen Chang 1992: 104)<br />
<br />
TT：<br />
（Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. (Eileen Chang 1971: 157)<br />
<br />
The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Chiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)<br />
<br />
Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, and everyone is a survivor of suffering. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)<br />
<br />
<br />
Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts. (Wang Jing 2011: 104)<br />
<br />
===4. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Conventional Translation -- ''The Old Man and the Sea''===<br />
<br />
''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway also won the Nobel Prize of Literature. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br />
<br />
Once the work was published, it attracted a wide attention. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br />
<br />
''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton.<br />
<br />
When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.(Eileen Chang 1979: 5) <br />
<br />
====4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br />
<br />
It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br />
<br />
ST：<br />
“Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” (Hemingway 1985: 39)<br />
<br />
TT：<br />
“再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱? 好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 29)<br />
<br />
Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br />
<br />
====4.2 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br />
<br />
As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. (Wang Jing 2011: 103)<br />
<br />
To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br />
<br />
ST: <br />
It is what a man must do．(Hemingway 1985: 23)<br />
<br />
TT: <br />
男子汉就应该这样。(Hai Guan 1979: 15) <br />
<br />
男子汉就该这么干。(Wu Lao 2009: 21) <br />
<br />
活总是要干的。(Eileen Chang 1979: 16) <br />
<br />
Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br />
<br />
====4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity====<br />
<br />
For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br />
<br />
ST：<br />
“But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”(Hemingway 1985: 96)<br />
<br />
TT：<br />
“但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 81）<br />
<br />
“可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（Hai Guan 1979: 79）<br />
<br />
“不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（Wu Lao 2009: 99）<br />
<br />
Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br />
<br />
Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br />
<br />
Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br />
<br />
===5. Reasons for the Transformation of Gender Identity===<br />
<br />
====5.1 Cultural Context====<br />
<br />
Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua 2017, 121)<br />
<br />
The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity.<br />
<br />
For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words. However, when the text is taken into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)<br />
<br />
For example, the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the differences of context. Therefore, in her translation, Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)<br />
<br />
====5.2 The Gender of the Translator and the Purpose of Translation====<br />
<br />
As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.<br />
<br />
And in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface that the old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)<br />
<br />
Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)<br />
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===6. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chang Eileen, trans. (1971). ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. <br />
<br />
Eileen Chang 张爱玲. (1955). 金锁记[M]. [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. [Shanghai Press].<br />
<br />
Ma Ruofei 马若飞. (2007). 张爱玲翻译研究[D]. [Eileen Chang Translation Studies]. 北京语言大学. [Beijing Language and Culture University]. <br />
<br />
Ernest Hemingway. (1985). ''The Old Man and the Sea''[M]. Printed in Great Britain by St Edmundsbury Press, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk.<br />
<br />
Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. [Hong Kong: Hong Kong Today World Press].<br />
<br />
Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 海观译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br />
<br />
Ernest Hemingway. (2009). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 吴劳译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br />
<br />
Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. (2009). 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection'']. 北京: 商务印书馆. [Beijing: The Commercial Press].<br />
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Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. (2010). 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. [Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies]. 解放军外国语学院学报. [Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages]. 66-70.<br />
<br />
Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. (2018). 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J]. [Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 大众文艺. [Popular Literature]. 171-173.<br />
<br />
Meng Lingzi 孟令子. (2016). 从女性主义翻译到性别翻译[J]. [From Feminist Translation to Gender and Translation]. 中国翻译. [Chinese Translators Journal]. 23-31. <br />
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Simon, Sherry. (1996). Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge. <br />
<br />
Wang Jing 王璟. (2011). 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. [Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation]. 中国外语. [Chinese Foreign Language]. 102-106.<br />
<br />
Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. (2015). 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. [''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation'']. 广州:中山大学出版社. [Guangzhou: Sun Yat-sen University Press].<br />
<br />
Xi Peihua 席培华. (2017). 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. [On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. [Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education]. 121-123.<br />
<br />
='''Art of Translation'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics Gui Yizhi 桂一枝 202070080587==<br />
<br />
桂一枝 202070080587<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works ''Bian Cheng'' has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of ''Bian Cheng'' translated by Gladys Yang and Ching Ti & Robert Payne respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.<br />
<br />
Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as cross-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works ''Bian Cheng'' has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of ''Bian Cheng'' translated by Gladys Yang and Ching Ti & Robert Payne respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Translation ethics, ''Bian Cheng'', Chesterman<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文将从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——戴乃迭和金堤与白英的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。<br />
<br />
翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生进行跨文化行为，就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文将从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——戴乃迭和金堤与白英的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼<br />
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===1. Research Background===<br />
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Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms. <br />
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Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms.quote missing--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the "cultural turn". (Luo 2009: 61)<br />
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From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the "cultural turn". (Luo, 2009 61)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the "cultural turn" in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a "cultural mediator" has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br />
It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym claims in his article: "ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle." It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.(Pym 2001:129-138)<br />
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With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the "cultural turn" in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a "cultural mediator" has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br />
It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym claims in his article: "ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle." It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.(Pym, 2001 129-138)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2. Literature Review===<br />
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====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====<br />
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After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br />
It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of "translation ethics" in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on "transmitting sense" and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.(Berman 1992: 3)<br />
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After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br />
It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of "translation ethics" in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on "transmitting sense" and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.(Berman, 1992 3)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating "an ethics of difference". He invents the two words "domestication" and "resistancy" to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of "resistancy" seem more realistic and profound.(Venuti 2004)<br />
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Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating "an ethics of difference". He invents the two words "domestication" and "resistancy" to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of "resistancy" seem more realistic and profound.(Venuti, 2004 page missing)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As the initiator of "the return to ethics" in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman's theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about "how to translate" over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other's work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (Pym 2001:129-138). <br />
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As the initiator of "the return to ethics" in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman's theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about "how to translate" over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other's work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances(Pym, 2001129-138).--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman published a paper "Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath" in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled "the return to Ethics". In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.(Chesterman 2001:139-153)<br />
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In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman published a paper "Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath" in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled "the return to Ethics". In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.(Chesterman, 2001 139-153)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====<br />
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With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose "translation ethics" based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book ''Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel'' written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as "a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics". (Lu 2001: 272)<br />
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With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose "translation ethics" based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book ''Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel'' written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as "a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics". (Lu, 2001 272)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics. <br />
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Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics. (quoteing missing)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.(Sun 2007: 14-18)<br />
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With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.(Sun, 2007 14-18)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article ''essay on three levels of translation activities'' in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by "willingness", "reality", and "morality", he proposes that "the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level".(Xu 1998: 49-54)<br />
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Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article ''essay on three levels of translation activities'' in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by "willingness", "reality", and "morality", he proposes that "the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level".(Xu, 1998 49-54)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3. the Translation of ''Bian Cheng''====<br />
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The thesis adopts the classic modern novel ''Bian Cheng'' owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as "one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature" (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the "Nobel Literature Prize" in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. <br />
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The thesis adopts the classic modern novel ''Bian Cheng'' owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as "one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature" (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the "Nobel Literature Prize" in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. quote missing--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are four English version of ''Bian Cheng''. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled ''Green Jade and Green Jade'' translated by Xing Molei (the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girlfriend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled ''The Frontier City'' contained in T''he Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen'' translated by Ching Ti & Robert Payne and published by George Allen & Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Bian Cheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called "Panda Books" to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included ''The Border Town and Other Stories'' translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.<br />
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There are four English version of ''Bian Cheng''. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled ''Green Jade and Green Jade'' translated by Xing Molei (the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girlfriend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled ''The Frontier City'' contained in T''he Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen'' translated by Ching Ti & Robert Payne and published by George Allen & Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Bian Cheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called "Panda Books" to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included ''The Border Town and Other Stories'' translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature. quote missing--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Ching Ti & Robert Payne and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics. <br />
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Based on the previous studies, this thesis chooses these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Ching Ti & Robert Payne and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===<br />
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Chesterman's five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.<br />
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Chesterman's five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.quote missing--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman's words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author's intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text.(Chesterman 2001: 139) <br />
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Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman's words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author's intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text.(Chesterman, 2001139) --[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The ethics of service requires the translator to "act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator", and the translator should be "loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer".(Chesterman 2001: 140)<br />
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The ethics of service requires the translator to "act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator", and the translator should be "loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer".(Chesterman, 2001 140)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The ethics of communication sees translation as "an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication" and asks the translator to be "a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding".(Chesterman 2001: 141) <br />
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The ethics of communication sees translation as "an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication" and asks the translator to be "a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding".(Chesterman, 2001 141) --[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of "descriptive translation studies". Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like "the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations". That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.(Chesterman 2001: 142)<br />
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Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of "descriptive translation studies". Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like "the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations". That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.(Chesterman, 2001 142)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: "I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator". He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.(Chesterman 2001: 147)<br />
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The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: "I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator". He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.(Chesterman, 2001 147)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Comparison of the Two English Versions of ''Bian Cheng''===<br />
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====4.1 Different Translator Focuses on Different Translation Ethics====<br />
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Ching & Payne's translation was published in ''the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen The Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Ts'ung-wen'' in 1947 by George Allen & Unwin Ltd in London, England. The author aims to introduce Chinese novels to English readers, making the Border Town known to readers in Western countries. Since then, western readers have gradually know Shen Congwen. The translation was republished by Columbia University Press in 1982. After the founding of New China, Shen Congwen's works were once banned. It was not until the 1980s that his books returned to people's vision. Gladys 's translation is contained in ''Border Town and Other Stories'', published by China Literature Publishing House in 1981, which aims to promote representative Chinese literary works to the world.(Xiang 2019:92)<br />
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Ching & Payne's translation was published in ''The Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen The Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Ts'ung-wen'' in 1947 by George Allen & Unwin Ltd in London, England. The author aims to introduce Chinese novels to English readers, making the Border Town known to readers in Western countries. Since then, western readers have gradually know Shen Congwen. The translation was republished by Columbia University Press in 1982. After the founding of New China, Shen Congwen's works were once banned. It was not until the 1980s that his books returned to people's vision. Gladys 's translation is contained in ''Border Town and Other Stories'', published by China Literature Publishing House in 1981, which aims to promote representative Chinese literary works to the world.(Xiang 2019:92)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Different translations deal with the frame structure of the original work differently. The Ching & Payne translation adds an 8-page translation preface to the front of the text. In the translation preface, the translator first explains the reason and importance of adding the preface to the translation. Furthermore, the translator introduced the writing styles of Shen Congwen and Lu Xun; third, the translator introduced Shen Congwen’s life and his position in the Chinese literary world; finally, the translator analyzed the theme and content of ''Border Town''. However, Gladys 's version only has a short preface about brief introduction of Shen Congwen. The Ching & Payne translation was published in 1947. In order to meet the needs of translation service ethics and communication ethics, based on the fact that Western world and western readers did not know much about Chinese culture as well as Shen Congwen, so the translator gave a lot of introduction Shen Congwen and Border Town. Gladys’s version was published in 1981. Before this time, Shen Congwen’s works were once listed as banned books. During this period, overseas research on Shen Congwen has never stopped. In the 1980s, there was even Overseas Shen Congwen Craze. So based on the relationship between the translator, the sponsor and the readers, different translator will focus on different translation ethics during their translation activities.(Xiang 2019:92)<br />
<br />
Different translations deal with the frame structure of the original work differently. The Ching & Payne translation adds an 8-page translation preface to the front of the text. In the translation preface, the translator first explains the reason and importance of adding the preface to the translation. Furthermore, the translator introduced the writing styles of Shen Congwen and Lu Xun; third, the translator introduced Shen Congwen’s life and his position in the Chinese literary world; finally, the translator analyzed the theme and content of ''Border Town''. However, Gladys 's version only has a short preface about brief introduction of Shen Congwen. The Ching & Payne translation was published in 1947. In order to meet the needs of translation service ethics and communication ethics, based on the fact that Western world and western readers did not know much about Chinese culture as well as Shen Congwen, so the translator gave a lot of introduction Shen Congwen and Border Town. Gladys’s version was published in 1981. Before this time, Shen Congwen’s works were once listed as banned books. During this period, overseas research on Shen Congwen has never stopped. In the 1980s, there was even Overseas Shen Congwen Craze. So based on the relationship between the translator, the sponsor and the readers, different translator will focus on different translation ethics during their translation activities.(Xiang, 2019 92)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Places and Culture-loaded Words Translation====<br />
<br />
Table1 comparison of places names in two versions <br />
<br />
源语/金白译/戴译 <br />
<br />
四川/ Szechuan/ Szechuan <br />
<br />
辰州/ Chenshow/ Chenshow <br />
<br />
桃源/ Taoyuan/ Taoyuan <br />
<br />
沅水/ Yua Sui/ River Yuan <br />
<br />
白河/ White Stream/ White River <br />
<br />
湖南/ Hunan/ Hunan<br />
<br />
秀山/ Hsiushan Mountain/ Mount Xiu<br />
<br />
茶峒/ Ch’a-t’ung/ Chatong<br />
<br />
酉水/ Yu Sui/ The You<br />
<br />
洞庭湖/ T-ung-ting Lake/ Lake Dongting<br />
<br />
The ethics of communication believes that translation is a cross-cultural and cross-language communication activity. The translator should first be faithful to the translation ethics in the "cultural communication space", not the source or target culture. The ultimate goal of translation is promoting communication and cooperation between the two parties. Therefore, the two translators followed different communicative ethics in different times. In order to effectively achieve the purpose of communication, Ching & Payne adopted Wade-Giles Romanization, which was acceptable to the English world. This way is easy to be taken by readers and promotes effective communication. At that time, Gladys was commissioned by the magazine Chinese Literature at the time, and her translation had to serve as her "patron". For the translation of place names, Gladys 's translation used the phonetic system which was the standard rules for translating names of places and persons at that time. When personal ethics conflict with social ethics, the subjectivity of the translator will be controlled by the "patron". Ching & Payne translated earlier, and their version was published by George Allen & Unwin Ltd. Therefore, compared to Gladys, the "patron" of the Ching & Payne’s version are themselves.(Xiang 2019:93)<br />
<br />
The ethics of communication believes that translation is a cross-cultural and cross-language communication activity. The translator should first be faithful to the translation ethics in the "cultural communication space", not the source or target culture. The ultimate goal of translation is promoting communication and cooperation between the two parties. Therefore, the two translators followed different communicative ethics in different times. In order to effectively achieve the purpose of communication, Ching & Payne adopted Wade-Giles Romanization, which was acceptable to the English world. This way is easy to be taken by readers and promotes effective communication. At that time, Gladys was commissioned by the magazine Chinese Literature at the time, and her translation had to serve as her "patron". For the translation of place names, Gladys 's translation used the phonetic system which was the standard rules for translating names of places and persons at that time. When personal ethics conflict with social ethics, the subjectivity of the translator will be controlled by the "patron". Ching & Payne translated earlier, and their version was published by George Allen & Unwin Ltd. Therefore, compared to Gladys, the "patron" of the Ching & Payne’s version are themselves.(Xiang, 2019 93)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Table 2 comparison of culture-loaded words in two versions<br />
<br />
源语/ 金白译/ 戴译 <br />
<br />
油坊/ Oilshops/ Tung oil presses <br />
<br />
桐油/ Wood-oil/ Tung oil <br />
<br />
唢呐/ Flute/ Trumpet <br />
<br />
糍粑/ Cake/ Ciba <br />
<br />
纤夫/ Haulers/ Towman <br />
<br />
上帝/ God/ Jade Emperor <br />
<br />
蓬船/ Junk/ Craft<br />
<br />
青盐/ Green salt/ Rock salt <br />
<br />
法器/ Musical instrument/ Stock-in-trade<br />
<br />
粉条/ Rice noddles/ Bean-vermicelli<br />
<br />
喽啰/ bandit/ Whirligig <br />
<br />
陀螺/ Delicate silk gowns/ Dark satin jackets over long gowns<br />
<br />
From Table2 we can see that Gladys's translation adopts the strategy of foreignization, preserving Chinese culture and following the ethic of representation. It also contains serving factors for the "patron". In a sense, it unifies the ethics of representation and service. While Ching & Payne’s version focuses more on the target language readers’ understanding, and give up to represent the culture-loaded words that are unfamiliar to target language readers by using the translation strategy of domestication. Its aim is to entertain the readers. In order to effectively achieve better communication with target language readers, he mainly follows the communication ethics in translation ethics.(Xiang 2019:93)<br />
<br />
From Table2 we can see that Gladys's translation adopts the strategy of foreignization, preserving Chinese culture and following the ethic of representation. It also contains serving factors for the "patron". In a sense, it unifies the ethics of representation and service. While Ching & Payne’s version focuses more on the target language readers’ understanding, and give up to represent the culture-loaded words that are unfamiliar to target language readers by using the translation strategy of domestication. Its aim is to entertain the readers. In order to effectively achieve better communication with target language readers, he mainly follows the communication ethics in translation ethics.(Xiang, 2019 93)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Representation of the Aesthetic Prospect====<br />
<br />
One of the most distinctive features of Bian Cheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Contemporary literary theorist Tong Qingbing defines the aesthetic prospect as “an image system of a fusion of feelings with the scenery depicted represented in the lyrical works, which can evoke readers’ association and imagination, and surpasses the concrete vision and ascends an extensive artistic space.” So, it's the translators’ responsibility to represent the aesthetic prospect of the source text. Now, let’s take a look at the following examples.(Tong 1998: 194)<br />
<br />
One of the most distinctive features of Bian Cheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Contemporary literary theorist Tong Qingbing defines the aesthetic prospect as “an image system of a fusion of feelings with the scenery depicted represented in the lyrical works, which can evoke readers’ association and imagination, and surpasses the concrete vision and ascends an extensive artistic space.” So, it's the translators’ responsibility to represent the aesthetic prospect of the source text. Now, let’s take a look at the following examples.(Tong, 1998 194)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[Example 1]<br />
<br />
[STI]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶峒”的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文，1981:1)<br />
<br />
[TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys, 1981:5)<br />
<br />
[TT-2] From Szechuan there is a highway running east to Hunan. When the road reaches the small mountain city of Ch'a-t'ung, just inside the border of Hunan, it crosses a river, near the river you will find a white pagoda and a small isolated cottage, where there once lived a family which consisted of an old man, a girl and a yellow dog. (Ching, 1982:190)<br />
<br />
This is the beginning paragraph of Bian Cheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images -- "官路", "小山城"，"小溪", "白色", "小塔七", "单独的人家", "老人", "女孩子" and "黄狗", making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character "一". The character "一" embodies the "blue" aesthetic mentality and literary creation view of Shen Congwen, who once said: I feel so lonely, perhaps from which I hope to be close to the beauty still left in my impression? Here in the beginning of the novel, by using his usual simple and plain writing style, the author successfully fuses his feelings with the natural setting to convey his deep love and concern towards the characters and what will happen next. (Wang 2012: 25)<br />
<br />
In Gladys Yang’s version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character "一" in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven "a (an)" and one "the" to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates "单独" (的人家)into a "solitary" household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of "alone" and "lonely"，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original.(Wang 2012: 25)<br />
<br />
Compared with Gladys Yang's version, Ching Ti's also fully represents the eight images of the original. But with the translation of "单独"(的人家)into an "isolated" cottage which conveys less emotional overtones than "solitary" and the use of complicated and rambling sentences with nearly five verbs, the original aesthetic connotations are involuntarily broken by him. To sum up, Gladys’s translation better represents the aesthetic prospect of the original than Ching Ti's.(Wang 2012: 25)<br />
<br />
====4.4 Conflict between the Ethics of Representation and the Norm-based Ethics====<br />
<br />
As Chesterman argues: "the representation model is vulnerable to arguments about the impossibility of totally true representation, about the relative status of the original and translations, about the illusion of perfect equivalence". Accordingly, the ethics of representation can easily conflict with other models of translation ethics, especially the norm-based ethics.(Chesterman 2001:39-154)<br />
<br />
As Chesterman argues: "the representation model is vulnerable to arguments about the impossibility of totally true representation, about the relative status of the original and translations, about the illusion of perfect equivalence". Accordingly, the ethics of representation can easily conflict with other models of translation ethics, especially the norm-based ethics.(Chesterman, 2001 39-154)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From the linguistic point of view, the vital difference between Chinese and English lies in parataxis and hypotaxis which are two different devices that help realize the cohesion in language. Chinese prefers parataxis which depend coherence in meaning and sentences are organized in a topic-comment structure without overt logical markers in many cases. While English favors hypotaxis which lays great emphasis on logical relation and sentences are organized in the S-P (subject-predicate) patterns with various explicit logical markers of overt cohesion. Inevitably translators have to notice and deal with such a difference between Chinese and English.(Wang 2012: 34)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of linguistics, the vital difference between Chinese and English lies in parataxis and hypotaxis which are two different devices that help realize the cohesion in language. Chinese prefers parataxis which depend coherence in meaning and sentences are organized in a topic-comment structure without overt logical markers in many cases. While English favors hypotaxis which lays great emphasis on logical relation and sentences are organized in the S-P (subject-predicate) patterns with various explicit logical markers of overt cohesion. Inevitably translators have to notice and deal with such a difference between Chinese and English.(Wang, 2012 34)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Let's look at the following examples:<br />
<br />
[Example 1]<br />
<br />
[STI] 话虽轻轻的，那男的却听得出，且从声音上听得出翠翠年纪，便带笑道：“怎么， 你骂人！你不愿意上去，要呆在这儿，回头水里大鱼来咬了你，可不要叫喊！”<br />
翠翠说：“鱼咬了我也不管你的事。” (沈从文，1981:24)<br />
<br />
[TTl-l] Low as the words were, he caught them, and realized that she was no more than a girl. "Such language from a child!" he teased, chuckling, "you stay here, mind a big fish doesn't bite you—don't expect me to rescue you!"<br />
"Whether it bites me or not, that's none of your business!" (Gladys, 1981:26)<br />
<br />
[TTl-2] She spoke under her breath, but the man heard her. He guessed her age from her voice, and answered laughingly: "So you like cursing, eh? Wbll if you don't want to go, you can wait here、 but don't be surprised if a fish comes out of the water and bites you."<br />
<br />
"Eyen if a fish does bite me, I'll never have anything to do with you!" the girl retorted. (Ching, 1982: 211)<br />
<br />
Under such conflict, taking the target readers’ maximum acceptability into consideration, Gladys Yang has adopted relatively flexible translation strategies to try to retain the linguistic feature of Chinese by using as less overt logical markers as possible. While Ching Ti chooses to meet target readers, expectations by fully employing the hypotactic structure of the English language, for he exchanges the original diffusive structure into long and complicated sentences with logical markers.(Wang 2012: 35)<br />
<br />
Under such conflict, taking the target readers’ maximum acceptability into consideration, Gladys Yang has adopted relatively flexible translation strategies to try to retain the linguistic feature of Chinese by using as less overt logical markers as possible. While Ching Ti chooses to meet target readers, expectations by fully employing the hypotactic structure of the English language, for he exchanges the original diffusive structure into long and complicated sentences with logical markers.(Wang, 2012 35)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
After a theoretical study of translation ethics and a practical analysis of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' within the framework of Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics, we 'can conclude that the present study of translation ethics, with Chesterman's five models as its representative, does open a new perspective for not only translation studies but also for the translation practice and evaluation. This chapter mainly deals with the major findings as well as some limitations and suggestions for further study.<br />
<br />
After the theoretical study of translation ethics and practical analysis of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' within the framework of Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics, we 'can conclude that the present study of translation ethics, with Chesterman's five models as its representative, does open a new perspective for not only translation studies but also for the translation practice and evaluation. This chapter mainly deals with the major findings as well as some limitations and suggestions for further study.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This thesis focuses on the comparison of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' under Chesterman's five models of ethics namely the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, and the ethics of communication, norm-based ethics and the ethics of professional commitment.<br />
<br />
This thesis focuses on the comparison of two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' under Chesterman's five models of ethics namely the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, and the ethics of communication, norm-based ethics and the ethics of professional commitment.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It mainly applies the ethics of representation into evaluation from the aspects of the representation of the aesthetic prospect, the ethnological color, the character images through dialogues, and the cultural-specific of the original, based on which the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics at certain linguistic and cultural levels and the mediation by the ethics of service & communication under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole are also examined carefully. Generally speaking, both of the translators put the ethics of representation in an important position, though Gladys Yang has done better jobs in representing the original, both in form and spirit, than Ching Ti. It's not only because Gladys Yang is more highly skilled in translating than Ching Tii but also because they put different factors into first consideration in translation with the former being faithful and loyal to the original and the latter meeting the target readers' expectations.<br />
<br />
It mainly applies the ethics of representation into evaluation from the aspects of the representation of the aesthetic prospect, the ethnological color, the character images through dialogues, and the cultural-specific of the original, based on which the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics at certain linguistic and cultural levels and the mediation by the ethics of service & communication under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole are also examined carefully. Generally speaking, both of the translators put the ethics of representation in an important position, though Gladys Yang has done better jobs in representing the original, both in form and spirit, than Ching Ti. It's not only because Gladys Yang is more highly skilled in translating than Ching Tii but also because they put different factors into first consideration in translation with the former being faithful and loyal to the original and the latter meeting the target readers' expectations.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
And when the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics emerges, the ethics of service & communication will serve as mediators to guide their translation, generally, Gladys Yang chooses to preserve the original to a maximum, that is to say, she prefers to take the ethics of representation into first consideration, based on which she will adopt relatively flexible translation strategies to make her translation acceptable by conforming to norm-based ethics to some extent. While Ching Ti lays primary emphasis on norm-based ethics, always putting target readers' expectations first by violating the ethics of representation. But both of their coordination or mediation is under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole from a higher level, instead of abusing their professional power to mediate arbitrarily.<br />
<br />
And when the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics emerges, the ethics of service & communication will serve as mediators to guide their translation, generally, Gladys Yang chooses to preserve the original to a maximum, that is to say, she prefers to take the ethics of representation into first consideration, based on which she will adopt relatively flexible translation strategies to make her translation acceptable by conforming to norm-based ethics to some extent. While Ching Ti lays primary emphasis on norm-based ethics, always putting target readers' expectations first by violating the ethics of representation. But both of their coordination or mediation is under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole from a higher level, instead of abusing their professional power to mediate arbitrarily.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In a word, with different ethics influencing the translators most, the two English versions possess different characteristics. Guided mainly by the norm-based ethics, Ching Ti tends to take the strategy of "domestication" to make his version colloquial, smooth and simple for the target public to get amusement. While Gladys Yang highlights the ethics of representation to adopt the strategy of foreignization mostly to make her version formal, exquisite, serious and academic to some extent, which mainly appeal to those target readers who are interested in Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
In a word, with different ethics influencing the translators most, the two English versions possess different characteristics. Guided mainly by the norm-based ethics, Ching Ti tends to take the strategy of "domestication" to make his version colloquial, smooth and simple for the target public to get amusement. While Gladys Yang highlights the ethics of representation to adopt the strategy of foreignization mostly to make her version formal, exquisite, serious and academic to some extent, which mainly appeal to those target readers who are interested in Chinese culture.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Berman, A. 1992. The Experience of the Foreign: Cultural and Translation in Romantic Germany [M], Trans. S. Heyvaert. Albany: State University of New York Press.<br />
<br />
Venuti, L. 2004. The Translator Invisibility: A History of Translation [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Pym, A. 2001. The Return to Ethics in Translation Studies [J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .<br />
<br />
Chesterman, A. 2001. Proposal for a hieronymic oath [J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .<br />
<br />
Shen Congwen. 1982. The Frontier City in the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Tsfung wen [M], trans. Ching Ti & R. Payne. New York: Columbia University Press.<br />
<br />
Shen Congwen. 1981. The Border Town and Other Stories [M]. Translated by Gladys Yang. Beijing: Chinese Literature Press.<br />
<br />
骆贤凤（2009）。中西翻译伦理研究述评。《中国翻译》。3，13-17。 <br />
<br />
吕俊，2001,《跨越文化障碍一巴比塔的重建》Mo南京：东南大学出版社。<br />
<br />
孙致礼（2007）。译者的职责。《中国翻译》，4, 14-18。<br />
<br />
沈从文，1981,《边城》Mo南昌：江西人民出版社<br />
<br />
向仍东.翻译伦理视角下《边城》英译研究[J].语文学刊,2019,39(04):91-95.<br />
<br />
童庆炳，1998,《文学理论教程》Mo北京：高等教育出版社。<br />
<br />
王卫萍. 翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究[D].南京师范大学,2012.<br />
<br />
<br />
Berman, A. (1992). ''The Experience of the Foreign: Cultural and Translation in Romantic Germany''[M], Trans. S. Heyvaert. Albany: State University of New York Press.<br />
<br />
Venuti, L. (2004). ''The Translator Invisibility: A History of Translation''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Pym, A. (2001). ''The Return to Ethics in Translation Studies''[J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .<br />
<br />
Chesterman, A. (2001). ''Proposal for a hieronymic oath''[J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .<br />
<br />
Shen Congwen. (1982). ''The Frontier City in the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Tsfung wen''[M], trans. Ching Ti & R. Payne. New York: Columbia University Press.<br />
<br />
Shen Congwen. (1981). ''The Border Town and Other Stories''[M]. Translated by Gladys Yang. Beijing: Chinese Literature Press.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br />
<br />
==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 202070080597 (<span style="color:red"> 专业</span>)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)==<br />
<center>刘欧 Liu Ou</center><br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to witness the world, meanwhile, an increasing number of foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Culture Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promoting Sino-foreign friendship and enhancing the world's understanding of China.<br />
<br />
With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to witness the world, meanwhile, an increasing number of foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Culture Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promoting (<span style="color:red">promote</span>)Sino-foreign friendship and enhancing (<span style="color:red">enhance</span>)the world's understanding of China.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
English Translation Hunan Scenic Spots Names the View of Culture Translation (<span style="color:red">semicolon should be added.</span>)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
随着改革开放的不断深化，中国与世界的联系日益紧密。大批中国人走出国门开眼看世界的同时，越来越多的外国友人也来中国游览观光。湖南作为旅游资源大省，拥有许多风光迤逦的旅游景点。在欢迎国外游客的同时，旅游景点名翻译也应当准确达意。巴斯奈特的文化翻译观认为，汉语翻译成英语的过程不但是两种不同语言之间的转换，更是两种语言的跨文化交流。采用文化翻译观作为湖南旅游景点的指导思想，有利于增进外国游客在饱览景区美景的同时，了解景区背后的文化内涵。这对于促进中外友谊，增进世界对中国的了解都大有裨益。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
英语翻译 湖南旅游景点 文化翻译观<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year. (Xin Xin, 2012) Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of Culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardize the translation of scenic spots names is an important opportunity to show the most beautiful side of Hunan culture to foreign tourists. (Xiao Fuliang, 2016)<br />
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Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year. (Xin Xin, 2012) Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of Culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardize the translation of scenic spots names is an important opportunity to show the most beautiful side of Hunan culture to foreign tourists.(<span style="color:red">语法有错误。</span>) --[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)(Xiao Fuliang, 2016)<br />
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The name of tourist attractions refers to the names of natural and cultural landscapes in tourist attractions. Some of these names are engraved on stone tablets, some are engraved on the signboards of scenic spots, and some appear in various publicity materials such as tourist brochures, scenic maps and websites. In order to leave a good impression on tourists and attract them to visit, the names of tourist attractions are usually short, concise, vivid and attractive. (Pan Hong, 2016)<br />
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This paper attempts to analyze whether the English translations of some scenic spots in Hunan Province have achieved the desired effect of publicity from the perspective of cultural translation. At the same time, if there were some improper translation in the English translation of Hunan scenic spots, the author will give his own translation for reference.<br />
<br />
=== The Introduction of the View of Culture Translation ===<br />
Before the emergence of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralism school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory. Jakobson, Catford and Nida, the representatives of the linguistic school, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation. They claim that translation is to replace another language with an equivalent language material; while Les, Nord and Mantari, the representatives of functional school, believe that the focus of translation studies should be on the target text rather than the original text. Their research sources are communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics theory. But whether it is linguistic school, functional school or structuralism school, in their research process, all try to achieve language equivalence more or less from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers hope to find a scientific and effective way to solve the various problems in translation, but the cultural diversity determines the cultural connotation of the text. Therefore, these researchers encounter great difficulties when they encounter the context which is quite different from their own cultural background, and the emergence of cultural translation school is meant to solve such problems.<br />
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After the 1970s and 1980s, with the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination and the diversification of communication modes, the relationship between language and culture has become closer. In the process of information dissemination, differences among language become more and more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diversity of cultural values embodied in the translated text. <br />
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In 1990, Translation, History and Culture, co-edited by Andre Lefevere and Bassnett, was published, marking a cultural turn in the field of translation. The concept of cultural translation emphasizes that translation is not only a bilingual communication, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication; the purpose of translation is to break through language barriers and promote cultural exchange; the essence of translation is to transmit cross-cultural information and reproduce the cultural activities of the original with the target language; the main purpose of translation is cultural transplantation and cultural blending, but cultural transplantation is a process; Language is not the operation form of translation, but the cultural information . (Bassnett Susan, 1992: 13) Bassnett emphasizes that “translation is the communication within and between cultures”. (Bassnett Susan, 1990: 10-11) She believes that translators should carry out translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators should never carry out translation activities in isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's “cultural translation view” is that translation is not a mere language activity. It is rooted in and influenced by the culture in which the language is located. <br />
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==== The Purpose of Translation ====<br />
As for the purpose of translation, Bassnett thinks that the primary purpose of translation is to allow readers from two or more different cultural backgrounds to communicate with each other through the medium of text, and the exchange of information should be placed in the second place of translation purpose. Through effective translation, translators can not only introduce the cultural characteristics of different nationalities to other readers, but also promote the communication between different cultures and promote the comparative study between the two cultures. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br />
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====Translation Methods and Strategies====<br />
As for the translation method, Bassnett thinks that the language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological, the translator should try to use literal translation from the perspective of culture. If the source text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play a relatively free role in translation, make more use of translation skills and pay less attention to the restrictions of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high. As for translation strategy, Bassnett considers that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find out the cultural factors in the original text which are different from those in the target language, and then deeply understand these factors, and try to retain these factors. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and make them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br />
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====Content and Form of Translation ====<br />
As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposed that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br />
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As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposed (<span style="color:red">时态要统一。</span>)(<span style="color:red">efficient can be deleted</span>)that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br />
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====“Intelligibility” of Translation ====<br />
Before the rise of cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated literary language into plain language and deleted literary metaphor and association in order to make the translation better understood by readers. In this way, the translation will become very easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth can not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett thinks that the “intelligibility” of the translation should not be based on the abandonment of the style and artistry of the original text, but should try to keep the original flavor of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br />
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====Evaluation Criteria of Translation ====<br />
As for the evaluation standard of translation, Bassnett thinks that the evaluation standard of translation is not unique. The standard of translating academic articles is different from that of practical and literary articles. When examining and evaluating the standards of translation, we should start from the service object of the translation, and judge whether the translation can meet the needs of the service object. In short, translation should be based on meeting the needs of readers in different cultural contexts, and appropriate translation should be used to meet the needs.(Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br />
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===2.The Existing English Translated Versions of Names of Hunan Scenic Spots===<br />
There are 15 major tourist areas and many tourist spots in Hunan, and there are many historic sites with a long history. Such as Mountain Heng, one of the Five Sacred Mountains in China. Dongting Lake, Shaoshan Mountain, the former residence of Chairman Mao Zedong, Wulingyuan, which shows the characteristics of strangeness, danger, seclusion, beauty and wildness, and Yuelu Academy with a thousand years of history. (Chen Jiao, 2013) In order to publicize and spread the culture of Hunan Province all over the world, we should standardize the English translation of Hunan scenic spots names. Meanwhile, we should translate these scenic spot names understandable from the guiding theory of the View of Culture Translation. <br />
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====Improper English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names====<br />
When tourists enjoy the beautiful scenery, the name of the scenic spot is the first information that leaps into the their sight. In order to attract the attention of tourists, induce the tourists of English speaking countries to have a strong interest in the culture and landscape of the tourist destination, stimulate their desire to buy tourism products and promote the development of tourism, translators should pay attention to the cross-cultural awareness when translating the names of scenic spots, so as to provide accurate information as well as the cultural connotation to the tourists from English speaking countries and those who understand English. <br />
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However, the author finds that there are many improper translations in the English translation of scenic spots nemes in Hunan Province, which brings a lot of inconvenience to tourists from English speaking countries, and also has a negative impact on the publicity of scenic spots. These improper translations mainly exist in the following aspects:<br />
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Firstly, the different versions of translation in the same or different scenic spots.<br />
For example, as one of the four wonders of Mountain Heng, scenic spot “水帘洞” has two translated names, which are translated as “water screen cave” in the official website of Mountain Heng tourism website, while it is translated into “waterfall cave” on the route map. The English translation of “雁峰寺” on Hengyang tourism route map is Yan Feng Si, while on Hengyang tourism website it is “The Goose Mountain Temple”. There are also two different versions of the English translation of the name of the scenic spot “烟雨池”. It was translated as “Yanyuchi” on Hengyang tourism route map, but on Hengyang tourism website, the free translation method is adopted, that is, “Misty Rain Pond”. (Wang Zaiyu, Jiang Shihong, 2012)<br />
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Secondly, the overuse of transliteration.<br />
Huiyan Peak, located on the Bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng, also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and rank the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归 雁 亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.<br />
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Huiyan Peak, located on the Bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng, also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and rank the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. (<span style="color:red">第一句话语法有错误。</span>)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归 雁 亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.<br />
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Of course, transliteration is one of the common translation methods of scenic spot names translation, but if transliteration is used too much that without considering the cultural connotation of the original language, the name of scenic spot will be obscure and foreign tourists will be confused. Standing in front of these Pinyin, foreign tourists can not understand the cultural connotation of the names of scenic spots. So it is difficult for them to realize the historical and cultural stories of these scenic spot according to the transliterated names. Therefore, excessive transliteration will affect the transmission of scenic spot name information, make it difficult for English speaking tourists to understand the rich cultural connotation of scenic spot names, which will reduce the readability of the translations and thus affect the development of China's tourism industry and the spread of culture abroad. Therefore, the translator should carefully consider and choose the appropriate translation method.<br />
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===3. The Strategies of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation ===<br />
Tourism translation is a cross language, cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication activities. Compared with other types of translation, it is more direct, more prominent, more typical and more comprehensive in cross-cultural and cross psychological communication. (Chen Gang, 2004)(<span style="color:red">举例较少，没有分析。</span>)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== Characteristics and Methods of Tourism English Translation ====<br />
According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents, the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.<br />
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According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents(<span style="color:red">前半部分语法有错误</span>)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC), the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.<br />
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==== Characteristics of Tourism English Translation ====<br />
The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br />
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The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes(<span style="color:red">主谓不一致。</span>)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC) style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br />
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==== Methods of English Translation of Scenic Spot Name ==== <br />
In the translation of scenic spot name, in order to let foreign tourists understand Chinese culture and scenic spots, flexible translation methods should be adopted to effectively convey tourism information and Chinese culture. (Jia Wenbo, 2004) The translation of the scenic spot name is of great significance although the names are not contain too much vocabularies. How to use translation methods and skills flexibly by following the translation theory becomes very important. This requires the translators to be faithful to the content and style of the original materials in the process of translation, try to retain the cultural factors in the original text, and at the same time make it easy for the target readers to accept.<br />
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In the translation of scenic spot name, in order to let foreign tourists understand Chinese culture and scenic spots, flexible translation methods should be adopted to effectively convey tourism information and Chinese culture. (Jia Wenbo, 2004) The translation of the scenic spot name is of great significance although the names are not contain too much vocabularies. How to use translation methods and skills flexibly by following the translation theory becomes very important. This requires the translators to be faithful to the content and style of the original materials in the process of translation, try to retain the cultural factors in the original text, and at the same time make it easy for the target readers to accept.(<span style="color:red">最后一句话语法错误。</span>)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Literal translation, free translation, literal translation+transliteration, transliteration+ explanation and cultural analogy are commonly used in scenic spot name translation. Through the study of the translation methods of translating the names of these scenic spots, we can use the translation skills more accurately and ultimately improve the translation ability. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br />
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1. Literal Translation<br />
Literal translation is helpful to convey the information of the source language such as place names, characters and events. (Chen Jiao, 2013) For these particular names or general names of scenic spots, it’s better to adopt the literal translation, namely word for word translation. The allusions of the figures in Nanyue Temple such as “苏武牧羊”（Su Wu Shepherding Sheep）”、“达摩东渡”（Dharm Sailing Eastward）；Fairy tale such as“后羿射日”（Houyi Shooting the Suns）、“盘古开天”（Pangu Creating the Universe）、“精卫填海”（Jingwei Filling the Sea）.<br />
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2. Free Translation<br />
Free translation refers to the translation method to translate the connotative meaning when the literal meaning and connotative meaning of the original text are inconsistent (Niu Xinsheng, 2013). In addition, translation techniques such as domestication and free translation are also discussed. Due to the differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, there are differences in language form and content between the two languages. Therefore, translators need to grasp the differences between the two languages and cultures to ensure that the information of the original text are properly transmitted to the target readers. If the names of some scenic spots contain rich cultural connotations and cannot be translated by literal translation, then the names of such scenic spots are mostly translated by free translation, that is, words with the same meaning but different forms are translated. For example,“爱晚亭”, the name was originated from a famous poem written by Du Mu (803-853) in Tang dynasty. But the official translation in the scenic spot was “the Lovely Evening Pavilion”. However, the real meaning of “晚” in the name was not evening but late autumn. Hence some scholars translate it as “the Autumn-Admiring Pavilion” and “the Maple-leaves Admiring Pavilion”.(Chen Jiao, 2013).<br />
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3.Transliteration + Literal Translation<br />
The front contains the proper name for a specific person or place name, and a fixed general name for the name of a scenic spot. Transliteration and literal translation can be used in translation. For example, "南岳庙" (Nanyue Temple), "洞庭湖" (Dongting Lake), "岳麓山"(Yuelu Mountain),"崀山" (Langshan Mountain), "湘江"(Xiangjiang Rive) etc.<br />
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4.Transliteration + Explanation<br />
The advantage of transliteration is that it does not need any explanation, and its disadvantage is that it can not fully arouse people's interest and attention. For foreign tourists, it is difficult to connect the original meaning of the original text with the Chinese pronunciation of the scenic spot. In order to follow the original author's intention and its own pronunciation, we adopt the method of combining the two to make up for the shortcomings. For example,"柳浪闻莺"liu'lang'wen'ying (listening to Orioles Singing in the willows), "鬼见愁"gui'jian'chou (sight that disorders devils). (Xin Xin, 2012) in order to help foreign tourists understand the background knowledge of China's human history, local conditions and customs, some relevant information can be appropriately added to the original text when translating. For example, when introducing "吊脚楼", if we just translate it as Diaojiaolou , it is difficult for tourists to understand the literal translation of it, so it is advisable that supplement the explanation of “suspended wood house built on stilts”. For example, in the introduction of traditional festivals in Zhangjiajie, “六月六” is translated into Liu Yue Liu Festival. In order to help tourists understand the specific connotation of the festival, the translation should be followed by an appropriate explanation: It usually takes place on the sixth day of the lunar six month, when all the members of the family get together to have dinner and hold a rite to pay sacrifice to their ancestors. This supplement can help foreign tourists understand the meaning of these traditional festivals quickly. (Chen Jiao, 2013)<br />
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Meanwhile, cultural analogy is also an effective skill in explanation. Analogy refers to the transformation of unfamiliar cultural information in the source language into similar information in the cultural context of the target language in order to eliminate the cultural strangeness contained in the source language and arouse the sense of similarity for the English speaking tourists. In other words, borrow the similar places of interest, legends and historical stories in English to translate the scenic spot name in Chinese, which can narrow the distance between the two different language for the readers and they can better understand the meaning of the original text. For example, Mountain Hengshan the scenic spot “祝融峰” is said to be the residence of Zhu Rong, the God of Fire. Its translation is "Zhu Rong peak", Zhu Rong, the Chinese Prometheus. (Chen Jiao, 2013) Prometheus, the hero of stealing fire in ancient Roman legend, is a familiar figure for Western tourists. It has great similarity with Zhu Rong, the Chinese God of Fire. When the tourists look at this translated name, they will have a better understanding of the the scenic spot.<br />
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=== Conclusion ===<br />
Under the background of globalization, peace and development have become the theme of the times, and the revise of the traditional translation theory is needed. On the other hand, cultural translation, based on the cultural theory of anthropology, advocates that the connotation of other cultures should be properly conveyed in translation, showing respect and understanding of other cultures; translators should highlight the characteristics of different cultures through translation, so that people from different cultural backgrounds can truly realize the communication and exchange in the cultural sense. Therefore, it is in line with the mainstream of the times to deeply study and understand Bassnett's cultural translation theory, which can help us better carry out translation activities under the background of globalization, so as to promote the exchange and dialogue between the Eastern and Western cultures from a macro perspective. <br />
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As a part of the translation of tourist materials, the translation of scenic spot names should not only convey the basic tourism information, but also show the Chinese culture to foreign tourists. One of the main purposes of tourists coming to China is to understand the Chinese culture. Therefore, translators need to have a keen cross-cultural awareness, make the translation conform to the target language, enhance the readability to the target language readers, and choose the most suitable translation method to convey the historical and cultural connotation contained in the name of scenic spots to the greatest extent, so as to promote the development of China's tourism industry globally and spread China's tourism culture abroad. <br />
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(<span style="color:red">参考文献格式错误。</span>)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
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==A Contrastive Study on the Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Shengshengman and Zuihuayin from the Perspective of Defamiliarization 祝美梅 student no. 202070080632== <br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
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Poetry is what lost in translation as Robert Frost said, for it’s concise words, specific form, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study with poetry translation under the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)<br />
<br />
Poetry is what lost in translation. As Robert Frost said, for its concise words, specific forms, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind as has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study poetry translation according to the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:39, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization, though a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period. (Fang Xiaoyuan, 2011, 13-15)<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization, a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period. (Fang Xiaoyuan, 2011, 13-15)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Key Words'''===<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization Theory; Shengshengman; Zuihuayin; English Versions<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
译诗则诗。诗歌以其凝练的词语，特定的形式，涵盖的独特文化典故和意象，是否可译一直是译界极具争论的话题。本文旨在由俄国形式主义什克洛夫斯基提出的陌生化理论下研究诗歌翻译。陌生化，虽然是文学写作技巧，同样适应于翻译。在文学作品中，作家通过使熟悉的事物陌生化引起读者的兴趣和好奇，延长审美感知长度。勒菲弗尔说，翻译即改写。这一翻译策略尤其适合于诗歌翻译。直译只会是译诗平淡乏味，如同兑水之酒，甚至产生误解。李清照，作为历史上最有名的女词人之一，其“易安体”本就以其化故为新，以俗为雅的特点与“陌生化”有异曲同工之处。《声声慢》、《醉花阴》是她前后截然不同两个时期的代表作。本文试以俄国形式主义者什克洛夫斯基提出的“陌生化”为理论指导，以李清照词《声声慢》、《醉花阴》的多个译本为研究对象，分析对比不同译者的英译，尝试研究在译文中怎样重现文本陌生化和制造译本的陌生化，以期证明陌生化理论对李清照词英译的指导作用。(Ge Yunfeng, 2008, 34-35)<br />
<br />
本文共分为四部分，由引论、正文、结论三部分构成。引论部分主要介绍陌生化理论，优势和劣势，李清照词特点和国内外研究现状。正文分为两个部分，词和意象两个方向并辅以具体实例。结论部分将主要总结陌生化理论在诗歌翻译的应用，本文作者认为用陌生化理论研究翻译文本仍有很大的发掘空间，对诗歌翻译有启迪意义。<br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
陌生化理论；《声声慢》；《醉花阴》；英译版本<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasury of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.<br />
<br />
The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasure of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’s consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’ consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, and her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.1 Shklovsky’s Definition of Defamiliarization====<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by the Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:"The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.(Zhang Jintong, 1987, 78-79)<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by a Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:"The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.(Zhang Jintong, 1987, 78-79)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Features of Defamiliarization in Translation====<br />
<br />
In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named up two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. <br />
<br />
Alienization, is the similarity among defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.<br />
<br />
Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, it has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)<br />
<br />
In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Alienization is the similarity amid defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, which has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====1.2.1 Advantages of Defamiliarization=====<br />
<br />
To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural-turn proposed by Susan Bassinet, against the culture invasion, this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)<br />
<br />
To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural turn proposed by Susan Bassinet against the culture invasion, and this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====1.2.2 Disadvantages of Defamiliarization=====<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new express or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new expression or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2. A brief Introduction of Li Qingzhao===<br />
<br />
Before analyzing the translation versions of Li Qingzhao’s Ci, a general understanding of the characteristics and aesthetic value of Li’s Ci is very necessary. <br />
<br />
====2.1. Li Qingzhao’s life and her Poem====<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influence on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influences on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---Zuihuayin, is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism. <br />
<br />
Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---''Zuihuayin'', is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2Research on Li’s Poem in Domestic and Abroad====<br />
<br />
A comprehensive knowledge of history and state quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.<br />
<br />
The study of Li Qingzhao’s poem in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. <br />
<br />
A comprehensive knowledge of history and status quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The study of Li Qingzhao’s poems in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3. Defamiliarization on Words Level in Shengshengman and Zuihuayin===<br />
<br />
Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, the word has greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.<br />
<br />
Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, words are of greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.1 Analysis of Translation of Reduplicated Words====<br />
<br />
Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character two or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.<br />
<br />
Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character twice or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Her typical work which applies reduplicated words is Shengshengman. <br />
<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。乍暖还寒时候，最难将息。<br />
<br />
三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急？雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识。<br />
<br />
满地黄花堆积。憔悴损，如今有谁堪摘？守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑？<br />
<br />
梧桐更兼细雨，到黄昏、点点滴滴。这次第，怎一个、愁字了得！”（陈祖美 2003：108）<br />
<br />
This piece of work enjoys the largest number of translation versions from different translators among all her works. The first fourteen characters are: “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”,they precisely describe the loneliness , melancholy and nostalgia of the homeland of the poetess after losing her husband. Six different translation versions collected are as follows:<br />
<br />
1. I seek but seek in vain,<br />
<br />
I search but search again.<br />
<br />
I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
<br />
So lonely, without cheer. (Xu Yuanchong)<br />
<br />
2. So dim, so dark.<br />
<br />
So dense, so dull,<br />
<br />
So damp, so dank, so dead! (Lin Yutang)<br />
<br />
3. Seeking,seeking,<br />
<br />
Chilly and quite,<br />
<br />
Desolate, painful and miserable. (Yang Xianyi）<br />
<br />
4. Searching and searching, seeking and seeking,<br />
<br />
So chill, so clear,<br />
<br />
dreary,<br />
<br />
and dismal,<br />
<br />
and forlorn. (Stephen Owen)<br />
<br />
5. Seeking<br />
<br />
seeking<br />
<br />
Searching<br />
<br />
searching<br />
<br />
over and over<br />
<br />
lonely and forlorn <br />
<br />
Sighing;<br />
<br />
grieving<br />
<br />
sighing<br />
<br />
In the same round (Kwock&McHugh) <br />
<br />
<br />
6. Seek…seek, search....search;<br />
<br />
Lone...lone, cold...cold;<br />
<br />
Sad...sad, pain...pain, moan...moan. (Liu Wuji) <br />
<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heart-broken feeling and her worry about the convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heartbroken feeling and her worry about her convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrases them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem. <br />
<br />
For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrased them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem. --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another example is “点点滴滴”,also from the same verse. Following are translation versions collected:<br />
<br />
1.On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
<br />
As twilight grizzles. (Xu Yuanchong)<br />
<br />
2.In a drizzle so light, dripping-dropping into the oncoming night,<br />
<br />
In the garden wutong trees stand blurred. (Zhu Chunsheng)<br />
<br />
3.On drying leaves of plane trees should there be<br />
<br />
A drizzle pattering, pattering towards the eve! (Liu Guoshan)<br />
<br />
4.Against the tung and plane trees, the wind rises high.<br />
<br />
The drizzle becomes trickles, as eve draws nigh. (Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
5.And the drizzle on the kola nut, keeps on droning: Pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat! (Lin Yutang)<br />
<br />
6.The drizzles falls on the wutong trees, raindrops drip down at dusk. (Yang Xianyi)<br />
<br />
No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu uses drizzles describing the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.<br />
<br />
No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu used drizzles to describe the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Translation of Verbs====<br />
<br />
Unlike English, Chinese poetry is skillfully using verb to vivify the image, often linked with rhetorical devices. Word transformation is mostly common, such as adjective or noun transformed to verb. There existed many instances; the author would like to choose two verbs from the Zuihuayin which would analyzed in this paper.<br />
Taking “帘卷西风”from Zuihuayin as an example:<br />
<br />
“薄雾浓云愁永昼，瑞脑消金兽。佳节又重阳，玉枕纱厨，半夜凉初透。东篱把酒黄昏后，<br />
有暗香盈袖。莫道不消魂，帘卷西风，人比黄花瘦。”<br />
<br />
This verse was written to express Li Qingzhao’s yearning for her husband. It’s the Double Ninth Day---the Chinese festival of the senior and family get-together. The west wind blows, makes people feel chilly and distressed, especially when the poetess was alone. Translation versions are assembled as following:<br />
<br />
1. What with curtains being folded—<br />
by violent blasts from the west (Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
2. The curtain lifted by the western wind (Qiu Xiaolong)<br />
<br />
3. When the west wind rolls up my bamboo curtain (Mao Yumei)<br />
<br />
4. With the door-curtains flapping in the west wind (Gong Jinghao)<br />
<br />
5. Only, when the west wind stir the curtain (Lucy Chow Ho)<br />
<br />
In the original, there is hyperbaton used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.<br />
<br />
In the original, hyperbaton was used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急?”The verb in this sentence used very vividly, how few cups of liquor withstand the wind at the dusk; Li Qingzhao personifies the natural thing, which is widely applied to express defamiliarization. Follows are various translation versions.<br />
<br />
1.By cup on cup of wine so dry oh,<br />
How can I endure at dusk the drift<br />
Of wind so swift? (Xu Yuanchong）<br />
<br />
2.Three cups of thin wine would utterly fail.<br />
To cope with the rising evening gale. (Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
3.How can a few cups of thin wine,<br />
Bring warmth against the chilly winds of sunset? (Lin Yutang)<br />
<br />
4.Three or two cups of light wine,<br />
How can they ward off the strong? (Yang Xianyi)<br />
<br />
Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by poet, which slash the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.<br />
<br />
Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by the poet, which slashed the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Translation of Colloquialism====<br />
<br />
Colloquialism refer to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.<br />
<br />
Colloquialism refers to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised for the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:<br />
<br />
Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised as the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1. Sitting alone at the window, how could I but quicken the pace of darkness <br />
Which won’t thicken? (Xu Yuanchong）<br />
<br />
2. Standing by the window---watching in anguish stark.<br />
Could I bear alone the sight until it is dark? (Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
3. I remain by my window. Why is the day so dark, all alone? (Mao Yumei)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and causal as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and casual as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Another sentence is“这次第，怎一个、愁字了得?”<br />
<br />
1.How, in the word “Miserable,” can one find------<br />
The total effects of all these on the mind! (Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
2.Oh, what can I do with a grief<br />
Beyond belief! (Xu Yuanchong)<br />
<br />
3.Is this the kind of mood and moment, to be expressed by one word “sad”? <br />
(Lin Yutang)<br />
<br />
4.At the time like this, what immense sorrow I must bear! (Yang Xianyi)<br />
<br />
The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different word to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.<br />
<br />
The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different words to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4. Defamiliarization on Image Level====<br />
<br />
Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.<br />
<br />
Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore it can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====4.1 Cultural-Loaded images=====<br />
<br />
This kind of category is the juxtaposition of allusion and complicated sentiment in certain culture.<br />
<br />
1.Translation the image of “雁” in the Shengshengman<br />
<br />
The sentence “雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识.”The translation versions collected as follow:<br />
<br />
1. Myself, into woe, a flight of wild geese has thrown.<br />
<br />
But with them, very familiar I have grown. (Xu Zhongjie) <br />
<br />
2.I recognize the geese flying overhead:<br />
<br />
My old friends,<br />
<br />
Bring not the old memories back! (Lin Yutang)<br />
<br />
3. It breaks my heart, alas,<br />
<br />
To see the wild geese pass,<br />
<br />
For they are my acquaintances of old. (Xu Yuanchong)<br />
<br />
4. Wild geese fly past, while I’am broken-hearted;<br />
<br />
But I recognize they are my old friends. (Yang Xianyi&Gladys Yang) <br />
<br />
5. Overhead,a heart-rending line<br />
<br />
South-bound wild geese at morn<br />
<br />
Yet old acquaintances of mine. (Zhu Chunshen)<br />
<br />
After study some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.<br />
<br />
After studying some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is a straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.<br />
<br />
Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Natural Images====<br />
<br />
Pure scenery depiction means the scene is universe, such as some flower, tree, mountain, stream but usually combined with emotional revelation.<br />
<br />
The image “黄花” usually translated into “yellow flower”, “chrysanthemum”, “yellow chrysanthemum”. Different versions are collected as follow:<br />
<br />
1. As compared with chrysanthemums,<br />
<br />
I look slimmer e’en at my best. (Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
2. I would show a thinner face than yellow flowers. (Xu Yuanchong)<br />
<br />
3. I look thinner than the chrysanthemum. (Mao Yumei)<br />
<br />
4. I find myself thinner than the yellow flowers. (Chu Dagao)<br />
<br />
Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is more blurred, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)<br />
<br />
Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is a more blurred one, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====Conclusion====<br />
<br />
Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of it’s terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)<br />
<br />
Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of its terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulate the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)<br />
<br />
The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulates the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
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* Eugene A.Nida. Language and Culture Contexts in Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2001. <br />
<br />
* Gan Wanni.A Defamiliarization Perspective to the Study of Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Ci[D].Southwest Jiaotong University,2012.<br />
<br />
* Peter Newmark.A Textbook of Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2011.<br />
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* Schulte,R.and John Biguenet.Theories of Translation:An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida[C].Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1992.<br />
<br />
* Xu Yuanchong. 300 Tang Poems [M].China Intercontinental Press，2011.<br />
<br />
* Zhan Chongyang. Defamiliarization and Translation:A Case Study of the Chinese Versions of Jamaica Inn [D].Nanjing University，2013.<br />
<br />
*陈琳.论陌生化翻译[J].中国翻译，2010(1).<br />
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* 陈琳.文学翻译审美的陌生化性[D].清华大学学报，2006(06)：21.<br />
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*房孝园,李清照:一言难尽的花与酒——《李清照词两首》个性解读[J].语文教学之友,2011,06:34-35.<br />
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* 葛云峰,季淑凤.中国典籍英译的风格再现，易安词英译个案分析[J].淮北煤炭师范学院外国语学报，2008(5):30.<br />
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*胡银根.文化语境视角下李清照八首词翻译的对比研究[D].湖南工业大学，2012.<br />
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* 刘晰.拥抱差异：诗歌翻译的“陌生化”取向[J].淮南师范学院学报,2013（04）:15.<br />
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* 李学欣.易安词作中叠词的美感传译[J].作家杂志，2009(12).<br />
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* 李睿婕,张轶前.许渊冲译者主体性在李清照《声声慢》英译本中的体现.[J].河北联合大学学报，2012(6):12.<br />
<br />
*孙国华.鲁迅作品中的陌生化语言现象[J].无锡高等师范学校，2012.<br />
<br />
* 张冰.陌生化诗学：俄国形式主义研究[M].北京师范大学出版社，2000.<br />
<br />
* 朱纯深.宋词英译(2)[J].中国翻译,2002(3):93-94.<br />
<br />
*郑恩岳,李清照《声声慢》词英译研究[J].浙江教育学院学报，2003(05).<br />
<br />
*张金同.“怎一个愁字了得”——读李清照的《醉花阴》和《声声慢》[J].固原师专学报(社会科学版),1987,04:41-46.<br />
<br />
==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan 202070080642 MTI==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br />
<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
摘要:<br />
由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
口译，文化差异，应对策略--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略（格式错误）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as "global consciousness" and "global values". However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健,2012）<br />
<br />
The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as "global consciousness" and "global values". However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（Jian Fang，Zhang Jian,2012）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
No matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br />
<br />
===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br />
<br />
Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that "the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures." He believes that "the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word." The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能,1993） <br />
<br />
Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that "the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures." He believes that "the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word." The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（Lian Shuneng,1993）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, "For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used." Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation. (Jia Dejiang,1998)<br />
<br />
====Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking====<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br />
<br />
Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.(Edward Spir,2006)<br />
<br />
For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.(Jia Dejiang,1998)<br />
<br />
====Cultural barriers caused from values====<br />
<br />
Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br />
<br />
A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br />
<br />
====Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery====<br />
<br />
Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
<br />
For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval".“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word "龙" means something evil in the West, but "auspicious" in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase "望子成龙" should never be translated as “to hope one"'s child can become a dragon"，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br />
<br />
====Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs====<br />
<br />
Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give "New Year's Lucky money" to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but "Chinese New Year" does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. <br />
<br />
Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. “Sleep with father" is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as "go the heaven" and "kick the bucket". It means the same as "go the heaven" and "kick the bucket", but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as "与父亲睡觉", which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng,1993）<br />
<br />
Look at the following example:<br />
If this sentence is understood as<br />
"约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏", it is because the translator failed to understand " eats no fish " and "play the game". After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So "" means "loyalty" and " to eat no fish " means "loyalty" and " to play the game "means "race",The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is "John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright".<br />
<br />
====Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors====<br />
<br />
The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文,2002）<br />
<br />
The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（Zhang Wen,2002）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology. <br />
Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive. (Bai Jingyu,2000)（段落过长）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology. <br />
<br />
Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br />
<br />
Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of "functional equivalence". This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. <br />
<br />
Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of "functional equivalence". This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (Ye Zinan，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. --[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of "accuracy, smoothness and speed" and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as "on-site, present and limited time", the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the "nearest natural equivalence" between English and Chinese, and to try to find the "nearest natural equivalence" from the target language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
<br />
In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the "nearest natural equivalents" between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br />
<br />
====Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation====<br />
<br />
Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
<br />
The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the "nearest natural equivalent" to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions "三个和尚没水吃" into " Everyone‘s business is no one"s business." is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.(Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing,2006)<br />
<br />
However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌" by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang,2006）<br />
<br />
Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
<br />
In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir,2006）<br />
<br />
====Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods====<br />
<br />
The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a "purpose-oriented" approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
<br />
The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
<br />
=====Direct translation method=====<br />
<br />
Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, " Let sleeping dogs lie" is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br />
<br />
=====Substitution Method=====<br />
The substitution method is also called the "reciprocity method". It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom "冰冻三尺非一日之寒" is translated into " Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom "to spend money like water " translated into "挥金如土" is a good example.(Wang Kefei,1997)<br />
<br />
====Intentional translation method=====<br />
<br />
When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
<br />
For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the "U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology," Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that "The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, "天方夜谭" is not translated directly as"TheArabianNights"，but is instead translated as " fiction ". This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word "天方夜谭" has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）（段落过长）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the "U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology," Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that "The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, "天方夜谭" is not translated directly as"TheArabianNights"，but is instead translated as " fiction ". <br />
<br />
This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word "天方夜谭" has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
=====Interpretation=====<br />
<br />
Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language.(Bao Huinan,2001) When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
<br />
1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br />
诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br />
Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br />
<br />
2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br />
三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br />
and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br />
An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br />
<br />
3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br />
解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br />
<br />
4)Special cultural words<br />
<br />
敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br />
the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br />
<br />
=====Simple translation and no translation=====<br />
<br />
Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use "no translation" or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: "我姓张，弓长张。"Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.(Lu Naisheng,1993)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. <br />
<br />
Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.(Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br />
<br />
连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br />
<br />
刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br />
<br />
熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br />
<br />
杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br />
<br />
张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br />
<br />
Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br />
<br />
Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000.<br />
<br />
Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br />
<br />
Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br />
<br />
Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br />
<br />
Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br />
<br />
Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br />
--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:59, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br />
（少了学号）--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 12:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Wei Yafei<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the consistent development of the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, translation plays a more and more pivotal role in the world stage. It can not only help Chinese to have a better understanding of foreign cultures and promote the cooperation, but also spread the Chinese cultures to the international world. Translation strategies are the focus of translation works, especially during the process of translating Chinese to English. It’s very necessary to have a thorough study about the translation strategies. While towards different styles of text, different translation strategies should be applied relatively. This thesis focuses on translation strategies of two styles - journalistic style and literary style. <br />
The thesis firstly introduces main functons and types of texts. Then it depicts the characteristics and translation principles of journalistic style text and literary style text. In the main part, the thesis explores the translation strategies that suits for the two types based on different characteristics, including domestication, foreignization, omission,restructure and etc. This thesis is expected to make some contributions to the study of translation strategies and the practice of translation.<br />
<br />
===KEY WORDS===<br />
<br />
Translation strategies; text-types; journalistic style; literary style.<br />
（Key Words）注意大小写--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 12:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Wei Yafei<br />
<br />
<br />
===中文摘要===<br />
<br />
随着中外文化交流的不断发展，翻译在世界舞台上扮演着越来越重要的角色。它不仅可以帮助中国人更好地了解外国文化，促进合作，而且可以将中国文化传播到世界。翻译策略是翻译工作的重点，特别是在汉译英过程中。对翻译策略进行深入研究是有必要的。在针对不同样式的文本时，应相对地采用不同的翻译策略。本文主要研究两种体裁的翻译策略：新闻体裁和文学体裁。<br />
本文首先介绍主要的文本功能以及文本类型，然后探讨新闻风格文本和文学风格文本的语言特点及翻译原则。论文的主体部分结合了两种文本的特点，探讨了归化，异化，省译，重构等翻译策略。本文有望为翻译策略的研究和翻译的实践做出贡献。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
翻译策略; 文本类型; 新闻体裁; 文学体裁.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Translation strategies are critical in translation process. Towards texts in different styles which have different models of texts’ structure and communicative functions, translation strategies are quite variable. There are a great number of scholars both from China and the international world who have devoted themselves to dive into and research the most effective and practical strategies. <br />
<br />
Translation strategies are critical in translation process. Towards texts in different styles that have different models of texts’ structure and communicative functions, translation strategies are quite variable. There are a great number of scholars both from China and the international world who have devoted themselves to dive into and research the most effective and practical strategies. --[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 12:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Wei Yafei<br />
<br />
However, there are still lack of thorough researches about translation strategies for different text styles. In this thesis, the first part is about the introduction and analysis of former scholars’ researches and the whole picture of this thesis. Then, the thesis will discuss the development, characteristics and functions of different-style texts from the perspective of linguistics.From the perspective of language characteristics,literary style texts are vivid,full of feelings and connotation-contained, while journalistic style texts are new, objective,true and political-related. From the perspective of translation principles, literary style texts are based on equivalence priciple and accuracy,while journalistic style texts are based on accuracy,purpose and readability. The main part is about the translation strategies of source texts in journalistic style and literary style respectively and the analysis of examples, such as the domestication, foreignization in literary-style texts and the omission , restructure, amplification and imitation in journalistic-style text. In concluding part, the thesis will generalize the main idea and make an objective appreciation about the thesis.<br />
<br />
However, there are still lack of thorough researches about translation strategies for different text styles. In this thesis, the first part is about the introduction and analysis of former scholars’ researches and the whole picture of this thesis. Then, the thesis will discusses the development, characteristics and functions of different-style texts from the perspective of linguistics.From the perspective of language characteristics,literary style texts are vivid,full of feelings and connotation-contained, while journalistic style texts are new, objective,true and political-related. From the perspective of translation principles, literary style texts are based on equivalence priciple and accuracy,while journalistic style texts are based on accuracy,purpose and readability. The main part is about the translation strategies of source texts in journalistic style and literary style respectively and the analysis of examples, such as the domestication, foreignization in literary-style texts and the omission , restructure, amplification and imitation in journalistic-style text. In concluding part, the thesis will generalize the main idea and make an objective appreciation about the thesis.--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 12:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Wei Yafei<br />
<br />
===Theoretical Framework===<br />
====Background and development of Texts’ styles====<br />
<br />
According to the research, there is still no specific definition of distinguishing differences of texts styles. Some scholars claim texts’ styles to be registers, even some equal them to speech events. Qin Xiubai, a famous Chinese language and teaching professor, introduced that there were two main schools of the study of Texts styles’- the Swalesian School represented by John M.S wales and V.K.Bhatia and the Australian School represented by J.R.Martin. John Martin believes that styles of texts means a bunch of social events in which the members have the same communicative goal. While V.K.Bhatia believes that styles of texts are identifiable communicative events that have obvious inner structural features, conventionally happening in specific careers or academic communities. We can tell from the two schools’ views that styles of texts are a kind of communicative events with its special communicative purpose and clear structures. From this point, translators or interpreters can exert theory to analyze texts’ styles and recognize the intentions of writers as well as keep the functional and sense equivalence between the source texts and target texts. J.R.Martin take texts’ styles as a communication-orientated process of social communication with steps. Eggins view texts of styles as a type of activity with steps that orientated on communicative purposes. So that the difference of texts styles is on the level of values in use rather than the contents of discourse, characteristics of forms or other rules.<br />
<br />
According to the research, there is still no specific definition of distinguishing differences of texts styles. Some scholars claim texts’ styles to be registers, even some equal them to speech events. Qin Xiubai, a famous Chinese language and teaching professor, introduced that there were two main schools of the study of Texts styles’- the Swalesian School represented by John M.S wales and V.K.Bhatia and the Australian School represented by J.R.Martin. John Martin believes that styles of texts mean a bunch of social events in which the members have the same communicative goal. While V.K.Bhatia believes that styles of texts are identifiable communicative events that have obvious inner structural features, conventionally happening in specific careers or academic communities. <br />
We can tell from the two schools’ views that styles of texts are a kind of communicative events with its special communicative purpose and clear structures. From this point, translators or interpreters can exert theory to analyze texts’ styles and recognize the intentions of writers as well as keep the functional and sense equivalence between the source texts and target texts. J.R.Martin take texts’ styles as a communication-orientated process of social communication with steps. Eggins view texts of styles as a type of activity with steps that orientated on communicative purposes. So that the difference of texts styles is on the level of values in use rather than the contents of discourse, characteristics of forms or other rules.<br />
（段落过长 建议分成两段） （存在单复数语法错误）--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 13:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Wei yafei<br />
<br />
Huang Guowen once said that every text plays a communicative role in a specific social and cultural environment, and people belonging to a specific social and cultural background can usually see its communicative purpose. (Huang Guowen,2001) The text is a combination of communicative symbols for the exchange of information between the sender and the recipient. In order to achieve a certain communicative purpose, the sender must choose an appropriate genre and corresponding manifestation to convey the information, and the recipient is expected to respond accordingly. Thus, the function of texts can be realized. Christiane Nord summarized four functions of texts from the perspective of translation. They are referential function, expressive function, appellative function and phatic function. (Nord, 1997)<br />
<br />
====Main functions of texts==== <br />
<br />
=====The Referential Function=====<br />
The referential function of a text means the reference to or description of objects or phenomena of the world. It is mainly expressed through the denotative value of the lexical items presented in the text and can be analyzed through the nature of the objects. It is orientated toward objects in real or fictitious worlds. There are several functions of referential function: informative function, directive function and didactic function. If the referent is a fact or state of things unknown to the receiver, such as an accident, the text function may consist in informing the readers. If the referent is the description of an object, such as the illustration of using a washing machine, the text function may be directive. If it is a whole field that the receivers are to learn, such as physics, the function may be didactic.<br />
<br />
=====The Expressive Function=====<br />
<br />
The expressive function refers to the sender’s attitude to toward the objects or phenomena. This function is sender-orientated. The expressive function of the text may be subdivided according to what it is expressed. If the sender expresses individual feelings or emotions, such as a public speech, it will be an emotive sub-function. If what is expressed is an evaluation, like comments, the sub-function will be evaluative.<br />
<br />
=====The Appellative Function=====<br />
<br />
The appellative function refers to use of language to make the receiver feel or do something. The appellative function “receiver-orientated. It aims at the receivers’ sensitivity or disposition to act and tries to induce receivers to respond in a particular way. It can be broken into several sub-functions: illustrative function, persuasive function, advertising function and pedagogical function. If we want to illustrate a hypothesis by an example, we appeal to the reader’s previous experience to knowledge, That’s what called illustrative function. If we want to persuade someone to do something or to share a particular viewpoint, we appeal to their sensitivity and their secret desires. That’s what called persuasive function. If we want to let someone by a particular product, we tend to describe those qualities of the product that are presumed to have positive values in receivers’ value system. That’s advertising function. If we wan to educate a person, we may appeal to their susceptibility to ethical and moral principles. That’s pedagogical function.<br />
<br />
====Main Text - types====<br />
<br />
Katharina Reiss, founder of German translation functionalism, put forward text-typology theory in Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism. She believes that there are four texts, including the context-focused text, the form-focused text, the appeal-focused text and the audio-media text. <br />
Peter Newmark, representative of the British linguistic school of translation theory, based on the study of former linguisticians, he put forward the following six functions of texts - expressive function, informative function, the vocative function, the aesthetic function, the phatic function and the meta-lingual function. A text may has several functions at the same time, but only has one major function. Taking a whole consideration of the two theories, the main texts are the following three, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts. Journalistic-style texts and literary-style texts are mainly connected with the informative and expressive function respectively. <br />
<br />
=====The Expressive Texts=====<br />
<br />
Language is a tool for people to communicate with each other. Through language, people can express their thoughts, affection, wills, desires, opinions, attitude, etc. This is the expressive function of language. The core of expressive function is the speaker's thoughts. The speaker uses words to express feelings, regardless of the reaction of others.Typical expressive-function texts include the following three types. The first ones are serious and imaginative literature which contain lyrics, short stories, long novels and plays. The second type is authoritative texts, including a variety of genres, whose authority comes from the status of the author or language skills, such as senior government officials and political party leaders’ speeches, such as declarations, legal regulations, documents as well as literary and academic works written by authority figures etc. The third type is texts that express writers’ ideas directly, without direct readers, like autobiography, private letters, etc. <br />
<br />
===== The Informative Texts=====<br />
<br />
In interactions, people often have to describe, narrate or explain the situation of relevant things. This involves the information function of language. The core is the external environment, which is the reported insights and theories. The informative text usually has a fixed format, such as textbook, technical reports, newspaper articles, scientific papers, meeting minutes, etc. <br />
<br />
===== The Vocative Texts=====<br />
<br />
People often use words to evoke others' sympathy or prompt them to take some actions. That shows the imperative function of language. The core of this function is the readers or audiences. The speaker wants readers or audiences to feel and follow the intent of the text and act as expected. Typical vocative texts are notices, advertisements, instructions, requests, appeals, etc.<br />
<br />
===Literary Stylistics and Journalistic Stylistics=== <br />
<br />
With the appearance of societal pragmatics, pragmatics and functional grammar, scholars recognized the importance of language functions. They tried to classify the texts in the light of language functions and divided them into two main types. One is literary style, the other is non-literary style. Snell-Hornby classified literary texts as Bible, drama, film, lyric poetry, modern literature, classic works, children literature, literature in 1990 and pastime novel. <br />
<br />
====Language Characteristics====<br />
<br />
=====For literary style=====<br />
======Vividness======<br />
In literary works, writers use words or language to vividly describe or portray people, objects, things to reflect the world’s various situations or expose social reality, they will use appropriate techniques to render the atmosphere and create an immersive feeling for readers. For Example, “The bullfrogs trump to usher in the night, and the note of the whip-poor-will is borne on the rippling wind from over the water.” Through the use of verbs such as "trump", "usher" and "is borne", the images of frogs, hawks and wind blowing on the water surface in the evening are vividly depicted. That happens a lot in literary works.<br />
<br />
======Emotional expression======<br />
As we all know, all things and objects are embodiment of writers’ feelings and emotions. In literary creation, whether it is to portray characters or to describe scenery, often inadvertently or intentionally contains or carries the writer’s own emotions. In other words, expressing emotion includes direct expression and indirect expression. The lyricism of this kind of literature can effectively arouse the emotional resonance of readers.<br />
<br />
======Connotation======<br />
Connotation means that writers do not always describe people or things in all-round aspects with every details, but can depict in limited number of words to show or imply infinite meaning or artistic conception, leaving readers with imagination. That will be unforgettable for a long time. For example, “ From my mother’s sleep I fell into the State. And I hunched in its belly till my wet fur froze.” In this two sentences, “Sleep” metaphorically means in the mother’s womb, can also refer to the poet’s lofty ideals and ambitions. The capitalized "State" can refer to both the world and the poet’s motherland - The United States.<br />
<br />
<br />
===== For journalistic style=====<br />
Journalistic-style texts vary a lot from the the literary-style texts. As an unique texts which are shown to billions of audience, the characteristics of news are mainly in following four aspects: Truth, objective, new and political-related.<br />
<br />
======Truthfulness======<br />
First, as the definition indicates news is about facts，which first should be true. “News lays claim to the qualities of truthfulness and accuracy-properties often implied by the term objectivity, a concept used to legitimize the journalistic text while at the same time recognizing the multidimensional and elusive nature of truth. News asks to be accepted as, at the very least, an approximation to truth, and certainly close enough to the truth to be worthy of our trust in its integrity”(McNair, 1998:2)<br />
<br />
======Newness======<br />
If the news isn’t new, it should have been called “olds”. This is more than a joke. News is reported to make a contrast to the convention, strike people by surprise and keep them in suspense. “News is not about somebody bitten by a dog, but about a dog bitten by a man”, “News is just something that can move women to scream: My Gosh!” The two old sayings have been taken as most vivid descriptions of news, featuring its distinctive characteristics of newness.<br />
<br />
======Objectivity======<br />
The objectivity is one of the most important professional concepts of news and has caught great attention in news circle. “The basic content of this principle is the content must be completely true, fair and neutral, not fictitious, and not biased or subjective” (Yang Xiyou 2009, 6)When writing news or reports, media workers shouldn’t put their subjective feelings into the reports. And the use of vocabulary should also be fair and neutral. When international news media, such as BBC and VOA, report about China Diaoyu Islands issue, they generally use Sankaku Islands and Diaoyu Island. When translating these words, the translator should be faithful to the original text and translate these two names. However, due to ideological, political or historical reasons, the use of vocabulary may deviate from the principle of objectivity, such as: in the report of Russia and Japan’s dispute on islands, only the Russian address- “ Kuril Islands” was used, but the Japanese address- “Four Northern Islands” was not used. When translating, the translator should add “Thousand Southern Islands” and “Four Northern”.<br />
<br />
======Political Relevance======<br />
Although news is objective, absolutely objective and fair reports do not exist. The media has never been able to completely get rid of the shackles of political and economic power or ideology. The content of the report tends to obey the interests of the country. The use of political vocabulary in English current affairs news must also faithfully reflect the country’s political standpoint. Regarding to the English translation of the Diaoyu Islands, the Chinese news media translate into “Diaoyu Islands”, while the Japanese news media and some Western news media call it “Senkaku Islands”. From the usage of these words, it is obvious to see the political stance. When translating these political words, translators must be very cautious. In addition to be faithful to the original text, translators or interpreters should also consider our country’s interests.<br />
<br />
====Translation principles==== <br />
Translation is the process of transforming signs or representations into another signs or representations.(Nord, 2001:6) Generally speaking, according to the object of translation, translation can be divided into two kinds: literary translation and non-literary translation. In literary translation the object is only the literary work, such as pot, novel and so on, and it focuses on the expression of contents, emotions and rhetoric of the original.<br />
<br />
===== For literary style=====<br />
Although literary translation and non-literary translation share basic principles, literary translation which has its unique ways, is rather different from non-literary translation. Translating literary works is not only a process of transforming languages but also a process of recreating because literature belongs to a part of art. This is the most important feature of literary translation and also the basic translation principles.<br />
<br />
======Equivalence-based principle======<br />
Equivalence-based principle equals to “Dynamic equivalence” proposed by Eugene A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist. This principle points that translators should work hard in different languages and different cultures to find translation equivalents between them, and use appropriate methods to reorganize the form and semantic structure of the original text. Dynamic equivalence includes four aspects: one is lexical equivalence, the other is syntactic equivalence, the third is textual equivalence, the fourth is sense equivalence. In literary translation, sense equivalence is the core. For example, the Chinese sentence “青年小伙子们，有事没事，总想和小芹说句话” can be translated in to “Young men sought every excuse to talk with Xiao Qin”.This shows sense equivalence.<br />
<br />
======Accuracy-based principle======<br />
No matter how beautiful the texts are, the accuracy is always the most important, rather than the forms. Be Faithful to the content of the original text, the translator must fully express the content of the original text without any tampering, distortion, omission or arbitrary deletion. The more accurate the words be chosen, the better the translation texts will be. For example, when translating “ 微风”, we’d better translate it into “breeze” or “gentle breeze” rather than “gentle wind” since the breeze is more accurate.<br />
<br />
=====For Journalistic style=====<br />
Journalistic-style texts belong to the informative texts according to the above analysis. Translation principles of Journalistic are mainly mainly purposiveness, accuracy and readability.<br />
<br />
======Purpose-based principle======<br />
Purpose" is the basic principle of journalistic-style texts translation, and other principles are based on this principle. For information-based texts, “ translation skopos ”, the German functionalist translation theory, was put forward by Rice, Vermeer, and Nord. Skopos has great significance in guiding of translation. This is because the purpose of information-based translation is very strong, that is, the translation has a clear goal - to provide information. Snell Hornby believes: “More practical the texts is, more clear its function is. The more the translation tends to focus on the target language.” As far as the journalistic text is concerned, the purpose of its translation is conveying the information and communication, allowing readers to easily understand the intention of the speaker. The translation should conform to the audience’s needs, cultural expectations, beliefs and cognitive status as much as possible, and it is meaningful in the communication environment of the target language culture. For example, in news, sometimes vocabulary vacancies are caused by the absence of equivalence in the translation, and it is impossible to use completely equivalent and accurate words to express its connotation during translation. In this case, domestication can be applied. Considering the specific translation purpose, context and characteristics of the target language, if the purpose of translation is to spread foreign cultures, foreignization strategies can be adopted. That’s the purpose-based translation principle.<br />
<br />
Purpose" is the basic principle of journalistic-style texts translation, and other principles are based on this principle. For information-based texts, “ translation skopos ”, the German functionalist translation theory, was put forward by Rice, Vermeer, and Nord. Skopos has great significance in guiding of translation. This is because the purpose of information-based translation is very strong, that is, the translation has a clear goal - to provide information. Snell Hornby believes: “More practical the texts is, more clear its function is. The more the translation tends to focus on the target language.” <br />
As far as the journalistic text is concerned, the purpose of its translation is conveying the information and communication, allowing readers to easily understand the intention of the speaker. The translation should conform to the audience’s needs, cultural expectations, beliefs and cognitive status as much as possible, and it is meaningful in the communication environment of the target language culture. For example, in news, sometimes vocabulary vacancies are caused by the absence of equivalence in the translation, and it is impossible to use completely equivalent and accurate words to express its connotation during translation. In this case, domestication can be applied. Considering the specific translation purpose, context and characteristics of the target language, if the purpose of translation is to spread foreign cultures, foreignization strategies can be adopted. That’s the purpose-based translation principle.（建议截成两段，段落过长）--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 12:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Wei Yafei<br />
<br />
<br />
======Accuracy-based principle====== <br />
The purpose of informative text is to convey information. Therefore, the translation work of the information text should be accurate, clear and precise. The translator can’t deliberately or unintentionally miss any original author’s information. In journalistic style, the accuracy is critical. A slight difference of words can make huge results. Especially, for those news related with politics and business. A word with different emotional sense can make a complete opposite statement. A small movement of a point can cause millions capital loss. For example, 1.33 million and 13.3 million has the huge difference. This principle is similar to the “faith” proposed by Yan Fu. “Faith” means “faithfulness”. The translation of linguistic-style texts should confirm to accuracy.<br />
<br />
======Readability-based principle======<br />
Generally speaking, the terminology of information-based texts is neutral and has no obvious personal characteristics or regional colors. In news, even though there are more facts that personal emotions and feeling, translators or interpreters can make small adjustment of the speakers to make the report readable. In short, when translating, based on the readers’ language level, various translation methods should be mobilized on the premise of not changing the original intent of the article and report. It may make the content and layout of the article easier to understand, fluent and concise. But be sure to keep the source language texts’ characteristics. <br />
<br />
===Translation strategies===<br />
Translation strategies refer to the thoughts, process, methods and procedure during the process of translation. Towards original texts with different texts styles, translation strategies also vary in a large degree. The thesis will discuss from two typical stylistic texts - literary style and journalistic style. According to The Modern Chinese Dictionary, strategies indicate guidelines and means which are deigned on the basis of the situations concerned. While methods are the ways and procedures in solving real problems. However, the two are relative to each other. In simple words strategies are the guidelines of the concrete methods. The concrete methods should be adopted in the direction of their strategies. Based on the above, a conclusion in drawn that translation strategies are the guidelines for realizing a particular translation aim, yet translation methods the concrete ways employed by translators to make the particular translation aim come true.<br />
<br />
====Translation strategies in literary style====<br />
In the book Translation Criticism the Potentials & Limitations, Reiss pointed out that “Translation of literary works would better be called free rendering than translations, especially when the personality of the translator and the force of his artistic temperament result in a TL version standing on its own, indebted to the original as a model and a source of inspiration. (Reiss, 2004:91) This description indicates the characteristics of literary translation. <br />
<br />
===== Domestication=====<br />
Domestication is firstly coined by L.Venuti in his book The Translator’s Invisibility called “guihua” in Chinese. Domestication is a strategy by which the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the original text is erased in the translation in order to meet its readers’ aesthetic and reception psychology. As Venuti argues the adoption of domesticating strategy is the cultural disparity and imperialism. In the 1980s translation studies underwent “cultural turn”, and since then translation has being studied in the cultural and social contexts. The dominance of transparent discourse in English-language translation was decisively challenged at the turn of the twentieth century.<br />
Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication by his assertion on dynamic equivalence that “A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness <br />
of expression… and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture.” (Nida, 2004:159) He maintains that the function of translation is to communicate and it is important for the reader to understand what is conveyed by the translation, which takes the reader’s response into consideration. He claims that the reader of the target text should have the similar comprehension and appreciation as does the reader of the source text. Domestication tries to avoid cultural dispute and eliminate cultural barriers to achieve successful cross-cultural communication. The domesticating translation is one of naturalness and smoothness, <br />
which is the advantage of domestication. Here are three main methods that can achieve domestication strategy. They are paraphrasing, adaptation and replacement.<br />
Domestication is firstly coined by L.Venuti in his book T《he Translator’s Invisibility》 called “guihua” in Chinese. Domestication is a strategy by which the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the original text is erased in the translation in order to meet its readers’ aesthetic and reception psychology. As Venuti argues the adoption of domesticating strategy is the cultural disparity and imperialism. In the 1980s translation studies underwent “cultural turn”, and since then translation has being studied in the cultural and social contexts. The dominance of transparent discourse in English-language translation was decisively challenged at the turn of the twentieth century.<br />
Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication by his assertion on dynamic equivalence that “A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness <br />
of expression… and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture.” (Nida, 2004:159) He maintains that the function of translation is to communicate and it is important for the reader to understand what is conveyed by the translation, which takes the reader’s response into consideration. He claims that the reader of the target text should have the similar comprehension and appreciation as does the reader of the source text. Domestication tries to avoid cultural dispute and eliminate cultural barriers to achieve successful cross-cultural communication. The domesticating translation is one of naturalness and smoothness, <br />
which is the advantage of domestication. Here are three main methods that can achieve domestication strategy. They are paraphrasing, adaptation and replacement.（书籍需要加书名号）--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 13:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Wei yafei<br />
======paraphrasing======<br />
<br />
Domestication by the method of paraphrasing is effective in dealing with a simple expression behind which there is a heavy cultural load. We should adapt paraphrasing strategy.<br />
<br />
Example1<br />
<br />
ST: 如囊萤 如映雪 家虽贫 学不辍 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br />
<br />
TT1: Then we have one who put fireflies in a bag, and again another who used the white glare from snow. Although their families were poor, these men studied <br />
unceasingly.<br />
<br />
TT2: One enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag, another read by the light reflected by the snow. Although their families were poor, they never ceased learning. <br />
Annotation: in order to read by their light. <br />
<br />
TT3: Che-yin, when a boy, being poor, read his book by the light of a glow-worm which he confined. And Sun-kang, in winter, read his book by the light reflected from snow. Though their families were poor they studied incessantly. <br />
<br />
The original text is from a classical book in china named Three-Character Classic.“囊萤”and “映雪” are Chinese allusions urging children to work hard at their study. Each of the contracted expressions has a story behind it. By reading T1 and T2, readers cannot understand the allusion to the full and the logic between the expressions of “put fireflies in a bag/enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag”and“used the white glare from snow”and the expressions about the persons’ industry at their studies. T3 paraphrases the sentence and makes logic explicit by introducing the heroes in the allusions and explaining what they used the fireflies/glow-worms for. This is effective in translation.<br />
<br />
======Adaptation======<br />
<br />
In order to achieve naturalness of expression, grammar, lexicon and culture. Adaptations are necessary. For terms which identify culturally different objects but with somewhat similar functions, adaptation shows its advantage in translation.<br />
<br />
Example2 <br />
<br />
ST: 老少爷们，从麻木的状态中苏醒过来吧。(Moyan，2003:85)<br />
<br />
TT: Come out of your stupor, my friends. ( Goldblatt, 2004:293)<br />
<br />
Address terms, as an indispensable part of conversations and communications, can reflect the tradition and culture of a nation. In all languages, address terms play an important role in social intercourse. Set in Northeast countryside of China, “ 老少爷们”is a typical address term of China’s northern dialect. And it is usually used by a man, showing some masculinity. It’s an oral expression often addressed to males. Goldblatt translate it as “my friends”, often used in an English speech to strike a chord in listeners and get them united or in favor of the speaker, conspicuously in an adaptation way. <br />
<br />
Example3<br />
<br />
ST: 凡训蒙 须讲究 详训诂 明句读 （Wang Yinglin,1986）<br />
<br />
TT1: In the education of the young, there should be explanation and elucidation, careful teaching of the interpretations of commentators, and due attention to paragraphs and sentences. <br />
<br />
TT2: Whoever teaches boys, ought to discuss and examine deeply (the meaning of the characters); Explain their derivation, mark distinctly the periods and the punctuation. <br />
<br />
TT3: Every one that instructs youth should explain fully what he teaches; should illustrate the present and the past, and distinguish clearly the comma and the period. <br />
There are two kinds of adaptation in the translation of this Chinese line. First, it is the domestication of the Chinese term “句读”. Actually, ancient Chinese classics do not have any punctuation marks and the “句读” refers to the longer or shorter pause in the classics according to the meaning of the text. All three translators domesticate the Chinese term by the concept of punctuation in the English language and render it respectively as “paragraphs and sentences”, “the periods and the punctuation” and “the comma and the period”. Although the three kinds of rendering differ from each other on the level of punctuation, they have much the same function—the target text reader can easily understand in what way “句读” functions in a Chinese text. Thus dynamic equivalence is achieved. The second adaptation is the change of parts of speech—the change from verb to noun. Giles changes the verbs “训”, “讲究” and “训诂” in the Chinese text into nouns “education”, “explanation and elucidation”, “interpretations” and “attention”.<br />
<br />
======Replacement======<br />
<br />
Example 4 <br />
<br />
ST:勤有功 戏无益 戒之哉 宜勉力 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br />
<br />
TT: Diligence has its reward; play has no advantages. Oh, be on your guard, and put forth your strength. <br />
<br />
This is an example of domestication on the lexical level. “哉” in Chinese is a particle of exclamatory or of interrogative value. In this line, it functions as an exclamatory particle. It helps to make up the syllable in the Chinese version and express the author’s emotion of instructing the young. Giles translates it into the correspondent English exclamatory particle “Oh” which retains the tone of a similar function as is in the source text. It achieves dynamic equivalence in terms of reader’s response to the rhetoric.<br />
<br />
=====Foreignization=====<br />
<br />
Foreignization designates the type of translation in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks the target conventions by retaining the foreignness of the original. It functions to preserve the foreignness and value of the foreign language culture in the source text. It takes the readers of the target language culture to a foreign culture, making the readers of the translated text feel the differences and enjoy the alien atmosphere. It is more faithful to the language features of the source text than domestication does, and it keeps the flavor of the original language. Venuti and other scholars who advocate foreignization hold that foreignization enable readers of the translated text to learn about the alien culture of the source language text, which is often the reading aim of the readers who are capable of understanding the alien culture. (Venuti, 1995)<br />
<br />
======phonetic compensation======<br />
<br />
Among the three translators, Giles is said to be an excellent English language master who was able to compose English poems. His translation of poems is generally in accordance with the composing and rhyming schemes of English poems, often with good rhythm. (Mu Shixiong, 2004:166) Though Giles is good at translating poems, he does not translate this text into a completely rhythmical one. Instead, he adds pronunciation to every Chinese character in the text to make a phonetic compensation so that the readers can still appreciate the ending rhyme of the original Chinese text. Giles does make an effort to create rhythmical effect whenever it is possible. In literary texts, phonetic compensation is always applied in translation of poem and prose. <br />
<br />
Example5 <br />
<br />
ST:养不教 父之过 教不严 师之惰 <br />
<br />
TT: To feed without teaching is the father’s fault. To teach without severity is the teacher’s laziness. <br />
<br />
Each line of the translation has a rhythmic focus. Respectively they are:“feed”,“without”and“teaching”in the first line; “father” and “fault” in the second line;“teach”,“without”and“severity” in the third line; and “teacher” and “laziness” in the fourth line. In this way, and together with the phonetic compensation, formal equivalence is achieved and by reading the phonetic compensation, target readers can feel the same rhythm of the original text and response the same as the readers of the source text. <br />
<br />
======Transliteration======<br />
<br />
Transliteration is a method that an item is translated according to its pronunciation rather than its meaning. This technique is often applied to translate ecological culture-loaded terms, like names of places, person, rivers, mountains or countries. There are two systems in use for transliteration Chinese characters: the Wade-Giles system of Romanization and the pinyin system of Romanization. For better transference of Chinese culture, the latter system is suggested. For some material culture-loaded terms, such as “仁”, “义”, “君子” and so on, transliteration might be preferable to any other methods. These terms represent the key concept of Confucianism, and any other English equivalent expressions may lead to misunderstanding. Thus, it is the most convenient and effective way to expose target readers in Chinese culture. For some time, the pinyin translation of these terms may be as acceptable and comprehensible as “kongfu” or “mahjong”. Certainly, for the sake of target readers’ understanding, an annotation is always needed to provide the further explanation of the cultural meanings of these terms. <br />
<br />
Example6<br />
<br />
ST: 南容三复“白圭”，孔子以其兄之子妻之。(Liu Dianjue, 46) <br />
<br />
TT1: Nan Jung in reciting the I Song repeated the verse about the sceptre of white jade three times. (In consequence of which) Master Kung gave him his elder brother’s daughter to marry. (Waley, 131)<br />
<br />
TT2: Nan Rong repeated over and over again the lines about the white jade sceptre. Confucius gave him his elder brother’s daughter in marriage. (D.C. Lau, 181)<br />
<br />
======Amplification======<br />
<br />
Amplification refers to add information behind some terms that is familiar to source language readers but unfamiliar to target language readers. By amplification, the connotation can be better conveyed to foreign readers. <br />
<br />
Example 7<br />
<br />
ST:论语者 二十篇 群弟子 记善言 <br />
<br />
TT: The Lunyu (the book of discourses and dialogues) contains twenty chapters. The disciples (of Confucius) have therein related his excellent sayings. <br />
<br />
In this example, the Chinese text does not mention the ancient Chinese sage Confucius, and the information on whose sayings had been recorded in the book “Lun-yu” is implicit, which can be inferred from the context by native Chinese, once they combine the notion of “论语”with their background knowledge. However, western readers do not have enough knowledge to appreciate the value of the “Lun-yu”if the title was translated without the mention of Confucius. <br />
<br />
==== Translation strategies in journalistic style====<br />
<br />
===== Amplification=====<br />
<br />
Sometimes, the translator needs to add proper words to complete the structure of the target texts, because mews sometimes needs more information to explain the inner meaning. The following examples are offered to illustrate the point. <br />
<br />
Example 8 <br />
<br />
ST: The real James Bond? (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 250) <br />
<br />
TT:谁是真正的邦德? <br />
<br />
There are no subject and predicate in the target text if the translator renders the headline by literal translation. Therefore,“谁是” is added in order to clarify the text. <br />
<br />
Example 9<br />
<br />
ST: Kings rout rockets, 101-74 (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 225) <br />
<br />
TT: 国王队击败火箭队，比分为 101 比 74 <br />
<br />
“比分为”is added in the target text to make the translation complete in sentence structure and meaning. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example 10<br />
ST:Reuters bests and worsts of the world cup (Huang Ruihong, 2004-06-15) <br />
<br />
TT:路透社评出世界最佳和最差球队 <br />
<br />
“评出” is added in the target text. Otherwise, there will be no predicate in the target text. Consequently, the translation will make no sense to the target reader. Translator should transfer new messages accurately and clearly to the target reader. To achieve this goal, amplification is often adopted to supplement necessary words or background information, which effectively avoids misunderstanding on the part of the target reader. <br />
<br />
=====Omission=====<br />
<br />
Omission refers to the strategy to delete unnecessary words or phrases from the target text. News headlines are featured by its brevity. Redundant words can be omitted either to conform to the norms of the target language or to achieve the effect of succinctness. <br />
<br />
Example11 <br />
ST: You need to sleep less than you think (Zou Shuang, 2005) <br />
TT: 适当少睡有益健康 <br />
As we know, English is a hypotactic language, which pays great attention to overt cohesion. Without the pronoun‘you’, the source text will be ungrammatical. By contrast, Chinese belongs to paratactic language, which attaches importance to covert coherence. When the translator does not render the word‘you’ into“你”, it won’t affect comprehension at all. In addition, the target text is succinct by leaving out the pronoun‘you’. Therefore, omission is adopted in this example. <br />
<br />
Example12 <br />
<br />
ST: Vogue says Queen Elizabeth II among world’s most glamorous (China Daily, 2007-11-07) <br />
<br />
TT:英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜 <br />
<br />
As it is well known to most Chinese readers that the Queen of UK is Elizabeth II (伊莉莎白二世), there is no need to keep it in the target text. Otherwise, the translation will be too long as a headline. The recommended version, thus, becomes 英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜. <br />
<br />
=====Imitation=====<br />
English news are featured by its vivid language, such as play on word, figures of speech, etc. They add special flavor to the text with the aim to attract readers’ eye. Obviously, to reproduce these aesthetic effect enjoys the privilege among the available methods. Throughout the history of translation theory, the idea of imitation has been manifested clearly by Alexander Fraser Tytler when he wrote: the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original in his famous essay on the Principles of Translation. (Munaday, 2001: 26) The following examples may illustrate the above idea.<br />
<br />
Example 13 <br />
<br />
ST:A tale of two hearts (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 199).<br />
<br />
TT:双心记 <br />
<br />
This headline tells a story that a patient has an artificial heart planted in his body. The headline is a parody of the novel A Tale of Two Cities written by Charles Dickens. The target text (双心记) is also a parody of “双城记”.<br />
<br />
Example14 <br />
<br />
ST: Soccer kicks off with violence (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 200) <br />
<br />
TT:足球开踢，拳打脚踢 <br />
<br />
This is a humorous news headline because of the use of pun. The phrase ‘kick off’ refers to the start of a football match, and it also implies that there is a fight in the football field. The meanings of the pun are successfully transferred by the target text with the recommended translation. The translator does a good job in reproducing the humorous sense.<br />
<br />
=====Restructure=====<br />
The target text should be acceptable and meaningful in a sense that it is coherent with the situation in which it is received. Once translated, the translator revises the order and rearranges all words into a perfect sentence. In doing so, the news is more logical and tuned with the habit of native readers' think and reading. It can be treated as an important technique used in translating news headline from Chinese into English or English to Chinese. <br />
<br />
Example 15 <br />
<br />
ST: A third of Londoners must work from home during Olympics to avoid tube <br />
<br />
TT: 奥运交通压力大 1/3伦敦人须在家上班 (2011-09-27 08:33)<br />
<br />
“A third” occurred in the beginning of the source text, but “奥运会” comes first in the target text. The source text can be translate into “1/3的伦敦人必须在家上班,在奥运会期间避免交通混乱”if there is not any translation strategies used. The translator rearranges the words order to emphasize the special time---Olympics. <br />
<br />
Example16<br />
<br />
ST: Mahfud proposes ‘Special Zoo’ for corrupt officials <br />
<br />
TT: 印尼高官提议建“贪官动物园” (2011-11-30 16:02)<br />
<br />
In order to satirize the corrupt officials, the translator exchanges the order of “special” and “贪官” during the translation process. It can be achieve some good effect to expose the corrupt officials in language sense. <br />
<br />
Example 17<br />
<br />
ST:‘Ready for winter’ campaign launches <br />
<br />
TT: 苏格兰打响“迎冬战役”(2011-10-24 12:06)<br />
<br />
The translator reorders the expression “Ready for winter” and “launches” during the translation process. Besides, the translator adds a subject to this sentence so that it can appeal to the readers’ thinking patterns. In order to make the readers or audiences understand the translated version smoothly and easily, the words or phrases are adjusted to accord with their thinking pattern. Restructuring refers to rearranging the words in logic order to make the translation more potential readers or audiences into the first consideration, making them understand the translated version easily.<br />
<br />
===== Adaptation=====<br />
Adaptation is a translation method, which refers to use an especially free translation, it relates to selecting, adding, deleting, and constructing cautiously instead of simply translating one word to another word. In order to make the translated version more proper to a certain readers or audiences, adaptation always make some essential changes for a special aim So adaptation is an activity which the news translators absorb the most important content from the source text on the basis of the particular requirement of the readers or audiences, then make some suitable adjustments. When the translators are doing some adaptation, though the form and style of the source text are altered in a way, the main idea of the source text must be kept.Though adaptation is not acted as a main translation method by some traditional translation theorists, adaptation is getting more and more popular and arousing more and more <br />
attention these days. You can see the term adaptation frequently showed in some authoritative journals and newspapers, etc. <br />
<br />
Example 18<br />
<br />
ST: Poor People May Be Quicker to Be Kind <br />
<br />
TT:穷人更有同情心 (2011-12-29 08:56)<br />
<br />
“Quicker”means“更快”, but here it is translated into “更有”, “快” is an adjective, “有”is a verb, they have different characters.“Kind”means“友善的”, it is an adjective, but it is translated into“同情心”, which is a noun. If the translator does not use some translation strategies like adaptation, the target text is unreadable. <br />
<br />
Example 19<br />
<br />
ST: Americans say Asia more important than EU: survey <br />
<br />
TT：多数美国人看好亚洲 (2011-09-16 08:43) <br />
<br />
“Important” is an adjective, and a comparative degree used in the source text. But the source text is translated in a totally different way, for it is translated into a verb “看好”. Adaptation should be used here to make sure the translation aim is achieved. <br />
<br />
Example 20<br />
<br />
ST: Lend your voices to ‘talking bins’ <br />
<br />
TT:“能说会唱垃圾桶”将亮相伦敦。<br />
<br />
If“talking bins” is translated into “会说话的垃圾桶”, it is so ordinary. But the translator adopt the adaptation strategy to translated it into“能说会唱垃圾桶”, it becomes very vivid, and it may leave a deep impression on the readers.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
The research conducted in this thesis is a fairly thorough study on the translation strategies of literary-style texts and journalistic-style texts. Through detailed discussion, several translation strategies have been analyzed and summarized. This thesis also studies the texts’ functions and main types of texts. The texts functions are referential function, expressive function and appellative function. The texts can be divided into three types- informative, expressive and vocative texts. On the basis of characteristics of different texts, detailed methods are applied. For literary-style texts, there are domestication and foreignization strategies. For journalistic-style texts, there are strategies like omission, restructure,adaption, imitation and amplification. Journalistic texts and literary texts are quite different, so the translation strategies are different. This thesis has a clear analysis about the translation strategies. However, it still owns a lot of drawbacks, such as the structure is too complicated, lack some of the former people’s study fruit. Hoping this thesis can make some contributions to the translation study and exercise process.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] McNair, Brain. ''The sociology of Journalism'' [M]. A Hodder Arnold Publication,1998.<br />
<br />
[2] Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' [M]. London and New York: Routledge,2001.<br />
<br />
[3] Newmark, P. ''Approaches to Translation'' ［M］. New York: Prentice Hall, 1981: 39.<br />
<br />
[4] Nord, Christiane. ''Translating as A Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained'' [M]. Shanghai : Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:6.<br />
<br />
[5] Reiss, Katharina. ''Translation Criticism the Potentials & Limitations'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004:91.<br />
<br />
[6] Venuti, L. ''The Translator’s Invisibility—A History of Translation''[M]. London & New York: Routledge,1995.<br />
<br />
[7] 黄瑞红.新闻英语的词汇特色和语法特征[J],《陕西广播电视大学学报》,2004 年第 6 卷第 2 期.<br />
<br />
[8] 刘殿爵. 论语[M]. 北京:中华书局,2011.<br />
<br />
[9] 穆诗雄.《跨文化传播——中国古典诗歌英译论》,合肥:中国科学技术大学出版社,2004.<br />
<br />
[10]王应麟.《三字经》,长沙:岳麓书社,1986.<br />
<br />
[11]许明武.新闻英语与翻译 [M],北京:中国对外翻译出版公司,2003.<br />
<br />
[12]邹爽.浅谈英语新闻标题的翻译 [J],《湖北财经高等专科学校学报》,2005 年第 17 卷第 2 期.<br />
<br />
[13]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-09/27/content_13797729.htm <br />
<br />
[14]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-11/30/content_14191000.htm <br />
<br />
[15]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-10/24/content_13962189.htm <br />
<br />
[16]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-12/29/content_14347771.htm <br />
<br />
[17]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-09/16/content_13712704.htm<br />
<br />
==Study on the Ideology of 2020 Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis 李泳珊 Li Yongshan 202020080614==<br />
<br />
<center>李泳珊 Li Yongshan 202020080614</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Ideology and translation studies always attract the attention of scholars in the field of translation studies. Nowadays, the empirical research method combining corpora and critical discourse analysis has provided more intuitive and convincing argument support for researches in this area. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies so as to substantially discuss the controlling role of ideology in the translation of Government Work Report. Due to limited time and energy, the author has not set up his/her own corpora and failed in applying SPSS, CiteSpace, NoteExpress, EmEditor and other statistical software to collect and analyze corpus. However, this research is carried out from the perspective of critical discourse analysis and solid evidence will be provided as much as possible. <br />
<br />
Ideology and translation studies has attracted the attention of scholars in the field of translation studies for a long time. Nowadays, the empirical research method combining corpora and critical discourse analysis has provided more intuitive and convincing argument support for researches in this area. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies so as to substantially discuss the controlling role of ideology in the translation of Government Work Report. Due to limited time and energy, the author has not set up his/her own corpora and failed in applying SPSS, CiteSpace, NoteExpress, EmEditor and other statistical software to collect and analyze corpus. However, this research is carried out from the perspective of critical discourse analysis and solid evidence will be provided as much as possible. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Critical Discourse Analysis; Government Work Report,;Ideology<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
意识形态与翻译研究一直在翻译研究领域受到学者关注。今天，以语料库和批评话语分析结合的实证研究方法更是为此方面的研究提供了更直观、更有考证依据的论据支撑。本文将批评性话语分析与翻译研究结合起来，重点探讨了意识形态对《政府工作报告》翻译的操控作用。但受限于时间和能力，笔者未能建立起自己的语料库，利用科学的统计软件如SPSS、CiteSpace、NoteExpress、EmEditor等进行语料收集和分析。本文将仅从批评话语分析视角进行研究，并尽可能地提供足够的实证。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
批评话语分析；政府工作报告；意识形态<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
===1.1 The Interpretation of Ideology===<br />
The meaning of ideology is multiple. As mentioned by L.Althusser in Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses, ''Ideology equals Illusion/Hint, (L.Althusser, Lenin and Philosophy, London: Monthly Review Press, 1971, p.162) meaning that the essence of the reality could be cracked by following the hint of illusion.'' <br />
<br />
The meaning of ideology is multiple.A lot of people have tried to explain it.As mentioned by L.Althusser in Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses, "Ideology equals Illusion/Hint, (L.Althusser, Lenin and Philosophy, London: Monthly Review Press, 1971, p.162) meaning that the essence of the reality could be cracked by following the hint of illusion."--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
''Kress and Hodge define ideology by depicting the ideological properties of language. They argue that ideology is "a systematic body of thought organized in a particular point of view" (Kress & Hodge, 1979: 6). While they lay stress on the relation between language and ideology, Fowler defines ideology as "something neutral" that refers to the general view and ideas of how people understand the world and their experiences and how they organize their lives. He adds that "these implicit beliefs constitute "common sense" and provide the normative basis for discourse"'' (Fowler, 1996: 10-11).<br />
<br />
"Kress and Hodge define ideology by depicting the ideological properties of language. They argue that ideology is a systematic body of thought organized in a particular point of view" (Kress & Hodge, 1979: 6). While they lay stress on the relation between language and ideology, Fowler defines ideology as "something neutral"which refers to the general view and ideas of how people understand the world and their experiences and how they organize their lives. He adds that "these implicit beliefs constitute 'common sense' and provide the normative basis for discourse" (Fowler, 1996: 10-11).--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
''However, according to Fairclough, ideology is "the result of power relations and power struggles" that are "implicit in the conventions with which people interact linguistically and of which they are often unaware"'' (Fairclough , 1989: 2). <br />
However, according to Fairclough, "ideology is the result of power relations and power struggles " that are "implicit in the conventions with which people interact linguistically and of which they are often unaware" (Fairclough , 1989: 2). --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chenhui<br />
<br />
''Furthermore, VanDijk (1993) broadens the definition of ideology, which includes three main elements, namely society, cognition and discourse. Among that, society refers to power relations and the interests of certain groups, cognition is in relation to beliefs and values in life, and discourse deals with the relationship between language use and ideology, involving concealment and manipulation. It is clear from the above description that critical discourse analysts disagree on the scope of ideology, but they still share a common rationale in the relationship between language and ideology. Ideology uses language as a vehicle to express itself, and language as a return reflects and hides or constructs ideology.''(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) <br />
<br />
"Furthermore, VanDijk (1993) expands the definition of "ideology", which includes three main elements, which are society, cognition and discourse. Among them, society refers to powerful relations and the interests of certain groups, cognition is in relation to beliefs and values in life, and discourse deals with the relationship between language use and ideology, involving concealment and manipulation. It is clear from the above description that critical discourse analysts disagree on the scope of ideology,but they still share a common rationale in the relationship between language and ideology. Ideology uses language as a vehicle to express itself, and language as a return reflects hides or constructs ideology."(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
<br />
''Rhetorically, ideology realizes its natural status via the mutual interference between denotation and connotation. If denotation equals the first meaning, connotation is the second implication. However, the signifier of connotation (the second implication) is denotation. Hence, a complete sentence can embody the ideology.'' (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 15)<br />
<br />
"Rhetorically, ideology achieves its natural status through the mutual interference between denotation and connotation. If denotation equals the first meaning, connotation is the second implication. However, the signifier of connotation (the second implication) is denotation. Hence, a complete sentence can embody the ideology." (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 15)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
''In S/Z, Roland Barthes divided articles into Articles Inspiring People to Write and Articles Attracting People to Read, and then made corresponding assessment. “Yet, the fundamental evaluation on articles could neither be carried out from the perspective of sciences because sciences were not applied for measurement, nor derive from ideology because an article’s ideological value (involving morality, aesthetics, politics and truth) is a kind of value of representation rather than value of production (ideology is “Reflection” rather than Creation).”'' (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 16)<br />
<br />
"In S/Z, Roland Barthes divided articles into Articles Inspiring People to Write and Articles, Attracting People to Read, and then made corresponding assessment. "Yet, the fundamental evaluation on articles could neither be carried out from the perspective of sciences because sciences were not applied for measurement, nor derive from ideology because an article's ideological value (involving morality, aesthetics, politics and truth) is a kind of value of representation rather than value of production (ideology is “Reflection” rather than Creation)." (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 16)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
<br />
''Barthes and Nietzsche held that the subject is a kind of fiction. Through such fiction, ideology can naturally form and hide. Language structure and ideological structure penetrate each other and establish a seamlessly intimate relationship. “The role of a complete sentence is to push the story forward while explanatory codes act in contravention, cut off, interrupt and suspend the sentence and delay the disclosure of truth. Seemingly, explanatory codes curb the natural extension of sentence, but the sentence’s effective composition is enhanced to play a stronger part. Nevertheless, the truth (predicate and object) is the completer and terminator and appears to terminate the narration (sentence).” From the perspective of sentence patterns, diverse and complicated narrations are exactly the embodiment of ideology. Also, continuous innovation of narration modes can be regarded as a breakthrough from the conventionalized ideology (pushing the limit and recognizing the generation).'' (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 17)<br />
<br />
"Barthes and Nietzsche held that the subject is a kind of fiction. Through this kind of fiction, ideology can naturally come and hide. Language structure and ideological structure penetrate each other and establish a seamlessly intimate relationship. 'The role of a complete sentence is to push the story forward while explanatory codes act in contravention, cut off, interrupt and suspend the sentence and delay the disclosure of truth. Seemingly, explanatory codes curb the natural extension of sentence, but the sentence's effective composition is enhanced to play a stronger part. Nevertheless, the truth (predicate and object) is the completer and terminator and appears to terminate the narration (sentence).' From the perspective of sentence patterns, diverse and complicated narrations are exactly the embodiment of ideology. Also, continuous innovation of narration modes can be regarded as a breakthrough from the conventionalized ideology (pushing the limit and recognizing the generation)." (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 17)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
===1.2 Ideology and Translation Studies===<br />
<br />
===1.2.1 Brief Introduction of Development Process of Ideology and Translation Studies===<br />
<br />
''In 1980s and 1990s, as the emergence of Manipulation School and the “Cultural Turn” of translation studies, scholars began to pay attention to the role played by ideology and other factors beyond the text in manipulating translation. From the publishing of The Manipulation of Literature (Hermans,1985), a work making the Manipulation School known to the world (Lefevere et. al. first pointed out that translation as a kind of rewriting would be restricted by the target language ideology and poetics rules), contemporary ideology and translation studies have developed a history of about 40 years. In two decades (from 1985 to 2005), many western and Chinese scholars published their works on this research subject, including Lefevere,1992, Hermans, 1999, Benjamin, 2004, Wang Xiaoyuan (1999), Yang Liu (2001), Sun Yifeng (2003), Zha Jianming (2004) and Fang Kaiduan (2005) etc..'' (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.71)<br />
<br />
"In 1980s and 1990s, as the emergence of Manipulation School and the "Cultural Turn" of translation studies, scholars began to pay attention to the role played by ideology and other factors beyond the text in manipulating translation. From the publishing of The Manipulation of Literature (Hermans,1985), a work making the Manipulation School known to the world (Lefevere et. al. first pointed out that translation as a kind of rewriting would be restricted by the target language ideology and poetics<br />
rules),contemporary ideology and translation studies have developed a history of about 40 years. In two decades (from 1985 to 2005), many western and Chinese scholars published their works on this research subject, including Lefevere,1992, Hermans, 1999, Benjamin, 2004, Wang Xiaoyuan (1999), Yang Liu (2001), Sun Yifeng (2003), Zha Jianming (2004) and Fang Kaiduan (2005) etc..." (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.71)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
<br />
''In the aspect of theoretical innovation, Lefevere, a representative figure of western manipulation school, first put forward the idea of “Translation is a rewriting” (Hermans, 1985) and then elaborated “Two Key Elements” influencing translations: Ideology (External Mechanism) and Poetics (Internal Mechanism). He further held that as the sponsor controlled ideology, professionals manipulated poetics (Lefevere, 1992a:14-15).'' (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)<br />
<br />
"In the aspect of theoretical innovation, Lefevere, a representative figure of western manipulation school, first put forward the idea of 'Translation is a rewriting' (Hermans, 1985) and then elaborated 'Two Key Elements' influencing translations: Ideology (External Mechanism) and Poetics (Internal Mechanism). He further held that as the sponsor controlled ideology, professionals manipulated poetics (Lefevere, 1992a:14-15)." (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
''Venuti, a structuralist, defined translation as the initiative restructuring of foreign text so as to reflect the difference between the target language and the original language in ideology, culture, language and politics. In the meantime, he appealed that translators should adopt the resistant translation strategy and translate by means of foreignization. (Venuti, 1992: 10-14)''(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)<br />
<br />
"Venuti, a structuralist, defined translation as the initiative restructuring of foreign text so as to reflect the difference between the target language and the original language in ideology, culture, language and politics. In the meantime, he appealed that translators should adopt the resistant translation strategy and translate by means of foreignization." (Venuti, 1992: 10-14)''(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
''Bassnett, another supporter of Manipulation School, indicated that restrained by ideology and certain cultural factors, original text sometimes was presented to readers in the form of translated version. Such translation could be pseudo-translation, and “collusion” existed between the author/translator and readers (Lefevere&Bassnett, 1998: 25-40).''(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)<br />
<br />
"Bassnett, another supporter of Manipulation School, indicated that restrained by ideology and certain cultural factors, original text sometimes was presented to readers in the form of translated version. Such translation could be pseudo-translation, and “collusion” existed between the author/translator and readers (Lefevere&Bassnett, 1998: 25-40)."(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
===1.2.2 Government Work Report Translation’s Requirements and Limitations on Ideological Expression===<br />
<br />
Government Work Report is the most representative literary form in the international publicity translation. In essence, it possesses distinctive political characteristics and sets extremely high requirements on translation language proficiency. Government Work Report (hereinafter refer to as GWR), as a typical political text, is mainly applied to summarize works completed last year and emphasize the next year’s tasks, which can intensively reflect the government’s priority of work during a certain period. As the institutional discourse, GWR largely reflects the then ideology and social development track. Since English Version of GWR serves as an important approach for the world to know China’s situation, the translation of GWR plays a vital role. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies to emphatically discuss the role of ideology in manipulating the GWR translation.<br />
<br />
Government Work Report is the most representative literary form in the international publicity translation. In essence, it possesses distinctive political characteristics and sets extremely high requirements on translation language proficiency. Government Work Report (hereinafter refer to as GWR), as a typical political text, is mainly applied to summarize works completed last year and emphasize the next year's tasks, which can intensively reflect the government's priority of work during a certain period. As the institutional discourse, GWR largely reflects the then ideology and social development track. Since English Version of GWR serves as an important approach for the world to know China's situation, the translation of GWR plays a vital role. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies to emphatically discuss the role of ideology in manipulating the GWR translation.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
<br />
=== 1.3 The Definition of Critical Discourse Analysis and Its Current Research and Application===<br />
<br />
''Originating from critical linguistics, Critical Discourse Analysis (hereinafter referred to as CDA) has absorbed many disciplines’ research results including linguistics, sociology and psychology and achieved a development at the end of 1970s, aiming at revealing the hidden ideology by analyzing the linguistic form and exploring the relationship between language/ideology and rights.'' (Fowler R., E. Hodge., E． Kress., Trew T. Language and control［M]., London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979.)<br />
<br />
"Originating from critical linguistics, Critical Discourse Analysis (hereinafter referred to as CDA) has absorbed many disciplines'research results including linguistics, sociology and psychology and achieved a development at the end of 1970s, aiming at revealing the hidden ideology by analyzing the linguistic form and exploring the relationship between language/ideology and rights." (Fowler R., E. Hodge., E． Kress., Trew T. Language and control［M]., London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979.)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
CDA has been widely applied to study the meaning of ideology in mass media discourse such as advertising, news report, political oration, official documents and laws and regulations, which has laid a foundation for this research. Besides, the impact of ideology is a main issue in GWRs translation and involves two different languages and ideologies, proving the availability of CDA in GWR translation. In this paper, the author has compared and analyzed the English Version and Chinese Version of GWR from the perspective of CDA, and further discussed the relationship between ideology and translation.<br />
<br />
CDA has been widely applied to study the meaning of ideology in mass media discourse such as advertising, news report, political oration, official documents and laws and regulations, which has laid a foundation for this research. Besides, the impact of ideology is a main issue in GWRs translation and involves two different languages and ideologies, which proves the availability of CDA in GWR translation. In this paper, the author has compared and at the same time analyzed the English Version and Chinese Version of GWR from the perspective of CDA, and further discussed the relationship between ideology and translation.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
''In recent two decades, more and more foreign scholars have applied the corpora technology to CDA and corresponding research content mainly involves the following four aspects:<br />
the First is News Media Discourse Studies: For example, Baker and McEnery adopted the corpora method to analyze the British media’s role in the refugee discourse construction and further investigated characteristics of British newspapers in reporting Muslim and Islam. Through making a comparison between English newspapers and French newspapers in Canada, Vessey analyzed and elaborated the ideology and national identity in different languages.<br />
<br />
In recent two decades, more and more foreign scholars have applied the corpora technology to CDA and corresponding research content mainly involves the following four aspects: First is News Media Discourse Studies: For example, Baker and McEnery adopted the corpora method to analyze the British media's role in the refugee discourse construction and further investigated characteristics of British newspapers in reporting Muslim and Islam. Through making a comparison between English newspapers and French newspapers in Canada, Vessey analyzed and elaborated the ideology and national identity in different languages.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
<br />
The Second is Political Discourse and War Discourse Studies. For example, Partington surveyed President Clinton’s assistants and wolf pack press corps in the white house during his early ruling. Jeffries & Walker revealed the ideological characteristics during the new labour period through analyzing key words of newspapers during Blair’s period. Similarly, through analyzing CNN, News Week and New York Times, Kim researched American Media’s discourse practice on the North Korea’s image. Bevitori conducted a diachronic study on presidential speeches and analyzed the discourse construction of presidential speeches. Salama researched the phenomena of American media’s context restructuring of Wahabee Religion before and after “9·11”, reflecting the changes in attitude.<br />
<br />
Second is Political Discourse and War Discourse Studies. For example, Partington surveyed President Clinton's assistants and wolf pack press corps in the white house during his early ruling. Jeffries & Walker revealed the ideological characteristics during the new labour period through analyzing key words of newspapers during Blair's period. Similarly, through analyzing CNN, News Week and New York Times, Kim researched American Media's discourse practice on the North Korea's image. Bevitori conducted a diachronic study on presidential speeches and analyzed the discourse construction of presidential speeches. Salama researched the phenomena of American media's context restructuring of Wahabee Religion before and after "9·11", reflecting the changes in attitude.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
The Third is Legal Discourse Studies. Potts and Kjur (2016) established their own corpora and analyzed the legal discourse construction made by the International Criminal Court of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.<br />
<br />
Third is Legal Discourse Studies. Potts and Kjur (2016) established their own corpora and analyzed the legal discourse construction made by the International Criminal Court of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
The Fourth is Climatic Discourse Studies. Nerlichet al. (2012) conducted a contrastive analysis of climatic discourse in The Times and Time and further probed into similarities and differences between British climate reports and American climate reports.'' (Kang Jiaping, Jiang Zhanhao, Study on the Ideology of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Corpora and Critical Discourse Analysis, Journal of Heilongjiang College of Education, March 2020, P123)<br />
<br />
Fourth is Climatic Discourse Studies. Nerlichet al. (2012) conducted a contrastive analysis of climatic discourse in The Times and Time and further probed into similarities and differences between British climate reports and American climate reports. (Kang Jiaping, Jiang Zhanhao, Study on the Ideology of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Corpora and Critical Discourse Analysis, Journal of Heilongjiang College of Education, March 2020, P123)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
<br />
This paper has chosen the English Version and Chinese Version of 2020 Government Work Report issued by Premier Li Keqiang as the research object and made a comparative analysis of GWRs and corresponding translated versions in the aspect of Classification, Mode and Conversion so as to conclude answers for the following questions: 1. Compared with the original text, which are changes in Classification, Mode and Conversion in the translated text? 2. From the perspective of CDA, what has triggered these changes? How can translators explain GWR from the perspective of CDA? As the relationship between ideology and translation is the research priority, answers to the following questions will be self-evident: 1) How does ideology control the translation process of GWRS? 2) Why are some parts of the original text altered and translated in another way? <br />
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This paper has chosen the English Version and Chinese Version of 2020 Government Work Report issued by Premier Li Keqiang as the research object and made a comparative analysis of GWRs and corresponding translated versions in the aspect of Classification, Mode and Conversion so as to conclude answers for the following questions: <br />
1. Compared with the original text, which are changes in Classification, Mode and Conversion in the translated text? <br />
2. From the perspective of CDA, what has triggered these changes? How can translators explain GWR from the perspective of CDA? As the relationship between ideology and translation is the research priority, answers to the following questions will be self-evident: <br />
1) How does ideology control the translation process of GWRS? <br />
2) Why are some parts of the original text altered and translated in another way? --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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===2.Critical Discourse Analysis===<br />
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=== 2.1 Classification===<br />
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''According to the CDA, for the variations of "categories" in GWRs translation, the addressers intentionally or unintentionally incorporate their ideology into discourse at all levels of linguistic form, including lexical choice. A comparative analysis of the "categories" in GWRs and their translations reveals the variations of "categories", and the author will explain them from an ideological point of view.''(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) <br />
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"According to the CDA, for the variations of 'categories' in GWRs translation, the addressers intentionally or unintentionally incorporate their ideology into discourse at all levels of linguistic form, including lexical choice. A comparative analysis of the 'categories' in GWRs and their translations reveals the variations of 'categories', and the author will explain them from an ideological point of view.'(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui <br />
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Example (1): The same one Chinese character "发展" in the Chinese version of GWR is translated differently in English. Different words denote different ideological meanings. A basic reason for this is that "发展" can be used as both a noun and a verb in Chinese. Therefore, there are different words used in English for a Chinese character with different parts of speech.<br />
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For example, when used as a noun: a). 优化民营经济发展环境——We will foster an enabling environment for the development of the private sector.<br />
b).推动制造业升级和新兴产业发展。——We will encourage the upgrading of manufacturing and the growth of emerging industries.<br />
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When used as a verb: a).发展工业互联网——We will promote the industrial internet<br />
b).发展社会研发机构——develop private R&D institutions<br />
c).发展创业投资——We will support the growth of venture capital investment<br />
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For example, when used as a noun:<br />
a). 优化民营经济发展环境——We will foster an enabling environment for the development of the private sector.<br />
b).推动制造业升级和新兴产业发展。——We will encourage the upgrading of manufacturing and the growth of emerging industries.When used as a verb: 1)发展工业互联网——We will promote the industrial internet.2) 发展社会研发机构——develop private R&D institutions. 3) 发展创业投资——We will support the growth of venture capital investment--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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In the three examples of the verb, promote means "to advance", while support means "to back up and give aid to". In these two examples, both “promote” and “support the growth” signify assisting, weakening the role and status of the government in economic development, in a bid to express the idea that "support the free development of the market, and the government will also take the initiative to provide assistance". In the second example, in "develop private R&D institutions", the word “develop” is used to express a strong subjective initiative, which indicates that the state or the government will play a dominant role in the establishment and development of private R&D institutions, implying the national conditions and ideology of China.'<br />
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In the three examples of the verb, "promote" means "to advance", while "support" means "to back up and give aid to". In these two examples, both "promote" and "support the growth" signify assisting, weakening the role and status of the government in economic development, in a bid to express the idea that "support the free development of the market, and the government will also take the initiative "to provide assistance". In the second example, in "develop private R&D institutions", the word "develop" is used to express a strong subjective initiative, which indicates that the state or the government will play a dominant role in the establishment and development of private R&D institutions, implying the national conditions and ideology of China.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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(2) ''In the GWR translation, different lexical choices reveal different ideological meanings of the source, which is achieved due to the translators' accurate understanding of the source ideology.'' (Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) Such translation makes it easier for foreign readers to understand the context and policies of China.<br />
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Example (2) "In the GWR translation, different lexical choices reveal different ideological meanings of the source, which is achieved due to the translators' accurate understanding of the source ideology."(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) Such translation makes it easier for foreign readers to understand the context and policies of China.<br />
For example, "四风" in the source is translated as "formalities for formalities'sake, bureaucratism, hedonism, and extravagance"."四风" is a policy related to rectifying the discipline of Party members and cadres, but foreign readers do not know if it is translated literally. Therefore, a specific description is required so as to take care of foreign readers in a better way. It is obvious that a general character in Chinese is translated into a specific illustration in English.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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However, the translation technique for "四风" is not an one-off. For other expressions, such as the translation for “放管服”改革——reforms to streamline administration and delegate power, improve regulation, and upgrade services.<br />
The translators changes the choice of words out of consideration for the ideology of the readers, in a bid to take into account the ideological differences between the source readers and the target readers of the paper.<br />
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However, the translation technique for "四风" is not an one-off. For other expressions, such as the translation for “放管服”改革——reforms to streamline administration and delegate power, improve regulation, and upgrade services.The translators changes the choice of words out of consideration for the ideology of the readers, in a bid to take into account the ideological differences between the source readers and the target readers of the paper.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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(3) The English version of 促进祖国和平统一: The word "统一" in 促进统一（2020年） is translated as "reunification" in English. As we all know, the Chinese character "统一" means unification in English, but in this case, the prefix "re-" is added to it. According to Longman's Dictionary of Contemporary English, "re-" means "again" and the word “unification” with a prefix "re-" means "back to the previous country". Thus, the Chinese character "统一" here refers to reunite to the previous country. The purposeful addition of "re-" implies a different ideological meaning. <br />
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Example(3) The English version of "促进祖国和平统一": The word "统一" in "促进统一"（2020年） is translated as "reunification" in English. As we all know, the Chinese character "统一" means unification in English, but in this case, the prefix "re-" is added to it. According to Longman's Dictionary of Contemporary English, "re-" means "again" and the word “unification” with a prefix "re-" means "back to the previous country". Thus, the Chinese character "统一" here refers to reunite to the previous country. The purposeful addition of "re-" implies a different ideological meaning. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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For the Chinese people, there is no doubt that Taiwan has always been a part of China, even though it has been separated from the motherland for historical reasons and has not yet returned. However, since foreign readers may not know the history of China, and some Western countries even consider Taiwan as an "independent country," a word-for-word translation may lead to misunderstandings, so "reunification" is employed to emphasize the fact that Taiwan and the motherland belong to one China. In this case, the variation of lexical choice is explained in different socio-historical contexts of the source and the translated text.<br />
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For the Chinese people, there is no doubt that Taiwan has always been a part of China, even though it has been separated from the motherland for historical reasons and has not yet returned. However, since foreign readers may not know the history of China, and some Western countries even consider Taiwan as an "independent country", a word-for-word translation may lead to misunderstandings, so "reunification" is employed to emphasize the fact that Taiwan and the motherland belong to one China. In this case, the variation of lexical choice is explained in different socio-historical contexts of the source and the translated text.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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(4)“提高城乡居民基础养老金最低标准 ” is translated as We will increase the minimum basic old-age pension for rural and non-working urban residents.”<br />
The Chinese phrase “城乡居民” in this context is translated as "rural and non-working urban residents "<br />
And “将参保不足 1 年的农民工等失业人员都纳入常住地保障” is translated as “We will see that rural migrant workers and others out of work who are in the scheme less than a year are covered in the locality where they are living. ”<br />
“农民工” is translated as “rural migrant workers”. <br />
Through the change in lexical choice, the target reader can acquire the information more easily than through word-by-word translation. This case demonstrates that the variation of lexical choice in translated texts is vital for illustrating their meaning.<br />
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Example(4)"提高城乡居民基础养老金最低标准" is translated as "We will increase the minimum basic old-age pension for rural and non-working urban residents."The Chinese phrase “城乡居民” in this context is translated as "rural and non-working urban residents "And "将参保不足 1 年的农民工等失业人员都纳入常住地保障" is translated as "We will see that rural migrant workers and others out of work who are in the scheme less than a year are covered in the locality where they are living.""农民工" is translated as “rural migrant workers". Through the change in lexical choice, the target reader can acquire the information more easily than through word-by-word translation. This case demonstrates that the variation of lexical choice in translated texts is vital for illustrating their meaning.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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A critical analysis of the variations in lexical choice reveals the ideological impact on lexical choice in GWRS translation, despite the fact that some variations may occur due to Chinese-English language diversity. For example, some different lexical choices disclose different ideological meanings of the source text, some variations indicate ideological considerations for the target readers, while other variations may expose the influence of different historical contexts between China and Western countries.<br />
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Above all are critical analysis of the variations in lexical choice which reveals the ideological impact on lexical choice in GWRS translation, despite the fact that some variations may occur due to Chinese-English language diversity. For example, some different lexical choices disclose different ideological meanings of the source text, some variations indicate ideological considerations for the target readers, while other variations may expose the influence of different historical contexts between China and Western countries.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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=== 2.2 Mode===<br />
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===2.2.1 Modal verbs===<br />
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''Modal verbs and personal pronouns are bound up with an addressor's or writer's attitude and ideological implication in the discourse and will be used to analyze the potential ideological implications in the GWRS and their translation. As a direct grammatical means of representing "mood", modal verbs often denote a specific and important interpersonal meaning in discourse.<br />
In English modal verbs, such as "can, could, may, might, must, will, shall, should, need to, ought to", imply different meanings and degrees of ability, probability, willingness and obligation. Modal verbs also exist in Chinese to convey the attitude of the addressor or writer. <br />
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"Modal verbs and personal pronouns are bound up with an addressor's or writer's attitude and ideological implication in the discourse and will be used to analyze the potential ideological implications in the GWRS and their translation. As a direct grammatical means of representing "mood", modal verbs often denote a specific and important interpersonal meaning in discourse.In English modal verbs, such as "can, could, may, might, must, will, shall, should, need to, ought to", imply different meanings and degrees of ability, probability, willingness and obligation. Modal verbs also exist in Chinese to convey the attitude of the addressor or writer. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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Zhang Guanming counted 25 modal auxiliary verbs in Chinese, including “能，可以，会，可能，得，敢，肯，愿意，情愿，乐意，想，要，应，应该，应当，该，值得，配，别，甭，好，一定，得，必须".<br />
Different modal verbs express different degrees of attitude and implication to the addressor or writer. Therefore, an analysis of the use of modal verbs helps us perceive the meaning of the addressor or writer.''(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)<br />
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Zhang Guanming counted 25 modal auxiliary verbs in Chinese, including "能、可以、会、可能、得、敢、肯、愿意、情愿、乐意、想、要、应、应该、应当、该、值得、配、别、甭、好、一定、得、必须".Different modal verbs express different degrees of attitude and implication to the addressor or writer. Therefore, an analysis of the use of modal verbs helps us perceive the meaning of the addressor or writer.''(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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A).我们要更加紧密地团结在以习近平同志为核心的党中央周围，——We must rally more closely around the Party Central Committee with Comrade Xi Jinping at its core.<br />
B)各国应携手共进。——all countries should work together<br />
C)中国坚定不移走和平发展道路——China will continue to pursue peaceful development,<br />
D)各级政府必须真正过紧日子——Governments at all levels must truly tighten their belt.<br />
E)出台的政策既保持力度又考虑可持续性，根据形势变化还可完善——the policies we adopt should be both forceful and sustainable, and they may be adjusted as called for.<br />
F)我们一定能开创民族复兴的美好未来。——With these efforts, we can surely create a beautiful future for the rejuvenation of the Chinese nation.<br />
G)创新直达实体经济的货币政策工具——As we work to develop new monetary policy instruments that can directly stimulate the real economy.<br />
H)要用改革开放办法，稳就业、保民生、促消费，拉动市场、稳定增长,——We need to pursue reform and opening up as a means to stabilize employment, ensure people's well-being, stimulate consumption, energize the market, and achieve stable growth. <br />
I）走出一条有效应对冲击、实现良性循环的新路子。——We need to blaze a new path that enables us to respond effectively to shocks and sustain a positive growth cycle.<br />
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As can be seen in Example A, the translation uses the modal verb “must” to show the central government's resolute attitude toward adhering to Xi Jinping's leadership, as well as a strong call and implication to the people. It reflects the ideology and collectivist spirit of showing loyalty to the paramount leader of the CPC Central Committee that is unique to China.<br />
The use of “must” in Example D also demonstrates the Chinese government is demanding in implementing initiatives for combating corruption and building a clean government.<br />
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As can be seen in Example A, the translation uses the modal verb "must" to show the central government's resolute attitude toward adhering to Xi Jinping's leadership, as well as a strong call and implication to the people. It reflects the ideology and collectivist spirit of showing loyalty to the paramount leader of the CPC Central Committee that is unique to China.The use of "must" in Example D also demonstrates the Chinese government is demanding in implementing initiatives for combating corruption and building a clean government.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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As can be seen in Example B, the translation uses the modal verb “should”. It shows a tone of hope and appeal, which is a weaker tone of suggestion rather than a demanding tone of command as that in Example A. It expresses the wish of the Chinese government represented by the addressor.<br />
The translation of Example C uses the modal verb “will”, which expresses a firm determination and the action to be taken, indicating the Chinese government's impregnable belief in the peaceful rise of China.<br />
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As can be seen in Example B, the translation uses the modal verb "should". It shows a tone of hope and appeal, which is a weaker tone of suggestion rather than a demanding tone of command as that in Example A. It expresses the wish of the Chinese government represented by the addressor.The translation of Example C uses the modal verb "will", which expresses a firm determination and the action to be taken, indicating the Chinese government's impregnable belief in the peaceful rise of China.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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Example E employs the modal verbs “should” and “may” in a slightly weaker tone, because the context of economic and social development under the epidemic prevention and control is mentioned in the preceding sentence. Alongside that, since specific local policies for epidemic prevention and control and economic recovery are set by local governments individually, the central government uses a suggestive tone here.<br />
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Example E employs the modal verbs "should" and "may" in a slightly weaker tone, because the context of economic and social development under the epidemic prevention and control is mentioned in the preceding sentence. Alongside that, since specific local policies for epidemic prevention and control and economic recovery are set by local governments individually, the central government uses a suggestive tone here.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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Examples F and G both use “can”, indicating a possible situation and a capability of achieving the goal.<br />
Example H uses the modal verb “need to”, conveying an urgent need, a call for urgency.<br />
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Examples F and G both use “can”, indicating a possible situation and a capability of achieving the goal.Example H uses the modal verb “need to”, conveying an urgent need, a call for urgency.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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Modal verb variations can also be manifested in being added to the source text. For example, in I, the source text does not use the modal verb, but the subject “we” and the modal verb “need to” are added to the question, and the modal verb here also expresses the urgent desire to achieve the goal mentioned in the source sentence.<br />
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Modal verb variations can also be manifested in being added to the source text. For example, in "I", the source text does not use the modal verb, but the subject "we" and the modal verb "need to" are added to the question, and the modal verb here also<br />
expresses the urgent desire to achieve the goal mentioned in the source sentence.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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The different use of modal verbs may also imply different attitudes toward these policies. The social contexts in which they are produced and interpreted may provide some clues to the variation and change of modal verbs. Both the author and the translators are close to the Chinese, so that the modal meaning expressed in the Chinese version can be agreed with the readers.<br />
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The different use of modal verbs may also imply different attitudes toward these policies. The social contexts in which they are produced and interpreted may provide some clues to the variation and change of modal verbs. Both the author and the translators are pretty close to the Chinese, so that the modal meaning expressed in the Chinese version can be agreed with the readers.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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However, due to the distance from the foreign readers and their receptivity, the translators chose different expressions with less initiative and more objectivity. But in general, in the choice of modal verbs, the translators mainly chose auxiliary verbs that can convey the attitude of the source text, from which the ideology of their own side can be better interpreted, and taking care of the ideology of foreign readers is a secondary consideration.<br />
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However, due to the distance from the foreign readers and their receptivity, the translators have to chose different expressions with less initiative and more objectivity. But in general, in the choice of modal verbs, the translators mainly chose auxiliary verbs that can convey the attitude of the source text, from which the ideology of their own side can be better interpreted, and taking care of the ideology of foreign readers is a secondary consideration.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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===2.2.2 Personal pronouns===<br />
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''The use of personal pronouns is another way to show modal meaning. According to systematic functional grammar, personal pronouns have interpersonal and attitudinal functions in addition to their cohesion functions. Generally speaking, the choice of personal pronouns is influenced by concerns including power relations, social status, and the degree of intimacy between the participants involved in the communication. Different choices of personal pronouns reveal different attitudes of the speaker or writer toward the target audience or reader. <br />
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"The use of personal pronouns is another way to show modal meaning. According to systematic functional grammar, personal pronouns have interpersonal and attitudinal functions in addition to their cohesion functions. Generally speaking, the choice of personal pronouns is influenced by concerns including power relations, social status, and the degree of intimacy between the participants involved in the communication. Different choices of personal pronouns reveal different attitudes of the speaker or writer toward the target audience or reader."--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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From the perspective of critical discourse analysis, personal pronouns are not used in a random way, but are linked to certain ideological meanings. For example, the use of certain personal pronouns may have a certain political effect and produce a specific relationship between the addressor and the listener. This paper focuses on the analysis of the personal pronouns GWR and their translation from the viewpoint of critical discourse analysis, as a way to perceive the attitude and interpersonal meanings that the addressors or writers are trying to convey.'' (Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)<br />
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"From the perspective of critical discourse analysis, personal pronouns are not used in a random way, but are linked to certain ideological meanings. For example, the use of certain personal pronouns may have a certain political effect and produce a specific relationship between the addressor and the listener. This paper focuses on the analysis of the personal pronouns GWR and their translation from the viewpoint of critical discourse analysis, as a way to perceive the attitude and interpersonal meanings that the addressors or writers are trying to convey." (Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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（1）Translated Personal Pronouns ：<br />
A).我们要坚持对台工作大政方针——We will adhere to the major principles and policies on work related to Taiwan<br />
B).我们要全面准确贯彻“一国两制”、“港人治港”、“澳人治澳”、高度自治的方针——We will fully and faithfully implement the policy of One Country, Two Systems, under which the people of Hong Kong govern Hong Kong and the people of Macao govern Macao, with a high degree of autonomy for both regions. <br />
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（2）Added Personal Pronouns：<br />
A).支持港澳发展经济——We will support Hong Kong and Macao in growing their economies,<br />
B).完善促进两岸交流合作、深化两岸融合发展、保障台湾同胞福祉的制度安排和政策措施——We will improve institutional arrangements, policies, and measures to encourage exchanges and cooperation between the two sides of the Taiwan Strait, further cross-Strait integrated development, and protect the wellbeing of our fellow compatriots in Taiwan. <br />
C).需要说明的是，我们没有提出全年经济增速具体目标——I would like to point out that we have not set a specific target for economic growth this year.<br />
D).加强监管，防止资金“空转”套利。——We should tighten regulation and prevent funds from simply circulating in the financial sector for the sake of arbitrage. <br />
E）为把我国建设成为富强民主文明和谐美丽的社会主义现代化强国、实现中华民族伟大复兴的中国梦不懈奋斗！——Let all of us work together with perseverance to build China into a great modern socialist country that is prosperous, strong, democratic, culturally advanced, harmonious, and beautiful, and realize the Chinese Dream of national rejuvenation.<br />
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According to statistics, there are 308 “we” in the English translation. From the above examples, we can see that most of the personal pronouns “we” are used by the technique of amplification, including other personal pronouns I, all of us, etc. This is because in the Chinese version which is the source, there are mostly impersonal subjects, noun subjects, or imperative sentences that denote calls or orders. However, in English, except for the imperative sentences where the personal pronoun subject can be missing, generally it can not be omitted in other cases. <br />
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According to statistics, there are 308 "we" in the English translation. From the above examples, we can see that most of the personal pronouns "we" are used by the technique of amplification, including other personal pronouns "I", all of "us", etc. This is because in the Chinese version which is the source, there are mostly impersonal subjects, noun subjects, or imperative sentences that denote calls or orders. However, in English, except for the imperative sentences where the personal pronoun subject can be missing, generally it can not be omitted in any other cases. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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''Under most circumstances, “we” is the top priority in translation, because in political reports, the use of “we” is more authoritative than I. This usage is called "loyal we".'' (A Study of the Ideology of the <Government Work Report> under the Visual Threshold of Corpus and Critical Discourse Analysis, Kang Jiaping and Jiang Zhanyao, Journal of Heilongjiang Teachers' Development Institute, March 2020, p. 126) The Reports represents the Central People's Government, which is itself "authoritative". The "we" in the translation also naturally reflects "authority" correspondingly. <br />
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"Under most circumstances, 'we' is the top priority in translation, because in political reports, the use of 'we' is more authoritative than 'I'. This usage is called 'loyal we'."(A Study of the Ideology of the <Government Work Report> under the Visual Threshold of Corpus and Critical Discourse Analysis, Kang Jiaping and Jiang Zhanyao, Journal of Heilongjiang Teachers' Development Institute, March 2020, p. 126) The Reports represents the Central People's Government, which is itself "authoritative". The "we" in the translation also naturally reflects "authority" correspondingly. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
<br />
Secondly, most of the actions in the government work report are issued by the Chinese government, and the use of “we” also reflects the collectivist spirit of unified action of the government from top to bottom. Thirdly, although the Chinese government is the originator of most of the actions in the report, sometimes different departments are responsible for the implementation of specific measures; therefore, the use of “we” instead of "Chinese government" or "so-and-so department" is also slightly more colloquial and approachable, which makes it easier for domestic readers to immerse themselves in devoting into the construction of economic and social development. For foreign readers, “we” is also more easily accepted. Therefore, the translators also took into account the social and ideological significance of the language forms used when translating the Reports.<br />
<br />
Secondly, most of the actions in the government work report are issued by the Chinese government, and the use of "we" also reflects the collectivist spirit of unified action of the government from top to bottom. Thirdly, although the Chinese government is the originator of most of the actions in the report, sometimes different departments are responsible for the implementation of specific measures; therefore, the use of "we" instead of "Chinese government" or "so-and-so department" is also slightly more colloquial and approachable, which makes it easier for domestic readers to immerse themselves in devoting into the construction of economic and social development. For foreign readers, "we" is also more easily accepted. Therefore, the translators also took into account the social and ideological significance of the language forms used when translating the Reports.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
<br />
=== 2.3 Conversion===<br />
<br />
''Traditionally, "transformation" refers to the change of different grammatical structures, but in CDA, the meaning of "transformation" should be interpreted in terms of discourse, context and purpose"'' (Fowler, 1991: 90-91). This suggests that critical discourse analysis values the change of ideological meaning and the influence of context and purpose on "transformation"". Therefore, "transformation" can be applied to translation studies to investigate the ideological impact of translation by analyzing the changes of "transformation" between the source language and the translated one.<br />
<br />
"Traditionally, 'transformation' refers to the change of different grammatical structures, but in CDA, the meaning of 'transformation' should be interpreted in terms of discourse, context and purpose." (Fowler, 1991: 90-91). This suggests that critical discourse analysis values the change of ideological meaning and the influence of context and purpose on "transformation". Therefore, "transformation" can be applied to translation studies to investigate the ideological impact of translation by analyzing the changes of "transformation" between the source language and the translated one.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
In the analysis of "transformation" in GWR and its translation process, nominalization and inactivation are used to disclose the ideological changes in translation. Nominalization refers to the process of converting verb structures into nouns or noun phrases. According to Fairclough (1995), this lack of mood, time, and participants caused by nominalization is considered ideologically significant because it obscures the reader's causality and responsibility, so that the addressor's or writer's attitude and perception of certain events is not yet clear. <br />
<br />
In the analysis of "transformation" in GWR and its translation process, nominalization and inactivation are used to disclose the ideological changes in translation. Nominalization refers to the process of converting verb structures into nouns or noun phrases. According to Fairclough (1995). This lack of mood, time, and participants caused by nominalization is considered ideologically significant because it obscures the reader's causality and responsibility, so that the addressor's or writer's attitude and perception of certain events is not yet clear. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
Inactivation is the transformation of active voice into passive one in which the relevant participants are removed most of the time, making causality unclear. Thus, by using inactivation, discourse can become more objective and less subjective, leaving a different impression on the reader and thus expressing different ideological meanings. More importantly, inactivation also functions as thematization, in which the object is placed at the beginning of the sentence as a subject. In this way, by emphasizing the object and hiding the agent, the ideological purpose of shifting the reader's focus and hiding the cause-and-effect relationship is achieved.<br />
<br />
Inactivation is the transformation of active voice into passive one in which the relevant participants are removed for most of the time, making causality unclear. Thus, by using inactivation, discourse can become more objective and less subjective, leaving a different impression on the reader and thus expressing different ideological meanings. More importantly, inactivation also has functions as thematization, in which the object is placed at the beginning of the sentence as a subject. In this way, by emphasizing the object and hiding the agent, the ideological purpose of shifting the reader's focus and hiding the cause-and-effect relationship is achieved.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
<br />
For example: <br />
===2.3.1 Nominalization===<br />
<br />
A)传统产业加快升级。——upgrading in traditional industries accelerated.<br />
B)受全球疫情冲击，世界经济严重衰退，——The shock of the covid-19 pandemic has sent the world economy into severe recession, <br />
C)金融等领域风险有所积聚——There are increasing risks in the financial sector and other areas.<br />
D)政府工作存在不足——There is still room for improvement in the work of government. <br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above examples that in the original Chinese text, the subject and predicate in the four examples are very prominent. However, in the translation, nominalization is done, which emphasizes the emphasis of the original text.<br />
For example, in A), "upgrade" is a verb and serves as a predicate; but in the translation, upgrading is nominalized and used as the subject, and its status is more prominent than in the original.<br />
<br />
It can be shown from the above examples that in the original Chinese text, the subject and predicate in the four examples are very prominent. However, in the translation, nominalization is done, which emphasizes the emphasis of the original text.<br />
For example, in A), "upgrade" is a verb and serves as a predicate; but in the translation, upgrading is nominalized and used as the subject, and its status is more prominent than in the original.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
<br />
In B), "Affected by the global epidemic" was originally used as an adverbial of cause, but it was nominalized as the subject in the question, highlighting the direct impact of the epidemic on the world economic recession, and its status is higher than that of the adverbial in the original text. <br />
<br />
In B), "Affected by the global epidemic" was originally used as an adverbial of cause, but it was nominalized as the subject in the question, highlighting the direct impact of the epidemic on the world economic recession, and its status is much higher than that of the adverbial in the original text.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui <br />
<br />
C) The key word in the original text can be "risk accumulation", but because the adverbial term "finance and other fields" is in front, its position is weakened; and the sentence pattern "There be" is used in the translation, and the subject is nominalized as " The whole sentence of "increasing risks" is highlighted.<br />
<br />
C) The key word in the original text can be "risk accumulation", but due to the adverbial term "finance and other fields" is in front, its position is weakened; and the sentence pattern "There be" is used in the translation, and the subject is nominalized as The whole sentence of "increasing risks" is highlighted.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
D) The full expression of the original text should be "In the government work, there are deficiencies." The implied meaning is "I should improve and upgrade the government work." The translation directly points out the implied meaning, straightforward and straightforward, and the subject is treated as " "room for improvement" is also used in the sentence pattern "There be", and the points that the original text wants to emphasize are highlighted.<br />
<br />
D) The full expression of the original text can be "In the government work, there are deficiencies." The implied meaning is "I should improve and upgrade the government work." The translation directly points out the implied meaning, straightforward and straightforward, and the subject is treated as "room for improvement" is also used in the sentence pattern "There be", and the points that the original text wants to emphasize are highlighted.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
<br />
It can be seen that the processing of English translation is more flexible, and it also takes into account the ideology of foreign readers, that is, they prefer concise and direct expression, while the expression of domestic readers is more subtle and prefer verbs.<br />
<br />
It can be seen that the processing of English translation is more flexible, and it also takes into consideration the ideology of foreign readers, that is, they prefer concise and direct expression, while the expression of domestic readers is more subtle and prefer verbs.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
===2.3.2 Active to passive===<br />
<br />
A).城镇新增就业 1352 万人——Around 13.52 million new urban jobs were added.<br />
B).国际收支基本平衡。——A basic equilibrium was maintained in the balance of payments.<br />
C)..重大区域战略深入实施。——progress was made in implementing major development strategies for regions.<br />
D).改革开放迈出重要步伐。——Major headway was made in reform and opening up.<br />
E).供给侧结构性改革继续深化，—— Supply-side structural reform was further advanced.<br />
F).重要领域改革取得新突破。——and breakthroughs in reform were made in key areas.<br />
<br />
In the first part of the report, in the review of the work and achievements in 2019, a large number of passive voice translation methods are used to highlight the achievements since 2019 and weaken the reporter and the government as these achievements The presence of the promoter of In fact, in the Chinese context, the above example is also a kind of "active expression passive" sentence structure, which is more concise and more focused.<br />
<br />
In the first part of the report, in the review of the work and achievements in 2019, a large number of passive voice translation methods are used to highlight the achievements since 2019 and weaken the reporter and the government as these achievements The presence of the promoter. In fact, in the Chinese context, the above example is also a kind of "active expression passive" sentence structure, which is more concise and more focused.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
===3.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis, this article conducts a superficial and tentative analysis of the ideological influence reflected in the Chinese-English translation of the 2020 government work report.The analysis found that,<br />
<br />
From the veiw of Critical Discourse Analysis, this article conducts a superficial and tentative analysis of the ideological influence reflected in the Chinese-English translation of the 2020 government work report.The analysis found that,--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
<br />
(1) in terms of classification, <br />
a) the translation will choose different corresponding words in English depending on the situation for the same word in the original text. And this is because in English I like to use different words to show the richness and diversity of the words of the article, while in Chinese I like to use the same word to rhyme and compare to show momentum.<br />
b) In the process of translation, the translation will be selectively interpreted, that is, supplementary translation of some conventional abbreviations in the original text, so that foreign readers can better understand.<br />
c) Some specific words will be translated asymmetrically in the translation to reflect their own ideology. For example, the "reunification of the motherland" on the Taiwan issue is translated as "reunification" because China wants to convey to the world the principle that "the Taiwan issue is China's internal affair."<br />
<br />
(1) In terms of classification, <br />
a) the translation will choose different corresponding words in English depending on the situation for the same word in the original text. And this is because in English I like to use different words to show the richness and diversity of the words of the article, while in Chinese I like to use the same word to rhyme and compare to show momentum.<br />
b) In the process of translation, the translation will be selectively interpreted, that is, supplementary translation of some conventional abbreviations in the original text, so that foreign readers can better understand.<br />
c) Some specific words will be translated asymmetrically in the translation to reflect their own ideology. For example, the "reunification of the motherland" on the Taiwan issue is translated as "reunification" because China wants to convey to the world the principle that "the Taiwan issue is China's internal affair."--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
(2) In terms of modal<br />
a) The translation will choose different modal verbs according to the content and attitude of the original text. The choice of these different modal verbs expresses the different requirements and soft and hard attitudes of the Chinese government in various fields such as domestic economic development, epidemic prevention and control, motherland reunification, social problem resolution, diplomacy, and international issues, thus reflecting the Chinese government's ideology.<br />
b) There are a large number of additional translations of personal pronouns in the translation, and most of them have chosen the plural of the first personal pronoun "we". It shows the collectivism that the Chinese government is accustomed to, and God is also caring for foreign ideologies.<br />
<br />
(2) In terms of modal<br />
a) The translation will choose different modal verbs according to the content and attitude of the original text. The choice of these different modal verbs expresses the different requirements, soft and hard attitudes of the Chinese government in various fields such as domestic economic development, epidemic prevention and control, motherland reunification, social problem resolution, diplomacy, and international issues, thus reflecting the Chinese government's ideology.<br />
b) There are a large number of additional translations of personal pronouns in the translation, and most of them have chosen the plural of the first personal pronoun "we". It shows the collectivism that the Chinese government is accustomed to, While God is also caring for foreign ideologies.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
(3) In terms of conversion, there are many nominalizations and active-to-passive translations in the translation. These two kinds of translation processes make the key points to be emphasized in the original text more directly highlighted in the translation, and at the same time respect the expression habits of English, which are also caring for foreign ideologies.<br />
<br />
(3) In terms of conversion, there are many nominalizations and active-to-passive translations in the translation. These two kinds of translation processes make the key points be emphasized in the original text more directly highlighted in the translation, and at the same time respect the expression habits of English, which are also caring for foreign ideologies.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
<br />
In general, the translation of the 2020 government work report more reflects China's own ideology. The reason is also obvious. <br />
First, this is China's government work report, which also determines that the translation must reflect China's ideology. <br />
Second, the government work report is made at the two sessions each year. It is mainly a summary of the work of the past year and planning for the work of the next year. It is mainly for the domestic people, so it naturally has a strong Chinese ideology; <br />
but The translation is of course aimed at foreign readers, so translation processing will also show reasonable concern about foreign ideology and expression habits. As a political report, he must have a more obvious political ideology than other styles, which is inevitable in every country. Finally, the richness and variability of vocabulary in the translation of the 2020 government work report is still not as good as the report of the native English-speaking countries, which can be improved.<br />
<br />
In general, the translation of the 2020 government work report reflects China's own ideology. The reasons are also obvious. <br />
First, this is China's government work report, which also determines that the translation must reflect China's ideology. <br />
Second, the government work report is made at the two sessions each year. It is mainly a summary of the work of the past year and planning for the work of the next year. It is mainly for the domestic people, so it naturally has a strong Chinese ideology; <br />
but the translation is of course aimed at foreign readers, so translation processing will also show reasonable concern about foreign ideology and expression habits. As a political report, he must have a more obvious political ideology than other styles, which is inevitable in every country. Finally, the richness and variability of vocabulary in the translation of the 2020 government work report is still not as good as the report of the native English-speaking countries, which can be improved.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
<br />
===4.Limitations===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Insufficient data support===<br />
<br />
In this paper, a comparative analysis is conducted solely on the two versions of the government work report in English and Chinese in 2020. Firstly, the evidence is insufficient in the part of applied critical discourse analysis, which should be done to the best of its ability.<br />
<br />
In this paper, a comparative analysis is conducted on the two versions of the government work report in English and Chinese in 2020.<br />
Firstly, the evidence is insufficient in the part of applied critical discourse analysis, which should be done to the best of its ability.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
I envisaged to use data analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace to conduct a translation comparative analysis for the Chinese and English versions of the government work report for a total of 8 years since President Xi Jinping took office in 2013, and an analysis of ideological diachrony. By analyzing the change of top 10 high-frequency keywords in the reports over the past 8 years, we can get a glimpse of the socio-economic development of China and the shift of the government's focus during this period. By analyzing the changes in the choice and frequency of personal pronouns and modal verbs used in the reports over the years, and analyzing the frequency of nominalization and inactivation in the translation of sentences, we can see the changes in the ideology of the translators and the Chinese government they represent when translating the reports.<br />
<br />
The author envisage to use data analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace to conduct a translation comparative analysis for the Chinese and English versions of the government work report for a total of 8 years since President Xi Jinping took office in 2013, and an analysis of ideological diachrony. By analyzing the change of top 10 high-frequency keywords in the reports over the past 8 years, we can take a glimpse of the socio-economic development of China and the shift of the government's focus during this period. By analyzing the changes in the choice and frequency of personal pronouns and modal verbs used in the reports over the years, and by analyzing the frequency of nominalization and inactivation in the translation of sentences, we can see the changes in the ideology of the translators and the Chinese government they represent when translating the reports.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
However, since it is a need to use corpus construction software, such as EmEditor, to collect the corpus and classify and denoise the data before doing data analysis, it is not a task that can be accomplished at a stroke; only then is the analysis done with analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace. However, the author has a strong interest in this research method, and will make further efforts.<br />
<br />
However, since it is necessery to use corpus construction software, such as EmEditor, and to collect the corpus and classify and denoise the data before doing data analysis, it is not a task that can be accomplished at a stroke; only then it is the analysis done with analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace. However, the author has a strong interest in this research method, and will make further efforts.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
===4.2 Insufficient theoretical support===<br />
<br />
The author does not have a deep understanding of critical discourse analysis, nor does he/she expound the Introduction clearly. Her understanding of the specific analysis methods is also shallow, so she cannot do a comprehensive and accurate analysis in the Analysis section of the paper.<br />
Second, the author’s understanding of ideology is fuzzy. Therefore, in the latter part of the analysis, when it is necessary to return to the study of ideology at the end, she is unable to conduct the analysis in a precise way.<br />
<br />
The author does not have a profound understanding on critical discourse analysis, nor does she expound the Introduction clearly. Her knowledge of the specific analysis methods is also shallow, so she cannot do a comprehensive and accurate analysis in the Analysis section of the paper.<br />
Second, the author's understanding of ideology is fuzzy. Therefore, in the latter part of the analysis, when it is necessary to return to the study of ideology at the end, she is unable to conduct the analysis in a precise way.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
<br />
===5.Bibliography===<br />
<br />
[1].《意识形态与翻译研究》，王东风，中山大学出版社，2006年12月<br />
[2].《修辞学与意识形态》，屠有祥，人民出版社，2013年3月<br />
[3].《外宣翻译导论》，张健，国防工业出版社，2013年12月<br />
[4].《语料库和批评话语分析视阈下的<政府工作报告>意识形态研究》,康佳萍、姜占好，黑龙江教师发展学院学报，2020年3月<br />
[5].《基于CiteSpace的外交翻译暨外交话语研究的可视化分析(2000—2018)》，牛文惠、刘磊，黑河学院学报，2020年第二期<br />
[6].《国内翻译意识形态研究（1998-2018）——基于NoteExpress的可视化分析》，李志阳，2020年第二期<br />
[7].《翻译对意识形态的创构———以宇文所安《文心雕龙》英译本为例》，胡作友、张丁慧，外语学刊，2020年第四期<br />
[8].《批评性话语分析视角下的政府工作报告英译研究》，高媛，2016年<br />
[9].《从翻译操纵理论看2015年政府工作报告英译》，王海云、李慧慧，现代交际，2016年第五期<br />
[10].《论译者对政治文本的操控——以2009年政府工作报告为例》，徐静怡、陈思，2009年12月<br />
--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 18:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation Based on the Principle of “Faithfulness, Comprehensibility and Elegance” 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou 202020080628==<br />
<br />
<center>聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou 202020080628</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
English and Chinese belongs to two different language families. While the former belongs to Indo-European language family, the latter belongs to Sino-Tibetan language family. Therefore, they differ in many aspects--type, psychology, aesthetic, culture, rhetorical devices, syntactic pattern, lexical meaning, discourse organization, semantic structure, pragmatic structure, textual structure, textual cohesive devices and so on. Taking the English translations of Chinese essays by Zhang Peiji for example, this paper, based on the principle of “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and further provides appropriate translation strategies for Chinese-English translation. Readers can improve their translating ability after the acquisition of the knowledge of the differences between the two languages and corresponding translation strategies.<br />
<br />
<br />
English and Chinese belongs to two different language families. While the former belongs to Indo-European language family, the latter belongs to Sino-Tibetan language family. Therefore, they differ in many aspects--type, psychology, aesthetic, culture, rhetorical devices, syntactic pattern, lexical meaning, discourse organization, semantic structure, pragmatic structure, textual structure, textual cohesive devices and so on. Taking the English translations of Chinese essays by Zhang Peiji (as an) example, this paper, based on the principle of “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and further provides appropriate translation strategies for Chinese-English translation. Readers can improve their translating ability after the acquisition of the knowledge of the differences between (delete the) two languages and corresponding translation strategies.--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 14:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
English;Chinese; “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”<br />
<br />
<br />
English; Chinese; “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 13:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
英语属于印欧语系（Indo-European），汉语属于汉藏语系（Sino-Tibetan）。英汉两种语言在语言类型、语言心理、语言审美、文化、修辞、句法结构、词汇语义、话语组织、语义、语用、语篇结构以及语篇衔接手段等方面都存在差异。本文以张培基英译散文为例，以“信、达、雅”原则为指导，从英汉语言心理、英汉语言审美、英汉语篇结构、英汉语篇衔接手段等方面对比英语同汉语的不同之处，并提供相应的翻译策略。读者通过了解英汉两种语言在各方面的差异，并学习相应翻译策略，能够提高汉英翻译水平。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
英语;汉语;“信、达、雅”<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
Essay is a flexible and casual literary form, free from the restrictions of rhythm of poetry, plot of novel, and act and scene of drama. This paper focuses on English and Chinese essays. Based on Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, the paper makes an analysis of the original and translated texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts, and studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and therefore sums up a variety of translation strategies and methods for Chinese-English translation. <br />
<br />
===2. “Faithfulness, Comprehensibility and Elegance”===<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness, comprehensibility and Elegance” is a translation principle put forward by YanFu in his work Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays. He stated that “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (xin), comprehensibility (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not comprehensible is no translation at all. Comprehensibility is therefore of prime importance” (Chan 2004: 69). “In addition to faithfulness and comprehensibility, we should strive for elegance in translation.” (Chan 2004: 70) <br />
<br />
This paper, based on the translation principle “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, compares English and Chinese through the analysis of some texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts. <br />
<br />
===3. Comparison of English and Chinese===<br />
<br />
A major difference between English and Chinese is that English is a hypotactic language while Chinese an paratactic language, which from the perspective of philosophy means that English people’s way of thinking is of rationality while Chinese people’s way of thinking is of wuxing (Pan 1997: 361). Rationality in English language means that English sentences emphasize overt morphology and the integrity of form, so we call English a morphological language. Instead, Chinese sentences do not have many hypotactic markers. Therefore, the meaning of Chinese sentences can only be understood through wuxing, in other words, intuition, thus we often call Chinese people’s way of thinking intuitive thinking (Liu 1992: 326). <br />
<br />
The inflected forms in modern English include mainly conjugation and declension, and affixation. However, there is no inflected forms in Chinese language and the grammatical meaning of Chinese sentences is expressed through the use of words, the arrangement of word order, the implied meaning etc.(连淑能, 1993: 4) Therefore, when translating Chinese into English, we are supposed to exhibit the implicit grammatical relation in the original texts through hypotactic markers. For example:<br />
<br />
Example 1:其中有些人是因为年事已高，力不从心。这不是艺术的死亡，而是艺术的离体，他自己无可自责，社会也会尊重他在艺术上曾经作出的贡献(Zhang 2007: 289)。<br />
Some writers lay down their pens because they are too old to be equal to the task. We call it retirement from art rather than death of art. They have nothing to blame themselves for. And society at large will pay tribute to the contributions they have already made to art (Zhang 2007: 291).<br />
<br />
The expression “有些人” in the first sentence is plural, which includes both men and women. While the word “他” in the second sentence is single, only including men. Actually, “有些人” and “他” in the original text refer to the same concept but they differ in number and gender. When translating the sentences into English, we have to take the harmony of form into consideration. <br />
<br />
Due to the difference between English and Chinese, Mr. Zhang translated “他” into “They” to be in agreement with the subject “they” in the first sentence, which characterizes hypotaxis in English language. Though it seems that the translation is not faithful to the original text, the former actually expresses what the latter means. That is to say, the translation is comprehensible.<br />
<br />
There is no inflected forms in Chinese while English is rich in inflected form. Therefore, when translating Chinese into English, translators are supposed to keep the consistency of gender, number, case, tense, style, voice, mood, comparatives, and person, etc. within the context, and to use the inflected forms in English to express the conceptual and grammatical meaning in the original Chinese text.<br />
<br />
Chinese pays attention to subjective narration, while English gives consideration to both subjective and objective description and tends to object description. Taking root in the psychology of Chinese people, the long standing thematic thinking always subtly reflects Chinese people’s consciousness of “everything exists for me”. <br />
<br />
Take the Chinese sentence “作业不写了” as an example. It is a human being rather than “作业” who performs the action “写”. That is to say, the subject should be a human being, which reflects Chinese people’s subject consciousness--Chinese speakers always discuss a topic which they make comments on. Since the agent in sentences with a “topic-comment” structure is self-explanatory, it is always deleted in a Chinese sentence. This well characterizes Chinese sentences as loose.<br />
<br />
English language, with the subject given priority in a sentence, has a strict “subject-predicate” structure which is highly grammaticalized. However, the topic rather than the subject is given priority in a Chinese sentence. It may not be in agreement with the subject since it is more grammaticalized than the latter. Therefore, the “topic-comment” structures in Chinese sentences should be translated into “subject-predicate” structures in English when we do Chinese-English translation.<br />
<br />
Example 2:页数不多的往往立刻通读，篇幅大的，只把正文任择一二章节略加翻阅，就插在书架上。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br />
If it happens to be a thin one, I often finish reading it at one sitting. Otherwise, I often browse through one or two chapters or sections before putting it onto my bookshelf. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br />
<br />
There are two “topic-comment” structures with the form of a clause in this example. In a “topic-comment” structure with the form of a clause, the meaning of the topic and that of the comment show a logical relation between two clauses. A “topic-comment” structure with the form of a clause has a close relationship with conditional clauses, and in this example conditional clauses serve as topics. The logical relation in this example is: If..., ... Otherwise..., ... The conditional relation should be translated in the corresponding English sentence with the addition of conjunctions between the original clauses in the process of Chinese-English translation.<br />
<br />
Example 3:线装书大概用笔加圈，洋装书竟用红铅笔划粗粗的线。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br />
If it is a threadbound Chinese book, I use a writing brush to draw small circles as markings. Otherwise, I use a red pencil to draw heavy underlines. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br />
<br />
There are also two “topic-comment” structures with the form of a clause in this example. Therefore, Mr. Zhang added the two conjunctions “if” and “Otherwise” to show the logical relation in the original sentences.<br />
<br />
Impersonal subjects always appear in English sentences, while personal subjects are used more frequently in Chinese sentences. <br />
<br />
Example 4:买到了几册新书，一册一册地加盖藏书印记，我最感到快悦的是这时候。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br />
Whenever I have some new acquisitions, it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to stamp my ex-libris on them one by one. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br />
<br />
It is obvious that the subject of the original sentence “我最感到快悦的是这时候” is “I” (我), which refers to the author. However, Mr. Zhang translates this sentence as “it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to...”, where the personal subject “I” is transformed into the impersonal subject “it”, according with English natural expressions.<br />
<br />
Example 5:这种死亡他自己感到很痛苦，别人看了心里也很难受。(Zhang 2007: 289)<br />
This kind of death causes not only much pain to the writer himself, but much sadness to other people as well. (Zhang 2007: 291)<br />
<br />
In this example, “这种死亡” serves as the topic and “他自己感到很痛苦” as well as “别人看了心里也很难受” serve as comments. Since the two comments take sentence as its form, they have separately “他” and “别人” as the subject. However, in the English translation by Mr. Zhang, “This kind of death” (这种死亡) serves as the subject with “他” and “别人” transforming into objects, which shows the tendency to use impersonal subjects in English sentences. The translation is not only faithful to the source text but also comprehensible.<br />
<br />
Chinese people’s subject consciousness brings about the tendency to use personal subjects. Instead, English people’s object consciousness explains why impersonal subjects are used frequently in English sentences. Therefore, when doing Chinese-English translation, we can transform personal subject into impersonal subject. That is to say, the subject can be abstract nouns, inanimate things or the impersonal subject “it” (Lian 2010: 106, 113). <br />
<br />
Chinese sentences always have a “topic-comment” structure, while English sentences always have a “subject-predicate” structure. Therefore, in a Chinese-English translation, the semantic relation between the topic and the comment in the original sentence should be presented through the use of conjunctions to accord with the syntactic features of English sentences.<br />
<br />
English sentences have a basic “subject-predicate” structure. English words are under the restraint of morphological changes; words and clauses are connected through cohesive devices; pronouns accord with the words mentioned above (Lian 2010: 90-91) .<br />
<br />
As a result, English sentences are closely related with each other. However, since Chinese sentences are free from the restraint of morphological changes, it is not necessary that the object should accord with the subject in a Chinese sentence. Chinese sentences are loose because of the diversity, complexity and flexibility of the “subject-object” structure. <br />
<br />
Example 6:借来的书，在我好像过不来瘾似的，必要是自己买的才满足。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br />
It seems that books bought can better satisfy my bibliomania than books borrowed. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br />
<br />
The original sentence is composed of three parts without conjunctions between them. But there exists the semantic relation in it--the comparative relation between “books borrowed” (借来的书) and “books bought” (自己买的). Therefore, the comparative relation should be expressed in English translation. Mr. Zhang employed the expression “rather than” to combine the original three parts into one sentence, expressing the beauty of the translation’s syntactic structure.<br />
<br />
Example 7:据说，任何爱吃糖果的人，只要叫他到糖果铺中去做事，见了糖果就会生厌。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br />
It is said that those who have a great liking for candies will sicken to see them when later they happen to work in a candy store. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br />
<br />
Mr. Zhang combined the four parts in the original texts into one sentence through the use of “who” and “when” to make the English sentences compact and coherent, expressing the beauty of the translation’s syntactic structure.<br />
<br />
Example 8:像针尖上一滴水滴在大海里，我的日子滴在时间的流里，没有声音，也没有影子。(Zhang 2007: 55)<br />
Like a drop of water falling off a needle point into the ocean, my days are quietly dripping into the stream of time without leaving a trace. (Zhang 2007: 57)<br />
<br />
There are four loose sentences in the original text. However, the two short sentences “没有声音” and “也没有影子” have been transformed separately into the adverb “quietly” and the propositional phrase “without leaving a trace” as an complement of the action “日子滴在时间的流里”, making the English sentences compact. Simile is employed in the translation as well as in the sour text, which shows faithfulness in the translation.<br />
<br />
Example 9:作家不能当隐士，适当的社会活动和文学活动可以开阔眼界，活跃思想，对创作也是有帮助的。(Zhang 2007: 290)<br />
Being no hermit, a writer stands to benefit in writing as long as he gets properly involved with social and literary activities to widen his field of vision and stimulate his thinking. (Zhang 2007: 292)<br />
<br />
The original text consists of four short sentences without overt conjunctions connecting them, and it includes two subjects “作家” and “适当的社会活动和文学活动”. Mr. Zhang combined the four parts into one sentence, “作家” (a writer) being the subject, “不能当隐士” being transformed into the absolute nominative construction “Being no hermit”. The addition of “as long as” in the translation indicates the semantic relationship between the second part and the fourth part. Besides, Mr. Zhang added “to” to transform “可以开阔眼界，活跃思想” into the adverbial of purpose. All the transformations made express what the author wanted to express.<br />
<br />
Sentences like loose sentences, compressed sentences, run-on sentences, short sentences, etc., are frequently used in Chinese. On the contrary, the grammatical relationship is expressed through the arrangement of word order and flexible use of various cohesive devices in English sentences, thus English sentences are compact with a clear logical relationship between the matrix clauses and the subordinate clauses.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in Chinese-English translation, the translator is supposed to add conjunctions appropriately to connect the short sentences in the original text, indicating the implicit grammatical and logical relationship. Consequently, readers are able to understand the sentence meaning without even relying on the context. <br />
<br />
Category words are used to express the category which behaviour, phenomenon, property and other factors belong to; they are often used to refer to other things in Chinese. For example, “情绪” in the Chinese sentence “那你的恹恹欲睡的情绪又将如何” and “情味” in “常不禁会感觉到难以名言的寂寞的情味” are category words. <br />
<br />
There are many category words in Chinese language for a better form of expression. Instead, category words are much less frequently used in English language. The sameness in number, property and other aspects are avoided in English language.<br />
<br />
Example 10:我一向没有对于任何问题作高深研究的野心，因之所买的书范围较广，宗教、艺术、文学、社会、哲学、历史、生物，各方面差不多都有一点。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br />
Since I have never entertained ambition for making a profound study of any subject, the books I have acquired cover almost everything--religion, art, literature, sociology, philosophy, history, biology, etc. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br />
<br />
“范围” in the original text belongs to category words. Thus, it is unnecessary to translate it in English. Therefore, the English translation should avoid the use of the corresponding English expression “the range of”. Compare the following sentence with Mr. Zhang’s translation:<br />
... the range of the books I have acquired covers almost everything...<br />
It is obvious that Mr. Zhang’s translation is more natural. Moreover, Mr. Zhang omitted the translation of “各方面差不多都有一点” because what the expression means has already been contained in “the books I have acquired cover almost everything”.<br />
<br />
Category words in Chinese always express objects’ categories. Though they are indispensable to the correctness of grammar and the expression of mood, they are of little practical significance in that they just repeat the semantic meaning of a precedent expression. When doing Chinese-English translation, we are supposed to omit the translation of category words and rather translate the content nouns before them.<br />
<br />
English language has the tendency to the use of nouns and thus is stative. On the contrary, verbs rather than nouns are more frequently used in Chinese sentences, thus Chinese language is dynamic (Lian 2010: 133). In Chinese-English translation, the dynamic Chinese sentences should be translated into stative English sentences.<br />
<br />
In Example 7, “爱吃糖果” is translated as “have a great liking for candies” rather than “like candies”. The verb “爱” is transformed into the noun “liking” and posited t after the verb “have” as its object（连淑能，P148）, which characterizes English language as stative.<br />
<br />
Example 11:自我入书店以后，对于书的贪念也已消除了不少......(Zhang 2007: 27)<br />
Likewise, ever since I began to work in a bookstore, my obsession with books has been very much on the decline. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br />
<br />
Prepositions are always posited before nouns or noun phrases. Therefore, English language uses prepositions as frequently as nouns. The priority to the use of both nouns and prepositions makes it more clear that English is a stative language (Lian 2010:145). The verb “消除” has been translated as the prepositional phrase “on the decline”, thus the dynamic Chinese sentence has been transformed into stative English sentence.<br />
<br />
Example 12:我自己就是浪费了很多时间的一个人。(Zhang 2007: 216)<br />
Personally, I am also a fritterer. (Zhang 2007: 218)<br />
<br />
Mr. Zhang translated the expression “浪费很多时间的一个人” as the noun phrase “a fritterer”, the noun derived from the verb “fritter”, rather than “a person who fritter a lot of time” in which the verb “fritter” is directly used, making the translation stative.<br />
<br />
Example 13:青翠的叶上已经凝集着细密的露珠，这显然是昨夜被人遗弃了的。(Zhang 2007: 119)<br />
The numerous fine dewdrops on the fresh green leaves clearly showed that the roses had just been cast away the previous night. (Zhang 2007: 120)<br />
<br />
The expression “凝集着” in the original sentence can be either translated or omitted. Generally, it is unnecessary to translate verbs of this kind. Mr. Zhang translated the first half part as “The numerous fine dewdrops on the fresh green leaves”, directly omitting the translation of “凝集着” since the prepositional phrase “on the fresh green leaves” has already expressed its meaning.<br />
<br />
Chinese language is dynamic while English language is stative. In Chinese-English translation, firstly, abstract nouns can be used to express actions, behaviors, changes, states and so on in the original texts; secondly, verbs in the original texts can be replaced by common nouns which express behaviors or actions (Lian 2010: 138); thirdly, translators can use prepositions more frequently; fourthly, grammaticalized verbs or weak verbs can be used instead. (Lian 2010: 147)<br />
<br />
Generally, English language avoids repetition; it repeats words or phrases only for emphasis or for the use of rhetorical devices. English natives are not interested in the repetition in syllables, words or sentence patterns (Lian 2010: 221). Translators are supposed to replace the repeated expression with a new one or omit the repeated part or explain it in a different way as long as the meaning of the original text is explicitly expressed. In this way, the translation will be concise and powerful, and it will fit more into English people’s language habits (Lian 2010: 223). <br />
<br />
Example 14:我虽爱买书，而对于书却不甚爱惜。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br />
Much as I love books, I take little care of them. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br />
<br />
The second part of the original sentence repeats the noun “书”. However, Mr. Zhang replaced “books” (书) with the pronoun “them”, avoiding the repetition of “books” and connecting the two sentences.<br />
<br />
Example 15:书籍到了我的手里，我的习惯是先看序文，次看目录。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br />
As soon as a new book comes to hand, I always read the preface first and then the table of contents. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br />
<br />
The repeated verb “read” (看) has been omitted in the translation. <br />
<br />
In the fourth example, Mr. Zhang added the subject “I” (“我” in Chinese) before the sentence “买到了几册新书”, making the English sentence complete in terms of syntactic structure.<br />
<br />
English language often uses pronouns to avoid repetition, while Chinese language uses less pronouns and tends to repeat words and phrases. In terms of coordination, repeated words or phrases are usually deleted in English but repeated in Chinese. Moreover, English sentences avoids repetition of words through the use of synonyms or hyponyms. Instead, Chinese sentences repeat the words to express the beauty of the balance in form. Therefore, when doing Chinese-English translation, translators are supposed to avoid the repetition in meaning through replacing, deleting, or transforming the repeated parts. <br />
<br />
Nevertheless, it is necessary to add the subject when translating Chinese sentences into English because the subject is often omitted in Chinese while English is a language with a strict “subject-predicate” structure.<br />
<br />
Because English is a hypotactic language but Chinese an paratactic language, cohesion in English and Chinese differs a lot. In terms of textual cohesion, there are mainly two differences between English and Chinese: one is that the cohesion in English is implicit while that in Chinese is explicit; the other is that the two languages differ in sentence division. There is no clear division between a phrase and a clause (which was previously called a simple sentence), between a clause and a sentence (which was previously called a compound sentence), between a sentence and sentence groups. (Shao 2013: 390)Because of this difference, the addition of conjunctions is needed in Chinese-English translation. <br />
<br />
Example 16:经我看过的书，统体干净的很少。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br />
Consequently, the books I have read are rarely clean. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br />
<br />
Mr. Zhang added the adverb “consequently” in the translation. According to the context, the reason for “经我看过的书，统体干净的很少” is explained in the preceding sentence “线装书大概用笔加圈，洋装书竟用红铅笔划粗粗的线”. Therefore, when translating these sentences, we should express the causality between the two sentences. The adverb “consequently” well expresses it. <br />
<br />
Example 17:我不禁头涔涔而泪潸潸了。(Zhang 2007: 55)<br />
At the thought of this, sweat oozes from my forehead and tears trickle down my cheeks. (Zhang 2007: 57)<br />
<br />
Mr. Zhang added the expression “At the thought of this” in the translation, which links the preceding sentence and the following sentence and expresses the implicit meaning in the original text.<br />
<br />
Example 18:我觉察他去的匆匆了，伸出手遮挽时，他又从遮挽着的手边过去......(Zhang 2007: 55)<br />
Aware of its fleeting presence, I reach out for it only to find it brushing past my outstretched hands. (Zhang 2007: 57)<br />
<br />
The translation adds the expression “only to find” to connect the second and third parts of the original text, making overt the implicit meaning that the author was regretful for his failing to grasp his time.<br />
<br />
Example 19:怕只怕三杯下肚，豪情大发，嘟嘟嘟，来个瓶底朝天......(Zhang 2007: 290)<br />
The trouble is after three cups of alcohol he will get wild and unrestrained and end in gulping down a whole bottle. (Zhang 2007: 289)<br />
<br />
Mr. Zhang combined the four parts in the original text into one English sentence, showing the logical relationship between these parts. In the original text, “来个瓶底朝天” is the result of “三杯下肚，豪情大发”; the semantic relationship between the two parts has been shown through the addition of the verb phrase “end in” in the English translation. Actually, Mr. Zhang deleted the translation of “嘟嘟嘟”, which seems not to be faithful to the original text. However, it is unnecessary to translate this expression since it means nothing here.<br />
<br />
Words, phrases and clauses are often connected through various cohesive devices in English, which shows that English emphasizes overt cohesion. On the contrary, much less or even no cohesive devices are used in Chinese, which shows the tendency toward implicit cohesion in Chinese. In Chinese-English translation, it is necessary to add relational words, conjunctions, prepositions and so on, or change the form of words in the translation to express the grammatical and logical relationship in the original text.<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
This paper first makes a brief introduction of essay, and then provides the definition of Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”. Then, it compares the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc., and makes an analysis of the original and translated texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts to see whether the translation is faithful, comprehensive and elegant. Finally, the paper provides some strategies for Chinese-English Translation. However, the paper only compares English and Chinese from limited aspects and it only covers several texts. There remains some problems to be solved. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Leo Tak-hung Chan. (2004). Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory. John Benjamin Publishing Company. <br />
Lian Shuneng连淑能. (2010). 英汉对比研究 [Contrastive Studies of English and Chinese]. Beijing: 高等教育出版社.<br />
Liu Miqing刘宓庆. (1992). 汉英对比与翻译 Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press江西教育出版社.<br />
Pan Wenguo 潘文国. (1997/2002) 汉英语对比纲要 [An Outline of Chinese-English Contrastive Study]，Beijing: Beijing Language and Culture University Press北京语言文化大学出版社.<br />
Shao Zhihong 邵志洪. (2013). 新编英汉研究对比 [Contrastive Studies Between English and Chinese]. Shanghai: East China University of Science and TechnologyPress 华东理工大学出版社.<br />
Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2007) 英译中国现代散文选（一） [Selected Modern Chinese Essays 1]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou</div>Hu Huifanghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7&diff=114701History of Translation Studies 72020-12-18T12:48:32Z<p>Hu Huifang: /* A Review and Reflection of Holmes and Toury’s Descriptive Translation Studies */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第七部分(Part 7)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
='''Translation Studies'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Review and Reflection of Holmes and Toury’s Descriptive Translation Studies ==<br />
<center> 曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu 202020080590</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Descriptive translation studies transcends the traditional view of translation and enables people to have a more comprehensive and objective understanding of translation, so that translation theory can serve translation practice more effectively. Description is a theoretical supplement to the norm, and the unity of opposites constitutes the overall framework of translation theory. Scholars represented by James Holmes introduced the concept of "independent discipline" into the field of translation studies, and the birth and development of the school of translation studies promoted the establishment of the discipline of translation studies and the development of translation theory studies. This paper mainly introduces the representatives of the school of translation culture and the main points of their theoretical views in order to understand and explore the development and trend of western translation theories.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Descriptive Translation Studies; Holmes; Toury<br />
===题目===<br />
霍尔姆斯和图里的描述性翻译研究的回顾与反思<br />
===摘要===<br />
描述性翻译研究超越了传统的翻译观，使人们对翻译有了更全面和客观的理解，从而翻译理论可以更有效地为翻译实践服务。 描述是对规范的理论补充，对立统一构成了翻译理论的整体框架。 以詹姆斯•霍尔姆斯（James Holmes）为代表的学者将“独立学科”的概念引入了翻译研究领域，翻译学派的诞生和发展促进了翻译学学科的建立和翻译理论学的发展。 本文主要介绍翻译文化流派的代表及其理论观点的要点，以理解和探索西方翻译理论的发展和趋势。<br />
===关键词===<br />
描述性翻译研究；霍尔姆斯；图里<br />
===1. Introduction ===<br />
DTS is also known as the polysystem approach, the manipulation school, the Leuven axis of Tel Aviv, the descriptive, empirical or systematic school, or the low country group, which corresponds to the descriptive, empirical, interdisciplinary, goal-oriented Translation research methods, with special attention to its role in cultural history. This method was first developed in the early 1970s, gained momentum in the 1980s, and flourished in the 1990s, still inspiring some researchers to seek "in-depth research as a translation of cultural and historical phenomena," Explore its context and constraints, and look for reasons that explain why there is something" (Hermans 1999: 5). <br />
<br />
DTS is also known as multi-system method, manipulation school, Tel Aviv Leuven axis school, descriptive school, empirical school or systematic school, or low-country group. It corresponds to descriptive, empirical, interdisciplinary and goal-oriented translation research methods, paying special attention to its role in cultural history. This method was first developed in the early 1970s, and it flourished in the 1980s and 1990s. Some researchers who are still inspiring seek to "deeply study the cultural and historical phenomena of translation," explore its context and constraints, and find reasons to explain why it exists "(He Mansi 1999:5).--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although usually equivalent to the study of literary translation, especially in its early stages, translation studies have been extended to several directions, including technical translation, audiovisual translation, or interpretation.DTS is said to have emerged in the 1980s due to the contribution of a group of scholars of Manipulation School.<br />
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Although translation studies are usually synonymous with literary translation studies, especially in its early stages, translation studies have expanded into several directions, including technical translation, audio-visual translation, or interpretation. DTS is said to have emerged in the 1980s as a result of the contributions of a group of manipulative scholars.--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The idea of describing translation studies originated in the 1950s. John McFarlane(1953) and James Holmes(1972) proposed a translation research map that shocked the translation research community in his thesis of "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies", and established the role of "descriptive" research in translation research. Central position. After Gideon Toury published the book "Descriptive Translation Studies and Others", which systematically outlines the methodology and research focus and framework of translation research, descriptive translation research has gradually begun to regulate the position of translation research for a long time. The "scramble for power" and "description" of sex studies have become a new trend in translation studies.<br />
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The idea of describing translation studies originated in the 1950s. John McFarney (1953) and James Holmes (1972), in their paper The Names and Realities of Translation Studies, presented a map of translation studies that shocked the translation research community and established the place of "descriptive" research in translation studies. Center position. It has been a long time since Gideon Tully published Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond, which gives a systematic overview of the methodology, focus and framework of translation studies. "Power struggle" and "description" in gender studies have become a new trend in translation studies.--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2. Descriptive translation definition===<br />
According to existing definitions, descriptive translation is “the use of descriptions to translate terms or phrases in the source, rather than direct translation” (Darwish 2010, p.142). However, there are other ways to look at descriptive translation; for example, some sources define the term from the perspective of social function (Darwish, 2010). As Bao Bao explained, descriptive translation can be considered as a tool "used to faithfully present the values, hegemonic views or ideological positions of the target text participants" (Baby, 2009, p. 201).<br />
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According to the existing definition, descriptive translation is "the use of a description to translate a term or phrase from a source, rather than a direct translation" (Darwish 2010, p. 142). However, there are other ways of looking at descriptive translation; For example, some sources define the term in terms of social function (Darwish, 2010). As Bao explains, descriptive translation can be considered a tool "used to faithfully present the values, hegemonic views or ideological positions of the participants in the target text" (Baby, 2009, p. 201).--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, it can be assumed that Descriptive Translation can be seen from both the linguistic and the sociological aspects (Bazzi 2009). It is remarkable that in the course of the search for the definition of Descriptive Translation, some scholars even doubted that the given study can actually be related to the discipline of translation in general (Bazzi 2009). For example, Gutt often criticized the idea of relating the Descriptive Translation to Translation Studies, arguing that the given branch of translation should, in fact, be named as interpretive (Bazzi 2009, p. 199).<br />
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Therefore, it can be assumed that descriptive translation can be viewed from both linguistic and sociological perspectives (Bao Bao, 2009). It is worth noting that, in the search for a definition of descriptive translation, some scholars even suspect that given research can actually be linked to the general discipline of translation (Bao Bao, 2009). For example, Guth has often criticized the idea of associating descriptive translation with translation studies, arguing that a given branch of translation should actually be named interpretive (Bazzi 2009, p. 199).--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Pym (2010) broadly defines the aim of Descriptive Translation Studies (henceforth DTS): ‘to describe what translations actually are, rather than simply prescribing how they should be’. Less prescriptive than its predecessors, DTS sought to establish probable expectations of translation behaviour by handling the practice as 'an empirical discipline with a hierarchical organisation and a structured research program’ (Cheung 2013). The concept was propounded by Gideon Toury from the 1970s onwards (Naudé 2012), and it was characteristic of the mood of that time, where ideas that challenged established conventions of translation came to prominence. <br />
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Pym(2010) broadly defined the goal of descriptive translation studies (DTS): "describe the real translation, rather than simply specify what translation should be". Compared with its predecessor, DTS is not so normative, but tries to establish the possible expectation of translation behavior by taking translation practice as an empirical discipline with hierarchical organization and structured research plan (Cheung 2013). This concept was put forward by Gideon Toury from 1970s (Naudé2012), which was the characteristic of the mood in that era, where the thought of challenging the established translation practice became increasingly prominent.--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There was a sense that previous theories lacked a certain sensitivity to, and awareness of, the socio-cultural conditions under which the process of translation occurs (Bassnett McGuire 1991; Bassett 2012) and that greater significance should be attached to these issues.<br />
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There is a feeling that the previous theories lack some sensitivity and understanding of the social and cultural conditions in the process of translation (Bassnett McGuire 1991；; Bassett 2012), these problems should have greater significance.--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Descriptive translation studies are mainly proposed for traditional translation studies that emphasize the equivalence relationship between the original text and the target text, while ignoring the relationship between the target text and the target language reader and the target language culture (He Yuanjian, Wei Zhiqiang, 1998: 17-28 ) The theoretical research of descriptive translation studies is to establish a reference system of principles for explaining and predicting the translation process and the structure and function of the translated text (quoted from Zhang Xiaobo 2001).<br />
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Descriptive translation studies are mainly aimed at traditional translation studies, which emphasize the equivalence between the original text and the target text, while ignoring the relationship between the target text, target language readers and target language culture (He Yuanjian, Wei Zhiqiang, 1998): 17-28). The theoretical study of descriptive translation studies is to establish a principle reference system to explain and predict the translation process and the structure and function of the translated text (quoted from Zhang Xiaobo 2001).--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The descriptive translation studies framework proposed by Holmes provided the correct development direction for translation studies, made translation studies pay more attention to descriptiveness, and laid the ideological foundation for the later descriptive translation school.<br />
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The framework of descriptive translation studies proposed by Holmes provides a correct development direction for translation studies, which makes translation studies pay more attention to description and lays an ideological foundation for the later descriptive translation school.--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.1 The Prospects of Translation Theory===<br />
<The Future of Transla- tion Theory: A Handful of Theses> is not an ordinary paper. Holmes lists the urgent problems in future translation research, such as: creating a synthesis One of the main obstacles to sexual translation theory is the lack of effective communication between scholars in different fields, especially linguistics and literary schools; some researchers are accustomed to regard personal or national or a certain stage of norms as the general rules of translation; 5. Linguistic translation theory seems to have entered a dead end since the decade. <br />
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<The Future of Transla- tion Theory: A Handful of Theses> is not an ordinary paper. Holmes lists the urgent problems in future translation research, for example: creating a synthesis One of the main obstacles to sexual translation theory is the lack of effective communication between scholars in different fields, especially linguistics and literary schools; some researchers are accustomed to regard personal or national or a certain stage of norms as the general rules of translation; 5. Linguistic translation theory seems to have entered a dead end since the decade. --[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Researchers are stuck at the word, phrase or sentence level without considering the context at all. To establish a comprehensive translation theory, it is necessary to break through the linguistic research method with sentences as the upper limit. Holmes believes that to create a truly scientific and comprehensive translation theory requires the coordination of textual research, linguistics (especially psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics), literary research, psychology, and sociology. It is necessary to eliminate barriers between countries and languages and promote international academic exchanges. As a translator, Holmes also emphasizes the importance of translators with practical experience participating in the creation of translation theories.<br />
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Researchers are trapped at the level of words, phrases or sentences, regardless of context. To establish a comprehensive translation theory, it is necessary to break through the language research method with sentences as the upper limit. Holmes holds that to create a truly scientific and comprehensive translation theory, it needs the coordination of text research, linguistics (especially psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics), literature research, psychology and sociology. It is necessary to remove the barriers between countries and languages and promote international academic exchanges. As a translator, Holmes also emphasized the importance of translators with practical experience participating in the creation of translation theory.--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.2 Benefits of descriptive translation for translation studies discipline===<br />
An obvious advantage of describing the contribution of translation to the development of translation research is that describing translation almost obliterates the concept of norms (Medros 1985, p.142). Although the given feature of descriptive translation can also be seen as a major shortcoming, which will be demonstrated later, it is also a huge advancement in the development of translation studies as a discipline (De La Bascia, 2008, p. 245 ). <br />
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An obvious advantage of describing translation's contribution to the development of translation studies is that describing translation almost eliminates the concept of norms (Medros 1985, p. 142). Although the established characteristics of descriptive translation can also be regarded as a major defect, which will be proved later, it is also a great progress in the development of translatology as a discipline (De La Bascia, 2008, p.245).--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As Kruger explained, descriptive translation provides a prerequisite for shaping the "decision-making process in translation and operational norms in translation" (Kruger 2012, p. 103). Distorting existing translation norms means that translation studies are developing, and the phenomenon of descriptive translation has promoted the progress of the discipline (Koster 2011, p. 21). The fact that descriptive translation is a tool to shape specific translation behavior should also be considered (Flynn and Gambier, 2011, p. 88). <br />
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As Kruger explained, descriptive translation provides a prerequisite for shaping the "translation decision-making process and translation operational norms" (Kruger, 2012, p. 103). The distortion of existing translation norms means that translation studies are developing, and descriptive translation promotes the development of this discipline (Koster 2011, p. 21). The fact that descriptive translation is a tool for shaping specific translation behaviors should also be considered (Flynn and Gambier, 2011, p. 88).--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In fact, it is wrong to assume that descriptive translation technology is only used for the purpose of conveying specific information to the recipient; as Ravisa explained, descriptive translation research is also a means for trainees to memorize specific translation patterns in translation. To develop the required skills: However, at the same time, translation teachers are independently borrowing insights from corpus-based descriptive translation studies, and in the long run, it seems that they aim to formulate cohesive rules, assuming that if translation trainees insist on descriptiveness What should be done in the translation behavior model revealed by scholars. <br />
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In fact, it is wrong to think that descriptive translation technology is only used to convey specific information to recipients. As Ravisa explained, descriptive translation studies are also a means for trainees to memorize specific translation patterns in translation. Training the required skills: However, at the same time, translation teachers are learning from corpus-based descriptive translation studies independently. In the long run, they seem to aim at formulating cohesion rules, assuming that translation students insist on what should be done in the translation behavior model revealed by scholars.--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The given method reflects the fact that descriptive translation allows the study of translation from an empirical perspective. In other words, descriptive translation practice allows translation research to be regarded as a social activity, rather than a process of presenting certain information by using specific means of expression. Therefore, descriptive translation as a discipline can be regarded as a social activity that has a significant impact on the community, and therefore should be encouraged as an additional tool to improve communication among community members (Esfeld 2001, p. 99). At this point, the linguistic meaning of translation is transferred to the background, and its social importance is reflected (Weissbrodt 2008, p. 50).<br />
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The given method reflects the fact that descriptive translation allows an empirical study of translation. In other words, descriptive translation practice makes translation studies a social activity, rather than a process of presenting certain information by using specific expressions. Therefore, descriptive translation, as a discipline, can be regarded as a social activity that has great influence on the community, so it should be encouraged as an additional tool to improve communication among community members (Esfeld 2001, p. 99). At this point, the linguistic meaning of translation is transferred to the background and reflects its social importance (Weissbrodt 2008, p. 50).--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.3 Limitations of descriptive translation for translation studies discipline===<br />
Needless to say, the descriptive nature of the above translation practice tools can be described as completely unprescriptive elements (Milan & Patna, 2013). There is actually no problem-solving process in the practice of descriptive translation; instead, the situational translation method is used (Kaplan 2010, p. 478). One might say that the given method of handling the translation process allows to avoid so-called “prescriptive intervention” or purism in language (Toury 2013, p. 87). <br />
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Needless to say, the descriptive nature of the above translation practice tools can be described as completely non-descriptive elements (Milan＆Patna, 2013). In the practice of descriptive translation, there is actually no problem solving process. Instead, it uses the context transformation method (Kaplan 2010, p. 478). Some people may say that a given method to deal with the translation process can avoid the so-called "prescriptive intervention" or language purism (Toury 2013, p. 87).--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Although descriptive translation does help to eliminate examples of purism, it still lacks norms completely, which has caused confusion about the definition of descriptive translation methods (Tu Li, 2013, p. 88). Another obvious issue of perspective and scope is that supporters of descriptive translation, which is the key to translation studies, must generally acknowledge the boundaries of descriptive translation; a series of studies have pointed out the vagueness of the subject and the impossibility of descriptive translation. <br />
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Although descriptive translation does help to eliminate examples of purism, it still lacks norms completely, which leads to confusion about the definition of descriptive translation methods (Tu Li, 2013, p. 88). Another obvious problem of perspective and scope is that the supporters of descriptive translation (which is the key to translation studies) usually have to recognize the boundaries of descriptive translation. A series of studies have pointed out the fuzziness of topics and the possibility of descriptive translation.--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Despite the fact that it seems to allow more choices in translating a particular idea into the target language, once it tries to define its position in the field of translation studies, it can also lead to a series of confusion (Toury 2013, No. 49 page). In other words, descriptive translation is characterized by the lack of specific norms and rules, which is typical for other types of translation (Tu Li, 2013, p. 50). Descriptive translation does not allow the creation of tangible norms. This is a compromise between the rules and characteristics of a language and an absolute necessary condition for any type of translation research. <br />
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Although there seem to be more choices when translating a specific idea into the target language, once it tries to determine its position in the field of translation studies, it may also lead to a series of confusion (Toury 2013, No.49). In other words, descriptive translation is characterized by the lack of specific norms and rules, which is unique to other types of translation (Tu Li, 2013, p. 50). Descriptive translation does not allow the creation of tangible specifications. This is a compromise between the rules and features of language and the absolute necessity of any translation study.--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Of course, one might say that “the boundaries between various types of constraints are therefore scattered” (Turi, 2013, p. 54). Therefore, in translation studies, the concept of norms is rather vague. The lack of obvious norms in the field of descriptive translation, which in turn limits the effectiveness of descriptive translation as a translation tool (Tu Li, 2013). Before further discussion, it is necessary to explain that the concepts of "problems" and corresponding "solutions" in the field of translation research are quite loose (Tu Li, 2013). <br />
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Of course, some people may say, "Therefore, the boundaries between various constraints are scattered" (Turi, 2013, p. 54). Therefore, in translation studies, the concept of norms is rather vague. There is no obvious norm in the field of descriptive translation, which in turn limits the effectiveness of descriptive translation as a translation tool (Tu Li, 2013). Before further discussion, it is necessary to explain that the concepts of "problems" and corresponding "solutions" in translation studies are still loose (Tu Li, 2013).--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As Tuli explained, the terminology status of the word "problem" is still very unclear when discussing problem-solving models in the field of translation research, especially descriptive translation (Tuli, 2013). Seeing how descriptive translation reduces the vague concept of translation norms into situational translation practice, the problem-solving model becomes more unclear (Christa Fuli, 2003, p. 13). Descriptive translation actually erased the concept of problem-solving and replaced it with the concept of "conditions of existence" (Tu Li, 2013, p. 37). <br />
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As Tuli explained, when discussing the problem-solving model in the field of translation studies (especially descriptive translation), the term status of "problem" is still very unclear (Tuli, 2013). Seeing how descriptive translation transforms the vague concept of translation norms into situational translation practice, the problem-solving model becomes more unclear (Christa Fuli, 2003, p. 13). Descriptive translation actually erased the concept of problem solving and replaced it with the concept of "existence condition" (Tu Li, 2013, p. 37).--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Although this phenomenon can be regarded as another stage of the development of translation research, it still creates a series of obstacles in the definition of norms and standards and the methods to solve specific translation problems (Darwish, 2008, p. 35). Finally, the fact that descriptive translation should be put forward creates a premise for translators to link the text with their own cognitive mechanism. Although it is wrong to deny the fact that the translator’s background knowledge is actively used in the translation process, the details of the translator’s vision must not hinder the provision of correct translation. <br />
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Although this phenomenon can be regarded as another stage in the development of translation studies, it still causes a series of obstacles in the definition of norms and standards and the methods to solve specific translation problems (Darwish, 2008, p. 35). Finally, it should be pointed out that the fact of descriptive translation creates a premise for translators to link texts with their own cognitive mechanism. Although it is wrong to deny that the translator's background knowledge is actively utilized in the translation process, the details of the translator's vision must not hinder the provision of correct translation.--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, by applying the principle of --[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)descriptive translation, it is impossible to have a "correct" translation variant; therefore, the translator may face a very tempting idea, which is to project his own vision into the translation process, thereby making the recipient of the information Observe the information through the translator's visual lens. A series of authoritative sources mentioned the need for translators to avoid filtering information in the source language, emphasized the limitations of cognitive mechanisms, and especially emphasized the limitations of culture (Darwish, 2010, p. 35).<br />
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However, it is impossible to have a "correct" translation variant by applying the principle of descriptive translation. Therefore, the translator may face a very attractive idea, that is, to project his own vision into the translation process, so that the receiver of information can observe the information through the translator's visual lens. A series of authoritative sources mentioned that translators need to avoid filtering information in the source language, emphasizing the limitations of cognitive mechanisms, especially cultural limitations (Darwish, 2010, p. 35).--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3. James Holmes===<br />
James Holmes (1924-1986) is an American Dutch scholar and an outstanding translator of English-Dutch poetry. He has long worked at the University of Amsterdam. His main essays are collected in the collection "Literary Translation and Translation Studies Essays" (1988) compiled for him after his death. His work "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" (1972) is regarded as the declaration of the establishment of the Translation Studies School and the foundational work of the Translation Studies School. <br />
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James Holmes (1924-1986) is an American Dutch scholar and an outstanding translator of English and Dutch poetry. He worked at Amsterdam University for a long time. His major papers are included in "Essays on Literary Translation and Translation Studies" (1988) prepared for him after his death. His book The Name and Reality of Translation Studies (1972) is regarded as the declaration of the establishment of the Institute of Translation Studies and its basic work.--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It mainly put forward creative opinions on the name, nature, research field, problem setting and subject scope of translation studies as an independent subject. He also proposed the scope and structure of the new field of translation research, and believed that the research method is a practice based on experience, and the object of research is the translation that appears in a particular culture.He finally thought that "Translation studies" was the most suitable name in the terminology.Theoretical assumptions can start research in the other two fields.<br />
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It mainly puts forward innovative opinions on the name, nature, research field, problem setting and discipline scope of translation studies as an independent discipline. He also puts forward the scope and structure of the new field of translation studies, and holds that the research method is an experience-based practice, and the research object is the translation in a specific culture. ""is the most appropriate name in this term. Theoretical hypothesis can start the research in other two fields.--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.1 Holmes’s point of Descritive Translation Studies===<br />
Holmes emphasizes the description of the translation process. A significant change in his descriptive translation theory is the change in the nature of the works. Holmes believes that the target of translation is not a specific thing in the objective world referred to by the original text, but the language composition of the original text. Translation language is different from the language in literary works. <br />
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Holmes emphasizes the description of translation process. A major change in his descriptive translation theory is the change in the nature of his works. According to Holmes, the goal of translation is not the specific things in the objective world, but the language composition of the original. Translation language is different from that in literary works.--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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He borrowed from Roland Barthes's literary classification: 1) Poems, novels, and dramas reflect specific things and phenomena; 2)The literature category describes not the objective world, but the language composition proposed by others, which is a re-evaluation of evaluation (Barthes, 1964: 126) He also borrowed the term "meta-language" and expanded its meaning from referring exclusively to literary criticism to a variety of meta-literary forms, and poetry translation is only one of them. Holmes pointed out that poetry translation has intensified comments and metalanguage in other forms. <br />
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He borrowed Roland Barthes's literary classification: 1) Poetry, novels and plays reflect specific things and phenomena; 2) Literature category describes not the objective world, but the language composition put forward by others, which is a re-evaluation of evaluation (Barthes, 1964: 126). He also borrowed the word "metalanguage" and expanded its meaning from reference. Poetry translation is only one of the various metaliterature forms dedicated to literary criticism. Holmes pointed out that poetry translation intensifies criticism and metalanguage in other forms.--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the one hand, it is the evaluation and interpretation of a meta-literary to another work, and on the other hand, it forms a new meta-literary collection with its own literary nature. Therefore, this special literary form not only reflects the original text but is also a self-made creation, which has the dual nature of meta-literature and literature. Some-based translation studies focus no longer on issues such as equivalence and referent, but analyze the relationship between the translation as a second work and the original work in the literary standard symbol system of the original text, and only focus on the translation as a new work and the translation. <br />
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On the one hand, it is an evaluation and interpretation of metaliterature of another work; on the other hand, it forms a new metaliterature collection with its own literary nature. Therefore, this special literary form not only reflects the original text, but also is a self-made work with dual characteristics of metaliterature and literature. Translation-based studies no longer pay attention to equivalence and reference, but analyze the relationship between the translation of the second work and the original work in the literary standard symbol system of the original text, and only focus on the translation as translation. New works and translation.--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The relationship between cultural standard symbol systems. Compared with traditional translation theory, Holmes's method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he strives to seek a better understanding of a certain type of symbol translation by describing various translation methods and their historical use. He divided translation into four categories: <br />
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1) Similar forms, although the exact same form is impossible, similar forms are possible; <br />
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2) Similar functions, find similar functions in the translation language standards, and create open forms that can produce similar effects; <br />
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3) The content is derived, and the original meaning and specific expression form are maintained in the target language; <br />
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4) The form is abnormal, and for some special reasons, only the same as the original text is kept as little as possible. <br />
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Relationship between symbol systems of cultural standards. Compared with the traditional translation theory, Holmes's translation process description method shows another change. In other words, he tries to find a better understanding of the translation of certain types of symbols by describing various translation methods and their historical uses. He divides translation into four categories:<br />
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1) Similar forms, although the exact same form is impossible, similar forms are possible; <br />
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2) Similar functions, find similar functions in the translation language standards, and create open forms that can produce similar effects; <br />
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3) The content is derived, and the original meaning and specific expression form are maintained in the target language; <br />
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4) The form is abnormal, and for some special reasons, only the same as the original text is kept as little as possible. --[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Holmes believes that the four types are equally important. Translation is a process in which the translator makes a decision. The translator can make a choice in translation according to the different nature of the four translation methods. Once the initial decision is made, the translation forms its own rules, which can provide the translator with some possible translation methods, while also excluding other translation methods, so the initial decision will determine the next choice. He also believes that translation has no distinction between right and wrong, only differences. <br />
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Holmes thinks these four types are equally important. Translation is a process in which translators make decisions. Translators can choose translation methods according to the different nature of the four translation methods. Once an initial decision is made, translation will form its own rules, which can provide translators with some possible translation methods while excluding other translation methods. Therefore, the initial decision will determine the next choice. He also believes that there is no difference between right and wrong in translation, only difference.--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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These differences derive from the translator’s poetic level on the one hand, and on the other hand, the translator’s initial choice and the relationship between the two languages. The same source text has as many translations as there are translators.<br />
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These differences are due to the translator's poetic level, the translator's initial choice and the relationship between the two languages. The amount of translation of the same source text is as much as that of translators.--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Gideon Toury===<br />
Gideon Toury is a professor at Tel Aviv University in Israel and a world-renowned translation theorist. He developed the polysystem theory proposed by Evan Zohar, a famous scholar of the Tel Aviv school. In the book "Descriptive Translation Studies and Others", Tury systematically explained the theoretical framework and methodological basis of Descriptive Translation Studies. Tury believes that the descriptive translation theory focuses on examining the degree of absorption of the target language text in the target language culture, and uses inductive and statistical methods to compare and analyze case texts, and summarize the empirical variables or empirical norms governing translation behavior, and then formulate interpretations. <br />
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Gideon Toury is a professor at Tel Aviv University in Israel and a world-famous translation theorist. He developed the theory of multiple systems put forward by Evan Zohar, a famous scholar in Tel Aviv School. Tury systematically explained the theoretical framework and methodological basis of descriptive translation studies in his book Descriptive Translation Studies and Others. Tury believes that descriptive translation theory focuses on the absorption of the target language in the target language culture, compares and analyzes case texts by inductive and statistical methods, summarizes empirical variables or empirical norms that control translation behavior, and then formulates explanations.--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The law of the internal relationship of these variables. (2001: 15-16) Gideon Toury is considered a pioneer of Descriptive Translation Studies, and the theories exposed in his 3 major books on the theme (Translational Norms and Literary Translation into Hebrew, In Search of a Theory of Translation and Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond) show his innovative perspective on translation studies.<br />
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The internal relation law of these variables. (2001: 15-16) Gideon Toury is regarded as a pioneer of descriptive translation studies, and his theories are covered in his three major books (translation norms and Hebrew literature translation, seeking translation theories and descriptive translation studies) and Beyond), showing his innovative views on translation studies.--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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He established a groundbreaking approach based on the analysis of tendencies in the translation process that doesn’t involve strict rules. Translation science has the role of describing and highlighting tendencies, in order to provide practical guidelines for translators. Gideon Toury has given a significant contribution to translation studies. He formulated groundbreaking theories and succeeded in providing practical guidelines to language professionals, without imposing rigid rules on the translation process. He elaborated the concepts of source-oriented and target-oriented, defined two different strategies to apply when translating a text into a new language. Having worked as a translator himself, he was fully aware of the difficulties experienced by translators and enriched translation studies with his perspective. <br />
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Based on the analysis of the trends in the translation process, he established a pioneering method, which does not involve strict rules. Translation science has the function of describing and highlighting trends, so as to provide practical guidance for translators. Gideon Toury has made great contributions to translation studies. He put forward a pioneering theory and successfully provided a practical guide for language professionals, without imposing strict rules in the process of translation. He expounded the concepts of source-oriented and target-oriented, and defined two different strategies to be applied when translating texts into new languages. As a translator himself, he is fully aware of the difficulties encountered in translation and enriches translation studies with his views.--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Tury’s descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. Its purpose is to analyze the general rules governing translation behavior by comparing the source and target texts. This is fundamentally different from the past process-based and application-oriented translation studies. Traditional translation is based on the abstract identity of the effect of "equal", while Turry's theory is based on the difference. "Each language system and textual tradition, whether in structure or usage guidelines, is different from others. <br />
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Tury's descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. Its purpose is to analyze the general rules governing translation behavior by comparing the source text with the target text. This is completely different from previous translation studies based on process and application. Traditional translation is based on the abstract identity of "equality", while Turell's theory is based on differences. "Every language system and text tradition, both in structure and usage guide, is different.--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Different types". If it is said that being fully accepted by the target culture is one pole, and being completely consistent with the original text is the other pole, then Tury believes that translation should always be between the two poles. No translation can be fully accepted by the target culture, because the translation always brings new information and unfamiliar forms to the system; no translation always brings new forms to the system; no translation is completely the same as the original Consistent, because cultural norms always shift the structure of the original text. <br />
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Different types ". If being completely accepted by the target culture is one pole, and being completely consistent with the original text is another pole, then Toury thinks that translation should always be between the two poles. Because translation always brings new information and strange forms to the system; Translation has not brought new forms to the system; No translation is exactly the same as the original consistency, because cultural norms always change the structure of the original text of the target language.--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It is never possible for any specific translation to take into account the two extremes and achieve two abstract ideal criteria. Tury believes that the translation itself does not have "inherent" identity. The translation is always affected by various social and literary factors, and thus has multiple identities. The translation is always affected by various social and literary factors. Influence, thus having multiple identities, depends on the factors affecting translation in a particular period. Turi successfully made translation theory break through the framework of "faithful original text" and the theoretical model of a purely unified relationship between the original text and the target text, making translation a relative concept. <br />
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It is impossible for any particular translation to consider these two extremes and achieve two abstract ideal standards. Tury believes that translation itself has no "inherent" status. Translation is always influenced by various social and literary factors, so it has multiple identities. Translation is always influenced by various social and literary factors. Therefore, the influence of multiple identities depends on the factors affecting translation in a specific period. Toury successfully breaks through the framework of "faithful source text" and the theoretical model of pure unified relationship between the source text and the target text, making translation a relative concept.--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Correspondingly, the role of translation theory has also changed. Instead of seeking a theoretical system for evaluating translations, it has instead focused on establishing a model that interprets and determines the process of translation. Tury's theory introduces cultural-historical factors and calls them "translation criteria". Translation criterion is the center of Tury's theory, which affects every stage of the translation process and plays a coordinating role between two equal potentials. <br />
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Accordingly, the role of translation theory has also changed. It does not seek to evaluate the theoretical system of translation, but focuses on establishing a model to explain and determine the translation process. Tury's theory introduces cultural and historical factors and calls it "translation standard". Translation criterion is the center of Toury's theory, which affects every stage of the translation process and plays a coordinating role between two equipotentials.--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, it is not enough to study a single text. It is necessary to study the translations of different historical periods to discern general trends. Turui distinguishes the following three translation criteria: Elementary criteria: factors that determine the choice of translation and translation strategies in the entire multi-system Starting criterion: the translator’s personal preference, whether it is the original version or the retranslated text, or an attitude of choosing to be in the middle Operation criterion: Refers to the criterion that influences the translation decision in the actual translation process. Tury pointed out that "translation" is any expression in the target language that is manifested as translation or considered to be translation. <br />
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Therefore, it is not enough to study only a single text. It is necessary to study translation in different historical periods to identify the general trend. Turui distinguishes the following three translation criteria: basic criteria: factors that determine the choice of translation and translation strategies in the whole multi-system; starting criteria: translators' personal preference, whether it is the original version or the retranslated text, or attitude choice in the middle; operating criteria: standards that influence translation decisions in the actual translation process. Tury pointed out that "translation" is any expression in the target language that is expressed or regarded as translation.--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Describe the discovery process of Translation Studies (DTS). He believes that this process follows the following sequence: <br />
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1) Select those target language texts that the target language culture considers to be "translation", but do not involve their corresponding original texts, and only study their acceptance as target language texts in the "destination" system. <br />
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2) Describe these texts, study these texts and their counterparts in the source language system or original text through the translation phenomenon constituted by the constituent elements of these texts, and find solutions to translation problems. <br />
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3) Identify and describe the relationship between each pair of research objects, focusing on discovering the changes and transformations that occur. <br />
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4) Finally, by thinking about the function of translation equivalence-the concept of relations, we set out to apply these relations to the overall concept of translation.<br />
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It is the last two that constitute the ultimate goal after DTS's systematic research and interpretation. Tury believes that only after the essential concept of translation is determined, can it be possible to reconstruct the consideration and decision process involved in the translation process, as well as the constraints actually accepted by the translator. <br />
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Contributions and achievements of descriptive translation to translation studies: As a representative of descriptive translation studies, the theory and methodological framework of descriptive translation studies proposed by Turi has an immeasurable impact on translation studies. <br />
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Gentzler believes that Tury's theory has the following contributions to translation studies: First, abandon the "one-to-one" correspondence between the source target text in the normative translation study, and eliminate the possibility of the source target text being literary/language equivalence; Second, introduce the literary tendencies existing in the target language cultural system into the research on the production of translation works; Third, it breaks the concept that people have a fixed understanding of the source language information and translation expression; Fourth, place the source text and the target text in the symbolic network interwoven between the source and target cultures. (Gentzler, 2004: 131) <br />
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Gentzler holds that Tury's theory has made the following contributions to translation studies: First, it abandons the "one-to-one" correspondence between source and target texts and eliminates the possibility of equivalence between source and target texts and literature/language. ; Secondly, the literary tendency in the target language and culture system is introduced into the production research of translated works; Thirdly, it breaks the concept that people have a fixed understanding of source language information and translation expression. Fourthly, the source text and the target text are placed in a symbolic network interwoven between the source culture and the target culture. （Gentzler，2004：131）--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, descriptive translation studies, as the mainstay of current international translation studies, have contributed far more to translation studies than those listed above. Insufficiency of Toury's theory: Some scholars have pointed out the inadequacies of Toury's theory. Munday pointed out that the meaning of "norms" used by Turui is vague, and these norms have the tendency to act and the function of regulation, which is contrary to the original intention of descriptive analysis. <br />
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However, descriptive translation studies, as the main content of current international translation studies, have contributed much more to translation studies. Shortcomings of Toury Theory: Some scholars have pointed out the shortcomings of Toury Theory. Monday pointed out that the meaning of "norms" used by the Turui people is ambiguous, and these norms have effective trend and adjustment function, which is contrary to the original intention of descriptive analysis.--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Tury’s view ignores factors such as ideology and politics. In addition, the "rules" that Turui wants to summarize from the case analysis seem to be some habitual beliefs or even beliefs that do not need to be proven in translation behavior, and to what extent these abstract and quasi-scientific rules can be applied to translation practice. <br />
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Tury's point of view ignores ideological and political factors. In addition, the "rules" that Turui hopes to sum up from the case analysis seem to be some habitual beliefs, even beliefs that do not need to be proved in translation behavior. To what extent can these abstract and quasi-scientific rules be applied to translation practice?--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Not without controversy. (2002: 113-117) Venuti believes that Tury’s "scientific" descriptive translation studies model aims to extract "value free" norms and rules for translation behavior, and the field of translation studies must involve the social and cultural system Value orientation. In Venuti's view, although norms are initially only in the linguistic/literary sense, they also involve values and beliefs that serve specific social groups and are therefore ideologically binding.<br />
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Is not without controversy. (2002: 113-117) Venuti holds that Tury's "scientific" descriptive translation research model aims to extract the "worthless" norms and rules of translation behavior, while the field of translation research must involve the value orientation of social and cultural systems. In Venuti's view, although the guidelines are only in the linguistic/literary sense at first, they also contain values and beliefs that serve specific social groups, so they are ideologically binding.--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.1 Source-oriented and target-oriented===<br />
In his 1980 essay In Search of a Theory of Translation, Toury gives a remarkable contribution to translation studies identifying two translation strategies: ‘source-oriented’ and ‘target-oriented’. A source-oriented translation involves a formal approach aimed at reproducing forms and structures of the source language. According to Toury, this strategy is difficult to apply because of the differences between language structures. <br />
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Toury made outstanding contributions to translation studies in his 1980 paper Seeking Translation Theory, and determined two translation strategies: "source-oriented" and "target-oriented". Source-oriented translation involves formal methods aimed at copying the form and structure of the source language. According to Toury, this strategy is difficult to apply because of the differences between language structures.--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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While a target-oriented translation aims at adapting the text to the structures and cultural context of the target language. Hence, Toury formulated two principles that define two approaches to translation: acceptability and adequacy. An ‘acceptable’ translation has to comply with the rules and structures of the target language. The primary goal is to convey the meaning of the source text, increasing readability and adapting texts to the language structures of the receiving culture. <br />
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Goal-oriented translation aims to adapt the text to the structure and cultural background of the target language. Therefore, two principles have been formulated and two translation methods have been defined: acceptability and appropriateness. An "acceptable" translation must conform to the rules and structure of the target language. The main goal is to convey the meaning of the source text, improve readability and adapt the text to the language structure of the receiving culture.--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the other hand, an ‘adequate’ translation stays true to the source language and complies with the structures of the original text. This means that the result doesn’t conceal its nature of translation. A translation aiming at full adequacy is unacceptable due to the fact that it doesn't take into account the demands of the target reader. Choosing between the two approaches is not an easy task. Everything depends on the kind of translation required and its purpose. But, regardless of a target-oriented or source-oriented approach, the purpose of a translation is to convey the meaning of the original.<br />
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On the other hand, "appropriate" translation is consistent with the source language and conforms to the structure of the original text. This means that the result will not obscure the essence of its translation. In view of the fact that translation does not consider the requirements of the target readers, it is impossible to achieve full translation. It is not easy to choose between the two methods. Everything depends on the type of translation and its purpose. However, regardless of the target-oriented or source-oriented approach, the purpose of translation is to convey the meaning of the original text.--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.2 Translation and postulates===<br />
In Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond (1995), another masterpiece in the field of translation studies, Toury exposes a normative theory for translation critics. A theory that is not meant as a set of rigid rules for translators and critics but as a series of tendencies that could be observed in the translation process. According to Toury, critics should research those tendencies in order to describe the translation process, which means offering practical guidelines to translators. <br />
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In another masterpiece in the field of translation studies, Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond (1995), Toury reveals the normative theory for translation critics. This theory does not mean that there is a set of strict rules for translators and critics, but a series of tendencies that can be observed in the process of translation. According to Toury, critics should study these trends to describe the translation process, which means providing practical guidance for translators.--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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A normative approach with rigid rules wouldn’t provide translators with a single clue on how to translate texts. Toury acknowledges a set of necessary requirements or postulates that a text has to comply with so that it could be called ‘translation’: The source text postulate: there has to be a source text; The transfer postulate: the translated text has to be generated from a “transfer” process; The relationship postulate: there has to be a relationship or similarity between the original text and translated text.<br />
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Standardized methods with strict rules will not provide translators with any clues on how to translate texts. Toury admits a set of necessary requirements, or assumes that a certain text must be observed before it can be called "translation": the source text assumes that it must be the source text; Transmission assumption: the translated text must be generated through the "transmission" process; Relationship assumption: there must be a relationship or similarity between the original text and the translated text.--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.3 The value of Toury’s contribution===<br />
Toury has succeeded in giving practical advice to translators, identifying two possible strategies and approaches, providing professionals with a starting point to reflect upon when translating a text. Thinking of the purpose of translation and its potential readers can help with the choice of the best strategy. By the way, one should always keep in mind that the primary goal of a translated text is to convey the message of the original. <br />
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Toury has successfully provided practical suggestions to translators, identified two possible strategies and methods, and provided a starting point for professionals to reflect when translating texts. Considering the purpose of translation and its potential readers can help to choose the best strategy. By the way, it should always be remembered that the main purpose of translating texts is to convey the original information.--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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An example of acceptability as an adaptation to the target culture is represented by transcreation. The word transcreation is a blend of ‘translation’ and ‘creation’, suggesting the use of a creative approach in translation. In fact, it seeks to perform all the necessary adjustments to make a campaign work in all target markets while staying legal to the original creative intent of the campaign. <br />
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Translation represents acceptability as an example of adapting to the target culture. Translation is a mixture of "translation" and "creation". It is suggested to use creative methods in translation. In fact, it strives to make all necessary adjustments so that the advertising series can work normally in all target markets, while keeping the original creative intention of the advertising series legal.--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Transcreation is the creative adaptation of marketing sales and advertising copy in the target language. It involves changing both the words and meaning of the source text while keeping its attitude and the desired persuasive effect. Transcreation focuses on transferring brands and messages from one culture to another and represents a striking example of how changing the language and structure of the source text helps in delivering a message. <br />
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Transformation is a creative adaptation of marketing and advertising copy in the target language. It involves changing the words and meanings of the source text while maintaining its attitude and persuasiveness. Transcreation devotes itself to transferring brand and message from one culture to another, and represents an amazing example of how changing the language and structure of source text can help convey messages.--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Toury’s theories gave a new impulse to translation studies. New principles have been elaborated since then. For instance, Venuti distinguished between two strategies: domesticating and foreignizing. Nida elaborated the concepts of formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Toury’s perspective established an alternative approach to translation studies, starting from merely theoretical concepts and leading to a direct observation of the translation process to finally provide professionals with practical guidelines to follow.<br />
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Toury's theory has injected new impetus into translation studies. Since then, new principles have been formulated. For example, Venuti distinguishes two strategies: domestication and alienation. Nida elaborated the concepts of formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Toury's viewpoint establishes an alternative method of translation studies, which starts with theoretical concepts, directly observes the translation process, and finally provides a practical guide for professionals to follow.<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
Translation description promotes the study of translator's subjectivity. Any translation is a process of understanding, selection and re-creation. The translator will inevitably show his artistic creativity and individual characteristics in this process. Therefore, the exertion of the translator's subjectivity is an unavoidable problem in translation activities. However, the core of traditional translation theory is the issue of translation standards, and this attention to standards determines the normative characteri--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)stics of traditional translation theories. <br />
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Translation description promotes the study of translator's subjectivity. Any translation is a process of understanding, selection and re-creation. In this process, the translator will inevitably show his artistic creativity and personality. Therefore, the exertion of translator's subjectivity is an inevitable problem in translation activities. However, the core of traditional translation theory is the issue of translation standards, which determines the normative features of traditional translation theory.--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Norms are to use ideals to restrain practice, and to use principles and standards to guide practice. It focuses on issues such as "how the translation should be carried out" and "what principles should be followed in the translation", rather than "how the translator translates". This normative feature is fundamentally excluded from the study of translator's subjectivity. Translation studies have been unable to get rid of the defects of one-sidedness and subjectivity for a long time, and thus cannot see the full picture of translation activities, and cannot conduct in-depth and systematic research on translation studies. <br />
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Guidelines are to use ideals to constrain practice, and principles and standards to guide practice. It focuses on such issues as "how to translate" and "what principles should be followed in translation", rather than "how the translator translates". Translator's subjectivity study has fundamentally ruled out this normative feature. For a long time, translation studies have not been able to get rid of the defects of one-sidedness and subjectivity, so they can not see the whole picture of translation activities, nor can they conduct in-depth and systematic research on translation studies.--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In 1990, Susan Bassnett and André Lefebvre co-authored "Translation, History and Culture", which raised the issue of the "cultural turn" in translation studies, which made cultural factors affect translation And the relationship between the two has been extensively studied. From the perspective of the nature of research, the "cultural turn" is actually the descriptive turn of translation studies, and constitutes an important part of the latter. <br />
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In 1990, Susan Bassnett and AndréLefebvre jointly wrote Translation, History and Culture, which raised the issue of "cultural turn" in translation studies, which made cultural factors affect translation, and made extensive research on the relationship between them. From the perspective of research nature, "cultural turn" is actually a descriptive turn in translation studies and an important part of translation studies.--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the process of descriptive research on translation, people discovered the distance between translation practice and the various translation standards proposed by normative research, and realized that “absolute equivalence” in translation cannot be achieved because of the translator’s Work is always uninterrupted by the purpose of translation, aesthetic preferences and cultural factors. <br />
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In the process of descriptive study of translation, people have discovered the distance between translation practice and various translation standards put forward by normative research, and realized that translation work will never be interrupted for translation purposes, so it is impossible to achieve "absolute equivalence" in translation, aesthetic preference and cultural factors.--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, translation activities are affected and restricted by the subjectivity of the translator. To describe the translation and describe the translation, it is necessary to discuss this long-neglected Translation phenomenon. After decades of development, descriptive translation studies prove their own values and become a new starting point and a new pillar of translation research, leading to a deeper and wider level of translation research. <br />
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Therefore, translation activities are influenced and limited by the subjectivity of translators. To describe translation and describe translation, it is necessary to discuss this long-neglected translation phenomenon. After decades of development, descriptive translation studies have proved their value and become a new starting point and a new pillar of translation studies, resulting in a higher level of translation studies.--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It is noteworthy that the descriptive translation study is a deviation and rebel from some degree of normative translation research, but it is not in the state that one mountain cannot accommodate two tigers. We should recognize the great contribution of descriptive translation studies to the translational research objectively, while we should also recognize the great results of the translation research agency under the guidance of normative translation research. There is no contradiction between the descriptive translation study and the normative translation study, as Lin Kennan pointed out. We need to combine two so that translation studies can reveal the entire translation.<br />
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It is worth noting that descriptive translation studies run counter to normative translation studies to some extent, but they are not in a state where one mountain cannot accommodate two tigers. We should objectively recognize the great contribution of descriptive translation studies to translation studies and the great achievements of translation research institutions under the guidance of normative translation studies. As Lincoln pointed out, there is no contradiction between descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies. We need to combine them so that translation studies can reveal the whole translation.--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:48, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===References===<br />
Toury, Gideon.Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
Gentzler, Edwin.Comtemporary Translation Theories[M].Shang-hai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
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Xiyao Hong.A Map for the Research in the Present Life and After Life of Descriptive Translation Studies: A Review of Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[J].Studies in Literature and Language,2015.<br />
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Haiying Wang.Some Reflections on Translation Criticism and Descriptive Translation Studies[J].Studies in Literature and Language,2015.<br />
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Ai-ling Wang.A New Perspective of Translation Criticism: Descriptive Translation Studies[J].Cross-Cultural Communication,2007.<br />
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刘星.STUDY OF TOURY'S THREE NORMS OF TRANSLATION[J].读与写(教育教学刊),2008.<br />
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顿官刚.图里的翻译描写模式述评[J].外国语言与文化,2018.<br />
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张美芳.后霍姆斯时期翻译研究的发展:范畴与途径[J].中国翻译,2017.<br />
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张冬梅.翻译学的实证性学科定位再思——霍姆斯、图里翻译学架构图问题思考之一[J].北京第二外国语学院学报,2015.<br />
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马士奎.詹姆斯·霍尔姆斯和他的翻译理论[J].上海科技翻译,2004<br />
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==Foreignizing Tanslation and National Culture Development 邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia Student No. 202020080599==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
In the context of economic and social globalization, human civilization in the 20th century is developing towards diversification. In the process of multicultural exchanges, the impact of translation on local national culture has become a new topic of discussion. Foreignizing translation takes the source language as its destination and can retain the cultural characteristics of the source language to the greatest extent, which has gradually attracted the attention of contemporary translators. This chapter introduces the evolution of foreignizing translation in China and the West, then discusses the relationship between foreignizing translation and national culture development from three perspectives: The necessity of foreignizing translation, the restrictions on foreignizing translation, and the influence of foreignizing translation on national culture development.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
foreignizing translation; national culture<br />
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===题目===<br />
异化翻译与民族文化发展<br />
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===摘要===<br />
在经济与社会全球化发展的背景下，20世纪的人类文明正在向多元化发展。在多元文化交流的过程中，翻译作品对本土民族文化的影响成为新的讨论话题。异化翻译以源语言为归宿，能够最大限度地保留源语言文化特色，逐渐受到当代翻译家的重视。本章介绍了异化翻译在中西方的演变历程，从异化翻译的必要性，异化翻译的限制条件以及异化翻译对民族文化的影响三个角度出发，讨论了异化翻译与民族文化发展的关系。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
异化翻译：民族文化<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
The debate between domesticating translation and foreignizing translation has a long history. When contemporary translators choose translation strategies, domesticating translation is the dominant one, for it will be more easily accepted by the readers of the target language. In the translation process of "domestication", it allows the source culture to adapt to the target culture, and even replace the source culture with the target one. Such translations cannot truly achieve the purpose of cross-cultural communication and dissemination. As far as the quality of cultural production and transformation is concerned, this is likely to cause the development of the homogeneity of the cultures of various ethnic groups, and does not conform to the general trend of cultural globalization. （Li Zheng & Zhang Chunbo 2015)<br />
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A typical domesticating translation in C-E translation is David Hawkes's translation of the word "red" in The Story of the Stone. Considering the different understanding of “red” in Chinese and Western cultures, he translated "怡红公子" as "green boy". Although this translation is conducive to the understanding of western readers, for the connotations of “green” in the West is closest to the connotations of “red” in China. But it will make Western readers unknown to the real connotation of “Chinese red”. In the context of Chinese culture, "red" mostly symbolizes auspiciousness and joy. With such kind of domesticating translation, Western readers can never have the chance to know the real Chinese culture. (Liao Chunlan 2018, 137)<br />
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It can be seen that in the process of cultural input and output, as an important part of indirect cultural communication, translation actually plays an important role. Therefore, it is very important to choose a suitable translation strategy. Compared with domesticating translation, source-oriented foreignizing translation has better retention of the original text in terms of language and culture. Due to political, economic, international and domestic reasons, domesticating translation once had the upper hand in the translation circles. But with the changes of the times, the choice of translation strategies should also keep pace with the times. As a translation oriented to the source language and culture, foreignizing translation, which plays a role in the development of national culture, deserves our attention.<br />
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===2. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation===<br />
Any translation thought, no matter how modern and novel it is, has a gradual process of formation. Before discussing foreignizing translation and national culture, it is necessary to know the connotation of foreignizing translation. The concept of foreignizing translation is an extension and expansion of literal translation in traditional translation theories. Compared with literal translation, foreignizing translation pays more attention to cultural meanings behind the text. Foreignizing translation was first proposed and developed in the West. After absorbing the essence of Western foreignizing translation theories, Chinese translators have also added their own understanding and innovation toward foreignizing translation.<br />
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====2.1. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation in the West====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation in the West can be traced back to the word-for-word translation discussed by Cicero, Horace and St. Jerome in ancient Rome. It can be seen as the embryonic form of literal translation, which influenced the formation of foreignizing translation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 32) <br />
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In the early Middle Ages, Manlius Boethius, the most famous translator , had a rich view of literal translation as: “(1) Content and style are hostile to each other, either paying attention to style or preserving the content. It is impossible to have both. (2) Translation is centered on objective things, and translators should give up subjective judgments.” (Tan Zaixi 2004, 43) During the Renaissance period, the famous German poet and translator Sebastian Brant substituted the concept of literal translation into the poetry translation and proposed a verbatim translation strategy. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 73) <br />
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In modern times, the dispute between literal translation and free translation has evolved into a dispute between the Old School and the New School. Bachet de Meziriae puts forward three principles that translators must follow: “(1) Do not stuff the original text with private goods. (2) Do not add or delete the original text (3) Do not make changes that are detrimental to the original intent.” (Tan Zaixi 2004, 114-115) <br />
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Translation critic Daniel Huet believes that the best translation strategy is for the translator to follow the original author's meaning;" If possible, the translator should follow the words closely, and finally reproduces the original character as much as possible." (Tan Zaixi 2004, 116) Charles Batteux believes that the primary translation rule is to preserve the original word order as much as possible. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 124)<br />
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From a diachronic point of view, the concept of literal translation has become deeper and more specific, and its connotation has become more and more abundant. However, the concept of literal translation in this period still remained in the meaning, content and formal style of the language. The connotations in culture, poetics, society, ethics and ideology have gradually extended and developed, on which Western foreignizing translation is based.<br />
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Friedrich Schleiermacher put forward two different translation strategies in his famous speech entitled ''On Different Translation Strategies'': The translator should either keep the original author as still as possible and make the reader closer to the original author; or let the reader stay still as much as possible and make the original author approach the reader. He advocated that the first translation strategy, foreignizing translation , which allows readers to appreciate foreign customs and respecting language and cultural differences. (Robinson & Douglas 2006, 226-228) <br />
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Walter Benjamin's thought of foreignization is reflected in his view of language. He believes that all languages convey themselves in themselves, so the language itself is a translation. Benjamin emphasized the directness of language and intended to subvert the bourgeois instrumental language view. The translation goal of pure language makes Benjamin tend to use the foreignizing translation strategy, retaining the language form of the original text, that is, the different way of conveying meaning. In other words, Benjamin's foreignizing translation idea is not to translate the meaning of the original text, but to convey the language expression of the original text to the target language. It is to achieve the ultimate goal of pure language for human salvation. (Benjamin 1999, 272)<br />
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Antoine Berman puts forward the concept of "translation ethics" in the book ''The Test of Difference'' in response to the traditional translation thought centered on "the transmission of meaning" that has long dominated the Western translation world. “Translation ethics” advocated by Berman is to respect the original work and respect the language and cultural differences in the original work. In order to achieve his goal of translation ethics, he advocates foreignizing translation, implementing foreignizing translation through the translation strategy of translating text, which enriches language itself through the introduction of "others". (Berman 1984, 23)<br />
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Although the idea of foreignizing translation has existed for a long time, the terminology of "foreignizing translation" has not been promoted to the agenda of translation studies until 1995, when Lawrence Venuti published his famous book ''The Invisibility of the Translator-A History of Translation''. Venuti’s concept of foreignizing translation puts traditional literal translation on the local cultural and political agenda, and links translation with culture, political ethics, and ideology.（Zhang Jinhua, 2009) <br />
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The rich connotations of foreignizing translation can be summarized into the following points: foreignization in the selection of material, language, culture, readers and translation ethics. The core of Venuti's foreignizing translation is to practice differentiated ethical propositions to resist the mainstream values of the culture of the target language, thereby highlighting the language and cultural differences of foreign languages. In other words, Venuti's translation ethics emphasizes the absorption and acceptance of “the other” as “the other”. It respects the language and cultural differences of the other, and also challenges the mainstream values of the target language.(Venuti 1995, 20)<br />
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====2.2. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation in China====<br />
In the history of Chinese translation, there are two different translation strategies of Buddhist scripture, text-oriented (文派) and meaning-oriented (质派). In modern times, the ideas of foreignization and domestication are embodied in the dispute between literal translation and free translation. The concept of domestication and foreignization were not widely used by Chinese translators until Venuti proposed the translation strategy of “domesticating translation” and “foreignizing translation”. (Chen Fukang 1992)<br />
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Text-oriented translators of Buddhist scripture pay attention to the text of the translation and do not strictly follow the original meaning, such as the Buddhist scripture translator Zhi Qian in the Han Dynasty, whose translation is focused on the fluency of the translated text.(Chen Fukang 1992, 16) On the contrary, Dao An, a representative of the translators of the meaning-oriented translators, put forward the "Five Losses of Originals" (五失本) and "Three Difficulties of Transaltion"(三不易), emphasizing faithfulness to the original meaning and content, which is the embryonic form of modern Chinese literal translation. (Chen Fukang 1992, 20)<br />
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In modern times, with the deepening of translation understanding and the influence of Western translation theories, there has been a debate between literal translation and free translation. Scholars headed by Liang Shiqiu and Zhao Jingshen advocate free translation, while scholars headed by Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai advocate literal translation. Among them, the consciousness and concept of foreignization translation have appeared in Lu Xun's view of literal translation. When talking about translation, Lu Xun pointed out that translation needs to be exotic, which is the so-called “foreignness” (洋气). "It must be exotic, which is the so-called foreignness.”(Lu Xun 2005, 365)<br />
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The term “foreignizing translation”was first introduced to China by Guo Jianzhong, which arosed fierce debate about foreignization and domestication in China. In fact, as early as 1987, Liu Yingkai put forward that “domestication is the wrong way of translation”. In response to the phenomenon of excessive domestication in translation practice, Liu Yingkai proposed the "transplantation strategy" to maximize the original "foreignness". (Liu Yingkai 1986, 59) <br />
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With the introduction of Western foreignizing translation theory, literary translation practitioner and theorist Sun Zhili clearly proposed that literature translation should follow the principle of foreignizing translation: foreignization as the mainstay, and domestication as the supplement. He pointed out that domestication is mainly manifested at the linguistic level, while at the cultural level, foreignization should be stressed. (Sun Zhili 2001, 35)<br />
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===3.Discussion===<br />
Different translators have different definitions for foreignizing translation, but generally believe that foreignizing translation is a translation strategy that could preserves the characteristics of the source language, which will help readers get closer to the author. Although the background and purpose of different theorists’ perspectives on foreignizing translation are different, we should uphold the attitude of foreignizing translation as a translation strategy, and treat the role of foreignizing translation in the development of national culture objectively.<br />
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====3.1. The Necessity of Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The necessity of foreignizing translation comes from the diversity of national culture. If the world culture is homogenized, the concept of foreignizing translation will no longer exist. It can be said that foreignizing translation is proposed based on the development needs of national culture. Basically, there are two kinds of needs, one is the need of language development, the other is the need of cultural communication. <br />
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====3.1.1. The Need of Language Development====<br />
As the carrier of culture, language has never been self-sufficient and isolated from external factors. On the contrary, it is an open system with strong tolerance and attractiveness. With the deepening of exchanges among countries and ethnic groups, various languages are now enriched in varying degrees. The foreignizing translation played a very important role in this process.<br />
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The change of language is firstly reflected at the lexical level. Some vocabulary do not exist in the target language originally, but come from the foreignizing translation works. A large number of words with foreign cultural customs were gradually accepted by people in this way. And it can be widely disseminated and used in the target culture. For example: The word "honeymoon" (蜜月) had no corresponding expression in Chinese, and its meaning were also not understood by Chinese at that time for the Chinese couple did not have the custom of being together during the first month of the wedding. But Lin Shu tried foreignizing translation boldly. The two parts of the compound word are translated and arranged together according to their literal meanings (honey "蜜", moon "月") to form the word "蜜月". This undoubtedly injected fresh blood into Chinese at that time and developed modern Chinese. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
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There are also many other words, such as "咖啡 (coffee)", "丁克 (DINK)", and "可乐 (cola)", which have been understood and accepted by Chinese readers. Words such as "Jiaozi (饺子)", "tofu (豆腐)", "Kungfu (功夫)" originated from Chinese have also entered the English thesaurus and have become part of the English family. The inclusiveness of language is evident. Once these foreign words are accepted by the society, they are established by convention and become new members when they are added to the traditional language and culture. As a result, they will inevitably enrich the way of language expression, promote language proximity and communication, and enhance the vitality of language. In a sense, the process of language development is also a process of language foreignization. The foreignization of language is the general trend, and it cannot be blocked by manpower. The translator's use of foreignizing strategy actually follows the universal law of language development. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)<br />
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The necessity of foreignizing translation is not limited to the lexical level, but also to the syntactic level. When Liang Qichao investigated the translation of Buddhist scriptures, he found a dozen of foreignizing translation of syntaxes in them. Facts have proved that the foreignizing syntax of these Buddhist translations took root in Chinese with the widespread spread of Buddhism and became the origin of the vernacular Chinese. (Wang Kefei 1997, 29) <br />
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The grammar of modern Chinese is also enriched by Western languages, for example, the frequency and scope of passive voice use have expanded in Chinese. Passive form was used as early as in ancient Chinese, but it is rare, and it is generally used to express misfortune or unpleasant experience. Affected by the foreignizing translation of Western languages, the passive form in modern Chinese can also express pleasant things. It means that the syntax of the source language in foreignizing translation can be accepted as a part of the target language. (Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)<br />
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It can be seen that the use of foreignizing translation can enrich and expand the vocabulary and syntax of the target language, which is beneficial to the maturity and perfection of the target language. Around the 19th century, when German romantic writers and translators were translating foreign works, they paid great attention to absorbing some vocabulary and special expressions from foreign literary works to enrich the German language. In their view, the development of German is not yet perfect, and it is necessary to enrich and expand the German language through translation. Under the guidance of this kind of thinking, they showed great importance to the language form of the original text. (Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)<br />
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====3.1.2. The Need of Cultural Exchanges====<br />
Each country and nation has its own unique culture, which all have contributed to the development of world civilization. The prosperity and development of world culture depend more on the further development of these cultures in their own fields rather than extinction. The existence of translation problems actually defaults to the existence of cultural diversity. If there is only one language and one culture in the world, there will naturally be no translation problems. The characteristics of foreignizing translation actually tolerate the diversity of national culture to the maximum extent, which is also the need of the cultural exchanges <br />
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Lu Xun advocated foreignizing translation, believing that it can import new content and new expressions. He once said: "Why is (translation) not completely sinicized so that readers can save some effort? How can it be called a translation with inexplicability? My answer is: such a translation is not only importing new content, but also importing the new expression." (Lu Xun 1894, 225) Through translation, we can achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between cultures and the specific expressions of various ethnic languages.In the process of cultural input, foreignizing translation is essential if we want to understand the most authentic and essential culture of the source language. <br />
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Correct cultural cognition is a prerequisite for cultural exchange. For example, most Westerners believe in Christianity, and they believe that God is the only savior of the world. Westerners' ideology, value system, religious beliefs, ethics, and even behaviors are all derived from Christian culture. As the carrier of culture, language is also influenced by religious culture. For this kind of proverbs, some translators may adopt the domesticating translation strategy, translating "God helps those who help themselves" as "自助者天助", and translate "The mills of God grind slowly but surely" as "天网恢恢 疏而不漏". It is easier to understand the sentence meaning, but it is unfair for most Chinese readers to lose the chance of knowing the true religious culture of the West. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
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"Goethe pointed out that everything has a beginning, and readers will eventually become accustomed to it. In short, readers' approval should be viewed from the perspective of development, not confined to temporary choices. This is the only way to multiculturalism." (Liu Miqing 2005, 75) When the phrase "Praise is not pudding" is translated into "赞美不能当饭吃", it is certainly conducive to readers' understanding. But the cultural connotation of pudding for Westerners is completely concealed. The translation of "赞美不能当布丁吃" highlights the importance of pudding in the translation. <br />
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Another example is the proverb "unkissed, unkind". If it is translated as "不作揖, 不友善" by using domesticating translation strategy, although such a translation fully conforms to the thinking and habits of the Chinese people, it also causes a lack of the source culture. Therefore, by using the foreignizing translation strategy, "不亲吻, 不友善" can make readers know the difference between Western and Chinese etiquette, and will reduce obstacles in cultural exchanges. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)<br />
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====3.2. Restrictions on Foreignizing Translation====<br />
Foreignizing translation follows the trend of cultural globalization, but not all foreignizing translation works has a positive influence. This is mainly due to the translator's wrong use of foreignizing strategies and the wrong estimation of readers' expectations. Foreignizing translation is not mistranslation and it also requires the correctness of the translated text. At the same time, though foreignizing translation is not reader-oriented, it also needs to consider the readers' expectations in reality. <br />
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=====3.2.1. Accuracy of Translation=====<br />
Lu Xun’s pursuit of literal translation was ridiculed by Liang Shiqiu and others at that time. Liang Shiqiu said that "reading some of Lu Xun’s translations is just like looking at a map, you have to stretch your fingers to find clues in the syntax." He called his translation "hard translation" ". (Liang Shiqiu 1929) This view is actually biased. “Hard translation” of Lu Xun does not mean mistranslation. Lu Xun said: "Any translation must take both sides into consideration, one of course strives to be easy to understand, and the other preserves the beauty of the original." (Lu Xun 2005, 364-365) It can be seen that he insists on the translation strategy of faithfulness and smoothness under the premise of emphasizing faith first.<br />
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This also brings us some enlightenment for using foreignizing translation strategies. As translation strategies, foreignizing translation and domesticating translation are not alternatives. We emphasize the importance of foreignizing translation, but we do not completely deny the meaning of domestication. In the case of mainly foreignizing translation, domesticating translation is also necessary in some cases. <br />
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In the translation of some brand names, domesticating translation has become the main translation strategy due to the type of audience and the occasion. For example, “Revlon” translates to “露华浓” and “Lamer” translates to”海蓝之谜”. The former translation “露华浓” is born from an ancient Chinese poem “云想衣裳花想容, 春风拂槛露华浓”. For”海蓝之谜”, “海” symbolizes the mystery and “蓝” create a beautiful visual impression. These translations meet the aesthetic expectations of Chinese women and are conducive to the sale of goods. <br />
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To master the degree of foreignizing translation can make the translation play its due role, otherwise it will make the translated text obscure and difficult to understand and worthless to read. For example, the English proverb “New brooms sweep clean” is difficult for readers of the target language to directly associate with its social meaning. In fact, this proverb means that a person will often do a better job just after taking office. Using foreignizing translation there may influence the readability of the text. In this case, domesticating translation, “新官上任三把火”, is also a good choice.<br />
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=====3.2.2. Readers' Aesthetic Expectations=====<br />
For foreignizing translation to be accepted, in addition to the correctness of the translated text itself, some social and cultural conditions need to be considered. Schleiermacher proposed two social and cultural conditions for the acceptance and recognition of foreignizing translation: "First, foreign works are highly recognized and popular with the public in the target country; Second, the target language has certain tolerance and adaptability (for foreign language)." (Rainer Schulte ＆ John Biguenet 1992, 48)<br />
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For readers in the target country, the foreignizing translation of popular works in the source language country is more likely to have a positive influence. Take China as an example. The closure of the Qing Dynasty has made many foreigners have a stereotype of Chinese culture. Even in the early stage of reforming and opening up in China, some foreigners still think that China is a backward image with braids and are not interested in Chinese culture. <br />
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When Hawkes translated ''The Story of the Stone'', he mainly used domesticating translation. With the deepening of globalization and the rise of China, Chinese culture has begun to occupy an important position in the world. Foreigners are becoming more and more enthusiastic about Chinese culture, and they are more willing to read and understand Chinese literary works. Under such background, Yang Xianyi, a famous Chinese translator,’s foreignizing translation of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' has also been accepted by more and more foreigners. Therefore, when using foreignizing strategies, the influence of the source language country's culture in the target country should be considered.<br />
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The view of Schleiermacher is actually put forward from the reader's perspective. When choosing a work of the source language, the translator should consider the reader’s cognitive and aesthetic expectations. "Different readers have different aesthetic tastes, and their emphasis on each function of translation is different" (Gu Zhengkun 1994, 66). The choice of translation strategy for the translated version also depends on the translator's expectations of different readers. <br />
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However, unlike domesticating translation, foreignizing translation should not be too accommodating to readers. Instead, it should bring new things to readers and innovate on the basis of fully considering the expectations of the readers of the target language. Jiang Chunfang pointed out: "The purpose of translation is to translate all foreign things, plots, and unique sentence structures that we do not have. This is to innovate for our readers." (Jiang Chunfang 1989,3)<br />
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====3.3. The Influence of Foreignizing Translation on National Culture====<br />
The influence of foreignizing translation of national culture is reflected in two aspects: For the source culture, foreignizing translation is beneficial to cultivate the self-confidence of national culture, and enhance the influence of national culture in the world; For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps to avoid national cultural centralism and promotes the development of the local national culture . <br />
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=====3.3.1. The Influence on the Source Culture=====<br />
For the source culture, foreignizing translation is a manifestation of cultural self-confidence and helps to promote national culture to the world. For example, in the 1830s, in order to realize the cultural rejuvenation of his own nation, the Czech translator John Bowring, on the one hand, used the strategy of foreignizing translation to translate European documents and introduce Western culture to his own people. But on the other hand, he brought the little-known Czech culture to the world of Western civilization through foreignizing translation. His efforts have contributed to the cultural development and the revival of Czech culture (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 105). <br />
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When the East is learning from the West, there are also traces of the West being influenced by the East, especially Europe and the United States, but it is far inferior to the former. This is mainly due to the influence of "Western Centrism" or "Western Superiority". Today, the Chinese people know more about the West than the West people know about China, and many excellent Chinese works are unknown in the West. <br />
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In fact, China, with its long history and glorious heritage, has always had an influence that cannot be ignored in the world. There are ''The Travels of Marco Polo'' written by the 13th-century Italian traveler Marco Polo, ''the History of Chinese Culture'' written by Matteo Ricci, a Catholic Jesuit in the 17th century ", the "China fever" that prevailed in the UK in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the "Sinology fever" that once swept France, they all confirm that Chinese culture has profoundly influenced the development of civilization in Europe and the entire world. <br />
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Therefore, in order to make the broad and profound Chinese culture known by the world, when translating Chinese literary works into foreign languages, foreignizing translation should be adopted. For example, when Pound translated ancient Chinese poems, he followed the linguistic habit of the original language, "copying Chinese syntax" and "English is impossible to read" (Zhao Yiheng 1985, 256-257). <br />
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The cultural impact of these translations far exceeds the accuracy of its own translation. "These translated poems brought Chinese poems to the West. Before Pound, China had no literature commensurate with its name that was popular in English-speaking countries... Pound is the inventor of Chinese poetry, and his translation enables us to deeply understand the true spirit of Chinese poetry." (Xie Qian 2001, 74-79)<br />
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The influence of foreignizing translation on the source culture needs to be viewed dialectically. For some "weaker cultures", excessive foreignizing translation will also make translation obscure and difficult to be accepted by the target culture, which loses the basic function of translation. For cultural output, foreignizing translation should be used while ensuring the basic function of translation.<br />
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=====3.3.2. The Influence on the Target Culture=====<br />
Foreignizing translation can promote national culture development of the target country, and avoid the stalemate caused by cultural centralism. Any kind of culture needs to absorb the essence of a heterogeneous culture to enrich and perfect its own culture. For example, the Chinese took advantage of the Western culture at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. In the New Culture Movement, the Chinese completed their own "literary revolution" and created their own new literary system. <br />
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This is also a process in which Chinese intellectuals actively learn from the West. When people talk about the prosperous times in Chinese history, they are often referred to the Han and Tang dynasties. In fact, in the aspect of literary works, the Han Dynasty is much more inclusive. The cultural policy of the Han Dynasty was to reject a hundred schools of thought but respect Confucianism only. However, it was different in the Tang Dynasty. The Tang Dynasty was arguably the most open society in Chinese history. As almost free from the restriction of the orthodox thought of the Han Dynasty, it formed a broad mind capable of accommodating cultural forms of different ideological and ideological backgrounds. "Therefore, the cultural and artistic life of the society of the Tang Dynasty, in terms of content and genre all present unprecedented, brilliant colors." (Du Daoming 2000, 9). <br />
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In addition, there have been several large-scale cultural reference booms in European history. For example, when Greece learned from Egypt, Rome learned from Greece. When Arabia referred to the Roman Empire, medieval Europe imitated Arabia, and Europe imitated the Byzantine Empire in the Renaissance. Almost every craze prompted a culture to flourish and at the same time promoted the progress of European civilization. <br />
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Both Chinese and foreign history tell us a truth: a culture can only achieve great development if it has an open spirit and can recognize and respect differences. "Just as Liang Qichao said:'The richer the culture of a nation, the stronger its growth ability, this theorem is also.'" (Wang Kefei 1997, 27). In short, the greater the openness of the culture, the more vigorous the development, the stronger the absorption, and the more prosperous the foreignizing of translation; on the contrary, a culture that is self-proclaimed will stubbornly restrain foreignization.<br />
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But foreignizing translation will also have a negative impact on the target language country. When colonialism prevailed, the cultural output of imperialist countries mainly adopted foreignizing translation strategies, which invisibly formed cultural colonization of the "weaker culture". In Modern China, Chinese once had the idea of admiring and fawning on foreign culture, and lost confidence in the local culture. To make foreignizing translation a boost to the development of national culture, it is necessary to enhance cultural self-confidence and make progress on the basis of the local culture of the target country.<br />
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===4. Conclusion===<br />
Foreignizing translation makes readers closer to the author, retains the linguistic characteristics of the source language, and conforms to the diversity of national culture. The development of national languages, from the perspective of vocabulary and sentence patterns, requires foreignizing translation to inject fresh blood in order to achieve self-enrichment and development of the language. In addition to direct communication, indirect communication facilitated by translation is also indispensable for the communication between various ethnic cultures. Foreignizing translation helps the local culture to correctly recognize foreign culture and reduces cultural obstacles in direct communication.<br />
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In order to play its role, although the foreignizing translation strategy is necessary, it must follow some restrictions when using it. There are two main points. First, the foreignizing translation must be carried out on the basis of ensuring the correctness of the translation. Second, foreignizing translation should cater to readers’ aesthetic expectations. And readers’ cultural background should be considered when selecting materials and translating. However, foreignization translation does not yield to readers, but innovates for readers on the basis of fully considering the expectations of target language readers.<br />
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In the course of practice, foreignizing translation has a different influence on the source culture and the target culture. For the source culture, foreignizing translation helps to make the local culture known in foreign countries, which is a manifestation of cultural confidence. But for weaker cultures, foreignizing translation may also hinder the spread of culture. For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps the local culture absorb the essence of foreign culture and promote the innovation and development of the local culture. However, in the process of absorbing foreign cultures, foreignizing translation may also cause excessive worship of foreign cultures, leading to a lack of self-confidence in local cultures.<br />
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In Conclusion, compared with domesticating translation, foreignizing translation embraces the diversity of national culture to a greater extent. At the same time, it needs to follow certain restrictions when applying it. The influence of foreignizing translation on national culture should be viewed dialectically.<br />
<br />
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<br />
== Analysis of Said’s Post-Cononial Criticism and Orientalism 姜好 Jiang Hao Student No.202020080606== <br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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This paper is on the analysis of Edward Said’s post-colonial criticism and orientalism. In 1978, Edward Said's Orientalism was published, initiating the study of "post-colonialism" and making it another wave of criticism following structuralism.The post-colonial theory was formed in the 1980s and matured in the mid-1990s, affecting all fields of humanities and social sciences in the West. Its rich theoretical content and strong critical consciousness have made it a symbol of academic change and a relatively new critical method in Europe and America. In his classic work of post-colonial criticism, "Orientalism", American literary and cultural critic Edward Said challenged the traditional Western orientalism, revealing the power discourse implicit in orientalism and the mechanisms by which it operates. Said's post-colonial critique of Orientalism reveals to us the emergence, formation and authority of political and ideological factors, cultural forces and their resulting "inherent modes of domination" in Orientalism, and the generative and inherited nature of these factors, making people rethink and interpret comprehensively the authoritative forms of knowledge and social identity created by colonialism and Western domination.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Post-colonial;Orientalism;Criticism<br />
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===题目===<br />
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赛义德后殖民批评与东方主义探析<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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本文主要是关于赛义德后殖民批评与东方主义的探析。1978年爱德华萨义德的《东方主义》问世，开创了“后殖民”研究，使之成为继后结构主义又一波批评浪潮。后殖民理论形成于20世纪80年代，90年代中后期趋于成熟，影响波及西方人文社会科学研究各领域。其理论蕴合丰富，批判意识强烈，这使得它成为欧美学术变革标志和比较时新的批评方法。美国文学家与文化批评家爱德华·赛义德在其后殖民批评经典著作《东方学》中，对西方传统的“东方学”发起挑战，揭示隐含在东方学中的权力话语及其运作机制。赛义德后殖民批评视野下的东方学批判，为我们揭示了存在于“东方学”中的政治和意识形态因素的产生、形成和权威、文化力量及其由此形成的“固有支配模式”的生成性、传承性,使人们重新全面地思考和阐释由殖民主义和西方统治所创造并且权威化的知识形式与社会认同。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
后殖民；东方主义；批评<br />
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====Introduction====<br />
Edward Said, a Palestinian-American scholar. In 1978, he published his representative work of post-colonial criticism, Orientalism, in which “Orientalism” is not a study of the East itself, but refers to a kind of Orientalism existing in the minds of Westerners as an idea. By criticizing the Orientalists and deconstructing the cultural hegemony, it strives to transcend the basic stance of confrontation between the East and the West and emphasizes cultural pluralism, so as to form a new relationship of dialogue, mutual infiltration and symbiosis between the East and the West.<br />
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====Said's Post-colonial Criticism====<br />
As a theoretical critical discourse and academic trend, post-colonial criticism is based on the interdisciplinary study of history, literature, anthropology, philosophy, and other disciplines, dealing extensively with cultural imperialism, colonial discourse, and the West's cultural representation of the East, reflecting on the historical fact of European colonialism and its serious consequences. It focuses on issues of colonial discourse, Orientalism, cultural imperialism, national culture, cultural power identity, and the relationship between race, class, and gender. The core idea of Said's postcolonial criticism is to analyze the mechanisms of power discourse implicit in Orientalism, reveal the essence of Orientalism and cultural hegemony, explore strategies to dismantle cultural hegemony, and critique the colonial discourse and cultural colonization in Orientalism, cultural imperialism, cultural hegemony, the postcolonial era, and the colonial discourse in Western cultural thought since colonialism. The main contents of the criticism focus on the following aspects: criticism of Orientalism and cultural imperialism, representation of the repressed historical memory in the colonies, study of cultural identity, discourse analysis of the colonized, discussion of the unique identity and circumstances of women in the Third World, and the attitude and reference structure of literary criticism. The most important feature of Said's postcolonial criticism is that he regards European literature and culture as a kind of ideological production and the collusion of colonial power. Said's cultural view, critical consciousness and textual theory, as well as his practice of postcolonial literary and cultural criticism, have formed his unique postcolonial critical methodology system.<br />
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====Orientalism====<br />
In Orientalism, a classic work of post-colonial criticism, Said based his academic views, critical consciousness and theoretical interpretation on a wide range of text interpretation. He not only interprets Orientalism as a kind of academic research, but also as a way of thinking and a way of power discourse, revealing the power discourse and its operation mechanism implied in traditional Orientalism. Said takes colonial discourse as the object of study, that is, from the perspective of how the West sees the East, to criticize the Orientalist aesthetics embodied in Western literary works, including the prejudice that the West is superior, civilized and progressive, while the East is ignorant, barbaric and backward. According to Said, Orientalism exists in three discursive fields: academia, ontological understanding of the binary opposition between East and West, and the process of colonization. Said used Lacan's psychoanalytic method to study western culture, pointing out that Orientalism is the embodiment of the psychological experience of self and other in western culture —the composition of any person's self image is based on the coexistence of recognition and other. Because of this religious bias, much Orientalist scholarship, when one strips away the apparatus of footnotes and sources, is simply speculation, assertion, and baseless judgement with little concrete evidence. Despite these misgivings, Said's thesis has been broadly adopted and refined by anthropologists such as Christopher Miller, Robert Inden and Johannes Fabian, while others such as Nicholas Thomas have used their critiques of Orientalist discourse as a launching pad to develop new areas, theories and methods of anthropological investigation. Since the 1990s, this latter pattern of engagement with Orientalism through critique, refinement, historical contextualisation and reinterpretation has become the norm for scholarship in the humanities.（Teo, Hsu-Ming. Australian Humanities Review; Bundoora Iss. 54, (May 2013): N_A.）<br />
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Said examines the concept and representation of the East in the West since the mid-eighteenth century, gives a basic description of the history of the development and evolution of Orientalism as a disciplinary system, and uses the term Orientalism to generalize the post-colonial relationship between the Western world and the Eastern world. It also reveals the power discourse and its operation mechanism implied in the traditional Orientalism. According to Said, Orientalism refers to three interrelated meanings: first, it refers to the discipline of academic research, a system of knowledge, that is, Orientalism. Most acceptable is what it means to be a discipline of academic study, and indeed the term is still used in many academic institutions. What is most readily accepted is what it means to be a discipline of academic study, and indeed the term is still used in many academic institutions. Anyone who teaches, writes about, or studies the Orient—whether an anthropologist, a sociologist, a historian, or a linguist — is an Orientalist, whether he or she faces specific or general problems. Orientalists are paranoid that the difference between Orientalists and Orientals is that the former writes the latter, while the latter is written by the former.. For the latter, the assumed role is passive acceptance; For the former, it is the power of observation, research and so on. In short, it is an author and an object to be written. Therefore, in the Oriental Studies of Orientalists, the East is expressed as a kind of image symbol which is rigid, stagnant and unchangeable, and needs others to examine it, and even needs others to provide knowledge about themselves. The Orientalist insists that the world of the Orient can be understood and characterized by the West not because of its own efforts, but because of a set of effective Western operational mechanisms. It is through these mechanisms that the East is recognized by the West. In the eyes of orientalists, the East is unable to express itself, is an absent and silent "other", controlled and expressed only by "certain dominant frameworks" of the West, and the image of the East remains unchanged, that is, it has never been able to define itself. In fact, "Orientalism is an artificially created system of theory and practice". In Said's view, the Orient, as presented in various Western writings, is not an authentic reproduction of the Orient as a historical existence, but rather a cultural conception and discursive practice of Westerners. Therefore, the "East" is not the east, but the east has been "Orientalized". <br />
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Secondly, it refers to a way of thinking, namely "Orientalism. It is an essentialist, dualistic, narrow way of thinking similar to the "if you are not of our race, you are different" approach, based on the ontological and epistemological distinction between East and West. "A large number of writers, including poets, novelists, philosophers, political theorists, economists, and imperial administrators, accepted this East or West distinction and used it as a means of constructing the East, its people, customs, "mind", and destiny, among other things. A starting point for theory, poetry, fiction, social analysis, and political discourse." This way of thinking is based on an ontological and epistemological difference between "the Orient" and what has mostly been called "the Occident. Many poets, novelists, philosophers, and political theorists have used this difference between the Orient and the Occident as a starting point for constructing their own writings and theories about the East and Orientals and Oriental consciousness. In their writings, "the Orient is described as something to be judged (as in a courtroom), something to be studied and portrayed (as in a syllabus), something to be disciplined (as in a school or prison), something to be iconoclastic (as in a zoology textbook)". This East is the product projected from the West as the center under the opposite thinking mode between the East and the West. Not only has Oriental been essentialized and stereotyped, but also Oriental has been dehumanized as an abstract concept without personality. It is this essentialist way of thinking that limits the horizons of Orientalists and reinforces their arrogance and prejudice: the East is not only a geographical concept, but also a concept of nature. All periods of the cultural, political, and social history of the East are considered merely passive responses to the West, which is an witness and judge of all the actions of the Orient. <br />
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Again orientalism refers to a mode of discourse of power that is shaped by the exchange of power with political, cultural, moral, and intellectual power. Said states, "We can describe orientalism as a mechanism for dealing with the Orient by making statements about it, authoritatively adjudicating ideas about it, describing it, teaching it, colonizing it, ruling over it: in short, see it as a way for the West to control, reconstitute, and monopolize it." Because the period of great progress in the structure and content of "Oriental Studies" coincided with a period of dramatic expansion of European colonialism. It coincided with Western imperialism and the slightest element of the Orient. Orientalists see themselves as completing the union between East and West, but mainly by further confirming the technological, political, and cultural superiority of the West. Because of the imperialist colonial expansion, Orientalists deliberately portrayed the East as silent, obscene, weak, authoritarian, backward, irrational and abnormal. This "knowledge" of the Orient not only created a false sense of cultural superiority in the West, but also legitimized the "power" of the colonialists. Orientalism is a political doctrine imposed on the East and is an integral part of imperialism and colonialism. By focusing so much attention on imperialist agents and policymakers rather than professional researchers, Said seeks to emphasize the significant shift from an academic to an instrumental attitude toward Orientalism, knowledge about the East, and communication with the East. The orientalist has now become a spokesman for the Western culture to which he belongs, and he compresses into his work an apparent duality, of which his work (in whatever concrete form) is the symbolic expression: Western consciousness, knowledge, science control the most distant eastern territories and "orientalism itself is the expression of certain political forces and activities". For Said, a continuous arc of knowledge and power connects the European or Western statesman with the Western orientalist; this arc constitutes the outer edge of the Eastern stage. Orientalism does not describe or study the real Orient, but rather the fictional and manufactured Orient that Western cultural hegemony has created for its own benefit. It is a kind of distribution of regional political consciousness to the texts of aesthetics, economics, sociology, history and philosophy; It is not only a basic geographical division, but also a careful design of the whole interest system, which is created and maintained through academic discovery, linguistic reconstruction, psychological analysis, natural description or social description.<br />
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In essence, Orientalism is a kind of cognitive system of the Western world to know the East, a discourse form of the West about the East closely linked with Western colonialism and imperialism, and a way in which the West in a strong position dominates, reconstructs and oppresses the East in a weak position for a long time. The East is not only adjacent to Europe; it is also the most powerful, richest, and oldest colony in Europe, the source of European civilization and language, a competitor of European cultures, and one of the most profound and recurrent images of the Other in Europe. In addition, the Orient helps Europe (or the West) to define itself in terms of images, ideas, humanity, and experience in contrast to the Orient. However, these images of the Orient are not all imaginary. The Orient is an intrinsic part of the material civilization and culture of Europe. Orientalism, as a way of discourse that expresses this component on a cultural and even ideological level, is deeply grounded in academic mechanisms, vocabulary, imagery, orthodox beliefs, and even colonial institutions and styles. Said gives various meanings to the term "Orientalism", which is a political doctrine that is imposed on the East. Orientalism expresses a relationship of power, dominance, and hegemony of the Western world over the Eastern world. Said emphasizes that the "East" depicted in various Western writings and presented by Orientalists is not a true reproduction of the East as a historical being, but rather a cultural conception and discursive practice of Westerners under the opposing modes of thinking of East and West, and a product of the West-centered projection. Said analyzed, "At the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries, the Orient had already definitively demonstrated the long history of its languages-earlier than the genealogy of the languages of the Hebrew Bible. This discovery was first made by a group of Europeans, then passed on to other scholars, and has been preserved in the new discipline of Indo-European linguistics. With the birth of this discipline, as Foucault shows in The Order of Things, a whole relevant network of scientific research was established. Beckford, Byron, Goethe, and Hugo reconstructed the Orient in the same way in their works, giving expression to its color, light, and people through the imagery, rhythms, and themes of their works. The true Orient at best inspires the writer's imagination, but rarely controls it. Said noted that Orientalism is itself a desire or an intention——to control, manipulate, even annex, so that it has more to do with"our"world than with the "Orient". Based on the standpoint of post-colonial critical theory, Said criticized the so-called Orientalism or Oriental Studies which came into being in the 18th century, including not only the academic tendency of the West to the East, but also the deep-rooted prejudice of the West to the East in the objective world, political and social life and literary works. To challenge the traditional Orientalism of the West.<br />
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====The Value and Limitation of Orientalism====<br />
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In Orientalism, Said examines the historical evolution of the construction and expression of oriental concepts in the West, from the early Orientalism shackled in the framework of the Christian Bible to the modern Orientalism with the evolution of religious secularization and colonial expansion, and to the current Orientalism with the development of mass media, all of which contain a kind of power. Such power divides East and West, and labels the East as the "other" with essentialist characteristics. Orientalism is a kind of domination, a helper for the West to reconstruct the East and invade the East, and Orientalism lurks the prejudice and hostility of Westerners towards Eastern culture. <br />
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In fact, the term "Orientalism" existed before Said, but it was Said who made the concept truly global and provided a unique perspective and theoretical basis for related research. Through this perspective, people began to question and reflect on the meaning of Orientalism as a discipline, and to gain a deeper understanding of the cultural conflicts between developed capitalist countries and Third World countries. Said criticizes the thinking of binary opposition, criticizes the thought of Eurocentrism that the mind of non-US is different, holds that cultural differences should be respected, different cultures should respect and learn from each other, and advocates multiculturalism to eliminate the center, which is of great practical significance. Globalization has narrowed the distance between different countries, in this process, how to treat different cultures, how to protect their own culture, has become a problem that most countries must face and urgent thinking, in this regard, Said advocated the idea of multicultural exchange is worth learning. <br />
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After Orientalism, Said himself and postcolonial theorists have explored and developed the issues of cultural colonization and discursive power in the context of globalization, which has greatly enriched and developed postcolonialism. More commendable is that, in Orientalism, Said not only exposes the Western colonization of the East, but also profoundly exposes the participation of modern Orientals in the process of Orientalization. He pointed out that the recent contemporary culture is dominated by the European and American models, and the universities in the Arab world are operating on the basis of former colonies, and the Arab world is at a cultural, intellectual, and technological disadvantage. Arab scholars do not dare to despise any American academic publications, and Arab students are proud to study in the United States, and they aspire to learn precisely what is taught under American orientalist dogma. Said finds this situation worrisome. The Eastern consumption model is similarly bound to the American market system, where the United States selectively consumes Arab oil and cheap labor, while Arabs unthinkingly and eagerly consume all American goods, whether material or ideological. After World War II, Western capitalist countries, represented by the United States, have been expanding their culture through aid programs, educational and cultural exchanges, and mass cultural industries, and the American cultural values of freedom and democracy have been spreading around the world, while the national cultures of some developing countries and regions are in danger. In 1977, the Western cultural communication scholar Baoibari proposed "media imperialism", which refers to the fact that the media in some less developed countries are subject to other countries' media in all aspects and do not have the same influence as them. <br />
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While we see Said's success in exposing and critiquing the hegemonic and colonial nature of Orientalism, we are forced to reflect on the question: How did Orientalism achieve such a strong position in the West and globally? Said's theory is based on an abstract cultural view, which is clearly biased and unconvincing. His theory is based on an abstract cultural view, with obvious biases and limitations. It is true that the prosperity of Orientalism is closely related to the economic, political and military strength of the West, but it is more closely related to the progress of Western science and technology. It is precisely because of the progress of Western science and technology that the economic, political and military development of Western countries has been promoted in an all-round way. Although Orientalism is constructed according to Western cultural thinking, we should clearly understand two problems: First, Westerners did not construct Orientalism according to Western traditional cultural thinking once and for all, and in the process they also constantly transcended and criticized their own traditional culture. If criticism means a kind of degradation and destruction of the object of criticism, then, according to this way of thinking, Westerners have also degraded and destroyed their own traditional culture (even including the degradation and denigration of their traditional society) many times in different periods. Because, it is in the process of constantly criticizing itself that Western culture progresses and develops. Second, Western culture, especially modern Western science, has unparalleled superiority over other cultures. Although we can not deny the spiritual value of Eastern culture, but from the perspective of historical development, we have to admit that Western culture is more conducive to the development of modern science and the construction of civilized society. Although modern Western scientific thinking has revealed certain limitations, it still has a strong scientific nature, both from the historical and practical point of view. In order to develop, the backward countries must take the initiative to learn Western culture and combine it with their own reality. If we insist on holding on to our cultural self, we will only end up being colonized.<br />
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Western civilization and Western hegemony are somewhat related, but there is also a clear difference. Without Western civilization, it would be difficult for the West to establish lasting world hegemony; but Western hegemony, which gradually departs from the path of human civilization, will sooner or later be negated by Western civilization. The emergence of Marxism is a clear example of this. Faced with Western hegemony, the weak East cannot simply stay or be satisfied with the revelation of hegemony, but must see through the hidden essence of this hegemony, and through the stripping of hegemony and civilization and the learning and use of civilization to strengthen itself, in order to fundamentally get rid of Western hegemony and build a strong country. In the study of Western civilization, it is not enough to master technology and civilization, but also to master and build social civilization. In social civilization, institutional civilization is crucial. Only the establishment of advanced institutions is a lasting guarantee for the development of the state and society. In this regard, Marx's theory of social development is of immense importance. Although Orientalism also deals with Marx's theory of social development and gives him a possible positive assessment, unfortunately Said has always recognized and evaluated Marx's theory of social development in the framework of his Orientalism.<br />
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Said is well aware that in order to resist Orientalism, Orientals themselves must build their own discourse system and seize the right to speak. He is also well aware that Orientals cannot construct their own discourse system with the traditional cultural self, and that the cultural self needs to be pluralistic and mixed. But in the face of the multiple separations of the self in contemporary social development (i.e., the fragmentation of the subject emphasized by postmodernists), how can people build a unified and effective cultural self? What should be the value coordinates for the construction of the cultural self? In this regard, the comments of British scholar George Laren are instructive. He says: "All of these important changes occurred in the late twentieth century, and their rapid pace and global impact are thought to have had a marked effect on the dissolution of individual identity. While I acknowledge the importance of all these changes, I question whether they should be held fully responsible for a subject whose center has been completely dissolved. I acknowledge that the faster the pace of change in relationships, the more difficult it is for the subject to understand what is happening, to see the connections between the past and the present, and therefore to form a unified view of himself and determine how to act. Yet there is still a great distance to jump from this point to the complete fragmentation of the subject. The so-called dissolution of the center of the subject corresponds to the triumph of the presumed objecthood, to the triumph of the presumed power of the unconscious structure, which completely destroys the individual's sense of wholeness", "Third World countries should also recognize these problems of identity from a different perspective, because in a world increasingly divided into three power blocs, they are excluded, for whom the road ahead is not only fraught with hardship and uncertainty, but also with the temptations of neo-historicism and essentialism." Effective resistance to Orientalism requires not only cultural awareness and effort, but also precise social discernment and strong national power. The latter is what Said's theory lacks.(杨生平.后殖民主义话语下中国问题研究评析[J]中国特艳社会主义研究, 2013, (2))<br />
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====The Influence of Postcolonial Theory on Translation====<br />
Out of Tradition, Toward Diversity. Although the postcolonial theory proposed by Said was directed at literature and literary texts, its theoretical formulation did contribute to the later development of translation. The theory of colonial criticism can be mapped to translation as well, dealing a fatal blow to traditional translation and shedding new light on translation studies.<br />
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First, "Orientalism" and "cultural empire" point out the essence of the dichotomy between Chinese and Western, and the dichotomy between subject and object. In the traditional translation theory, the original work and the translation are dichotomous, the original work is supreme, and the translation must depend on the original work and strive for fidelity. This concept of "original work and copy" has been implicitly transformed into people's unconsciousness, that is, the colonizer and its language and culture are the "original work" in the dominant position, while the colonized and its language and culture are the "copy" in the subordinate position. The colonized and their language and culture are 'copies' and subordinate. The "original" image of the colonizer is personified as Eurocentrism and Orientalism, while the "copy" image of the colonized is personified as marginality and otherness. Said's post-colonial theory paves the way for people to move beyond the traditional faithful reciprocity and dissolve the dichotomy.<br />
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Secondly, the inequality of rights hidden under the impurity of language and text, and the non-self-sufficiency of the text point to the great role of factors outside the text and the non-essential nature of the text, which require people to go beyond the traditional language level of translation to include the external factors of translation, such as social, economic, political, and consciousness, into the study of translation. Translation is no longer a neutral act, far away from political and ideological struggles and conflicts of interest. Instead, it becomes a place of such conflict, where the target language has to meet the target language face-to-face, fighting it out over the irreducible differences between them, where authority is invoked and challenged, ambiguity is dispelled or ambiguity is created, until new words or meanings appear in the target language. (Liu He, 36) Translation is actually the result of two cultures colliding, clashing and negotiating with each other, behind which lies the inequality of rights and the confrontation between mainstream and non-mainstream consciousness. Undoubtedly, this is another breakthrough to the traditional theory of fidelity.<br />
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Thirdly, Said's emphasis on textual reading and textual criticism, highlighting the importance of the critic, also sheds light on the subjectivity of the translator in translation. In the traditional view of faithfulness and equivalence, the translator is always invisible, the success of the translation is due to the original author, and the failure of the translation is the translator's dereliction of duty, because faithfulness and equivalence is the translator's bounden duty, and the correspondence between the original and the translation seems to be a matter of course, as if the translator had never existed. The introduction of postcolonial theory has given the translator a legitimate status as well, and the subjectivity of the translator is no longer obscured.<br />
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====Conclusion====<br />
Postcolonial theory subverts the traditional theory of faithful equivalence in translation, breaks the rigid binary opposition pattern formed for a long time, and requires translation not only to focus on linguistic equivalence, but also to examine the roles played by society, economy, politic s and consciousness in translation, to examine the subjectivity of translators, and to pay attention to ideology and power in translation. So as to move towards pluralism. Translation is no longer transparent and no longer pure and innocent, I believe that taking this into account, translation studies will have a new perspective. In fact, postcolonial translation theory, feminist translation studies, and deconstructive translation studies have seen this point will be flourishing.<br />
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===References===<br />
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[2]陈厚诚，王宁.西防当代文学批评在中国[M].百花文艺出版社,2000.<br />
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[3](英)齐亚乌丁.萨达尔.东方主义[M]马雪峰等,译.吉林人民出版社,2005.[4](美)爱德华.W.萨义德东方学[M].王字根,译.三联书店,1999.<br />
<br />
[4]王岳川.后殖民主义与新历史主义文论[M].山东教育出版社, 1999.[6](美)爱德华.W.萨义德知识分子论[M].单德兴,译.三联书店,2002. [7]张京媛.后殖民理论与文化批评[M].北京大学出版社, 1999.<br />
<br />
[5]许晓琴.文化领域的一种批评实践与策略书泻[J].求索,2008(6).<br />
<br />
[6] (英)乔治拉伦.意识形态与文化身份:现代性和第三世界的在场[M].上海:上海教育出版社, 2005.209、225.<br />
<br />
[7]Bassnett, Susan and Lefever, Andre. ed. Translation, Historyand Culture.New York:Cassell, 1995. [2]Munday, Jeremy.Introducing Translation Studies.London andNew York:Routledge, 2001.<br />
<br />
[8]费小平:《翻译的政治》。北京:中国社科出版社, 2005。<br />
<br />
[9]何绍斌，“后殖民语境与翻译研究”，《天津外国语学院报》 , 4 (2006) :11-15。<br />
<br />
[10]刘禾:《语际书写-现代思想史写作批判纲要》 ，上海:上海三联书店, 1999。<br />
<br />
[11]孙会军:《普遍与差异-后殖民批评视阈下的翻译研究》。上海: 上海译文出版社, 2005。<br />
<br />
[12]张晶,靳瑞萍，《后殖民主义引发的翻译研究再思》，《佳木斯大学社会科学学报》:2 (2007) 258-259年。 [8]张京瑗:后殖民理论与文化批评。北京:北京大学出版社, 1999。<br />
<br />
[13]朱立元:《当代西方文艺理论》。. 上海:华东师范大学出版社, 2002。<br />
<br />
[14]祝朝伟,“后殖民主义理论对翻译研究的启示”，《四川外语学院学报》, 2 (2005) :89-93。<br />
<br />
== A Comparative Study of Chinese Versions of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'': From the Perspective of Hermeneutics 管钦清 Guan Qinqing Student No.202070080586 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics is a discipline that studies understanding and interpretation, and its development is inseparable from translation. Both literary translation and non-literary <br />
translation are inseparable from the understanding and interpretation of the original text. The nature of translation determines that the relationship between hermeneutic <br />
theory and translation studies is extremely close. This article is guided by Gadamer's hermeneutics. Based on the core concepts of historical understanding, prejudice, and <br />
fusion of horizons, this article will discuss how these related factors, such as historical ideology, translator's attitude, language fusion, cultural filtering, and <br />
translator's subjectivity, work and embody in the Chinese versions of Uncle Tom's cabin. This article first explains Gadamer's hermeneutics. Then the author and translator <br />
of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' are introduced. Under the guidance of the above theory, the different translation strategies adopted by different Chinese versions and their reasons are analyzed from different perspectives. Through the above analysis, I draw some inspiration from it: the existence of multiple translation versions and the retranslation of literary works are reasonable. Translation works from different historical contexts can reflect the spirit of a particular era. And hermeneutics can provide reasonable explanations for some translation phenomena that are influenced and determined by the context of social culture and history, and it is very suitable for studying translation works that appeared in different periods.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics; ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''; historicity of understanding; fusion of horizons; effective history<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
解释学视角下''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''译本的对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
<br />
解释学是一门研究理解和解释的学科，其发展与翻译密不可分。无论是文学翻译还是非文学翻译，都离不开原文的理解和解释，翻译的这种性质决定了解释学理论与翻译研究之间的关系是极其密<br />
切的。本文主要是从伽达默尔的解释学角度出发，根据理解的历史性、偏见和视域融合这几个核心概念，论述历史意识形态、译者态度、语言融合、文化过滤以及译者主体性等相关因素在斯托夫<br />
人的''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''中译本中的体现及作用。本文首先对伽达默尔的解释学进行了阐述。随后介绍了''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''的原文作者以及译者，并在以上理论基础的指导下，从不同的角度对译本所采取的不同的翻译策略及其原因进行了分析。通过以上分析，笔者从中得出启示：多个译本同时存在以及文学名著重译现象的存在是合理的。产生于不同历史环境的译作，能够反映特定的时代精神。而解释学能为一些由社会文化历史语境影响和决定的翻译现象提供合理的解释，并且十分适用于研究不同时期出现的译作。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
解释学；''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''；理解的历史性；视域融合；效果历史<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' is a novel against slavery published by American writer Harriet Beecher Stowe in 1852. The novel's views on African-Americans and American slavery have had far-reaching influences, and to some extent intensified local conflicts that led to the American Civil War. The novel was the best-selling novel of the 19th century (and the second best-selling book, second only to the best-selling book, the Bible), and was considered a major reason for the rise of abolitionism in the 1850s. In the first year of its publication, it sold 300,000 copies in the United States. The impact of Uncle Tom’s Cabin on American society was so great that during the early days of the Civil War, when Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he said, "You are the little woman who caused a great war."（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
<br />
''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' is a novel against slavery published by an American writer Harriet Beecher Stowe in 1852. The novel's views on African-Americans and American slavery have had far-reaching influences, and to some extent intensified local conflicts that led to the American Civil War. The novel was the best-selling novel of the 19th century (and the second best-selling book, second only to the best-selling book, the Bible ), and was considered a major reason for the rise of abolitionism in the 1850s. In the first year of its publication, it sold 300,000 copies in the United States. The impact of Uncle Tom’s Cabin on American society was so great that during the early days of the Civil War, when Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he said, "You are the little woman who caused a great war."（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:55, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
The influence of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' on the Chinese translation industry is self-evident. As the first American novel was translated into Chinese, this novel first appeared in China in the form of classical Chinese in 1901. Its name was 《黑奴吁天录》 and translated by translators Lin Shu and Wei Yi. After the publication of《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a strong response from readers and caused a certain impact on the consciousness of Chinese readers. The second version of Uncle Tom’s Cabin in China was translated by Mr. Huang Jizhong, entitled 《汤姆大伯的小屋》 and published in 1982. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was its fidelity to the original text. The translation was very popular once it was launched. 59,000 copies were printed in the first edition, and another 30,000 copies were soon printed, all sold out. These two translation works had different production time and different translation methods, but they both enduring have many readers. Why can a foreign novel be retranslated many times in China, and all kinds of completely different translation works can enjoy their respective reputations, and have been sought after by readers of different times? Why these two very different translation methods so successful? The above issues aroused my attention.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 70) <br />
<br />
The influence of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' on the Chinese translation industry is self-evident. As the first American novel was translated into Chinese, this novel first appeared in China in the form of classical Chinese in 1901. Its name was 《黑奴吁天录》 and translated by translators Lin Shu and Wei Yi. After the publication of《黑奴吁天录》, it evoked a strong response from readers and had a certain impact on the consciousness of Chinese readers. The second version of Uncle Tom’s Cabin in China was translated by Mr. Huang Jizhong, entitled 《汤姆大伯的小屋》 and published in 1982. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was its fidelity to the original text. The translation was very popular when it was launched. 59,000 copies were printed in the first edition, and another 30,000 copies were soon printed, all sold out. These two translation works had different production time and different translation methods, but they both have many readers. Why can a foreign novel be retranslated many times in China, and all kinds of completely different translation works can enjoy their respective reputations, and have been sought after by readers of different times? Why these two very different translation methods so successful? The above issues aroused my attention.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 70) --[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 14:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics is a philosophical theory that explains and understands text. For the first time in the 20th century, translation theorist George Steiner put translation into <br />
hermeneutics and pointed out that language is constantly changing. With the continuous development of hermeneutics, the German philosopher Gadamer established a systematic <br />
philosophical hermeneutics and put forward the three principles of "history of understanding", "fusion of horizons", and "history of effects" in his works. These three <br />
principles can be used to explain many translation phenomena and translation theories in the history of Chinese and foreign translation, and have high reference value. In <br />
view of this, the author decided to use Gadamer's hermeneutics as a theoretical guide. Focusing on the analysis of the two versions of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'', I will research and discuss the issues raised above, and draw inspiration from them to provide a way for literary translation.(Hong Handing 2010, 59)<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics is a philosophical theory that explains and understands texts. In the 20th century, translation theorist George Steiner first put translation into <br />
hermeneutics and pointed out that language is constantly changing. With the continuous development of hermeneutics, the German philosopher Gadamer established a systematic <br />
philosophical hermeneutics and put forward the three principles of "history of understanding", "fusion of horizons", and "history of effects" in his works. These three <br />
principles can be used to explain many translation phenomena and translation theories in the history of Chinese and foreign translation, and have high reference value. In <br />
view of this, the author decided to use Gadamer's hermeneutics as a theoretical guide. Focusing on the analysis of the two versions of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'', I will research and discuss the issues raised above, and draw inspiration from them to provide a way for literary translation.(Hong Handing 2010, 59)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 14:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
===1.Literature Review===<br />
<br />
This chapter will give a brief introduction to hermeneutics from three aspects: the development of hermeneutics, Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics, and Hermeneutics' <br />
Guide to Translation Studies.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 101）<br />
<br />
====1.1. Development of Hermeneutics====<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics has a profound historical origin and is an ancient and well-established science. Traditional hermeneutics is not a specific philosophical school, but a <br />
philosophical theory of meaning, understanding, and interpretation. Its history can be traced back to ancient Greece. The term Hemeneutics is the name of Hemes, the <br />
messenger of the Greek gods. He accepted the will of Zeus and explained it to human beings, and also passed on the human claims to Zeus and the gods. The core of <br />
hermeneutics is the "interpretation" of problem. The academic community generally believes that hermeneutics can be divided into three stages: classical hermeneutics, <br />
modern hermeneutics and philosophical hermeneutics.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 104）<br />
<br />
Hermeneutics has a profound historical origin and is an ancient and well-established science. Traditional hermeneutics is not a specific philosophical school, but a <br />
philosophical theory of meaning, understanding, and interpretation. Its history can be traced back to ancient Greece. The term Hemeneutics is the name of Hemes, a <br />
messenger of the Greek gods. He accepted the will of Zeus and explained it to human beings, and also passed on the human claims to Zeus and the gods. The core of <br />
hermeneutics is the "interpretation" of problem. The academic community generally believes that hermeneutics can be divided into three stages: classical hermeneutics, <br />
modern hermeneutics and philosophical hermeneutics.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 104）--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
The core of classical hermeneutics is theological hermeneutics, which mainly involves the translation and understanding of the Bible. As a translator, the interpreter must <br />
explain the ambiguous and vague words that appear in the Bible. Therefore, classical hermeneutics is mainly a technique to convert hidden divinity into a language <br />
understandable to ordinary people, which mainly serves the spread of religion and promotes the promotion of the Bible and its teachings. With the continuous secularization <br />
of religious classics, hermeneutics has evolved from a single interpretation of the Bible into an interpretation of classic literary works. After the introduction of <br />
literary research, it gradually became a research method that pursued objectivity and tried to get rid of subjective will. Both F. Schleier-macher and W. Dilthey were <br />
deeply influenced by this methodological consciousness, and continuously promoted the development of hermeneutics, making hermeneutics a subject of interpretive methods.<br />
Modern hermeneutics began at the end of the 19th century, and its representative was Dilthey. Dilthey put forward the hermeneutics of "historical rational critique", concerned about how the hermeneutics in a specific historical context can objectively understand other historical performances. Hermeneutics is no longer considered as an inquiry into the author's psychological intentions, but rather as an interpretation of the world of existence shown in the text.（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
<br />
The core of classical hermeneutics is theological hermeneutics, which mainly involves the translation and understanding of the Bible. As a translator, the interpreter must <br />
explain the ambiguous and vague words that appear in the Bible. Therefore, classical hermeneutics is mainly a technique to convert hidden divinity into a language <br />
understandable to ordinary people, which mainly is applied to the spread of religion and promotes the promotion of the Bible and its teachings. With the continuous secularization <br />
of religious classics, hermeneutics has evolved from a single interpretation of the Bible into an interpretation of classic literary works. After the introduction of <br />
literary research, it gradually became a research method that pursued objectivity and tried to get rid of subjective will. Both F. Schleier-macher and W. Dilthey were <br />
deeply influenced by this methodological consciousness, and continuously promoted the development of hermeneutics, making hermeneutics a subject of interpretive methods.<br />
Modern hermeneutics come into being at the end of the 19th century, and its representative was Dilthey. Dilthey put forward the hermeneutics of "historical rational critique", concerned about how the hermeneutics in a specific historical context can objectively understand other historical performances. Hermeneutics is no longer considered as an inquiry into the author's psychological intentions, but rather as an interpretation of the world of existence shown in the text.（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
Philosophical hermeneutics, represented by German philosophers Heidegger and Gadamer, is a fundamental change in hermeneutics. They changed the ontology of philosophical hermeneutics, so they are called philosophical hermeneutics. “Unlike previous practical philosophy, this type of hermeneutics as a dual task of theory and practice lies in restoring Aristotle's concept of practical wisdom”.And this article uses Gadamer's philosophical hermeneutics as a theoretical guide to analyze the translation.(Hong Handing 2010, 59)<br />
<br />
Philosophical hermeneutics, represented by German philosophers Heidegger and Gadamer, is a fundamental change in hermeneutics. They changed the ontology of philosophical hermeneutics, so they were called philosophical hermeneutics. “Unlike previous practical philosophy, this type of hermeneutics, with a dual task of theory and practice, lies in restoring Aristotle's concept of practical wisdom”.And this article uses Gadamer's philosophical hermeneutics as a theoretical guide to analyze the translation.(Hong Handing 2010, 59)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:01, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
====1.2. Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics====<br />
<br />
Gadamer always believed that the term "Hermeneutics" came from Hermes "Hermes", one of the twelve main gods of ancient Greece, so he believed that the interpretation must include the acceptance and performance of the recipient, that is, understanding and explaining. On the basis of inheriting Heidegger's thought, Gadamer deepened his thought of understanding. He further developed hermeneutics into philosophical hermeneutics, and pushed hermeneutics to prosperity. Gadamer opposed the hermeneutics that stood before him in an objective position. He believed that understanding is not an act of reproduction, but should be an act of creation. He believed that the author's "intent" does not exist, and the search for the author's "intent" is also futile.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 25）<br />
<br />
Gadamer always believed that the term "Hermeneutics" came from Hermes "Hermes", one of the twelve main gods of ancient Greece, so he thought that the interpretation must include the acceptance and performance of the recipient, that is, understanding and explaining. On the basis of inheriting Heidegger's thought, Gadamer deepened his thought of understanding. He further developed hermeneutics into philosophical hermeneutics, and pushed hermeneutics to prosperity. Gadamer opposed the hermeneutics that appeared before him in an objective position. He believed that understanding is not an act of reproduction, but be an act of creation. He believed that the author's "intent" does not exist, and the search for the author's "intent" is also futile.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 25）--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:09, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
As mentioned earlier, Gadamer's hermeneutics has three main principles: historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and history of effects. From the "historicity of understanding", Gadamer believed that understanding is historical, and the history of understanding constitutes the bias of understanding, which determines the creativity and generation of understanding. Gadamer believed that the historicity of understanding will inevitably lead to prejudice, but the existence of such prejudice is reasonable. The second is the principle of horizon fusion. Gadamer believed that understanding is the way of existence of history, so both the subject and the object of understanding are the existence of history, and both have their own horizons. In the process of understanding, the translator should be as close as possible to the original horizon of the original author to achieve a fusion of horizons. The last principle is effect history. The effect history principle emphasizes understanding the work from the effect history of the work, which closely links history with the present and fully affirms the significance of ancient texts to contemporary society. Understanding Gadamer's history of effects helps us understand the need to retranslate a classic. These three principles of Gadamer provided an important theoretical basis for us to understand and explain some long-running issues in translation theory and translation practice.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
<br />
As mentioned earlier, Gadamer's hermeneutics has three main principles: historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and history of effects. From the perspective of "historicity of understanding", Gadamer believed that understanding is historical, and the history of understanding constitutes the bias of understanding, which determines the creativity and generation of understanding. Gadamer argued that the historicity of understanding will inevitably lead to prejudice, but the existence of such prejudice is reasonable. The second is the principle of horizon fusion. Gadamer believed that understanding is the way of existence of history, so both the subject and the object of understanding are the existence of history, and both have their own horizons. In the process of understanding, the translator should be as close as possible to the original horizon of the original author to achieve a fusion of horizons. The last principle is effect history. The effect history principle emphasizes understanding the work from the effect history of the work, which closely links history with the present and fully affirms the significance of ancient texts to contemporary society. Understanding Gadamer's history of effects helps us understand the need to retranslate a classic. These three principles of Gadamer provided an important theoretical basis for us to understand and explain some long-running issues in translation theory and translation practice.（Li Lei 2008, 122）--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:09, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
====1.3. Hermeneutics' Guide to Translation Studies====<br />
<br />
As mentioned earlier, literary translation and hermeneutical theory are inseparable. Essentially, literary translation is an art of understanding and expressing meaning. It is a process of re-creation through interpretation. At present, hermeneutics is recognized as a valid theory for translation studies. Translation studies based on hermeneutics have broken the traditional inherent understanding of traditional translation theory on some issues, and raised questions and challenges to traditional translation theory. Among them, the guidance of hermeneutics on translation studies is mainly reflected in the following aspects.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
<br />
As mentioned earlier, literary translation and hermeneutical theory are inseparable. Essentially, literary translation is an art of understanding and expressing meaning. It is a process of re-creation through interpretation. At present, hermeneutics is recognized as a valid theory for translation studies. Translation studies based on hermeneutics have broken the traditional inherent understanding of traditional translation theory on some issues, and raised questions and challenges to traditional translation theory. Among them, the guidance of hermeneutics on translation studies is mainly reflected in the following aspects.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:29, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
First: the historical nature of understanding explained the misreading phenomenon. The historical nature of understanding means that the specific historical environment, historical status, and historical conditions of the translator are different from the object of understanding. Readers always have historical prejudice in the process of understanding the original text, because they cannot transcend historical space and time to objectively understand the original text. Hermeneutics' re-understanding and definition of this prejudice also provides a philosophical basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies. Gadamer believed that there is no so-called normative interpretation of a text. And this prejudice is a positive factor formed in history and tradition. Scholars should treat this existence correctly and should not regard it as a part that should be eliminated.（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）<br />
<br />
First: the historical nature of understanding explained the misreading phenomenon. The historical nature of understanding means that the specific historical environment, historical status, and historical conditions of the translator are different from the object of understanding. Readers always have historical prejudice in the process of understanding the original text, because they cannot transcend historical space and time to objectively understand the original text. Hermeneutics' re-understanding and definition of this prejudice also provides a philosophical basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies. Gadamer believed that there is no so-called normative interpretation of a text. And this prejudice is a positive factor formed in history and tradition. Scholars should treat this existence correctly and not regard it as a part that should be eliminated.（Zhang Qiqun 2002, 77）--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:29, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
Second: The principle of fusion of horizons explains the phenomenon of cultural filtering. The principle of horizon fusion theoretically confirms the historical roots of cultural filtering phenomenon in translation and the inevitable existence of cultural filtering phenomenon. Although the translator should strive to approach the original vision of the original author and understand the author's original intention, in fact, the translator always inevitably brings the world he is familiar with into the strange world of the original text.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 26）<br />
<br />
Second: The principle of fusion of horizons explains the phenomenon of cultural filtering. The principle of horizon fusion theoretically confirms the historical root of cultural filtering phenomenon in translation and the inevitable existence of cultural filtering phenomenon. Although the translator should strive to approach the original vision of the original author and understand the author's original intention, in fact, the translator always inevitably brings the world he is familiar with into the strange world of the original text.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 26）--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:29, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
Third：The principle of effective history explains the multiple translation versions of famous works. Gadamer believed that the text is open and its meaning is never endless. The text goes beyond the historical era in which it was created. This provides the possibility for people of different ages to understand the same text differently. Human beings are constantly developing. In the process of development, they constantly surpass themselves, renew their history, and rethink themselves and their culture. This provides a reasonable explanation for the phenomenon of retranslation of famous works.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
<br />
Third：The principle of effective history explains the multiple translation versions of famous works. Gadamer believed that the text is open and its meaning is never endless. The text goes beyond the historical era in which it was created, which provides the possibility for people of different ages to understand the same text differently. Human beings are constantly developing. In the process of development, they constantly surpass themselves, renew their history, and rethink themselves and their culture. This provides a reasonable explanation for the phenomenon of retranslation of famous works.（Li Lei 2008, 122）--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:29, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
===2.A Brief Introduction of the Original Author and Two Translators===<br />
<br />
This chapter will give a brief introduction to the original author and two translators to strengthen your understanding of the background of the original text and the two translation versions.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 121)<br />
<br />
====2.1. Harriet Beecher Stowe====<br />
<br />
Harriet Beecher Stowe is an American writer. She was born on June 14, 1811 in a well-known pastor family in North America, and died in 1896. The American Civil War was fought in the 1860s. But since the 1920s, the issue of abolition of slaves has become a central issue in American progressive opinion. At that time, many famous American writers were on the side of abolishing slaves, calling for the liberation of slaves. Mrs. Stowe was one of the most outstanding among these slave writers.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 124)<br />
<br />
Harriet Beecher Stowe is an American writer. She was born on June 14, 1811 in a well-known pastor family in North America, and died in 1896. The American Civil War broke out in the 1860s. But since the 1920s, the issue of abolition of slaves has become a central issue in American progressive trend. At that time, many famous American writers were on the side of abolishing slaves, calling for the liberation of slaves. Mrs. Stowe was one of the most outstanding writers who were in favor of slaves.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 124)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 02:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
Mrs. Stowe has been influenced by theology since she was a child, and she has spent her entire life in a religious atmosphere. When Mrs. Stowe was fourteen, their entire family has moved to Boston and has moved to Cincinnati a few years later. At the time, the outskirts of Cincinnati were dotted with large serf farms. It was one of the centers of the abolitionist movement in North America then, and heated speeches against slavery were often heard in urban areas. Mrs. Stowe had fugitive slaves in her home, which gave her the opportunity to hear the tragic experience of fugitive slaves. After that, Mrs. Stowe got another chance to visit several plantations in Maysville, Kentucky with her friends, and witnessed the tragic situation of slaves. Those plantations were the prototype of the Shelby plantation in ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. This novel extensively describes the brutal oppression and exploitation of slaves by slave owners throughout the southern United States, and portrays the cruelty of slaves in various forms. The novel also describes different types of slave images. Once Uncle Tom's cabin came out, it attracted great attention and response at home and abroad. When the former President of the United States Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he jokingly called her “a little woman who brought a war". This joke also fully reflects the huge influence of Uncle Tom's cabin.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
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Mrs. Stowe has been influenced by theology since she was a child, and she has spent her entire life in a religious atmosphere. When Mrs. Stowe was fourteen, their entire family has moved to Boston and then to Cincinnati a few years later. At the time, the outskirts of Cincinnati were dotted with large serf farms. It was one of the centers of the abolitionist movement in North America then, and heated speeches against slavery were often heard in urban areas. Mrs. Stowe had fugitive slaves in her home, which gave her the opportunity to hear the tragic experience of fugitive slaves. After that, Mrs. Stowe got another chance to visit several plantations in Maysville, Kentucky with her friends, and witnessed the tragic situation of slaves. Those plantations were the prototype of the Shelby plantation in ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. This novel extensively describes the brutal oppression and exploitation of slaves by slave owners throughout the southern United States, and portrays the cruelty of slaves in various forms. The novel also describes different types of slave images. As soon as Uncle Tom's cabin came out, it attracted great attention and response at home and abroad. When the former President of the United States Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he jokingly called her “a little woman who brought a war". This joke also fully reflects the huge influence of Uncle Tom's cabin.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 02:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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====2.2. Lin Shu====<br />
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Lin Shu, a famous writer and translator in modern China, has made outstanding contributions to the translation of Chinese literature. Lin Shu had a profound and solid knowledge of ancient writing. But he did not understand foreign languages, and his translations were all done in cooperation with others. In cooperation with others, Lin Shu has translated 246 works involving 107 writers in 11 countries, and made indelible contributions to the introduction of Western literature. ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was Lin Shu's second translation work, and it was also a popular work translated at the peak of his translation career. This translation work can reflect Lin Shu's translation technique and his characteristics.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 102）<br />
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Lin Shu, a famous writer and translator in modern China, has made outstanding contributions to the translation of Chinese literature. Lin Shu had a profound and solid knowledge of ancient writing. But he did not understand foreign languages, and his translations were all done in cooperation with others. In cooperation with others, Lin Shu has translated 246 works involving 107 writers in 11 countries, and made indelible contributions to the introduction of Western literature. ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was Lin Shu's second translation work, and it was also a popular work translated at the peak of his translation career. This translation work can reflect Lin Shu's translation technique and his characteristics.（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 102）--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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At that time, China was facing aggression by the Allied Forces of the Eight Kingdoms, and the Qing government signed the Peace Protocol of 1901. In this context, Lin Shu's enthusiasm for anti-imperialist and national salvation was stirred. He wanted to translate some works that can open up people's wisdom and inspire them. So Lin Shu and Wei Yi co-translated Mrs. Stowe's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. Both of them had a strong sense of political mission in translating this work. After the publication of 《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a great response among the readers at that time. Translator Lin Shu ’s anti-imperialist thoughts in his translation work resonate emotionally with readers, directly stimulating readers’ anti-imperialist consciousness. In the treatment of the original works, Lin Shu made conscious cuts. Most of the unfaithful parts of his translations have adopted translation strategies of amplification and omission. From the perspective of traditional linguistic translation theories, Lin Shu may not be a successful translator. But from the perspective of hermeneutics and culture, the existence of Lin Shu's translation method is reasonable.《黑奴吁天录》was Lin Shu's representative translation, which can fully reflect Lin Shu's translation style. Far from Lin Shu's translation style was Huang Jizhong's Unc《汤姆大伯的小屋》，and I will elaborate on the translator Huang Jizhong below.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 122)<br />
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At that time, China was facing aggression by the Allied Forces of the Eight Kingdoms, and the Qing government signed the Peace Protocol of 1901. In this context, Lin Shu's enthusiasm for anti-imperialist and national salvation was stirred. He wanted to translate some works that can open up people's wisdom and inspire them. So Lin Shu and Wei Yi co-translated Mrs. Stowe's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. Both of them had a strong sense of political mission in translating this works. After the publication of 《黑奴吁天录》, it evoked a great response among the readers at that time. Translator Lin Shu ’s anti-imperialist thoughts in his translation work resonate emotionally with readers, directly stimulating readers’ anti-imperialist consciousness. In the treatment of the original works, Lin Shu made conscious cuts. Most of the unfaithful parts of his translations have adopted translation strategies of amplification and omission. From the perspective of traditional linguistic translation theories, Lin Shu may not be a successful translator. But from the perspective of hermeneutics and culture, the existence of Lin Shu's translation method is reasonable.《黑奴吁天录》was Lin Shu's representative translation, which can fully reflect Lin Shu's translation style. Far from Lin Shu's translation style was Huang Jizhong's Unc《汤姆大伯的小屋》，and I will elaborate on the translator Huang Jizhong below.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 122)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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====2.3. Huang Jizhong====<br />
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Huang Jizhong was born on September 28, 1923 in a literary family in Ji'an, Jiangxi. He lost his father in his early years, and he followed his grandfather studying in Shanghai since childhood. He is good at Chinese and English and loves literary translation. In addition to teaching related courses, he has devoted himself to the translation of famous books for many years. As early as 1956, Huang Jizhong accepted the invitation of Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House to translate ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. His original plan was to complete the translation work in two years, but due to external shocks, it could not be published as scheduled. Later, this novel was retranslated in 1982 and published by Shanghai Translation Publishing House. Once this edition of Uncle Tom's Cabin was published, it was warmly welcomed by readers. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's《汤姆大伯的小屋》 was its faithfulness to the original text, and another feature was the use of translation method of foreignization. The translation style of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' in Huang Jizhong's version was very different from Lin Shu's version, which was of great research value. Therefore, I chose the translated versions of Huang Jizhong and Lin Shu for comparative research.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 71)<br />
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Huang Jizhong was born on September 28, 1923 in a literary family in Ji'an, Jiangxi. He lost his father in his early years, and he followed his grandfather studying in Shanghai since childhood. He is good at Chinese and English and loves literary translation. In addition to teaching related courses, he has devoted himself to the translation of famous books for many years. As early as 1956, Huang Jizhong accepted the invitation of Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House to translate ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. His original plan was to complete the translation work in two years, but due to external shocks, it could not be published as scheduled. Later, this novel was retranslated in 1982 and published by Shanghai Translation Publishing House.As soon as the edition of Uncle Tom's Cabin was published, it was warmly welcomed by readers. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's《汤姆大伯的小屋》 was its faithfulness to the original text, and another feature was the use of translation method of foreignization. The translation style of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' in Huang Jizhong's version was very different from Lin Shu's version, which was of great research value. Therefore, I choose the translated versions of Huang Jizhong and Lin Shu for comparative research.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 71)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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===3. A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions from Gadamer's Hermeneutics===<br />
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The professor of Poetics and Comparative Literature Gideon Toury once said that translation is inevitably involves at least two languages and two cultural traditions (Toury, 2001:56). Professor Chen Hongwei of China also said that translation involves not only language conversion, but also cultural translation. Therefore, in the following chapter, the two translation works will be analyzed from a cultural and linguistic perspective.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 24）<br />
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The professor of Poetics and Comparative Literature Gideon Toury once said that translation is inevitably involved at least two languages and two cultural traditions (Toury, 2001:56). Professor Chen Hongwei of China also said that translation involves not only language conversion, but also cultural translation. Therefore, in the following chapters, the two translation works will be analyzed from a cultural and linguistic perspective.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 24）--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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====3.1. Comparative Analysis from A Linguistic Perspective====<br />
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The two translators use different languages because they are in different eras. Lin Shu used classical Chinese, while Huang Jizhong used vernacular Chinese. Then they must have many differences in translation. Next, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we will analyze the differences between the two translation works from a linguistic perspective in three aspects.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 74) <br />
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The two translators use different languages because they are in different eras. Lin Shu used classical Chinese, while Huang Jizhong used vernacular Chinese, so they must have many differences in translation. Next, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we will analyze the differences between the two translation works from a linguistic perspective in three aspects.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 74)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili <br />
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=====3.1.1. Contrastive Discourse Analysis=====<br />
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Since the two translators come from different historical times, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also different. In terms of translation methods, Lin Shu adopted intercompilation while Huang Jizhong adopted complete translation. Examples are as follows:（Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 2015, 103）<br />
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1.“Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master.”(Stowe 2011, 3)<br />
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林译：语至此，门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黠，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主人主妇所厚昵者。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 4)<br />
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黄译：正在这当儿，房门开了。一个四、五岁左右的第二代混血男孩走了进来。这孩子相貌长得分外清秀，特别逗人喜爱。圆圆的脸蛋上有一对酒窝，头上覆盖着一圈圈光滑、鬈曲、细如绢丝的黑头发；一双又大又黑、柔和而炯炯有光的眼睛，从两道浓浓的长睫毛下面好奇地向屋内张望着。他身穿一件黄格子花呢的罩衫；手工精制，剪裁合身，越发衬托出这孩子黝黑、浓郁的俊秀劲儿；那种悠然自得、滑稽有趣而又略带羞涩的神态，表明他惯常得到东家的青睐和宠爱。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 3）<br />
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This paragraph comes from the first chapter of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', where the original book vividly describes the cute image of the son of the slave Eliza who owned by Shelby. Comparing the two translations, Lin Shu's translation is in classical Chinese, and in his character description, Lin Shu used a compilation method，omitting many details. However, Huang Jizhong's translation is in vernacular form, and every detail of the original text has been translated in detail by Huang Jizhong. The original text of this paragraph consists of 122 words. Lin Shu's translation is only 62 words, while Huang Jizhong's translation is as many as 183 words. Before the New Culture Movement in the late Qing Dynasty, vernacular Chinese were not welcomed by literati and intellectuals, let alone let them write or translate in vernacular Chinese. The specific society in which Lin Shu lived formed his inherent horizon, which also determined his choice to translate in classical Chinese. In the era of Huang Jizhong, vernacular Chinese have been popular throughout the country, and have become popular in all classes. Therefore, Huang Jizhong must also translate in vernacular texts.<br />
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This paragraph comes from the first chapter of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', where the original book vividly describes the cute image of the son of the slave Eliza who owned by Shelby. Comparing the two translations, Lin Shu's translation is in classical Chinese, and in his character description, Lin Shu used a compilation method，omitting many details. However, Huang Jizhong's translation is in vernacular form, and every detail of the original text has been translated in detail by Huang Jizhong. The original text of this paragraph consists of 122 words. Lin Shu's translation is only 62 words, while Huang Jizhong's translation is as many as 183 words. Before the New Culture Movement in the late Qing Dynasty, vernacular Chinese were not welcomed by literati and intellectuals, let alone let them write or translate in vernacular Chinese. The specific society in which Lin Shu lived formed his inherent horizon, which also determined his choice to translate in classical Chinese. In the era of Huang Jizhong, vernacular <br />
Chinese have been popular throughout the country, and have become popular in all classes. Therefore, Huang Jizhong must also translate in vernacular texts.(The quote is missing)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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According to hermeneutics, translating a work is a process in which the translator brings his own specific horizon into the historical horizon of the text. It is not a process of letting the interpreter abandon his own horizon, nor is it a horizon replacement. In this example, two translators both are in their own specific field of horizon and try to merge with the field of horizon of the original author, resulting in different translated texts. Gadamer's view of the fusion of the two horizons, to a certain extent, shows the essence of translation, especially literary translation. "Fusion of Horizons " overcomes the time gap and historical gap between the text and the interpreter, and the infinite process of understanding and discovery of text meaning is also achieved through " Fusion of Horizons ". (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 204)<br />
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According to hermeneutics, translating works is a process in which the translator brings his own specific horizon into the historical horizon of the text. It is not a process of letting the interpreter abandon his own horizon, nor is it a horizon replacement. In this example, two translators both are in their own specific field of horizon and try to merge with the field of horizon of the original author, resulting in different translated texts. Gadamer's view of the fusion of the two horizons, to a certain extent, shows the essence of translation, especially literary translation. "Fusion of Horizons " overcomes the time gap and historical gap between the text and the interpreter, and the infinite process of understanding and discovery of text meaning is also achieved through " Fusion of Horizons ". (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 204)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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=====3.1.2. Contrastive Study of Lexicon=====<br />
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Literary translation is an aesthetic re-creation process that is completed through interpretation, that is, the process of including the translator's acceptance and release of information. Lin Shu was proficient in Chinese, and he regarded translation as a creative process. Therefore, in the process of releasing the information, he incorporated his own opinions and adopted the translation strategies of amplification and revision. However, Huang Jizhong's horizon is different from Lin Shu's, so his method of receiving and releasing information was also different. For examples:(Zhu Jianping 2006, 72) <br />
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2.“I’m sorry to say that I am,” said Mr. Shelby. “I’ve agreed to sell Tom.” (Stowe 2011, 44)<br />
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林译：解而培忸怩久之，曰：“吾已署券卖汤姆矣！” (Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 14) <br />
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黄译：“很抱歉，”谢尔贝先生答道，“我已经答应把汤姆卖给他了。”（Huang Jizhong 1993, 30）<br />
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his example is from Chapter 5 of the original text. In this case, Lin Shu added the word "忸怩久之", showing Shelby's entangled heart and the fear of her wife's blame. Looking back at the original text, there is no word in the original text that can express the meaning of "忸怩". However, Huang Jizhong was faithful to the original text here, and didn’t add or subtract words from the original text. In Gadamer's hermeneutic theory, there is the concept of "pre-understanding". Pre-understanding refers to the fact that people are influenced by the specific historical environment, historical conditions, historical status, etc. they are in when they understand texts or recognize things. People always carry certain subjective consciousness elements such as emotion, knowledge, and will when they observe and recognize external things. The word "忸怩" added by Lin Shu here embodies the concept of "pre-understanding"，and shows that Lin Shu brought his emotions into his translation work.It's“Rather, we stand always within tradition, and this is no objectifying process, ie we do not conceive of what tradition says as something other, something alien. It is always part of us, a model or exemplar, a recognition of ourselves which our later historical judgment would hardly see as a kind of knowledge, but as the simplest preservation of tradition.” Gadamer believes that every interpretation is based on a pre-existing basis. In order to understand something, we must first have it. We cannot understand something that is not part of our overall world. Our understanding of things is based on our own existing knowledge system. That is, we rely on our existing knowledge and experience to understand and explain phenomena and things. Therefore, translators must have their own "pre-understanding" in the process of understanding and translating the source text.(Gadamer H 1999, 250) <br />
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This example is from Chapter 5 of the original text. In this case, Lin Shu added the word "忸怩久之", showing Shelby's entangled heart and the fear of her wife's blame. Looking back at the original text, there is no word in the original text that can express the meaning of "忸怩". However, Huang Jizhong was faithful to the original text here, and didn’t add or subtract words from the original text. In Gadamer's hermeneutic theory, there is the concept of "pre-understanding". Pre-understanding refers to the fact that people are influenced by the specific historical environment, historical conditions, historical status, etc. they are in when they understand texts or recognize things. People always carry certain subjective consciousness elements such as emotion, knowledge when they observe and recognize external things. The word "忸怩" added by Lin Shu here embodies the concept of "pre-understanding"，and shows that Lin Shu brought his emotions into his translation work.It's“Rather, we stand always within tradition, and this is no objectifying process, ie we do not conceive of what tradition says as something other, something alien. It is always part of us, a model or exemplar, a recognition of ourselves which our later historical judgment would hardly see as a kind of knowledge, but as the simplest preservation of tradition.” Gadamer believes that every interpretation is based on a pre-existing. In order to understand something, we must first have it. We cannot understand something that is not part of our overall world. Our understanding of things is based on our own existing knowledge system. That is, we rely on our existing knowledge and experience to understand and explain phenomena and things. Therefore, translators must have their own "pre-understanding" in the process of understanding and translating the source text.(Gadamer H 1999, 250) --[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 03:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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3. But real gentlemen, such as I hopes you’ll be, never let fall no words that isn’t respectful to their parents. (Stowe 2011, 132)<br />
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林译:盖极望吾小主为一代伟人,万勿肆口出言,以逢二亲之怒。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 45)<br />
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黄译:我希望你将来做个正人君子,而一个正人君子是决不会说一句不尊敬父母的话的。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 94）<br />
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When Uncle Tom said goodbye to his little master George, he expressed his expectations for the little master ---- be a real gentleman. Lin Shu translated this as "一代伟人", thereby expressing his strong desire to change the status quo. Huang Jizhong translated it as "正人君子". "正人君子" used to refer to people with good conduct. It was the ultimate goal of ancient China and had a profound influence in Chinese history. Lin Yupeng, a translator born after the two translators, translated this as "真正的绅士". It can be seen from this that translators in different eras are very different in the translation of the same word due to the influence of the era at that time. In addition, there are some examples in the text, such as "married" and "my wife" were translated by two translators as "出阁", "结婚" and "吾妻", "内人" respectively. These are the two concepts of hermeneutics---"effective history" and "pre-understanding". The so-called effect history means that history produces effects by restricting our historical understanding. Here, the translation of the same text by the two translators is consistent with their own social and historical environment. The social environment and social development of the era in which the two translators lived both affected and restricted the two translators' understanding of the original text.<br />
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hen Uncle Tom said goodbye to his little master George, he expressed his expectations for the little master ---- be a real gentleman. Lin Shu translated this as "一代伟人", thereby expressing his strong desire to change the status quo. Huang Jizhong translated it as "正人君子". "正人君子" used to refer to people with good conduct. It was the ultimate goal of ancient China and had a profound influence in Chinese history. Lin Yupeng, a translator born after the two translators, translated this as "真正的绅士". It can be seen from this that translators in different eras are very different in the translation of the same word due to the influence of the era at that time. In addition, there are some examples in the text, such as "married" and "my wife" were translated by two translators as "出阁", "结婚" and "吾妻", "内人" respectively. These are the two concepts of hermeneutics---"effective history" and "pre-understanding". The so-called effect history means that history produces effects by restricting our historical understanding. Here, the translation of the same text by the two translators is consistent with their own social and historical environment. The social environment and social development of the era in which the two translators lived both affected and restricted the two translators' understanding of the original text.(The quote is missing）--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 04:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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During the translation process, the translator will let his pre-understanding and experience come into play, thus forming different understanding and expression of the same text. Because of this, there will be different versions of the same literary work in the same era, and different versions of the same literary work will appear in different times. Therefore, the co-existence of the two versions of Uncle Tom's cabin in completely different styles is reasonable from the point of view of Gadamer's hermeneutics. Similarly, the retranslation of other literary texts and the existence of multiple versions of translation works are also reasonable.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 70)<br />
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During the translation process, the translator will let his pre-understanding and experience come into play, thus forming different understanding and expression of the same text. Because of this, there will be different versions of the same literary works in the same era, and different versions of the same literary works will appear in different times. Therefore, the co-existence of the two versions of Uncle Tom's cabin in completely different styles is reasonable from the point of view of Gadamer's hermeneutics. Similarly, the retranslation of other literary texts and the existence of multiple versions of translation works are also reasonable.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 70)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 04:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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=====3.1.3. Contrastive Study of Syntax=====<br />
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4.“But why, of all others, choose these?” said Mrs. Shelby. “Why sell them, of all on the place, if you must sell at all.” (Stowe 2011, 44)<br />
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林译：爱密柳曰：“君既欲卖，胡不再谋，而必卖此二人？尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人,小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” (Lin Shu &Wei Yi 1981, 14)<br />
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黄译：“可是为什么偏偏要挑这两个呢？”谢尔贝太太问道：“即使非买不可，在园上这么些黑人，为什么一定要卖他们呢？” （Huang Jizhong 1993, 30）<br />
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In this example, Lin Shu added “尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人，小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” to express the anger of Shelby's wife and her extreme disapproval of Shelby's behavior. On the whole, Lin Shu adopted the strategy of free translation here, while Huang Jizhong's translation was quite consistent with the original text, using the strategy of literal translation.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
<br />
According to Gadamer's hermeneutics, as special readers, translators selectively accept textual information due to historical factors of their own understanding ，and incorporate their own aesthetic concepts into their translation works. Therefore, their translation methods will also be different. The interpretation of artistic works is closely related to the translator's understanding and expression of the source text in the translation process. “Translation is a dynamic process from understanding to expression, and the master of this process is the translator.”Translators cross the barriers of different languages and cultures and build a bridge between the source language and the target text. However, as Gadamer emphasizes, the text is open to all ages and enters into the field of meaning of the understander, so the translator's interpretation will inevitably conflict with the objective existence. To this end, translators must play an active and subjective role and adopt different strategies for selection and adaptation. Here, Lin Shu integrated his own aesthetic concepts into his translation work and exerted his own subjectivity, thus forming a different translation version from Huang Jizhong. This also further reveals that the interpretation of text in the translation process from the perspective of hermeneutics can reveal the process and mechanism of translator's understanding of text in translation activities. ( Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125 )<br />
<br />
According to Gadamer's hermeneutics, as special readers, translators selectively accept textual information due to historical factors of their own understanding ，and incorporate their own aesthetic concepts into their translation works. Therefore, their translation methods will also be different. The interpretation of artistic works is closely related to the translator's understanding and expression of the source text in the translation process. “Translation is a dynamic process from understanding to expression, and the master of this process is the translator.”Translators cross the barriers of different languages and cultures and build a bridge between the source language and the target text. However, as Gadamer emphasizes, the text is open to all ages and enters into the field of readers, so the translator's interpretation will inevitably conflict with the objective existence. To this end, translators must play an active and subjective role and adopt different strategies for selection and adaptation. Here, Lin Shu integrated his own aesthetic concepts into his translation work and exerted his own subjectivity, thus forming a different translation version from Huang Jizhong. This also further reveals that the interpretation of text in the translation process from the perspective of hermeneutics can reveal the process and mechanism of translator's understanding of text in translation activities. ( Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125 )--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 04:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
5. …and the arrangements of the house, and the general air of the housekeeping, indicated easy, and even opulent circumstances. (Stowe 2011, 2)<br />
<br />
林纾：其一人文秀，家亦少康，名解而培。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 3)<br />
<br />
黄继忠：跟他一起谈话的那位谢尔贝先生倒是个绅士模样的人；屋子里的陈设和气派都说明此人家道小康，甚至可以说得上颇为富裕。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 1）<br />
<br />
This example comes from the first chapter of the novel. At the beginning of the article, the author introduces the characters of the novel. Comparing the translations of the two translators, we can see that Lin Shu's translation should be more concise and refined. The original author's description of the environment has been deleted in Lin Shu's translation. It may be that the translator believed that this was not important for the development of the novel. This long sentence of the original text was simplified by Lin Shu to four words "家亦少康", while the translation version of Huang Jizhong almost matched the original content. In the translation of this sentence, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also completely different.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125)<br />
<br />
This example comes from the first chapter of the novel. At the beginning of the article, the author introduces the characters of the novel. Comparing the translations of the two translators, we can see that Lin Shu's translation should be more concise and refined. The original author's description of the environment has been deleted in Lin Shu's translation. It may be that the translator believed that it was not important for the development of the novel. This long sentence of the original text was simplified by Lin Shu to four words "家亦少康", while the translation version of Huang Jizhong almost matched the original content. In the translation of this sentence, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also completely different.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 125)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 04:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
In the field of translation, people often liken translators to shackled dancers. This metaphor vividly describes that while the translator is restricted by the original author and the original text during the translation process, he must use his subjective initiative to reshape the work. Traditional translation theory values the author and the original text, treats the original as authority, and treats "faithfulness" as the highest standard of translation. Hermeneutics redefines the "prejudice" caused by the historicity of understanding, and provides an effective basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies. In the above two examples, the two translators, while being influenced by the historical society in which they are located, also gave full play to their subjectivity, especially Lin Shu. This also tells us that the translator's subjectivity plays an important role in literary translation.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 69)<br />
<br />
In the field of translation, people often liken translators to shackled dancers. This metaphor vividly describes that while the translator is restricted by the original author and the original text during the translation process, he must use his subjective initiative to reshape the works. Traditional translation theory values the author and the original text, treats the original as authority, and treats "faithfulness" as the highest standard of translation. Hermeneutics redefines the "prejudice" caused by the historicity of understanding, and provides an effective basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies. In the above two examples, the two translators, while being influenced by the historical society in which they are located, also gave full play to their subjectivity, especially Lin Shu. This also tells us that the translator's subjectivity plays an important role in literary translation.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 69)--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 04:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
====3.2. Comparative Analysis from A Cultural Perspective====<br />
<br />
British anthropologist Taylor believes that culture is "a complex whole including knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs, and other abilities and habits learned by people as members of society". Language is the carrier of culture. A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture. When translators translate one text into another language，the translator must bring the characteristics of his own culture when reading and interpreting the source text because the translator's language and culture are different from the original author's culture.(Hebding & Glick 1992, 37)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1. Analysis from A Religious Perspective=====<br />
<br />
A major feature of Uncle Tom’s Cabin is that it contains a lot of religious elements. In translating this religious content, the two translators took radically different approaches. That is, Lin Shu's selective translation of religious content, most of which is carried over or not translated directly. However, Huang Jizhong conveyed the Western religious intentions to his readers at that time. For example:(Zou Guangsheng 2001，1)<br />
<br />
6. “…, but I didn’t think any Christian legislature would pass it！” (Stowe 2011, 95)<br />
<br />
林纾：吾思文明之国，法当不如此。 (Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 34)<br />
<br />
黄继忠：但是我相信任何一个基督教国家的立法机关都不会通过这种法令的。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 72）<br />
<br />
In the above example, "Christian" is an exact word for Christ. In the translations of the two translators, Lin Shu chose to omit it, while Huang Jizhong chose the method of literal translation. This was not only related to the era in which the two lived, but the play of the two translators ’subjectivity also played a great role. In the era which Lin Shu was, although Christianity had begun to spread on the land of China, the public acceptance rate was still low. Therefore, Lin Shu omitted the relevant words or used some words with Chinese culture to replace them. By the time Huang Jizhong was in, people's acceptance of these words had greatly increased. Therefore, it is appropriate to choose the method of literal translation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，4)<br />
<br />
This difference stems from the historical environment and historical status of the two translators being different from the object of understanding, which is the historicity of understanding. Translators and readers will always incorporate what belongs to their time in the process of understanding the original text, and that is what we called historicity. The purpose of translation is not limited to conveying the original intention of the original author, which reasonably explains the "misreading" phenomenon in translation. Lin Shu's downplay of religious content in the original work is an interesting phenomenon of "misreading". This "misreading" also gives us a good explanation of why the same religious content can be understood and interpreted in two different ways.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，6)<br />
<br />
Gadamer believes that "the horizon is the area of view, and this area encompasses everything that can be seen from a certain standpoint." Understanding is to place yourself in the traditional process, to make the past and the present continually merge. The so-called translation is that in a cross-cultural historical context, a historic translator blends his horizon with the horizon of the original text to form a new horizon, and the process of re-fixing the new horizon to form a new text with language symbols infiltrating the target language culture.The main body of understanding (translator or reader) and the author of the original text have their own unique horizons. When the original works cross different nationalities, languages, and eras, and enter a completely strange social and cultural context, translators can only play creatively to make his own views closing to the horizon and historical environment of the original author. However, no matter how hard the translator tries to enter the thoughts and feelings of the original author or imagine himself as the original author, he cannot completely get rid of the original vision, nor can he really enter the author's vision. Therefore, the translator has to form a new horizon between the horizon of the strange original author and the horizon of his own. Creative treason is a necessity in understanding. The generation of meaning requires creative thinking and moderate treason under normative constraints.(Zhu Jianping 2006, 73) <br />
<br />
=====3.2.2. Analysis from Cultural Image=====<br />
<br />
Gadamer pointed out in Truth and Method that understanding is not a process of reproduction, but a process of creation. It can also be said that as long as people are thinking, different understandings will arise. For some cultural images in the original work, the translations of the two translators are also different. For example：(Zou Guangsheng 2001，3)<br />
<br />
7. As a fire in her bones, the thought of the pursuer urged her on.（Stowe 2011, 73）<br />
<br />
林译：而意里赛此时，心绪兔起鹘。（Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 25）<br />
<br />
黄译：一想起后面的追兵，她就五内如焚。急着想向前逃命。（Huang Jizhong 1993, 49）<br />
<br />
The word "fire" was used to describe Eliza's internal fear and anxiety while she was trying to save her son when the disaster came. Here, Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals, rabbit and falcon. In traditional Chinese culture, rabbits are docile and fragile, just like Eliza; and falcons are agile and fierce birds, just like black slave traders. Huang Jizhong translated “fire” into “五内如焚”, which vividly reproduced Eliza's anxious heart at the time. Lin Shu used domestication here, while Huang Jizhong used alienation.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，5)<br />
<br />
In the above example, the horizon of the two translators and the original author merged in different forms, thus forming two different translation versions. While the translator strives to get closer to the original author's horizon, the two translators also strive to integrate with the horizon of the readers of their time, so they adopted a more acceptable expression for the target reader of the time. The language used in China in Lin Shu ’s time was classical Chinese, and the expression was more obscure, so Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals to reflect the characters in the text. In the era of Huang Jizhong, literature has further developed, and the official language used in China has also become vernacular, so he used the four-word "五内如焚" to translate. The reason why two different translation methods can be accepted by the target readers of the era is that the translator tried hard to integrate with the reader's horizon.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，7)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of hermeneutics, the text is only a semi-finished product, which is in the process of understanding. The meaning of the text and the translator's understanding are in a constantly changing process, and they are constantly evolving. Understanding is not a one-time act, but an endless process of integration between the "Horizon" of original text and the translator’s "Horizon". Each understanding is a process of generating textual meaning. The possibilities of textual meaning are endless, and textual meaning is a source of endless meaning.（Chen Hongwei 2004, 28）<br />
<br />
<br />
8. The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon.（Stowe 2011, 215）<br />
<br />
林译：彼夫妇在蜜月期内，……（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归）。(Lin Shu & Wei Yi 1981, 75)<br />
<br />
黄译：正值新婚夫妇在……欢度蜜月，……（Huang Jizhong 1993, 143）<br />
<br />
A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture.In the above example, Lin Shu used the method of literal translation and annotation when translating the word "honeymoon", so that the readers at the time could understand it. At that time, there was little cultural exchange between China and the West, so if Lin Shu used the literal translation method, it may cause readers to be unable to understand the word. Here Lin Shu adopted the method of annotation to translate the word, which is also a reflection of his efforts to integrate with the reader's horizon. Huang Jizhong directly adopted the literal translation method to convey the original imagery. Both the original text and the translated text exist in their respective historical conditions and horizons. Even if the translator tries his best to enter the world of the meaning of the original text and try to understand the intention of the original author, it will inevitably impose her own ideas and purposes. Coupled with the different historical environments of the two translators, the translation strategies used by them are certainly different.（Li Lei 2008, 122）<br />
<br />
From the perspective of hermeneutics, literary translation is actually a process of interaction between text and readers. Because readers of different times are constrained by their own experience, intelligence, and aesthetic tastes, they have different expectations and evaluations of the translated text. The Reception Aesthetic theory pays much attention to the reader and emphasis on the uncertainty of the text, which have brought about a diversity of values and an open way of thinking.Understanding of the text is inseparable from the initiative of the reader. The translated text must also exist in the creativity and participation of readers. Readers of different ages have different understandings of the same cultural image. Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator should not only merge with the horizon of the original text, but also the horizon of the readers that the translation work is aimed at. Only in this way, the works translated by the translator can be understood by the readers of the time, and can be admired by the readers. The majority of our translators can draw enlightenment: when translating, while observing the principles of "faithfulness, elegance, and elegance", we must also take into account the reader's understanding.(Zou Guangsheng 2001，2)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In the above, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we have conducted a comparative analysis of the two Chinese versions. Through the above analysis, the three major concepts contained in hermeneutics—historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and effective history have brought us some inspirations: 1.The existence of multiple translations is reasonable. Translation is a special interpretative act, which is based on the translator's own understanding, so it will inevitably carry the personal trace of the translator. Based on their different experiences and views, translators make different interpretations of the same text in the process of translating, resulting in different translation works. 2. Creative treason is inevitable. A correct understanding of "creative treason" will help translators to bravely accept the challenges and find the correct solutions when facing translation difficulties caused by cultural differences between China and the West. 3. The changes of translation works can reflect social change. On the whole, hermeneutics can effectively explain some translation phenomena and provide a new perspective for translation studies.(Liu Xiaohui 2010, 123)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Gadamer, Hans-Georg. (1999). [Truth and Method]. Beijing: Peking University Press.<br />
<br />
Hebding, Daniel E. & Glick, Leonard. (1992). [Introduction to Sociology:a Text with Reading]. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.<br />
<br />
Stowe, Harriet Beecher. (2011). [Uncle Tom’s Cabin]. Jilin: Jilin Publishing Group Co., Ltd.<br />
<br />
Toury, Gideon. (2001). [Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Chen Hongwei 陈宏薇. (2004). ''新编汉英翻译教程'' [A New Coursebook on Chinese-English Translation]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
Hong Handing 洪汉鼎. (2010). ''诠释学：真理与方法''[Hermeneutics:Truth and Method]. Beijing: Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
Huang Jizhong 黄继忠. (1993). ''汤姆大伯的小屋'' [Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House 上海译文出版社.<br />
<br />
Li lei 李磊. (2008). 从伽达默尔哲学阐释学看''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' 的两个中译本[D]. 上海外国语大学硕士学位论文, 2008.<br />
<br />
Lin Shu & Wei Yi 林纾,魏易. (1981) ''黑奴吁天录''[Uncle Tom's Cabin]. Beijing: Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
Liu Xiaohui 柳晓辉. (2010). ''译者主体性的语言哲学反思''[A Reflection of the Language Philosophy of Translator's Subjectivity]. ''外语学刊'' Foreign Language Research （1）122-125. <br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000). ''翻译的理论建构与文化透视''[ Theoretical Construction of Transaltion from a Cultural Perspective]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
Zou Guangsheng 邹广胜. (2001). ''读者的主体性与文本的主体性''[ The Subjectivity of the Reader and the Text]. ''外国文学研究'' Foreign Literature Studies （4）1-7.<br />
<br />
Zhu Jianping 朱健平. (2006). ''翻译即解释:对翻译的重新界定----哲学诠释学的翻译观''[Translating Is Interpreting:Redefining ''Translating'' from Perspective of Philosophical Hermeneutics]. ''解放军外国语学院报'' PLA University of Foreign Languages （2）69-74.<br />
<br />
Zheng Liping & Yi Xinqi 郑立平,易新奇. (2015). ''翻译过程中文本理解的解释学阐释''[Interpretation of Textual Understanding in Translation Process from the Perspective of Hermeneutics]. ''外语学刊'' Foreign Language Research （04）101-104.<br />
<br />
Zhang Qinqun 章启群. (2002). ''意义的本体论----哲学阐释学''[The Ontology of Meaning----Philosophical Hermeneutics]. Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House 上海译文出版社.<br />
<br />
==On Translation Strategies of ''Why Women Kill'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 唐铭 Tang Ming==<br />
<br />
===On Translation Strategies of ''Why Women Kill'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
<br />
<center> Tang Ming唐铭, 202020080643. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
In process of subtitle translation, it is worth our attention that how to make information successfully conveyed in limited time and space, and to make the response of target audience as close as possible to that of original audience. Eugene Nida’s functional equivalence theory puts emphasis on the closest response of the target audience, which enables them to understand and appreciate the original texts in the way that the source audience do. This paper mainly discusses the application of Eugene Nida’s functional equivalence theory in the American TV series ''Why Women Kill'' from the levels of lexical, syntactic, textual and stylistic, and summarizes some specific strategies of subtitle translation according to its characteristics, among which are reduction, addition, interpretation, substitution, punctuation, word order adjustment and so on.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Functional equivalence theory, subtitle translation, subtitle characteristics, translation strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
功能对等理论下的《致命女人》字幕翻译策略研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
如何使观众不仅能及时地了解字幕传达出的信息，并且获得与原文观众尽可能相近的感受，是字幕翻译过程中应当集中关注的问题。尤金•奈达的功能对等理论强调译本读者的反应，使其应能够以源语读者对原文的理解和欣赏方式，理解译本的要点。本文分别从词汇、句法、篇章、文体层面上探讨了功能对等理论在美剧《致命女人》英译汉中的应用，并就字幕特点总结了缩减法、增译法、解释法、替代法、标点符号法、语序调整法等具体策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等理论；字幕翻译；字幕特点；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===Chapter1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
Being a kind of language conversion restricted by many factors such as time, space, culture, and scene change, subtitle translation has the characteristics of being instantaneous, informative, comprehensive, situational, popular and colloquial(Qian Shaochang 2000, 61), etc. Throughout the domestic translation industry, however, the investment in literary translation is far greater than that of subtitle translation. And yet there is no systematic and specialized translation theory applied to it, for which most of researches are still at the empirical stage. The social role of subtitle translation wants urgent attention. <br />
<br />
That using ''the most close and natural equivalents'' in translation practice is the core of Eugene Nida’s (1969, 71) functional equivalence theory, which has been recognized and valued by many translators at home and abroad. From the perspective of the audience, we should choose popular expressions that are easy for audience to understand, maximizing service for audience and helping them to get the source information accurately. This is exactly the guiding significance of the functional equivalence theory for subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
This paper is going to analyze subtitle translation from the perspective of functional equivalence theory by introducing the theory and main characteristics of subtitles, and comparing one subtitled version against the other (one is Renren subtitle group version and the other is Wanwan subtitle group version) of the American TV series ''Why Women Kill'' released in 2019, and discussing in detail the application of functional equivalence theory in ''Why Women Kill''. In the end, we will come to a natural and succinct conclusion of all the research findings. <br />
<br />
===Chapter2 Subtitle Translation Analysis===<br />
<br />
'''2.1 Introduction of Subtitle Translation'''<br />
<br />
In the field of subtitle translation, the European Association for Studies in Screen Translations (ESIST) was established in 1955, and gradually became an influential academic organization, whose formation has promoted exchanges and cooperation between researchers in the field, and advanced the development of subtitle translation in Europe. At home, however, we haven’t established a systematic and specialized translation theory applied to subtitle translation yet. Professor Qian Shaochang (2000, 61-65), who has many years of experience in subtitle translation, called for more attention to it in ''Film Translation--The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks'' published in ''Chinese Translation''.<br />
<br />
When it comes to the definition of subtitle translation, we may have heard about several versions, among which Nedergaard-larson’s (1993) definition for it will be introduced first. ''He defines subtitle translation as a special language conversion, in which the film subtitle condensed the essence of the original spoken language. It enables the audience to better understand the plot of the film while listening to the information of the source language, and to experience the atmosphere and environment beyond the film subtitles.'' (Nedergaard-larson 1993, 116)<br />
<br />
In addition, Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, and Chen Gang jointly compiled the book Basic Film Translation and Research, in which the film subtitle is explained as: ''Subtitles often present the dialogue or monologue in written form, to help the audience understand the dialogue and other information, sound language including background music, the phone rings and other sound in the audio tracks, and non-sound language information such as words, street signs and so on''(Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, and Chen Gang 2013, 8). Therefore, subtitle translation does not only pay attention to the translation of characters’ dialogues, but also the translation of some key information.<br />
<br />
'''2.2 Characteristics of Subtitle Translation'''<br />
<br />
In his article ''The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks'', Qian Shaochang (2000, 61-65) analyzes the differences of film and television language and literary language. He also sums up five features of subtitle translation, which are the feature of hearing, comprehensiveness, instantaneity, popularity and no note. <br />
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Firstly, by the feature of hearing, we mean that literary works are read with the eye, while the language of film and television works is heard with the ear. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 61)<br />
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Secondly, subtitle translation is comprehensive in that a film or television work is a kind of comprehensive art, in which actor’s speech and act performance, various changes of scenes and sounds are presented simultaneously. Therefore when doing subtitle translation, we need pay attention to details such as a gesture or a nod as well. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, for factors of time and space, subtitles put on the bottom of the screen can change in a moment. Such characteristic of subtitles demands that subtitle translation be evident and smooth since limited time doesn’t allow audience to think deeply. Audience need to give up the words if they don’t hear or understand clearly, or they may even miss the following words. (Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
<br />
Fourthly, popularity means that subtitle language is informal, even vulgar sometimes, for that it mainly consists of daily dialogues of common people. Moreover, reading literary works must have a certain level of literacy, but even illiterate people can understand film and television. The audience for film and television works is so wide that the language of film and television ought to be suitable for all classes and ages.(Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
<br />
Lastly, subtitles have no additional note. It is another trait different from literary works. Literary translation where readers find it difficult to understand can be noted on the page, however, subtitle translators do not enjoy such treatment.(Qian Shaochang 2000, 62)<br />
<br />
Zhang Chunbai (1998) proposed immediacy and popularity, features of subtitle translation, in his article Preliminary Study on Film Translation. He also mentions an extraordinarily important feature of subtitle language - personalization of language. In film and television works, character traits are often expressed through language. In such case, free translation is usually required for presence of personalization of language, which is exactly the application of Eugene Nida’s theory of functional equivalence.<br />
<br />
===Chapter3 Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
'''3.1 Overview of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
<br />
The theory of functional equivalence, was first proposed by Eugene Nida, a famous American translator. ''Translators should strive for equivalence instead of identity. In a sense, it’s just another way of reproducing the information in the source language.'' (Nida 1969, 35) It makes it clear that it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence, and it also emphasizes the most natural and closest equivalence. This is the core of Nida’s theory of functional equivalence. <br />
<br />
Nida (1993, 117) also puts emphasis on the requirement that the translator should achieve in translation: that is, ''the audience should be able to grasp the key points of the translation, based on the way in which audience of the source language understand and appreciate the original text.'' From the perspective of audience’s reception, the target audience should have as much as similar reactions to the source audience when reading the translation. Therefore, the translator should make full use of the closest and the most natural equivalents.<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, people often make mistakes not in language, but in the wrong understanding of cultural construction. There are similarities and differences between language and culture, but there is a close relationship between them. (Nida 2001, 89) Obviously, translation practice is not only a simple literal translation of language itself. The impact of cultural differences also needs to be considered. ''In order to achieve “functional equivalence”, cultural adjustment can be carried out.'' (Ma Huijuan 2003, 63)<br />
<br />
Regarding the contents of functional equivalence theory, “equivalence” includes four aspects: (1)Lexical equivalence: the value of a word lies in its use in the language so that translators should find the corresponding meaning in the target language; (2)Syntactic equivalence: translators should not only know whether the target language has such a structure, but also how often it is used; (3)Textual equivalence: in discourse analysis, besides on language itself, translators should focus more on how the language embodies the meaning and function in the specific context; (4)Stylistic equivalence: translation works of different styles have their own unique linguistic characteristics.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 122)<br />
<br />
'''3.2 The Guiding Significance of Functional Equivalence Theory to Subtitle Translation'''<br />
<br />
Different from general text translation, Subtitle translation is influenced and restricted by more factors, among which cultural factors are the most critical. Cultural factors, obviously, form a gap between the target audience and the source language. This is something that no good translator can eliminate.In order to make up for this deficiency, the missing parts should be compensated, so that the audience response of the two texts can be the same. Narrowing the gap as far as possible and building a bridge connecting the two ends of the gap is the goal of subtitle translators. <br />
<br />
To convert subtitle language properly needs to cater to the taste of audience and characteristics of culture. This is a process of dynamic compromise, in which the theory of functional equivalence is an important guiding principle for generating closest audience experience. It is also noted that absolute equivalence does not exist. Taking subtitle translation for instance, audiences of the two texts are influenced by various factors such as historical and cultural background, social ideology, lexicon, grammar, etc., so that there is rare possibility that subtitle translators can achieve completely equivalent translation. <br />
<br />
In general, the functional equivalence theory pursues the closest response of the two groups of audience, so as to guide the translators to highlight more the cultural connotation and charm of the source text rather than its form. Under the guidance of functional equivalence theory, strategies of subtitle translation should adopt more liberal translation techniques, integrating the unique characteristics of the subtitles and the prominent characters and relationships in the plays. Functional equivalence theory as the principle, there are varied strategies available for subtitle translation, such as substitution, interpretation, addition, reduction, punctuation, word order adjustment and so on. <br />
<br />
===Chapter4 Text Analysis===<br />
<br />
This part makes a comparative analysis of the translation of Renren subtitle group and Wanwan subtitle group at lexical level, syntactic level, textual level and stylistic level respectively, points out the existing problems and puts forward some opinions on them.<br />
<br />
'''4.1 Lexical Equivalence'''<br />
<br />
(1)-Beth Ann: Oh, Rob, it’s lovely.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Robert: Damn straight!...Well, it’s a mention, is what it is. Yeah, you’re married to a guy who can afford a goddamn mansion.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Neighbors: Hello! Sheila Mosconi. This is my husband, Leo. I guess you’re our new neighbors.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Beth Ann: I must apologize for my husband’s language…He doesn’t usually swear.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-罗伯特：那是当然！…这可是豪宅，你嫁给了一个买得起该死的豪宅的人。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-贝丝安：抱歉我的丈夫出口成脏。…他平时很少说脏话的。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-罗伯特：你说得太对了！…嗯，这是个豪宅，一个豪宅。没错，你嫁给了一个买得起该死的豪宅的人。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-贝丝安：我必须为我丈夫的言语道歉。…他通常不说脏话的。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
Here Beth Ann and her husband had just arrived at the mansion. Beth Ann said the house is beautiful, and Rob said “straight” to show his approval. Since his feeling of proud, Rob added a “damn” to strengthen the tone, similar to “真他妈的” in Chinese. Similarly, “goddamn” is a word used to show that you are angry, annoyed, or surprise. Beth Ann was afraid that the neighbors would think less of them because of her husband’s previous rude remarks, so she explained to the neighbors for her husband. <br />
<br />
Both groups didn’t rightly translate Rob’s remarks. Because for the former words of Rob, their translations are respectively “那是当然” “你说得太对了”, not demonstrating Rob’s rudeness at all, so that the audience may be confused when they see Beth Ann’s words for apologize. The translation of “真他妈的太对了” will be better. <br />
<br />
In Beth Ann’s words, “language” means words that most people think are offensive, and swear to use rude and offensive language. Renren subtitle group translates “language” as “出口成脏”, ordinarily intending to be homophonic with “出口成章”. The intention is faultless, but such translation apparently doesn’t agree with Beth Ann’s following words “He doesn’t usually swear”. Wanwan subtitle group’s translation of it is simply “言语”, it is not clear enough, while subtitle translation is ought to be as much as easy to understand. Thus “粗言粗语” for “language” here will be a better choice.<br />
<br />
(2)Leo：Well, we have four little rug rats. At some point, they are gonna break something that you own.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
里奥：我们有四个小家伙。早晚有一天，他们会弄坏你们的东西。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
里奥：好吧，我们有四只小耗子。指不定哪天，他们可能会弄坏你们家什么东西。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
While Sheila and Leo were visiting Beth Ann’s house, they asked Robert and Beth Ann if they had any children, and introduced that they had four. Leo used “rug rats”, which means annoying children, to describe his children. Because he thought the children are naughty, which was indicated by his following words “they are gonna break something that you own”. <br />
<br />
In such background, both groups didn’t translate the word phrase properly. Renren subtitle group translate it as “小家伙”, failing to embodying the children’s feature of naughty, while Wanwan subtitle group translate it as “小耗子”, employing literal translation strategy, but can cause puzzlement of audience since we are not used to using “小耗子” to describe children in Chinese. Considering Chinese culture, the translation can be revised as “熊孩子”.<br />
<br />
(3)Eli: I married a kick-ass lawyer.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
伊莱：我嫁给了一个成功的律师。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
伊莱：我娶了一个超厉害的律师。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
As we introduced above, Taylor’s husband Eli was unemployed and Taylor had been the one who provided the family. She was an extremely independent, capable woman, taking care of Eli like his mother. <br />
<br />
So there is a breakthrough in Renren subtitle group’s translation, it uses the word “嫁” to present Eli’s feature of reliance. The important feature of subtitle language - personalization of language gets embodied. In addition, Taylor was a feminist. The series’ three female protagonists, their social identity lifting from a housewife, a socialite to a lawyer, constitute a history of female growth. The translation at here is exactly to the point and is a bravo example of functional equivalence at lexical level.<br />
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(4)Simone: Tommy, that kiss we shared was sweet, but it was not a down payment.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：汤米，我们那一吻是很甜蜜，但它不是笔首付。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：汤米，我们的那个吻很甜蜜，但它并不代表我们之间有可能。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
Tom was constantly on the pursuit of Simone. Because of Tom’s age and identity, her best friend’s 18-year-old son, Simone thought there is no possibility between them.<br />
The word phrase “down payment” is a metaphor here, and “首付” is literal translation. In principle, the translation of literary works should try to keep the rhetorical devices of the original. In subtitle translation, however, in order to reduce the time for the audience to think, semantics of language must be as clear as possible, so as to better convey the information. It’s also a kind of fidelity to the original. So I think to specify it as “并不代表我们之间有可能” is better.<br />
<br />
'''4.2 Syntactic Equivalence'''<br />
<br />
(5)Naomi: Misery loves company.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
娜奥米：一起比惨，痛苦减半。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
娜奥米：同病方能相怜。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
“Misery loves company” is an English proverb, generally translated as “同病相怜”. The translation is proper since Chinese idiom was employed, functional equal to English proverb. The translation of “一起比惨，痛苦减半” here is also acceptable. Because it contains end rhyme, “惨” and “半”, and has a slang feel. Moreover, it perfectly restores the original symmetrical sentence structure.<br />
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(6)①Simone: I’m 20 minutes late, again.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：我迟到了20分钟，又一次。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：我迟到了20分钟，我已经迟到了很多次了。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
②Simone: You think you’re gonna get out of this by dying?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：你以为你能以死解脱吗？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：你觉得，你这样死掉就可以摆脱这一切吗？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
As we mentioned above, for factors of time and space, subtitles put on the bottom of the screen can change in a moment. Therefore subtitle translations are required to be not only precise, but also concise. In these two sets of sentences, Renren subtitle group’s translations are better, both contains 10 words of Chinese, while Wanwan’s both contains 17 words. If the sentence is too long, the space at the bottom of the screen may not hold, and the subtitles have to switch more quickly to keep up with the dialogue of the characters. In addition, the duration of the subtitle is very short, only about two or three seconds. In such a short time, to let the audience understand the message conveyed by the subtitle, the subtitle translation must be concise and easy to read.<br />
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(7)①Taylor: You’ve been insecure lately because of your career.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
泰勒：你最近没有安全感，因为你事业不顺。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
泰勒：因为你的工作，你最近一直没有安全感。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
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②Tom: You’re wearing sunglasses in doors, at night.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
汤姆：你在室内而且是在晚上戴着墨镜。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
汤姆：那是因为你大晚上的还在屋子里戴墨镜。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
There are big differences between English and Chinese in the center of gravity. In these two sets of sentences, we will discuss two kinds of centroid ordering problems, one is the ordering of causes and results, the other is the ordering of time and space. The center of gravity of English sentences and Chinese sentences is generally presented in hypotheses, conclusions, results, etc. English sentences generally focus on the front and put the main part at the beginning of the sentence, while Chinese sentences generally vice versa, like “因为你的工作，你最近一直没有安全感”, rather than “你最近没有安全感，因为你事业不顺”. <br />
<br />
When stating the time and place of the event, English sentences usually start with the place and end with the time, so we seldom hear statement like “I tonight stay at home”, but “I stay at home tonight”. But in Chinese, the situation is different, the time usually comes first, behind which follows the place. For this factor, Wanwan subtitle group’s translation of “大晚上的还在屋子里” is better than Renren’s “在室内而且是在晚上”.<br />
<br />
(8)①Simone: You know what they say: It’s not a party until someone breaks something.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：俗话说，没有打碎过东西的派对就不算是派对。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
西蒙妮：你知道的，大家都说派对是从有人打碎了什么贵重的东西开始的。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
②Taylor: This is the part where you walk away to avoid going to prison.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
泰勒：你现在该为避免蹲大牢走开了。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
泰勒：但如果你现在转头离开，就不用再进监狱。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
By syntactic equivalence, it emphasizes that translators should not only know whether the target language has such a structure, but also how often it is used. It means that translators must take idiomatic expressions of the target language into consideration, to make target texts expressive and smooth. Regarding the three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” put forward by Yan Fu, Qian Shaochang believes that “expressiveness” should be the first. In these two sets of sentences, translations of “没有打碎过东西的派对就不算是派对” and “但如果你现在转头离开，就不用再进监狱”are much more idiomatic.<br />
<br />
'''4.3 Textual Equivalence'''<br />
<br />
(9)-Robert: I saw you talking to the neighbors. What are they like?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Beth Ann: Italian.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-罗伯特：我看到你和邻居聊天了，他们什么样？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-贝丝安：意大利人。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-罗伯特：我看到你在和邻居讲话，他们怎么样啊？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-贝丝安：意大利人。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
After talking with her new neighbors for the first time, Beth Ann described her new neighbors as Italian, with a little bit of a label, which shows that she is not very fond of them.<br />
<br />
Evidently, there contains a culture-bound situation in the dialogue. But two groups did not illuminate the conventional meaning, thus making audience completely confused. They only cared about language itself, but did not pay attention on how the language embodies the meaning and function in the specific context, failing to realize functional equivalence at textual level. <br />
<br />
In fact, once during World War II, Americans suffered unfair treatment for a long time, then President Franklin D. Roosevelt, issued a statement, announcing citizens of Japan, Germany and Italy as “America’s foreign enemies”. Although on October 12, 1942, the U.S. attorney general Francis Biddle announced that Italian was no longer the nation’s enemies, but Americans in the 1960s still cannot get rid of their inherent prejudice for Italians. In such historical background, the implication concerning cultural factors requires illuminating. Translators can add a brief annotation behind the words, or add words like “你懂的”, “你说呢” to indicate deliberate implication but evident prejudice.<br />
<br />
(10)–Jade: Do you like bacon?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Eli: Well, I’m Jewish, so, yeah.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
伊莱：这个嘛，我是犹太人，所以，我喜欢。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
伊莱：我是犹太人，但…行吧。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
When Jade stayed at Taylor’s, she would get up early every day to make breakfast for the couple. The couple, on the other hand, enjoyed it because they usually ordered takeout and few people took care of their lives. So when Jade brought breakfast bacon to Eli and asked if he liked it, Eli replied politely. <br />
<br />
However, as Eli implied, he was a Jewish. If we know something about Jewish culture, we know that they don’t eat pork. And bacon is salted or smoked pork. For this case, Wanwan subtitle group handled it better than Renren did. It translate “so, yeah” as “但…行吧。”, adding an ellipsis and expressing the turning meaning, so that manifested Eli’s polite intention of not letting Jade down and conveyed the function of the original dialogue. Renren subtitle group’s translation just adopted literal translation, failing to present Eli’s inner rejection, thus making audience neglect the culture fact. Translation practice is not only a simple literal translation of language. The impact of cultural differences also needs to be considered.<br />
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(11)–Tom: It’s called a Swatch. And, it’s waterproof.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Simone: Oh, so it’s safe from my tears of joy.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-汤姆：这是斯沃琪手表。而且，这是块防水手表哦。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-西蒙妮：那它不会被我喜悦的泪水弄坏了。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-汤姆：是斯沃琪手表。还有，防水。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-西蒙妮：那我就不用怕我的喜悦之泪把它泡坏了。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
Simone and Tom were on their first date. Tom carefully prepared a gift - a watch called Swatch- and cheerfully told Simone that it was waterproof. Before opening the present, Simone assumed it was something like jewelry. After seeing the waterproof watch, she expressed her distaste for the gift humorously.<br />
<br />
Reading the two translations, we will feel two completely different tone of Tom. One is earnest and full of expectation, the other is brief and coldish. As we know, Tom is a boy in his early eighteen, the calm and concise language style does not fit him. And when he presented the watch to Simone, he was delightful and thought Simone would like it. Therefore Renren subtitle group’s translation of “这是斯沃琪手表。而且，这是块防水手表哦” is better. The adding modal particle “哦” is to the point, too. <br />
<br />
Apparently, Simone did not like the gift, and she thought her little boyfriend and his gift of a waterproof watch were childish. As harsh as she was, so sharp were her words. The two group’s translation both failed to transmit the illocutionary meaning of Simone’s words, thus failing to fulfill the pragmatic function of language. In order to convey Simon’s implication and retain the humorous style of the source language, this sentence can be translated as “那它真是能防住我喜悦的泪水”, which means that she was very happy and expected to receive gift from Tom, but the gift itself made her joy disappear.<br />
<br />
(12)-Simone: You wouldn’t want to ruin her special day with a divorce.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Karl: No.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-西蒙妮：你不会想用离婚来毁了她的大好日子吧。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-卡尔：对。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-西蒙妮：你不想因为离婚，就毁掉她最特别的一天吧。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-卡尔：不会。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
Simone put forward that she won’t divorce with Karl until her daughter’s wedding. Karl also did not want to ruin her daughter’s wedding so he agreed, shaking his head.<br />
Karl was shaking his head when he answered “no”. Therefore it is not agree with his act if we translate “no” into “对”, although it is right in English when we translate the answer of general questions. When translating film and television works, due to the role of pictures, sounds, characters, the translation should fully consider all of the factors.<br />
<br />
'''4.4 Stylistic Equivalence'''<br />
<br />
(13)Beth Ann: You want to see the same old Beth? Fine, here she is in all her glory.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
贝丝安：你不是想从前那个贝丝吗？好啊，老娘在此，胴光闪耀。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
贝丝安：你想看那个始终如一的贝丝？她就在这儿呢，毫无保留。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
When Beth Ann found out that her husband was cheating on her, she still thought it was her fault, so she changed her image, got a haircut and bought a new dress. However, Robert did not notice her change at all, and said he did not need Beth Ann to change but to make dinner for him. Beth Ann got a little angry and made a surprising move: she sat down at the table, naked.<br />
<br />
There contains a word “胴” in Renren subtitle group’s translation. It means the body after the removal of the head, limbs and internal organs. But in real life, people use it very infrequently and few people know what it means. This is likely to prevent the target audience from resonating with the source audience. So Renren subtitle group’s translation is improper here. The choice of word, if too written or obscure, will affect the target audience’s understanding of the meaning of the source sentence. <br />
<br />
(14)-Taylor: Honey, that is a stupid plan.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Eli: That’s a bit harsh, but, okay, fine, you go.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-伊莱：扎心了，好吧，你说。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-伊莱：这么说可有点伤人，那行吧，你来。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
There contains a network vocabulary “扎心” in Renren subtitle group’s translation. As we emphasized, in films and TV works, the words of the translation should be popular. When the translator can find several similar equivalents, he must choose them carefully. At present, the majority of Chinese people who like to watch American TV series are young people, so the appropriate use of Internet vocabulary can enhance the resonance with the target audience.<br />
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(15)①-Robert: Well, I should get going.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-Beth Ann: Going?（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
- Robert: To my dinner meeting.（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-罗伯特：去我的晚餐会议。(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-罗伯特：去应酬。(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
②–Amy: Who got to you?（''Why Women Kill'' 2019）<br />
<br />
-艾米：谁给你吹耳边风了？(Renren subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
-艾米：谁影响了你？(Wanwan subtitle group 2019)<br />
<br />
In these two sets of sentences, “应酬” and “吹耳边风” are better translations, while “晚餐会议” and “影响” are too formal. In films and TV series, especially in the dialogue between characters, colloquialism should be emphasized. Take “Who got to you?” for instance, Amy was Simone’s daughter and was angry about her boyfriend’s affair. Simone had been on Amy’s side at first, but began to speak good words for Amy’s boyfriend after she knew that Amy intended to use Tom to revenge. So the idiom “吹耳边风” is rather appropriate here. The use of idiom exactly accords with the principle of colloquialism. <br />
<br />
===Chapter5 Subtitle Translation Strategies===<br />
<br />
Based on the analysis above, we can achieve some conclusions in terms of lime lights on subtitle translation under the guidance of functional equivalence theory. In this part we will discuss on some specific strategies to deal with the re-combed unique characteristics of subtitle translation.<br />
<br />
'''5.1 Instantaneity: reduction/word order adjustment'''<br />
<br />
In subtitle translation, we are obliged to provide information instantaneously and to ensure that the subtitle and the picture are highly synchronized. Due to the restriction of time and space, the strategies of reduction and word order adjustment are worth our attention.<br />
<br />
'''5.2 The property of being informative: colloquialism'''<br />
<br />
Subtitle translation came into being in order to facilitate the audience to get a better viewing experience. Therefore it is ought to provide authentic, useful and easily understandable information, which requires the language of subtitle translation be concise, clear, informal and easy to understand. In addition, in films and television works, the dialogue of characters occupies a so important position that sometimes the colloquialism of language must be considered.<br />
<br />
i.e. she is in all her glory: 毫无保留（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.3 The property of being situational: addition/interpretation'''<br />
<br />
The situation discussed here includes many aspects, such as the character in the film, historical and cultural background, plot hints and so on. In this case, it is necessary to find out the profound meaning behind the literal meaning, and give the audience more clear prompts, solving the comprehension gap.<br />
<br />
i.e. language: 粗言粗语; it was not a down payment: 不代表我们之间有可能; Italian: 意大利人，你懂的/你说呢 （''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.4 Comprehensiveness: punctuation'''<br />
<br />
It is to be noted that, in subtitle translation, language should include not only the spoken language, but also the action, gesture, emotion and other information implied in the picture. Only by realizing the comprehensiveness of subtitle translation, can the film information be conveyed to the audience completely.<br />
<br />
i.e. Well, I’m Jewish, so, yeah: 我是犹太人，但…行吧 （''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
'''5.5 Popularity: substitution/colloquialism'''<br />
<br />
A film or television work faces the broad masses, its language should be popular correspondingly. This feature puts forward two main requirements for subtitle translators: the first is the popularity, which is similar to colloquialism we have mentioned; the second is the timeliness. The appropriate use of buzzwords can enhance the audience’s resonance.<br />
<br />
i.e. little rug rats: 熊孩子; That’s a bit harsh: 扎心了; dinner meeting: 应酬; Who got to you: 谁给你吹耳边风了（''Why Women Kill'', 2019）<br />
<br />
===Chapter6 Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Being an explanatory thesis, this paper has tried to shed light upon the topic of subtitle translation from the perspective of functional equivalence theory. The work has followed the typical procedure of a scientific study: firstly, it introduces the main characteristics of subtitle translation summarized by previous researches and then it presents the functional equivalence theory. Then, respectively from lexical, syntactic, textual and stylistic level, this paper selected some typical examples of subtitles in Why Women Kill as analysis objects, pointing out the advantages and disadvantages of the translation versions. Lastly, the author explores the subtitle translating strategies under the guidance of this theory. <br />
<br />
It is to be noted that functional equivalence is not absolute, but approximate. In the process of subtitle translation, the translator is obliged to employ various kinds of strategies and methods, from different angles and levels for effective treatment, to make the effect of the target text as much as possible close to that of the original, and make cultural characteristics of the original can be reserved. <br />
<br />
In particular, subtitle translation guided by functional equivalence theory should attach importance not only to the equivalence of words and sentences, which are small translation units, but also to the equivalence of texts and styles. Translators often focus on how to translate a single sentence or word well, but ignore the cohesion of the context or the consistency of the speaker’s dialogue, resulting in the dialogue between the characters becoming self-talk. Several typical examples are given to illustrate the importance of contextual equivalence.<br />
<br />
This paper holds that translators must have a thorough understanding of the unique characteristics of subtitles, such as being instantaneous, informative, situational, comprehensive, and popular etc., flexibly apply various translation strategies, and constantly improve their quality in translation practice. The evaluative criterion of subtitle translation should be whether it can provide the audience with the closet and the most natural information combined with the picture and sound in the limited space and time. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Gottlieb, Henrik. (1994). ''“Subtitling – A New University Discipline,” in Dollerup, Cay and Anne Loddegaard'' [M] Teaching Translation and Interpretation: Training, Talent and Experience, Amsterdam, Philadelphia, John Benjamin.<br />
<br />
*Nedetgaard-Larson, Birgit. (1993). ''Culture-Bound Problems in Subtitling'' [M]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A. (1993). ''Language, Culture, and Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
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*Nida, Eugene A. (2001). ''Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Nida, Eugene A., C. R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: Brill.<br />
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*Du Zhifeng, Li Yao, Chen Gang杜志峰,李瑶,陈刚. (2013). 基础影视翻译与研究[M].[Basic Film translation and Research]. 浙江:浙江大学出版社Zhejiang: Zhejiang University Press.<br />
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*Hong Li洪莉. (2007). 功能译论在字幕翻译中的运用[J].[Application of Functional Translation Theory in Subtitle Translation]. 科技信息:学术研究Science and Technology Information: Academic Research (21): 460-461.<br />
<br />
*Li Yunxing李运兴. (2001). 字幕翻译的策略[J].[Subtitle Translation Strategy]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (04): 38-40.<br />
<br />
*Liang Shuang梁爽. (2012). 功能对等理论在电影字幕中的应用研究[J].[Research on the Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Film Subtitle Translation]. 对外经贸Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation (09):140-142.<br />
<br />
*Ma Huijuan马会娟. (2003). 奈达翻译理论研究（英文本）[M].[Research on Nida’s Translation Theory (English Version)]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br />
<br />
*Qian Shaochang钱绍昌. (2000). 影视翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].[Film Translation--The Increasingly Important Fields in Translation Parks]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (01): 61-65.<br />
<br />
*Tan Zaixi谭载喜. (2005). 翻译学[M].[Translatology]. 武汉:湖北教育出版社Wuhan: Hubei Education Press.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Chenxiang张沉香. (2007). 功能目的理论与应用翻译研究[M].[Functional Purpose Theory and Applied Translation Studies]. 湖南:湖南师范大学出版社Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Chunbai张春柏. (1998). 德国的功能翻译理论[J].[German Functional Translation Theory]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation (03): 45-50.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Yan张燕. (2009). 浅析英文电影翻译中的文化碰撞[J].[An Analysis of Cultural Clash in English Film Translation]. 电影文学Film Literature (14): 147-148.<br />
<br />
*Renren subtitle group (2019.7.26).Translation of Subtitles in ''Why Women Kill''.“Why Women Kill” .http://www.rrys2020.com/, 2019-7-26/2020-12-2.<br />
<br />
*Wanwan subtitle group (2019.7.30).Translation of Subtitles in ''Why Women Kill''“Why Women Kill” .http://wanwansub.com/, 2019-7-30/2020-12-2.<br />
<br />
==The Breakthrough and Innovation of Dong Qiusi’s Translation Thoughts 娄灿灿 Lou Cancan, student no.202070080599 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===The Breakthrough and Innovation of Dong Qiusi’s Translation Thoughts===<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Dong Qiusi is a famous Chinese practitioner and thinker in translation. From the second half of the 1940s to the early 1950s, he deeply reflected on many issues in the field of Chinese traditional translation studies and made important contribution to the innovation and development of translation in the middle of the 20th century. During this period, Dong Qiusi put forward some innovative viewpoints of breakthrough sense. For example, he believed that translation criteria should be followed based on different styles and that translation is "re-creation". When it comes to idea that the nature of translation is art, Dong Qiusi argued that translation is theoretical and emphasized the objective regularity of translation, which marked the shift of traditional Chinese translation thoughts from traditional to modern ones. Dong Qiusi initiated the establishment of Chinese translation studies as a discipline. He took the lead in separating translation criticism from traditional translation theories and focused on the two for deep study. He also included the history of translation into the research of translation as a discipline, thus building up a frame of translation studies consisting of translation criticism, translation theory and translation history.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
translation criteria; science;recreation; translation studies as a discipline; translation criticism; translation theory; translation history<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
董秋斯翻译思想的突破与创新<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
董秋斯是我国著名的翻译实践者和思想家。从20世纪40年代下半叶到50年代初，他对中国传统翻译研究领域的许多问题进行了深刻思考，为20世纪中期翻译的创新和发展做出了重要贡献。这一时期，董秋斯提出了一些具有突破性意义的创新观点。例如，他认为不同的风格应该遵循不同的翻译标准且翻译是“再创造”。在谈到翻译的艺术性质时，董秋斯认为翻译是理论性的，强调翻译的客观规律性，这标志着中国传统翻译思想由传统向现代的转变。董秋斯开创了中国翻译研究这门学科的创立，他率先将翻译批评理论与传统翻译理论分离开来，并对两者进行了深入研究。他还把翻译史作为一门学科纳入到翻译研究中，从而形成了由翻译批评、翻译理论和翻译史组成的翻译研究框架。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译标准；科学；再创造；翻译学；翻译批评；翻译理论；翻译历史<br />
<br />
===1.Brief Introdction of Dong Qiusi===<br />
Dong Qiusi, originally named Zhan Shaoming, was born in Jinghai County (today's Tianjin City) in 1899. He graduated from Yanjing University (the predecessor of Beijing University) and in the same year he participated in the Northern Expedition （北伐战争）in 1926， editing the monthly Bloody Road. In 1930, he joined in the launching of the League of Left-Wing Writers and the Council, editing the monthly International. He worked as a secret agent in China for the Communist International during the 1930s. He participated in orginazing the China Association for Promoting Democracy in 1945 and joined the Communist Party of China in 1946. Persecuted during the Great Cultural Revolution in 1969, he died with unjust. (庄智象 2017, 901)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi is a famous and outstanding Chinese literary translator. He had translated more than 50 foreign literary masterpieces in his lifetime. After the founding of the New China, he bacame chairman of the Shanghai Translators'Association, Editor-in-Chief of Translation, copy-editotr of the China Writers Association and Deputy Chief Editor of World Literature. His major translations include ''David Copperfield'', which is now still in print, ''A Home for the Highland Cattle'' by Doris Lessing, ''Cement'' by Fyodor Gladkov, ''War and Peace'' by Leo Tolstoy and so on. (Tian Chuanmao 2013，242)<br />
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Not only did Dong work hard as a translator, but he also devoted himself to theoretical research on translation. During his long years of translation practice and work, he kept thinking about translation theories and made great contribution to the development of translation in New China. Early before the founding of the People's Republic of China, he had expressed his views on translation in such papers as ''On Translation Principles'' (1946), ''About Indirect Transalation'' (1946), and ''On the Value of Translation'' (1948). After 1949, he published three papers in ''Translation Tongbao Magazine'', including ''On the Construction of Criticism'' and ''Self-criticism in Translation Circles'' (1950), ''The Criteria and Priorities of Translation Criticism'' (1950) and ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' (1951). (庄智象 2017, 901)<br />
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The three papers are of great significance for the development of translation theory in China. Dong's translation thought is profound and extensive, covering construction of translation theory, translation criticism, selection of source texts, strategies of foreignization and domestication, recreation in literary translation, relationship between and the value of translation, etc. His views on translation, especially on the construction of Chinese translation theory and translation criticism, are of great importance in the translation history of our country. (庄智象 2017, 901-902)<br />
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===2.Dong Qiusi’s Breakthroughs in Translation Thoughts===<br />
<br />
'''2.1 Breakthrough in the Traditional Translation Criteria'''<br />
<br />
In terms of translation standards, Dong Qiusi made up for the deficiency of traditional Chinese translation criteria from the perspective of text type. From Buddhist scriptures translation to the middle of 20th century, one-way and simplistic mindset had been throughout the discussion on the issue of translation criteria. people always consciously or unconsciously sought a unique and right translation criterion as their ultimate pursuit and most people were prone to deem the translation for literary texts as the reference. (汪庆华 2016, 18)<br />
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There is doubt that we all hope that translation standards are as simple as possible, and that one standard can function as solution to all problems in translation. However, practice has proved that it is not feasible for the complex work of translation. With the increasing various text types, unified translation standard can barely guide all types of translation practice. When discussing translation standards, most people only consider the relatively single text types they are exposed to, namely Buddhist scripture, social science or literature. Few take it into account that translation standards should vary depending on the type of text. Dong Qiusi was aware of this matter as early as 1946, and it is probably not enough to judge that he had a keen academic vision. (汪庆华 2016, 32-33)<br />
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To study Dong Qiusi's translation criterion, we can not bypass Yan Fu. Yan Fu's three-character criteria "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" had exerted far-reaching influence and had been the only guide for translators for decades since it was put forward. Especially in the first half of the 20th century, most of the Chinese translation experts embraced the criterion of Yan Fu. (Sun Yifeng 2012, 2)<br />
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Contrary to Yan Fu, Dong Qiusi believed that translation criteria for theoretical texts and literature ones are distinctive. For literary text, translators could adopt such standards as to be faithful to the original in "thought, style, inclination and fluency," which could be condensed into a single word, "faithfulness." Dong Qiusi held flexible and dialectical attitude towards the order of "thought, style, inclination and fluency". (汪庆华 2016, 18-19)<br />
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In terms of theoretical texts, Dong Qiusi thought that yan Fu's "faithfulness" and "expressiveness" should be adopted. That is to say, we should be faithful to the ideological content of the original work and ensure the fluency of the translation. As for "elegance", Dong Qiusi thought it could be justified by the times where Yan Fu lived in. "Elegance" was not only unsuitable for the standard of "theoretical texts" in the era of "vernacular Chinese", but also unsuitable for the standard of "literature texts". As is known to all, in the 1940s, the discussion on translation criteria at home and abroad basically stayed within the language level of content, form, style and so on. The fact that Dong Qiusi thought about this issue from the perspective of text type was leading the world at that time. (汪庆华 2016, 20-21)<br />
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'''2.2 Literature Translation is Recreation'''<br />
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Translation means to transfer the meaning of one language into another, while creation refers to the production of literary and artistic works. Translation is constrained by source text, while creation is free. It has been undcr discussion for a long time whether translation is a kind of creation or not. Many scholars, such as Guo Moruo, Zhu Guangqian , Luo Xinzhang , agreed that translation is a kind of creation. For example, Bassnett said it is therefore quite foolish to argue that the task of the translator is to translate but not to interpret, as if the two were separate exercises. (Newmark 1988, 33)<br />
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The interlingual translation is hound to reflect the translator’s own creative interpretation of the SL text. Dong also thought of translation as a recreation. He said, "a translator should not only get well acquainted with the meaning and style of the source text, but also with the author’s personality, his intention and other factors concerned. Having arrived at this stage, the translator is not only faced with words any more, but with the images behind the words. Therefore, what he needs to do is to express those concrete images out in his native language rather than just transfer the lexical meaning of one language into another. What I said might be a little exaggeration, but the translator should feel as if he were the author of the source text who was writing in another language that he was good at." (Bassnett 2004, 83) <br />
<br />
Since the images are organized by the author, their expression modes should also belong to the author. In this case, as British translator Alexander Fraser Tytler has stated, what the translator can do is nothing but recreate, although he has already obtained the soul of the original author.” (Ling Shan 2004, 86)<br />
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As we can see, initially, Dong viewed that literature translation is creation, which could be seen as his recognition of the idea by Guo Moruo. Dong Qiusi considered that translation is not merely a simple, technical work, and the translation process requires the translator to exert his/her personal understanding, imagination and expression. A translator, like a writer, faces exactly the same things, but produces very different products. There is no doubt that both of them show the characteristics of creation. (Ling Shan 2004, 86-88)<br />
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Dong Qiusi also said that just because of the existence of creativity, translators are able to produce different versions, making it possible that readers get close to and learn the true charm of the original work. Meanwhile, it should be alert that the translation being elevated to the status of creation will typically cause the translators to move from one extreme to another. In the history of translation, there are many cases in which the original texts have been freed from the shackles and the creativity has been overplayed. (汪庆华 2016, 41)<br />
<br />
For example, Lin Shu, a translator who had not master any foreign language, gave free play to his subjective creativity in the process of translation and ended up deviating from the original texts. Considering the limitation of creativity, Dong Qiusi modified his previously agreed view that "translation is creation" and added a "re" in front of the word "creation". Obviously, Dong Qiusi still believed that the translation of literature work were by no means a mechanical and technical labor and could not be completed by mere imitation. In his mind, the creativity of literature translation is essential. The translator can only constantly get close to the original, but can not do a complete match with the original. (汪庆华 2016, 41-43)<br />
<br />
In this process, the translators will inevitably give full play to his creativity. However, writers are free to write as they please. In contrast, the specific images that the translators wants to express are created by the original authors, meaning that translators are not as liberal as the original authors. Therefore, he was convinced that the creation of the translator is relative and absolute 100% creation is impossible; The translator's creation should be based on the original creation, which is a kind of "re-creation". (汪庆华 2016, 45)<br />
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It is self-evident that the modification of "translation is creation" to "translation is re-creation" is intended to emphasize the unity and opposition relations between the creativity and faithfulness of literary translation. "Re-creation" not only affirms the status and value of the translator's creativity in translation, the translator's positive role in the translation, but also demonstrates that the translator's creativity is limited, which means they can not break away from the original texts, give play to the imagination of the individual and create as much as they desire. In a word, Dong Qiusi deems it that the creation of literary translation should be definitely based on the original work and it is a kind of "re-creation" in nature. (Ling Shan 2004, 87)<br />
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'''2.3 Translation is Science'''<br />
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In 1951, Dong Qiusi clearly proposed that translation is science in his article ''On the Construction of Translation Theory''. According to him, the translation process is regulated by objective rules. These rules can be used for generating adequate translations. In order to discover and understand these rules,translation scholars should study all factors involved, and then use their findings to contribute to a complete theory, which is scientific owing to its objective basis. He explained that translation is science, meaning that there are laws that can be followed in the process of translation between Chinese and Western languages, and that it is not correct to say that translation can be done simply by talents and inspiration. (Luo Xuanmin 2004, 26)<br />
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Since these translation laws are objective, not discovered simply by imagination, to master these laws, we need to do thorough and detailed study. To be specific, we need to explore three main aspects: first, the structure, characteristics of various languages; Second, the contents and ways of expression of various disciplines; Third, translation experience in different times and countries. (Luo Xuanmin 2004, 26)<br />
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In Dong’s opinion, if many objective laws in translation could be summarized through investigation and research for people to learn and refer to, the novice translators would avoid wasting much time and energy to explore methods and techniques, and would not repeat the previous failures. Thus, it would be helpful to promote the translation work to achieve greater progress. This not only shows Dong Qiusi's profound understanding of the significance of studying the objective laws of translation in guiding practice, but also can be interpreted as his regret for the loss caused by Chinese translators' long-term neglect of the scientific nature of translation. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 226)<br />
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Dong Qiusi, inheriting the traditional Chinese concept that translation is art and enlightened by the newly emerging foreign view that translation science, clearly realized that translation, as art, would become random activities if it did not observe the objective scientific laws and accept the guidance of the objective laws. Therefore, in 1951, he became the first person in China who claimed that " translation is a kind of science " in the most authoritative journal Bulletin on Translation. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 226)<br />
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Dong Qiusi is the earliest translators in China who was aware of the unity and opposition relations between scientific and artistic translation. His view that translation is science is an important breakthrough in the development of traditional Chinese translation studies in the middle of 20th century, which marks the beginning of Chinese translation studies turning to linguistic science and plays an important role in the historical transition of Chinese translation studies from ancient to modern times. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 226)<br />
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===3. Dong Qiusi’s Innovation: to Establish Translation Studies As a Discipline===<br />
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Back in the 1950s, it became obvious that translation Studies in China required theoretical breakthroughs. Speaking of translation studies, the name of Dong Qiusi was worth special mentioning. Dong Qiusi, in an article entitled On the construction of translation theory in Translation Newsletter, made the proposal to establish translation studies as a discipline, claiming that "China has a long history of translation and, in spite of the lack of systematic theorization, has acquired an abundance of scattered and unconsolidated experiences and ideas". (Dong Qiusi 1951, 608)<br />
<br />
In his view, "translation is not something unknowable; rather, it is an existential phenomenon governed by laws unique to itself, and therefore has all the qualities needed to become a theoretical". Dong projected a sanguine prognosis largely based on this perception of China’s long history of translation. With the wisdom that hindsight affords, Tan Zaixi ruefully notes:“In the 1950s China was behind no other country in terms of the construction of Translation Studies. Had Dong Qiusi’s idea caught everyone’s attention, our translation research might have been ahead of the West all along.” (Tan Zaixi 1995, 15)<br />
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What Dong seemed to be doing in that paper was what Nida had earlier on in 1947 tried to do, i.e. applying a ‘scientific’, modern linguistics approach to the study of translation. Given the fact that there was virtually no academic contact with the West in the early years after the Chinese socialist revolution of 1949, Dong or his fellow Chinese scholars would not have access to, or be able to even hear of, Nida’s work, and that the Russian scholar Andrei Fedorov’s work was not to be published till 1953, a full two years after Dong had published his paper, we may say that at the time Dong’s proposition on applying a ‘scientific’ translation studies approach to the theoretical development of translation was quite original, and seemed in large measure to be modernizing Chinese translation discourse, in spite of the fact that Dong’s paper did read more like a ‘policy speech’ than in-depth academic research, or in some ways it was not as substantiated research as were Nida’s or Fedorov’s work. (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 225)<br />
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However, this optimism is retrospectively ungrounded because China was soon afterwards plunged into great social and political upheaval and its embryonic intercultural connectivity would be severed. Translation Studies could not develop until the early 1980s when translation activity was in full swing once again, fuelling an interest in analyzing translation problems as well, since large scale translation practice created renewed impetus for promoting Translation Studies. (Sun Yifeng 2012, 2)<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, it was not difficult to judge from the contents of several articles by Dong published successively from 1950 to 1951, such as How to Establish Translation Criticism and Self-Criticism, Criteria and Key points of Translation Criticism, and On the Construction of Translation Theory that he had formed a preliminary framework at that time. This framework consists of three parts: translation criticism, translation theory and translation history. Dong envisaged two steps towards this. (汪庆华 2016, 77)<br />
<br />
First, that a “common programme” be drafted on the study of major issues such as methods of translating, systems of revision and proofreading, criteria of translation, etc. for adoption by a national conference on translation. Second, that the government sanctioned agency organize experts to do six things: (1) write a history of translation in China, (2) introduce Western books on translation theory to Chinese readers, (3) use scientific linguistic methods to compare Chinese and foreign languages, (4) conduct translation criticism, (5) sum up experiences of translating, and (6) publish a translators’ journal. The end products of this national drive would be two books, one on the history of translation in China, and the other on the translatology of China. (Fan, S.1999, 42)<br />
<br />
<br />
'''3.1 Translation Criticism'''<br />
<br />
"Translation criticism is a major link between translation theory and translation practice." Not only can translation criticism be used to guide translation practice, but it can also enrich translation theory. It plays most direct role in the application of translation theory into translation practice. It can be seen that Dong has a very clear understanding of the positive function of translation criticism, hi order to make translation criticism serve translation practice constructively, he put forward practical opinions and suggestions on the criteria, priorities, and approaches of translation criticism, etc. (Newmark 1988, 184)<br />
<br />
Exactly as he said, this kind of translation criticism could play a very good supporting role even though it could not substitute for the whole work of constructing theoretical system of translation, because it could enrich translation theory, and defined each definition clearly and specifically, which was very important for the construction of any theory. (张茜 2012, 5)<br />
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Translation development is inseparable from translation criticism, but translation criticism has been in a non-rational state for a long period, and translators always turn a blind eye to some serious problems, such as the impetuous translation climate, blind introduction of copyright, decreased translation quality. etc. The fundamental reason for this situation lies in that we do not establish a positive and effective criticism theory as Dong said. The establishment of such a theory depends largely on the establishment of scientific translation criticism system. (张茜 2012, 5) <br />
<br />
Although translation criticism can be traced back to ancient times in China, such as the argument about literal translation and free translation, the research on translation criticism itself did not start until after 1949. In the early period after the founding of New China, the tasks that Chinese translators faced with were pretty arduous. There were two main problems: translation work was poorly planned and organized, and low-quality translations were published in large quantity. Therefore, how to solve the problems became one of the major tasks for the relevant department of the government. On March 26, 1950, China Daily published three papers on translation criticism with the title of “Taking Serious Attitude to Translating” by the Divisions of People’s literature and People’s Field for Arts. That is to say, the first new chapter of translation criticism began in early 1950’s in China. (孙致礼 1996，193)<br />
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In Dong's opinion, translation criticism is of great importance in that it is conducive to solving many practical problems and makes great contribution to cultivating translation talents, improving translation quality and developing translation criticism research itself. Dong Qiusi also put forward seven valuable Suggestions on how to carry out translation criticism: Firstly, distinguish established translators from novice ones. If a famous translator is irresponsible, he should be seriously criticized. For new translators, try to point out their mistakes. What is more important is to tell them how to correct mistake. Secondly, pin down the key points. The number of translation work is too large to criticize each of them. Thirdly, master principles and solve the issue of principles in translation through some typical cases. Fourthly, recommend successful experience and avoid simply criticizing mistakes. Fifthly, correct bad attitudes towards work. Translators and publishers should be responsible and meticulous respectively and avoid being perfunctory. Sixthly, establish correct theory. Translation theory is the foundation of translation criticism. Without the guidance of translation theory, translation criticism will become unclear about what is right or wrong. Seventhly, conduct critical attitude. Critics should seek truth from facts, be kind to others and try to be unbiased and objective. What’s more, Dong put forward the proposal of “constructive translation criticism.” (Dong Qiusi 1951, 608-610)<br />
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He illustrated that the constructive translation criticism was “to deal with fundamental problems, which have not been handled properly for long, with the aid of some typical examples.” He further explained “It is only by means of intensively reading one book and extensively reading many books that we can focus on criticism priorities, obtain a practical criticism criterion, so that we can criticize or appraise fairly and appropriately, the people to be criticized can be convinced, and readers can benefit. This kind of translation criticism can be called truly constructive.” (Dong Qiusi 1951, 609)<br />
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Reviewing the history of translation criticism 50 years ago, constructive translation criticism was quite rare. Apparently, translation criticism lacked theoretical self-consciousness. Due to the lack of supervision and guidance on practice, it was difficult to make thorough and reasonable explanations for many phenomena in the history of translation. Given that Translation criticism tended to be mixed with translation theory. Dong Qiusi separated translation criticism from translation theory and focuses his research on the construction of translation criticism. At that time, it was of extreme historical significance to emphasize the importance of the construction of translation criticism. (汪庆华 2016, 81)<br />
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'''3.2 Translation Theory'''<br />
<br />
Although the study of stage translation theory had been making progress and had made some achievements, there were still many problems, which were mainly manifested in the lack of system, scientific research methods, pure theory explorations and communication with the West. In his article ''The Cultivation of Translators'', Dong Qiusi expressed his regret that China had not established a complete theoretical system of translation until the People’s Republic of China was founded in 1949. (张茜 2012, 38)<br />
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Dong Qiusi held that the construction of translation theory was a long and arduous mission, the finishing of which required a lot of people to spend a long time, adopt scientific linguistic methods, and carry out in-depth investigation and research. In order to accomplish the task smoothly, he proposed a two-step strategy. The first step was to solve some important issues in the translation field in a short time. Second, long-term planning should be implemented simultaneously with short-term planning, including compiling ''Chinese Translation history'', sorting out and explaining China's local translation experience, absorbing and drawing on the essence of foreign theories and so on. After a long period of construction and the full development of the theoretical system of translation, some translation problems involved in the first step of the scheme would be finally solved. (张茜 2012, 38-39)<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi's main views on the guidelines for the construction of translation theory can be summarized as follows: adopting scientific linguistic methods, focusing on traditional Chinese translation theories, learning from foreign translation theories and closely connecting with practice. Dong suggested that like all other scientific theories, Chinese translation theory has its own general and specific features. On one hand, it should correspond with the general laws of science; and, on the other hand, it should possess its own distinctive features of its own time and place. It should draw on the theories and experiences of foreign countries, but it is absolutely not a blind copy. (汪庆华 2016, 88)<br />
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In other words, there is no shortcut. What is required is the investment of human and material resources of our country. He put forward that we could not simply expect foreign countries to establish translation theories for our use. Theories stem from experience. We already had a preliminary theoretical foundation and over-one-thousand-year translation experiences, including the experiences of translating Buddhist Scriptures in the early period of Tang Dynasty, and those of many translators like Lu Xun, Qu Qiubai since the May Fourth Movement. Therefore, it would not be difficult to establish a complete theoretical system if we could collect, analyze, refine and develop the experiences of our own country. After the founding of New China, Dong Qiusi took the lead in openly criticizing the traditional translation theories in China. Not only did he point out the crux of the slow development of Chinese traditional translation theories, but also, more importantly, he clarified the study objects of Chinese translation theories and the guidelines for the construction of translation theories. (汪庆华 2016, 88-89)<br />
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'''3.3 Translation History'''<br />
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Dong Qiusi are also a pioneer in the study of translation history. As we know, the study of translation history had been neglected for quite a long time. Although there had been relevant researches before Dong Qiusi, for example, in 1940, Huang Jiade(黄嘉德) edited a collection of Translation Studies entitled ''The History of Translation'', which excerpted the pertinent articles of Hu Shi and other translators in this field, we could not find anyone who formally came up with the history of translation as a specialized field of translation studies prior to Dong Qiusi. The study of the history of translation is a basic step which plays a decisive role in the construction and development of translation as a discipline. (汪庆华 2016, 90)<br />
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Dong Qiusi also attached great importance to the study in the construction of his translation system. In "On the Construction of Translation Theory", he wrote We should compile the ''History of Chinese translation'', sum up the translation experience since the Eastern Han Dynasty from a correct historical point of view, and grasp the right direction and principles in the process of development. Dong Qiusi stated that any research field inevitably had its own clear direction and principles if it wante to develop into an independent discipline. As far as the field of translation studies is concerned, the study of translation history undertakes this task. (汪庆华 2016, 91)<br />
<br />
The history of translation provides necessary documents for the construction of translation as a discipline. The study of the history of translation is favorable to understand the natural characteristics of translation and to provide reference for the construction of translation study. In the past, translators and researchers were bound to come across problems similar to those we encounter today, and have struggled to solve them. The ideologies, the development level of language and cultural in the Times they lived in would also have influenced them, so that they made choices on many issues such as translation standards, translation methods and translation functions. By sorting out the relevant experience and theories of translators throughout the history and mastering the development history of Translation in China, we can draw lessons from them, which is of enlightening significance to the confirming of status of the translation as a discipline. (汪庆华 2016, 991-93)<br />
<br />
===4. conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the second half of the 1940s to the beginning of the 1950s, Dong Qiusi had a comprehensive and in-depth reflection on many important issues in traditional Chinese translation studies, such as translation standards, the nature of translation, the creativity of translation etc., among which there were multiple original perspectives, such as: the translation criteria are adhered to based on text styles; Literary translation is "re-creation"; The essence of translation is "science", etc. In the early 1950s, Dong Qiusi established a translation framework consisting of translation criticism, translation theory and translation history. This viewpoint is not only leading in China, but also in the history of translation studies around the world. Chinese translation experts and scholars generally agree that Dong Qiusi is the founder of the establishment of the translation discipline. In terms of the historical contribution to the construction of the translation discipline, Dong Qiusi can be regarded as a worthy pioneer.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Bassnett Susan. (2004). Translation Studies. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Chan Tak-hung. (2004). Twentieth-century Chinese Translation Theory: Modes, Issues and Debates. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing.<br />
<br />
Dong Qianghua 汪庆华. (2016). ''董秋斯译学思想研究'' [Studies on Dong Qiusi's Translation Thoughts]. East China Normal University 华东师范大学.<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi 董秋斯. (1951). ''‘論翻譯理論的建設’'' (On the Development of Translation Theory). 翻譯通報 (Translators’ Bulletin). 2: 3-4. Reprinted in Luo Xinzhang 羅新璋 and Chen Yingnian 陳應年 (2009) 翻譯論集 (修訂本) (An Anthology of Essays on Translation [Revised Edition]). Beijing: The Commercial Press. pp. 601-609. <br />
<br />
Fan, S. (1999). Highlights of Translation Studies in China Since the Mid-Nineteenth Century. Meta, 44 (1), 42.<br />
<br />
Ling Shan 凌山. (2004). 一个翻译家的脚印：关于董秋斯的翻译 [The Footprints of a Translator: On Dong Qiusi's Translation ]. Shanghai Literature ''上海文学''(3)86.<br />
<br />
Newmark Peter.纽马克. (1988). ''翻译教材''[A Textbook of Translation]. 伦敦/纽约London/New York: Prentice-Hall.<br />
<br />
Sun Yifeng. (2012). The Shifting Identity of Translation Studies in China. Intercultural Communication Studies XXI:2.<br />
<br />
Sun Zhili 孙致礼. (1996). ''我国英美文学翻译概论'' [An Introduction to Chinese and American Literary Translation]. Beijing: Yilin Press 北京: 译林出版社.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (1995). ''中西现代翻译学概论'' [A general survey of Chinese and Western translation theories]. 外国语言 Foreign Languages 16(3)15. <br />
<br />
Tian Chuanmao. (2013). A Sociocultural Analysis of Retranslations of Classic English Novels in Mainland China 1949‐2009. Universitat Rovira i Virgili.<br />
<br />
Xuanmin Luo & Hong Lei. (2004). 中国的翻译理论与实践 [Translation theory and practice in China]. ''视角'' Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 12:1, 25-26.<br />
<br />
Zhang Qian 张茜. (2012). ''董秋斯翻译批评思想研究''[Research on translation Criticism of Dong Qiusi]. Shanxi University 山西大学.<br />
<br />
Zhuang Zhixiang, Fang Mengzhi 庄智象、方梦之. (2017). ''中国翻译家研究（民国卷）''[A Study of Translators in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海:上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
='''Translation Criticism'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==On Translation Criticism-based on back-translation 丁代凤 Ding Daifeng==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Translation practice has a rather long history both at home and abroad. Once there is translation practice, there is translation criticism. Due to the change of time and space, translation criticism needs to be carried out from different perspectives. Based on previous studies and personal translation practice, the author finds two common problems in translation criticism: 1) lack of translation criticism in translation practice; 2) lack of awareness of time and space change during the process of translation criticism. Based on the analysis of the relationship between back translation and translation criticism, the author analyzes the application of back translation in words, expressions and texts, and illustrates the roles of back translation in translation criticism. The author analyzes a large number of examples in this thesis and tries to be reasonable and well-founded, hoping that this thesis can give some inspiration to other scholars who study translation criticism.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
translation criticism; back translation; translation testing; cultural communication<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
论翻译批评—基于回译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
无论在国内还是国外，翻译实践的历史可谓悠久。而只要有翻译实践，就会有翻译批评。由于时间与空间的变化，翻译批评也需从不同的角度进行。基于前人的研究以及自身的翻译实践，作者发现目前普遍存在于翻译批评中的两个问题：1）在翻译实践过程中缺乏翻译批评意识；2）在翻译批评过程中，缺乏对空间和时间变化的意识。基于对回译与翻译批评二者关系的分析，作者对回译法在词汇以及文本当中的应用分别进行了分析，阐述了回译法在翻译批评中作用。作者在论文中分析了大量的实例，尽量做到有理有据，希望本论文能够给其他研究翻译批评的学者些许启发。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
翻译批评；回译；翻译检测；文化交际<br />
<br />
===Introduction of translation criticism===<br />
<br />
Translation practice has a rather long history both at home and abroad. Once there is translation practice, there is translation criticism(Wang Kefei 1994,33). As for translation criticism, it refers to the evaluation of a translation under certain social conditions, following certain translation principles and using certain methods. It is one of the three major components of translation studies, and it also serves as an internal driving force for the disciplinary construction of translation. As the characteristic of one language is different from the other, it is difficult for us to judge whether a translation is appropriate or not. In the process of translation, we have to take both language and culture into consideration.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) That is to say, we also have to lay equal emphasis on language and culture when we judge a translation. As a complete paragraph or passage is composed of many words and sentences, we are prone to analyze each word and sentence when we assess the quality of a translation. If we analyze a passage under the reader-oriented translation criticism principle, then the translation should be easy to read and be accepted by its readers. If we analyze a passage based on the translator-oriented translation criticism principle, the translated version should be in line with the original text in terms of meaning as much as possible. However, this far from enough. <br />
<br />
Translation practice has a rather long history both at home and abroad. Once there is translation practice, there is translation criticism(Wang Kefei 1994,33). As for translation criticism, it refers to the evaluation of a translation under certain social conditions, following certain translation principles and methods. It is one of the three major components of translation studies, and it also serves as an internal driving force for the disciplinary construction of translation. As the characteristic of one language is different from the other, it is difficult for us to judge whether a translation is appropriate or not. In the process of translation, we have to take both language and culture into consideration.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) That is to say, we also have to lay equal emphasis on language and culture when we judge a translation. As a complete paragraph or passage is composed of many words and sentences, we are prone to analyze each word and sentence to assess the quality of a translation. If we analyze a passage under the reader-oriented translation criticism principle, then the translation should be easy to read and accept for its readers. If we analyze a passage based on the translator-oriented translation criticism principle, the translated version should be in line with the original text in terms of meaning as much as possible. However, this far from enough. --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 07:28, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Given the translation practice takes place at different times and in different cultural backgrounds, we should adopt different perspectives to examine a translation accordingly(Xu Jun 2016,439). When it comes to the translation of Buddhist scripture in the Han Dynasty, its main purpose is to spread its doctrine, so what the translator needs to do is to grab its main idea. But when it comes to the sci-tech translation during the Westernization Movement in modern times, the main goal of this kind of translation is to learn advanced technologies from developed western countries, so the translator have to make sure that the translation of each sentence in the original text should be totally correct and their translations should be operational and practical.<br />
<br />
Given the translation practice takes place at different times and in different cultural backgrounds, we should adopt different perspectives to examine a translation accordingly(Xu Jun 2016,439). When it comes to the translation of Buddhist scripture in the Han Dynasty, its main purpose is to spread its doctrine, so what the translator needs to do is to grab its main idea. But when it comes to the sci-tech translation during the Westernization Movement in modern times, the main goal is to learn advanced technologies from developed western countries, so the translator have to make sure that the translation of each sentence in the original text should be totally correct and their translations should be operational and practical.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 07:28, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Professor Xu Jun, translation activities have always existed in human history, and their forms and connotations are constantly enriched because of the social, economic and cultural development.(Xu Jun 2014,288) Therefore, translation practice is a dynamic process, and that means translation criticism should be conducted under a certain historical and cultural context. Taking the factors mentioned above into consideration, the author found that there are still two problems existing in translation criticism, they are: 1) lack of translation criticism in translation practice; 2) lack of awareness of time and space change during the process of translation criticism.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) Generally speaking, the author tries to solve these two problems of translation criticism by using the back translation method and analyzing the texts related to back translation, thus improving the current situation of translation criticism.<br />
<br />
According to Professor Xu Jun, translation activities have always been in human history, and their forms and connotations are constantly enriched because of the social, economic and cultural development.(Xu Jun 2014,288) Therefore, translation practice is a dynamic process, and that means translation criticism should be conducted under a certain historical and cultural context. Taking the factors mentioned above into consideration, the author found that there are still two problems existing in translation criticism, they are: 1) lack of translation criticism in translation practice; 2) lack of awareness of time and space change during the process of translation criticism.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) Generally speaking, the author tries to solve these two problems of translation criticism by using the back translation method and analyzing the texts related to back translation, thus improving the current situation of translation criticism.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 07:28, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Relationship between translation criticism and back translation===<br />
<br />
There are a large number of translation methods available for us to choose when we do some translation, such as free translation, literal translation, transliteration, amplification, omission, back translation and so on. Among these translation methods, no translation method can have the same effects on testing the original text as back translation. Literally, back translation is the process of translating a text that has already been translated into a foreign language back to the original language(He Xianbin 2002,45).<br />
<br />
There are a large number of translation methods available for us to choose when we do some translation, such as free translation, literal translation, transliteration, amplification, omission, back translation and so on. Among these translation methods, no translation method can have the same effects on testing the original text as back translation. Literally, back translation is the process of translating a text that has already been translated into a foreign language to back to the original language(He Xianbin 2002,45). --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 07:28, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China, Fang Mengzhi had divided back translation into three categories. They are back translation for testing, back translation for research and mechanical translation.(Fang Mengzhi 2011,97) Here, the author will mainly talk about back translation for testing. According to Fang Mengzhi, back translation for testing works as a kind of question type, aiming to test and find out the problems existing in the translation process(Fang Mengzhi 2011,97). As such, back translation for testing has the same purpose as translation criticism. This just proves that it is the right choice to apply back-translation method to translation criticism.<br />
<br />
In A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China, Fang Mengzhi had divided back translation into three categories. They are back translation for testing, back translation for research and mechanical translation.(Fang Mengzhi 2011,97) Here, the author will mainly talk about the first one. According to Fang Mengzhi, back translation for testing works as a kind of question type, aiming to test and find out the problems existing in the translation process(Fang Mengzhi 2011,97). As such, back translation for testing has the same purpose as translation criticism. This just proves that it is the right choice to apply back-translation method to translation criticism.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 07:28, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Back translation plays a irreplaceable role in comparing the similarities and differences between the structures of the original text and the translated version.(He Xianbin 2002,46) During this process, we can have a better understanding of the characteristics of the two languages involved. When we translate text A into text B, if we want to examine the quality of text B, an appropriate way is to translate it back into text C which is almost similar to text A in terms of its meaning and structure. Unlike other ways used in translation criticism, back translation offers us three different texts. Text A, the original text, will be the best material for us to examine the quality of our translation. Although text A serves as a criteria for us to conduct translation criticism, we can not decide whether the translation is good or not simply by judging the degree of similarity between text A and text C. We all know that every coin has two sides. On the one hand, there is no doubt that text A and text C can not be exactly the same. This is mainly because different languages have different language structures and different ways of expressing ideas. Even the one who do the back translation is exactly the writer himself or herself, the vocabularies and sentence patterns he or she uses will change over time. On the other hand, if the structures of text A and text C are very similar, it may means that text B only apply literal translation and its translation may not very elegant to some extent.<br />
<br />
Back translation plays an irreplaceable role in comparing the similarities and differences between the structures of original text and translated version.(He Xianbin 2002,46) During this process, we can have a better understanding of the characteristics of the two languages involved. When we translate text A into text B, an appropriate way to examine the quality of text B is to translate it back into text C which is almost similar to text A in terms of its meaning and structure. Unlike other ways used in translation criticism, back translation offers us three different texts. Text A, the original text, will be the best material for us to examine the quality of our translation. Although text A serves as a criteria for us to conduct translation criticism, we can not decide whether the translation is good or not simply by judging the degree of similarity between text A and text C. We all know that every coin has two sides. On the one hand, there is no doubt that text A and text C can not be exactly the same. This is mainly because different languages have different language structures and different ways of expressing ideas. Even the one who do the back translation is exactly the writer himself or herself, the vocabularies and sentence patterns he or she uses will change over time. On the other hand, if the structures of text A and text C are very similar, it may means that text B only apply literal translation and its translation may be not very elegant to some extent.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 07:28, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
What we should we do is not only just to focus the correctness of each word and sentence, but to ensure similar or even same effects on cultural communication. That is to say, there is no need to pursue syntactic and lexical consistency in text A and text C. Otherwise, anyone who holds the text A will criticize your translation and say that there is still some difference between text A and text C, and your translation is still not good enough(Si Guo 2000,119). Therefore, back translation will not make any sense in the process of translation criticism.<br />
<br />
What we should we do is not only just to focus the correctness of each word and sentence, but to ensure similar or even same effects on cultural communication. That is to say, there is no need to pursue syntactic and lexical consistency in text A and text C. Otherwise, anyone who holds the text A will criticize your translation and say that there is still some differences between text A and text C, and your translation is still not good enough(Si Guo 2000,119). Therefore, back translation will not make any sense in the process of translation criticism.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 07:28, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Analysis of texts related to back translation===<br />
<br />
As our country continues to deepen the reform and opening-up policy, we have began to come into contact with more and more foreign words. Meanwhile, quiet a few foreign literary work related to Chinese culture and history have merged(Tan Zaixi 2018,3). For translators, it is a rather trick task to deal with such words, expressions and texts. In this part, the author will mainly analyze two situations of the use of back translation, namely, back translation in words and expressions and back translation in different texts.<br />
<br />
As our country continues to deepen the reform and opening-up policy, we have began to come into contact with more and more foreign words. Meanwhile, quiet a few foreign literary works related to Chinese culture and history have merged(Tan Zaixi 2018,3). For translators, it is a rather trick task to deal with such words, expressions and texts. In this part, the author will mainly analyzes two situations of the use of back translation, namely, back translation in words and expressions and back translation in different texts.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 07:52, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Back translation in words and expressions====<br />
<br />
Actually, back translation usually takes place at the word level. We can find that many Chinese words in our daily life come from western countries, such as 莎士比亚(Shakespeare), 华伦天奴(Valentino), 猎头(head hunter), 唐老鸭(Donald Duck), 雅思考试(International English Language Testing System, also known as IELTS), 阿司匹林(aspirin) and so on. At the same time, some foreign literati and scholars in China usually change their names or take a Chinese one. Here are some typical examples: 赛珍珠(Pearl S. Buck), 利玛窦(Matteo Ricci), 费正清(John King Fairbank), 马悦然(Goran Malmqvist) and葛浩文(Howard Goldblatt). Likewise, there are also many English words and expressions coming from China, such as Confucius(孔子), Long March(长征), tofu(豆腐), litchi(荔枝), chow mein(炒面), brainwash(洗脑), long time no see(好久不见) and so on. When we translate these two kinds of words, we have to make sure that our translation is completely the same as the original word. Because the translations of these words are fixed in the target language, we should not take it for granted that we can translate them by virtue of our own experience or in a normal way.(He Xianbin 2002,45)<br />
<br />
Actually, back translation usually takes place at the word level. We can find that many Chinese words in our daily life come from western countries, such as 莎士比亚(Shakespeare), 华伦天奴(Valentino), 猎头(head hunter), 唐老鸭(Donald Duck), 雅思考试(International English Language Testing System, also known as IELTS), 阿司匹林(aspirin) and so on. At the same time, some foreign literati and scholars in China usually change their names or take a Chinese one. Here are some typical examples: 赛珍珠(Pearl S. Buck), 利玛窦(Matteo Ricci), 费正清(John King Fairbank), 马悦然(Goran Malmqvist) and 葛浩文(Howard Goldblatt). Likewise, there are also many English words and expressions coming from China, such as Confucius(孔子), Long March(长征), tofu(豆腐), litchi(荔枝), chow mein(炒面), brainwash(洗脑), long time no see(好久不见) and so on. When we translate these two kinds of words, we have to make sure that our translation is completely the same as the original word. Because the translations of these words are fixed in the target language, we should not take it for granted that we can translate them by virtue of our own experience or in a normal way.(He Xianbin 2002,45)--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 07:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Back translation in texts====<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, translation criticism usually take place in literary text. There are a large number of famous work related to back translation, such as Moment in Peking written by Lin Yutang, Joy Luck Club written by Amy Tan, The Good Earth written by Pearl S. Buck, My Country and My People written by Lin Yutang, Naked Earth written by Eileen Chang and so on. All these work are written in English, but the contents in them are all related to China. Some of them are written by overseas Chinese writers, and some of them are written by those foreign writers who have lived in China for a rather long time, so the authors of these works all have a great understanding of China’s society and its national conditions(Li Changbao 2019,133).<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, translation criticism usually takes place in literary text. There are a large number of famous works related to back translation, such as Moment in Peking written by Lin Yutang, Joy Luck Club written by Amy Tan, The Good Earth written by Pearl S. Buck, My Country and My People written by Lin Yutang, Naked Earth written by Eileen Chang and so on. All these work are written in English, but the contents in them are all related to China. Some of them are written by overseas Chinese writers, and some of them are written by those foreign writers who have lived in China for a rather long time, so the authors of these works all have a great understanding of China’s society and its national conditions(Li Changbao 2019,133).--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 08:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
If we translate these kinds of work back into Chinese, this process is called rootless back translation. In this process, we have to pay particular attention to the cultural communication effect of its Chinese translation. Next, the author will analyze some literary texts by using the back translation method so as to compare the different structures of English and Chinese and illustrate how back translation functions in the process of translation criticism. Here are some examples and their analyses:<br />
<br />
(1) Original Text: Now this magistrate was a poor man and had not seen so much money in his life time before, being only newly risen to his position through the bounty of his father, who had put all the money he had and could borrow to buy this place for his son, so that from it the family might acquire some wealth. (Buck 2016,272)<br />
<br />
Target Text: 这县官原是个穷汉，一辈子不会见过这么多的款子，他靠了他父亲的鑽营，才谋到这位置，他父亲用了自己所有的以及能够借到的钱给儿子买到这官缺，目的是那家从此可以发财了。(Hu Zhongchi 1933,270) <br />
<br />
This paragraph is excerpted from The Good Earth written by Pearl S. Buck. As the most famous novel of Pearl S. Buck, The Good Earth describes the situations of the farmers in China in the early 20th century, aiming to show a real China to the western world.(Buck 2016,272) In order to compare the structures of the original text and the target text, the author tries to translate the target text back into the original text by means of some popular translation websites. Here is the translated version offered by Sougou online translation: <br />
<br />
The county magistrate was a poor man, and he never saw so much money in his life. He got this position by his father’s gaining, and his father used all his money and the money he could borrow to buy this official vacancy for his son, with the aim that the family can get rich from now on.<br />
<br />
Here, “他靠了他父亲的鑽营，才谋到这位置” is translated into “He got this position by his father's gaining”. But in the original text, it is “being only newly risen to his position through the bounty of his father”. In Chinese, we usually use many short sentences to express one thing, while a long sentence with many clauses are commonly used in English. Besides, “官缺” in the target text is “place”, while it becomes “official vacancy” when using the back translation method. The word “place” here refers to a position that is available for or being used by somebody. That exactly proves that English usually uses a simple word to express a rather complicated meaning. Hu Zhongchi extends the meaning of “place” and translated into “官缺”, which ensure the translation is in line with the the expression habits of Chinese and the background in The Good Earth.(Hu Zhongchi 1933,270)<br />
<br />
Here, "他靠了他父亲的鑽营，才谋到这位置" is translated into "He got this position by his father's gaining". But in the original text, it is "being only newly risen to his position through the bounty of his father". In Chinese, we usually use many short sentences to express one thing, while a long sentence with many clauses is commonly used in English. Besides, "官缺" in the target text is “place”, while it becomes "official vacancy" when using the back translation method. The word "place" here refers to a position that is available for or being used by somebody. That exactly proves that English usually uses a simple word to express a rather complicated meaning. Hu Zhongchi extends the meaning of "place" and translated into "官缺", which ensures the translation is in line with the the expression habits of Chinese and the background in The Good Earth.(Hu Zhongchi 1933,270)--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 08:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(2) Original Text: “It was accompanied by ‘dragon-and-phonex cakes’, silks, tea leaves, fruits, a pair of living geese, and four jars of wine.” (Lin Yutang 1998, 78)<br />
<br />
Target Text: “......送有龙凤饼、绸缎、茶叶、水果、一对鹤、四坛子酒。”(Zhang Zhenyu 2005,46)<br />
<br />
(2) Original Text: "It was accompanied by 'dragon-and-phonex cakes', silks, tea leaves, fruits, a pair of living geese, and four jars of wine."(Lin Yutang 1998, 78)<br />
<br />
Target Text: “......送有龙凤饼、绸缎、茶叶、水果、一对鹤、四坛子酒。”(Zhang Zhenyu 2005,46)--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 08:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This sentence is excerpted from Moment in Peking. It describes some gifts that the bridegroom should present to the bride when they get married. Here is the translated version offered by Sougou online translation: There are dragon and phoenix cakes, silks and satins, tea leaves, fruits, a pile of cranes and four jars of wine. Based on the translation given by Sougou, we can easily find that there are some differences between it and the original text. Firstly, “绸缎” is translated into “silks and satins” by Sougou. Actually, “绸缎” in Chinese refers to silk products in general. Therefore, the target text translated by Zhang Zhenyu is more idiomatic. According to Qian Zhongshu, translation is like painting, what we should pursue is the similarity in spirit rather than the similarity in form. As such, there is no need for us to translate every word in the original text in order to pursue royalty. Secondly, “一对鹤” is translated into “a pair of cranes” by Sougou. The meanings of living geese and crane are totally different. In China, cranes represent longevity. It is obviously not customary for men to give cranes to women when they get married. Therefore, “a pair of living geese” had better be translated into “一对活鹅” rather than “一对鹤”.(Wu Yangbo 2010,133)<br />
<br />
This sentence is excerpted from Moment in Peking. It describes some gifts that the bridegroom should present to the bride when they get married. Here is the translated version offered by Sougou online translation: There are dragon and phoenix cakes, silks and satins, tea leaves, fruits, a pile of cranes and four jars of wine. Based on the translation given by Sougou, we can easily find that there are some differences between it and the original text. Firstly, "绸缎" is translated into "silks and satins" by Sougou. Actually, "绸缎" in Chinese refers to silk products in general. Therefore, the target text translated by Zhang Zhenyu is more idiomatic. According to Qian Zhongshu, translation is like painting, so what we should pursue is the similarity in spirit rather than the similarity in form. As such, there is no need for us to translate every word in the original text in order to pursue royalty. Secondly, "一对鹤" is translated into "a pair of cranes" by Sougou. The meanings of living geese and crane are totally different. In China, cranes represent longevity. Obviously, it is not customary for men to give cranes to women when they get married. Therefore, it is better to translate "a pair of living geese" into "一对活鹅" rather than "一对鹤".(Wu Yangbo 2010,133)--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 08:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(3) Original Text:余幼聘金沙于氏，八龄而天。娶陈氏。陈名芸，字淑珍，舅氏心余先生女也，生而颖慧，学语时，口授《琵琶行》，即能成诵。四龄失怙，母金氏，弟克昌，家徒壁立。芸既长，娴女红，三口仰其十指供给，克昌从师，修脯无缺。一日，于书簏中得《琵琶行》，挨字而认，始识字。刺绣之暇，渐通吟咏，有“秋侵人影瘦，霜染菊花肥”之句。(Shen Fu 1878,8)<br />
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Target Text: I was engaged in my childhood to one Miss Yu, of Chinsha, who died in her eighth year, and eventually I married a girl of the Ch’en clan. Her name was Yun and her literary name Suchen. She was my cousin, being the daughter of my maternal uncle, Hsinyu. Even in her childhood, she was a very clever girl, for while she was learning to speak, she was taught Po Chuyi’s poem, The P’iP’a Player, and could at once repeat it. Her father died when she was four years old, and in the family there were only her mother(of the Chin clan) and her younger brother K’ehch’ang and herself, being then practically destitute. When Yun grew up and had learnt needlework, she was providing for the family of three, and contrived always to pay K’ehch’ang’s tuition fees punctually. One day, she picked up a copy of the poem The P’iP’a Player from a wastebasket, and from that, with the help of her memory of the lines, she learnt to read word by word. Between her needlework, she gradually learnt to write poetry. One of her poems contained the two lines:“Touched by autumn, one’s figure grows slender, Soaked in frost, the chrysanthemum blooms full.”(Lin Yutang 1936,10)<br />
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Target Text: I was engaged in my childhood to one Miss Yu, of Chinsha, who died in her eighth year, and eventually I married a girl of the Ch'en clan. Her name was Yun and her literary name Suchen. She was my cousin, being the daughter of my maternal uncle, Hsinyu. Even in her childhood, she was a very clever girl, for while she was learning to speak, she was taught Po Chuyi's poem, The P'iP'a Player, and could at once repeat it. Her father died when she was four years old, and in the family there were only her mother(of the Chin clan) and her younger brother K'ehch'ang and herself, being then practically destitute. When Yun grew up and had learnt needlework, she was providing for the family of three, and contrived always to pay K'ehch'ang's tuition fees punctually. One day, she picked up a copy of the poem The P'iP'a Player from a wastebasket, and from that, with the help of her memory of the lines, she learnt to read word by word. Between her needlework, she gradually learnt to write poetry. One of her poems contained the two lines:"Touched by autumn, one's figure grows slender, Soaked in frost, the chrysanthemum blooms full."(Lin Yutang 1936,10)--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 08:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This passage is excerpted form Six Chapters of a Floating Life written by Shen Fu in the Qing Dynasty. Later on, it was translated into English by Lin Yutang. Based on the translation of Lin Yutang, Li Hui translated it back into Chinese. Here is the translation of Li Hui:<br />
<br />
This passage is excerpted from Six Chapters of a Floating Life written by Shen Fu in the Qing Dynasty. Later on, it was translated into English by Lin Yutang. Based on the translation of Lin Yutang, Li Hui translated it back into Chinese. Here is the translation of Li Hui:--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 08:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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我年幼时与金沙于氏小姐定亲，于氏八岁而亡，最后我娶了亲族陈家的姑娘。陈氏名芸，字淑珍，是我的表姐，我舅舅心馀先生的女儿。芸自小聪慧伶俐，在她学说话时，教她白居易的长诗《琵琶行》，她很快就能背诵。四岁时她父亲去世，家中只有她母亲（金氏）、弟弟克昌和她自己，家境几乎一贫如洗。芸年岁稍长即学做女红，供养一家三口用度，并始终设法按期付克昌的学费。一天，她自废纸篓中捡得《琵琶行》一诗，凭着对此诗的记忆，便从上面逐字逐句学认起来。刺绣的闲暇，她渐渐学会学诗，其中一首里有如下两句：“秋侵人影瘦，霜染菊花肥。”<br />
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By comparing the original text and the translated version of Li Hui, we can easily find that the translation of Li Hui is obviously shorter than the original text. What is more, the translation of Li Hui is more like an explanation of the original text rather than a new text using the back translation method. The difference of these two texts lies only in the usage of some Chinese words because of the change of the times. For example, “失怙”, which means somebody lose his or her father, was changed into “父亲去世”. “修脯”, which means a gift or reward for the teachers in the Qing Dynasty, was changed into “学费”. Likewise, “书簏” was also changed into “废纸篓”. In order to ensure readability, Li Hui used the words popular in the present, which means that the era in which a translator live will influence the words he or she adopts. This also proves that Mr Lin Yutang has totally understood the meaning of the original text and used the free translation method so that the translation of Li Hui can be in line with the original text in terms of meaning. At the same time, all the words in the translation of Li Hui are rather easy for readers to accept, which means that Mr Lin Yutang has attached much importance to the the cultural communication in order to promote foreigners’ understanding of China and spread China’s culture.<br />
<br />
By comparing the original text and the translated version of Li Hui, It is easy for us to find that the translation of Li Hui is obviously shorter than the original text. What is more, the translation of Li Hui is more like an explanation of the original text rather than a new text using the back translation method. The difference of these two texts lies only in the usage of some Chinese words because of the change of the times. For example, "失怙", which means somebody lose his or her father, was changed into "父亲去世". "修脯", which means a gift or reward for the teachers in the Qing Dynasty, was changed into "学费". Likewise, "书簏" was also changed into "废纸篓". In order to ensure readability, Li Hui used the words popular in the present, which means that the era in which a translator lives will influence the words he or she adopts. This also proves that Mr Lin Yutang has totally understood the meaning of the original text and used the free translation method so that the translation of Li Hui can be in line with the original text in terms of meaning. At the same time, all the words in the translation of Li Hui are rather easy for readers to accept, which means that Mr Lin Yutang has attached much importance to the the cultural communication in order to promote foreigners’ understanding of China and spread China’s culture.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 08:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As the economy in China is booming and the cultural exchanges between China and the rest of the world are increasing, translation plays an more and more important role in promoting the cultural soft power of China. Although most translation criticism activities take place in the field of literary text, we should put equal emphasis on the development of translation criticism in both literary text and non-literary text, thus improving our translation quality as a whole. Here is an example of the back translation method used in the non-literary text:<br />
<br />
As the Chinese economy is booming and the cultural exchanges between China and the rest of the world are increasing, translation plays an more and more important role in promoting the cultural soft power of China. Although most translation criticism activities take place in the field of literary text, we should put equal emphasis on the its development in both literary text and non-literary text, thus improving our translation quality as a whole. Here is an example of the back translation method used in the non-literary text:--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 08:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(4)Original Text: Coal is the most abundant energy source in the world, but opponents to its use are more vocal than ever.(excerpted from the Financial Times)<br />
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Target Text: 煤炭是是全球储量最大的资源，但反对使用煤炭的声浪逐渐增长。<br />
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This paragraph is excerpted from the Financial Times, which mainly describes the decreasing demand of coal. The author tries to translate the target language back into the original on her own, and use online translation website to translate it respectively, here are the two translated versions:<br />
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This paragraph is excerpted from the Financial Times, which mainly describes the decreasing demand of coal. The author tries to translate the target language back into the original on her own, and also uses online translation website to translate it respectively. Here are the two translated versions:--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 08:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1. Coal, the most abundant energy resource on the globe, is now facing increasing backlash. (trans by the author)<br />
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2. Coal is the resource with the largest reserves in the world, but the voice against the use of coal is increasing gradually.(trans by Sougou translation)<br />
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By comparing these two translated versions offered by the author and Sougou respectively and the original text, we can easily find that there is still a big gap between them. For the same expression “声浪逐渐增长”, the translation of the author only expresses its superficial meaning, which is only faithful but not elegant. Similarly, the translated version offered by Sougou only use free translation without paying much attention to idiomatic expressions in English. However, the expression “are more vocal than ever” exactly corresponds to “声浪逐渐增长”. The word “vocal” is a word related to voice, so does the word “声浪”. The target text has ensured the same effects of cultural communication and made the passage more vivid and attractive.<br />
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By comparing these two translated versions offered by the author and Sougou respectively and the original text, we can easily find that there is still a big gap among them. For the same expression "声浪逐渐增长", the translation of the author only expresses its superficial meaning, which is only faithful but not elegant. Similarly, the translated version offered by Sougou only uses free translation without paying much attention to idiomatic expressions in English. However, the expression "are more vocal than ever" exactly corresponds to "声浪逐渐增长". The word "vocal" is a word related to voice, so does the word "声浪". The target text has maintained the same effects of cultural communication and made the passage more vivid and attractive.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 08:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Application of back translation===<br />
<br />
Based on the examples being analyzed in the previous part, the author will mainly introduce when back translation should be applied to translation criticism and the roles of back translation.<br />
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At first, back translation help us improve China’s external image(Tan Zaixi 2018,2). Just as example 3 mentioned in the chapter three, this example is excerpted from a very famous work written by a Chinese, then another Chinese person who masters English has translated into English. If we want to understand how foreigners perceive the history of China and make sure that the English version can produce an impact on the spread of Chinese culture, we have to assess the quality of the English version. Of course, the most important thing is to ensure that all the contents are correctly translated. But except that, we should also ensure that the values are correctly conveyed. It is commonly known that the original text can not be totally the same as the target text because of the language differences. By translating the target text back into the original language, we can have a strong sense of the inner meaning of the target text, and we can also know how foreigners feel when they read the target text.<br />
<br />
At first, back translation help us improve China’s external image(Tan Zaixi 2018,2). Just as example 3 mentioned in the chapter three, this example is excerpted from a very famous work written by a Chinese, then another Chinese person who masters English has translated it into English. If we want to understand how foreigners perceive the history of China and make sure that the English version can produce an impact on the spread of Chinese culture, we have to assess the quality of the English version. Of course, the most important thing is to ensure that all the contents are correctly translated. Except that, we should also ensure that the values are correctly conveyed. It is commonly known that the original text can not be totally the same as the target text because of the language differences. By translating the target text back into the original language, we can have a strong sense of the inner meaning of the target text and also know how foreigners feel when they read the target text.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 08:27, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Secondly, back translation plays a key in improving our translation quality.(He Xianbin 2002,46) For example 1 and 2 in the chapter three, their main purpose is to show the image of China in a specific time or context. Therefore, we have to make sure that every word is correctly translated. However, we should not only pursue faithfulness and expressiveness, but pursue elegance as well. Just like the example 4 mentioned above, no matter how our translation correct is, we still can not make our translation as idiomatic as the original text. Only when we know that there is still a much room for us to improve, can we try our best to improve our translation abilities.<br />
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Secondly, back translation plays a key in improving our translation quality.(He Xianbin 2002,46) For example 1 and 2 in the chapter three, their main purpose is to show the image of China in a specific time or context. Therefore, we have to make sure that every word is correctly translated. However, we should not only pursue faithfulness and expressiveness, but also elegance as well. Just like the example 4 mentioned above, no matter how our translation correct is, we still can not make our translation as idiomatic as the original text. Only when we know that there is still a much room for us to improve, can we try our best to improve our translation abilities.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 08:27, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Finally, back translation greatly helps us assess the whole structure and general meaning of the translation for we have to do the translation twice.(He Xianbin 2002,47) Usually, back translation takes place in a certain context or a relatively complete text so that we can avoid only analyzing the target text word by word or sentence by sentence. What is more, the usage of words and expressions may change with the times. As far as the author concerned, back translation is another way to rewrite the original text and make it more acceptable for the readers now.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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As China’s comprehensive national strength continues to increase, more and more researchers and scholars in the field of translation studies and translation practice have attached more importance to the cultural communication so as to promote the development of Chinese literature and culture. However, the translation market is still a mixed bag because of lack of awareness of translation criticism.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33) When scholars began to pay attention to translation criticism, many problems still lie in this field. For example, translation criticism is usually conducted in literary texts, and there is lack of general principles to conduct translation criticism. Among various methods that can be applied to the improvement of the translation quality, the author particularly choose the back translation method. <br />
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As China’s comprehensive national strength continues to increase, more and more researchers and scholars in the field of translation studies and translation practice have attached more importance to the cultural communication so as to promote the development of Chinese literature and culture. However, the translation market is still a mixed bag because of lack of awareness of translation criticism.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33) When scholars began to pay attention to translation criticism, many problems still lie in this field. For example, translation criticism is usually conducted in literary texts, and there is lack of general principles to conduct translation criticism. Among various methods applied to the improvement of the translation quality, the author particularly chooses the back translation method. --[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 08:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There is no doubt that translation criticism can have a great influence on the improvement of the general translation quality in our country. Based on previous studies and personal translation practice, the author analyzes the application of back translation in words, expressions and texts, and respectively illustrates three roles of back translation in translation criticism. Firstly, back translation help us improve China’s external image. Secondly, back translation plays a key in improving our translation quality. And thirdly, back translation greatly helps us assess the whole structure and general meaning of the translation. The author analyzes a large number of examples in this thesis and tries to be reasonable and well-founded, hoping that this thesis can give some inspiration to other scholars who study translation criticism. However, there are still some limitations in this thesis. At first, the selected examples are limited in genre and can not fully explain all the problems. Secondly, back translation can only be applied to a certain situations because of the complexity of the translation activity. Learning is a lifelong process, the author will continue to study in this field in her later study life, hoping that the translation quality in China will gradually improve in days to come.<br />
<br />
There is no doubt that translation criticism can have a great influence on the improvement of the general translation quality in our country. Based on previous studies and personal translation practices, the author analyzes the application of back translation in words, expressions and texts, and respectively illustrates three roles of back translation in translation criticism. Firstly, back translation help us improve China’s external image. Secondly, back translation plays a key in improving our translation quality. And thirdly, back translation greatly helps us assess the whole structure and general meaning of the translation. The author analyzes a large number of examples in this thesis and tries to be reasonable and well-founded, hoping that this thesis can give some inspiration to other scholars who study translation criticism. However, there are still some limitations in this thesis. At first, the selected examples are limited in genre and can not fully explain all the problems. Secondly, back translation can only be applied to certain situations because of the complexity of the translation activity. Learning is a lifelong process, the author will continue to study in this field in her later study life, hoping that the translation quality in China will gradually improve in days to come.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 08:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===References===<br />
<br />
Buck, S. Pearl. The Good Earth [M]. New York: Simon&Schuster, Inc., 2005.<br />
<br />
Lin Yutang. Moment in Peking [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 1998.<br />
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Buck, S. Pearl赛珍珠.(1935).大地 [The Good Earth]. trans by Hu Zhongchi胡仲持. Shanghai: Kaiming Bookstore开明书店.<br />
<br />
Fan Dongsheng范东生.(2000).翻译的本质与翻译批评的根本性任务 [The essence of translation and the fundamental task of translation criticism]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal(04): 32-36.<br />
<br />
Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011).中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社．<br />
<br />
He Xianbin贺显斌.(2002).回译的类型、特点与运用方法 [Types，features and methods of application of back translation].中国科技翻译Chinese Science&Technology Translators Journal(04):45-47+54.<br />
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Li Changbao黎昌抱, Tu Qingyin屠清音.(2019). 无本回译研究纵览 [An overview of research of rootless translation]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 40(03): 130-140.<br />
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Lin Yutang林语堂.(2005).京华烟云 [Moment in Peking]. trans by Zhang Zhenyu张振玉. Xi’an: Shaanxi Normal University Press陕西师范大学出版社.<br />
<br />
Si Guo思果.(2000).翻译研究[Translation Studies].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
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Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(2018)翻译与国家形象重构——以中国叙事的回译为例 [Translation and National Image Reconstruction: The Case of China Narratives and Cultural Back-Translation]. 外国语文Foreign Language and Literature 34(01): 1-10.<br />
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Wang Jianguo王建国.(2005).回译与翻译研究、英汉对比研究之间的关系 [The relationship between back translation and translation studies and contrastive studies of English and Chinese]. 外语学刊Foreign Language Research(04):78-83+112.<br />
<br />
Wang Kefei王克非.(1994).关于翻译批评的思考—兼谈《文学翻译批评研究》[Reflections on Translation Criticism—A Study on Literary Translation Criticism].外语教学与研究Foreign Language Teaching and Research( 3) : 33-36．<br />
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Wu Yangbo吴央波(2010).华裔英语文学翻译中的文化还原问题—以《京华烟云》为例[Cultural Restoration in the Translation of Chinese English Literature—A Case study of Moment in Peking].重庆科技学院学报(社会科学版)Journal of Chongqing University of Science and Technology(Social Sciences Edition)(07):132-134.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧. (2016).论翻译批评的介入性与导向性——兼评《翻译批评研究》 [On the Interventionism and Orientation of Translation Criticism—A Review of Research on Translation Criticism]. 外语教学与研究Foreign Language Teaching and Research 48(03): 432-441+480.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun许钧.(2014).翻译论[On Translation].Nanjing:Yilin Press译林出版社.<br />
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==Analysis of Liang Shiqiu's domestication and Foreignization translation strategies on the Shakespeare's plays. 苏琳 Su Lin==<br />
Please write your student number and major here --[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 03:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Abstract ===<br />
Translation is an "art of choice". Translators are always faced with the choice of domestication or foreignization in the process of translation. The basic task and requirement of translation lies in that the translator can transcend the differences between languages and cultures and achieve the harmony and unity of the two cultures. Therefore, the principle of "appropriateness" is very important. The famous Chinese literary translator Liang Shiqiu translated independently ''The Complete Works of Shakespeare''by using the translation strategies of "the doctrine of the mean", that is, foreignization is the main translation strategy, and domestication is the supplementary translation strategy, which embodies the principle of "appropriateness ". His translation strategy is based on the openness and inclusiveness of the language and culture itself, which not only fully conveys the meaning of the original text, but also has the translator's careful intervention, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of different cultures.<br />
===Keywords ===<br />
Liang Shiqiu; Foreignization; Domestication; ''The Complete Works of Shakespeare''<br />
===摘要=== <br />
翻译是一门“选择的艺术”，译者在翻译过程中，始终面临着应该采用归化还是异化的问题。而翻译的基本任务和基本要求在于译者能跨越语言文化间的差异，求得两种文化的协调统一，因此“适度”原则很重要。我国著名的文学翻译家梁实秋独立完成的汉译《莎士比亚全集》就采用了“中庸”的翻译策略，即以异化为主，归化为辅，体现了“适度”的原则。他的此种翻译策略立足于语言文化本身的开放性、包容性，既充分传递了原文意义，又有译者的谨慎介入，有利于不同文化的相互交流与渗透。<br />
===关键词===<br />
梁实秋；异化；归化；《莎士比亚全集》<br />
===I.Introduction=== <br />
when it comes to translation strategies,it is worthwhile to mention the American translation theorist Lawrence venuti who borrowed his ideas directly from German theologian and philosopher friedrich schleiermacher and defined the two translation strategies domestication and foreign inaction respectively.the former,as venuti argues,means bringing the foreign culture closer to readers in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar while the later refers to taking readers over to the foreign culture,making they see the culture and linguistic differences.(Lawrence Venuti,1995:19-20)And In the field of translation, the choice of domestication and foreignization is very important.<br />
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When it comes to translation strategies, it is worth mentioning the American translation theorist Lawrence venuti, who borrowed his ideas directly from the German theologian and philosopher Friedrich schleiermacher and defined two translation strategies, domestication and foreign inaction, respectively. The former, as venuti suggests, refers to drawing the foreign culture closer to the readers in the target culture so that the text is recognizable and familiar, while the latter refers to bringing the readers into the foreign culture so that they see the cultural and linguistic differences. (Lawrence Venuti, 1995:19-20) And in the field of translation, the choice of domestication and externalization is very important.--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu used the two strategies accordingly and paid more attention to function-plus-loyalty model. He made a target text work in the intended way in the target situation, meanwhile he gave consideration to the interpersonal relationship between social environment, target receivers and original authors. If there is any conflict between them, he always mediated and sought the understanding of all sides. Just as he said in his article ''Talking about Translation'',“There is no certain method in translation. It is up to the translator who, with his mastery of language, weighs his words and reproduces the source text in another language in the way he thinks to be the best." (Yang Xunwen,2002: 437) From these words, we can see Liang Shiqiu did not hold that the translator must use one certain strategy or method in translation and thereby the adopting of domestication or foreignization in translation all depends on the actual needs. According to the “cultural turn”theory, it could be possible for us to think that it is the embodiment of Liang Shiqiu's idea of the mean in his translation. <br />
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Dear Ms. Su, you have too many words in this paragraph, try to write a hundred words per paragraph.--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“The problem of domestication and foreignization is not only a question of language choice on the technical level of translation, but also a moral and ethical attitude of translators towards foreign cultures.Foreignization does not take the original text and the culture of the original text as the final destination, because it always involves the process of the target language and cultural transformation, in which the translator mainly pays attention to and follows the cultural and moral factors of the original text.Therefore, domestication and foreignization are a pair of general concepts rather than a strict binary opposition. The definition and choice of the two depends on the specific cultural context and effect of the translation, which may change at any time and on the occasion.”（Liu Junping,2009:445)Through the study of Liang Shiqiu's translation, the author finds that there are both foreignization strategies and domestication strategies in liang Shiqiu's translation, but generally speaking, foreignization is the main translation strategy and domestication is the secondary translation strategy.<br />
<br />
What needs to be clarified here is that Liang Shiqiu, as a representative of early Chinese translators, has translated over ten western masterpieces.Due to the limited space of this article, the author finds it difficult to go through every translation of Liang’s . As the saying goes,the falling of one leaf heralds the autumn.The Complete Works of Shakespeare is his most successful and possessive representative works, so the author mainly makes effort to analyze some typical examples from his The Complete Works of Shakespeare so as to provide readers with an overall picture of Liang’s translation strategies.<br />
<br />
It should be noted here that Liang Shiqiu, as a representative of early Chinese translators, has translated more than ten Western masterpieces, and due to the limited space of this paper, it is difficult for the author to list each and every one of Liang's translations. As the saying goes, a leaf falls, and the Complete Works of Shakespeare is his most successful and possessive masterpiece, therefore, the author mainly endeavors to analyze some typical examples from his Complete Works of Shakespeare in order to provide readers with an overall picture of Liang's translation strategy.--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===II.The application of foreignization and domestication===<br />
The problem of foreignization and domestication is a pair of very important categories in the study of literary translation. It can be traced back to the interpretation of translation approaches by German translation theorist Schleiermacher in 1813. “There are only two ways for translation: one is to let the author remain there and lead readers to approach the author, and the other is to make the author approach readers while readers remain there."These two concepts were later adopted by the American translator Venuti in 1995 and were titled "foreignization " and "domestication " in his book "The Invisibility of the Translator". Foreignization and domestication are essentially a kind of thinking and value orientation of the translator that is, when facing heterogeneous factors, whether the translator tends to the original author's thinking or reader's thinking. Liang adopted foreignization strategy in translating the culture-loaded words so as to retain exotic flavor. It would be good to add a citation --[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 03:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====2.1Foreignization-dominated strategy====<br />
Liang Shiqiu's foreignization strategy in translating Shakespeare's plays mainly includes two levels of connotation, one is cultural content, and the other is language structure . At the level of cultural content, translators mainly try to present the original foreign culture as much as possible, without any deletion. On the level of language structure , translators focus on introducing fresh expressions, and strive to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture.The author analyzed his foreignization strategy from the following three perspectives.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1Transliteration=====<br />
“when it comes to translating the names of characters,Liang always transliterates them.transliteration can be understood as a method to practice foreignization,since it brings readers no familiar feeling of these names.Liang once pointed out that foreigners often had some strange and long-winded names and there was no need for a translator to offer them names with Chinese characteristics”(Kefei,1988:49).<br />
<br />
Let’s look at the following examples:Antonio 安图尼欧,bassanio 巴珊尼欧,Lorenzo 洛兰邹,Shylock 夏洛克,Tubal 条巴尔,Launcelot Gobbo 朗西洛特高波,Leonardo 李昂那多,Portia 波西亚,Nerissa 拿利萨,Jessica 杰西卡,etc.<br />
All the names in this play are transliterated into Chinese. They sound strange in Chinese. They bear no local imagination to our readers. This way of foreignizing names of the original into the target language will bring readers a fresh breath of air and avoid imposing false connection with Chinese.<br />
<br />
Western literature owes its development to the ancient Greek and Roman culture which is supposed to be the cradle of western civilization. Many writers from western countries would quote myths from the ancient Greece and Rome in one way or another to enrich the content of their works. The Bible is another source of quotation. Bible, together with the ancient Greek and Roman myths, makes western works difficult for us Chinese to appreciate. Since Chinese literature lives on a totally different cultural background, a translator could often find it hard to offer readers proper Chinese counterparts in his translations. The Merchant of Venice is full of allusions characteristic of western culture. Let's look at how Liang deals with the names of these allusions.<br />
<br />
Thus when I shun Scylla,your father,I fall into Charybdis,your mother:(Act 3,Scene 5)<br />
<br />
好像是我躲开了西拉，你的父亲，又触上了卡利伯底斯，你的母亲：（2001:36-37）<br />
<br />
Peace,ho!The moon sleeps with Endymion,and would not be awak’d!(Act 5,Scene I)<br />
<br />
别响了，喂！月亮伴着恩地米昂睡了，不愿被惊醒。（2001:182）<br />
<br />
If Hercules and Lichas play at dice which is the better man,the greater throw may turn by fortune from the weaker hand:(Act 2, Scene 2)<br />
<br />
赫鸠里斯若是和赖卡斯掷骰子，赌谁的幸运大，就许是弱手反倒占胜：（2001:180）<br />
<br />
By Jacob’s staff I swear I have no mind of feasting forth to-night;(Act 2,Scene 6)<br />
<br />
我凭着雅各的杖发誓，我真不想今晚去赴宴；（2001:174）<br />
<br />
For if they could,Cupid himself would blush to see me thus transformed to a boy.(Act 2,Scene 6)<br />
<br />
因为假如情人能看得见，鸠比得见了我这样女扮男装也要脸红吧。（2001:178）<br />
<br />
All these allusions are transliterated into Chinese and sound foreign to us Chinese readers. From the Chinese translations, readers can not make sense of what they really mean. Liang persists in transliterating these allusions rather than explaining their meanings directly so that readers can easily notice their existence. In order to help readers realize and appreciate allusions, Liang still provides readers with notes to explain their implied meanings. This way of translating allusions catches readers ' eyes to the existence of allusions and betters their understanding of them.<br />
Liang's transliterating those names avoids false local connection and his notes explain clearly those allusions and promote readers better understanding, which also further prove the fact that Liang is a meticulous translator always pursuing faithfulness.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Literal translation=====<br />
<br />
Literal translation can be understood as a way of foreignization. It refers to maintaining with smooth language such linguistic forms of the original as wording, sentence structure, figure of speech, etc. in a translation (Zhu Anbo, 2009: 11).<br />
<br />
Compared with other Shakespeare's translators, Liang's translations retain more foreign flavor of the original. This is what Liang intends to realize in his translations. To be close and faithful to the original, Liang mainly adopts literal translation method.<br />
Let's look at the following examples.<br />
<br />
Portia:The crow doth sing as sweetly as the lark<br />
When neither is attended.(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
波西亚：乌鸦和百灵鸟唱的一样的好听，假如二者都没有环境的陪衬。（2001:158）<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
鲍西亚：如果没有人欣赏，乌鸦的歌声也就和云雀一样。（2001:187）<br />
<br />
Jessica:I would out-night you,did no body come;(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
杰西卡：这样背夜晚的典故，我可以战胜你，若是没有人来；（2001:174）<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
杰西卡：倘不是有人来了，我可以搬弄出比你所知道的更多的夜的典故来。（2001:181）<br />
Both domestication and foreignization include two aspects: culture content and language structure. In the above examples, Liang keeps purposefully the original linguistic structures with adverbial clauses of condition after the main sentences,which do not sound like idiomatic Chinese. Zhu, however, domesticates language structures by changing sentences sequences. Liang wants to be faithful to the original. Therefore, he often literally translates the original sentence structures without altering the original sentence sequences. Liang's way of literal translation can be called foreignization on a linguistic level. Sometimes, Liang' version may not like idiomatic Chinese, but he indeed does great contribution to the development of modern Chinese by adopting the literal translation method. Nowadays, foreignized Chinese sentence structures like Liang 's can often be found in some literary woks.<br />
Gratiano:They lose it that do buy it with much care(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
格拉蒂亚诺：用过多的烦恼去购买人生，是反倒要丧失人生的。（2001:18）<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
葛莱西安诺：一个人思虑太多，就会失却做人的乐趣。（2001:9）<br />
<br />
In the original version, the word “buy” is used metaphorically. This “buy" is not followed by things but by life. How can one's life be bought by something? Here the word “buy" implies the preciousness of life. In Liang’s version, he literally translates “buy” into “购买”so as to keep the original metaphor. Zhu, on the other hand,liberally translates “buy it with much care" into “思虑太多”, which simply presents the meaning without maintaining Shakespeare's metaphor. A master piece is a good combination of content and language. We can not appreciate a piece without taking its language features into consideration. In this case, however, Zhu gives us no chance to appreciate the beauty of the metaphor. Liang's literal translation of the original brings readers a true Shakespeare. The above example of Liang's literally translating original metaphors is not an exception. In fact, it is his common practice.<br />
<br />
Shylock:If I can catch him once upon the hip,<br />
I will feed fat the ancient grudge I bear him.(Act 1,Scene 3)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：如其我能一旦抓到他的后腰，我要痛痛快快的报这一段旧仇。（2001:36）<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：要是我有一天抓住他的把柄，一定要痛痛快快地向他报复我的深仇宿怨。（2001:29）<br />
<br />
In this example, Liang still adopts literal translation method. Hе translates "catch him once upon the hip literally into “我能一旦抓到他的后腰”while Zhu liberally translates it into “我有一天抓住他的把柄”.Liang's translation is vivid while Zhu's natural. When overused, a metaphor may lose its freshness. Liang's version “抓到他的后腰”may sound too literal, but it is faithful and also provides readers a thread of freshness.<br />
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=====2.1.3 Literal translation with notes added=====<br />
A large number of annotations are an important feature of Liang Shiqiu’s translation of The Complete Works of Shakespeare.These annotations not only facilitate readers’interpretation,but also provide important research references for scholars.<br />
In fact, Liang tends to adopt liberal translation to translate different figures of speech. In so doing, Liang wants to be faithful to the original as much as he can. Literal translation, however, may sometimes result in understanding difficulties. As a meticulous translator, Liang is aware of these problems and sometimes he would resort to added notes to make a compensation for literal translation method.Here the paper takes Liang Shiqiu’s translation of Othello as an example:<br />
<br />
You’ll have your daughter conversed with a Barbary horse.(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
那么你的女儿可就要被一匹巴巴里的马给奸了。Liang ’s note:Barbary 即Moorish 摩尔人的.<br />
<br />
Here Liang Shiqiu transliterated the place name Barbary, and used a note to point out that it alluded to the dark-skinned Moor Othello. It was clear and concise, allowing readers to have a rich imagination of the image of Othello who was not on stage, and at the same time pointed out the subtlety of the characters relationship in the script. If it is not for meticulous research work, this kind of skillful application is difficult to achieve.<br />
<br />
Literal translation with notes added The Merchant of Venice abounds with puns and allusions. Liang often adopts literal translation method with notes added to reader those puns and allusions. In<br />
many puns and various allusions in the original version and when they could not be transferred into the target language, he would literally translate them with notes added.<br />
<br />
Portia:let me give light,but let me not be light;<br />
For a light wife doth make a heavy husband,<br />
And never be Bassnio so for me:(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
波西亚：让我给你们一点光，可是别像光似的轻浮；<br />
因为轻浮的妻子要使得丈夫负着重担，我决不愿巴珊尼欧为我担心：（2001:182）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:原文light是“光”，亦可解做“轻浮”，是双关语。<br />
<br />
Portia:You should in all sense be much bound to him,<br />
For,as I hear,he was much bound for you.(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
波西亚：你对他是应该感激不尽，因为我听说他为了你也受祸不浅哩。（2001:183）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:原文bound双关语，可解为“感恩”，“立券”，“入狱”等等。<br />
<br />
Pun is a place where a writer can show his ability to control and employ words. As a language master, Shakespeare is very good at devising puns. As a translator of Shakespeare's plays, you will find how annoying these puns are. In general, a translator will find it extremely difficult to figure out an exact corresponding pun in the target language, and what he often does is to translate one meaning but ignores the other meaning of a pun. However, this kind of translating would lead to no perception the original pun. What Liang does in handling these puns is to try to maintain both meanings of a pun in his translations and provide each pun with a note explaining it. The word“light”in the original refers to“a kind of natural radiation that makes things visible”, and“frivolous" as well while the word “bound”means“grateful as well as“obstructed”. In Liang's version, both meanings of “light” are literally translated into“像光似的轻浮”and both meanings of“bound”into“感恩”and“受祸”with two notes added respectively. This way of translating puns will help readers recognize their existence and appreciate them. If readers could not fully enjoy a pun,they could still seek notes for reference. As I understand, this way of translating puns is by far the most effective way to translate a pun before we could find an idea counterpart in the target language.<br />
<br />
Liang's way of translating allusions is very stable: literally translating them with notes added to explain their cultural meanings. Zhu Shanghai,another famous translator of Shakespeare’s plays,however, either transliterates the names of allusions or liberally translates their meanings. And neither way attaches notes to illustrate their underlying meanings.<br />
<br />
Portia:If I live to be as old as Sibylla,I will die as chaste as Diana,unless I be obtained by the manner of my fther’s will.(Act 1,Scene 2)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
波西亚：如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意是贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照父亲医嘱的方法出嫁。（2001:32）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:西逼拉（Sibylla），老态龙钟的女预言家。<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
鲍西亚：要是没有人愿意照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，那么即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不嫁。（2001:25）<br />
<br />
Shylock:I have a daughter;<br />
Would any of the stock of Barbbas<br />
Had been her husband rather than a Christan!(Act 4,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：我有一个女儿；我愿她嫁给巴拉巴的后裔中任何男子，也比嫁给基督徒好些！（2001:158）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:巴拉巴（Barabbas）即让出十字架给耶稣的那个强盗。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：我有一个女儿，我宁愿她嫁给强盗的子孙，不愿她嫁给一个基督徒。（2001:163）<br />
<br />
Portia:Lie not a night from home;watch me like Argus:(Act 5,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
波西亚：你可别有一夜在家睡觉：像阿尔格斯似的看守着我。（2001:188）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:阿尔格斯（Argus）神话中之“百眼儿”。<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
鲍西亚：您还是一夜也不要离开家里，像个百眼怪物那样看守着我吧。（2001:197）<br />
<br />
From the three examples quoted above, we can find in Liang's version that three allusions “Sibylla” , “Barabbas”, and “Argus” are literally translated into Chinese words“西逼拉” ,“巴拉巴”and “阿尔格斯”respectively, each attached with a note correspondingly. While in Zhu's version, we could hardly perceive the existence of these allusions, for he liberally translates these allusions into“一千岁”，“强盗”, and “百眼怪物”without added notes to explain them. In this sense, Zhu's version is not faithful to the original. Liang adopts literal translation to catch readers' attention to notice the existence of these allusions and, with notes added, helps readers appreciate them. In so doing, Liang has to do much extra work to provide notes for readers reference. Liang is indeed a man of meticulous scholarship. In his eyes,translating is a serious enterprise, and a translator should try to be faithful to the original in every aspect, even though it means extra labor. Liang' 's spirit of respecting the original is worth our further studying. Let's look at two more examples.<br />
<br />
Salarino:And other of such vinegar aspect<br />
That they’ll not show their teeth in way of smile,<br />
Though Nestor swear the jest be laughable.(Act 1,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
撒拉利诺：又有一些人天生的酸相，笑的时候也不露牙齿，虽然奈斯特赌咒说这笑话是可笑的。（2001:17）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:奈斯特（Nestor）老成持重之王，轻易不笑，如认某一笑话为可笑，必甚可笑无疑。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
萨拉•里诺：有的人终日皱着眉头，即使涅斯托发誓说那笑话很可笑，他听了也不肯露一露他的牙齿，装出一个笑容来。（2001:9）<br />
<br />
Shylock:A Daniel come to judgment!(Act 4,Scene 1)<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：一位丹尼尔来裁判了！（2001:152）<br />
<br />
Liang’s note:Daniel圣经中之以色列的清明的法官。善决疑狱。<br />
<br />
Zhu’s version:<br />
<br />
夏洛克：一位但尼尔来做法官了！（2001:157）<br />
<br />
In these two examples, the original allusions "Nestor" and Daniel" are transliterated into“涅斯托”and“但尼尔”respectively in Zhu's version. When reading Zhu's version, readers, I believe, do detect the existence of these allusions,but maybe wonder why allusions are used here and what exactly these allusions mean.Zhu's transliterating the names of these allusions without attaching notes to explain them still can not be considered as a successful way or an idea way of translating allusions. Liang, on the other hand, follows his old practice to handle these allusions,i.e. literal translation with notes added. Nestor" and Daniel" are literally translated into“奈斯特”and “丹尼尔”respectively and each is combined with a note to explain its cultural meaning. Comparatively speaking, in translating allusions, Liang presents us а truer Shakespeare.<br />
<br />
====2.2Domestication-supplemented strategy====<br />
By examing Liang’s version,we could find both domestication and foreign inaction strategies are employed.in a sense,domestication is inevitable in every translation.translations often assume some local color no matter how hard a translator tries to be faithful to the original.Liang tends to adopt the Strategy of foreignization in his version.however,he still leaves us many particular examples of domestication.<br />
<br />
When Jacob graz d his uncle Laban's sheep. (Act 1, Scene 3) <br />
<br />
当初雅各给他的舅父拉班放羊的时候。（2001:38）<br />
<br />
Or shall I bend low, and in a bondman's key, (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
或是我应该深深的鞠躬，打着奴才的腔调。（2001:40）<br />
<br />
Yourself, renowned prince, then stood as fair as any comer I have look' d on yet for my affection. (Act 2, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
那么，王爷你和我见过的几位有同样的可以赢得我的机会。（2001:48）<br />
<br />
Master young man, you; I pray you, which is the way to Master Jew's? (Act 2, Scene 2)<br />
<br />
少爷，你来;请问到犹太人家向哪边走?（2001:50）<br />
<br />
I am half afeard thou wilt say anon he is some kin to thee, (Act 2, Scene 9)<br />
<br />
我恐怕你接着要说他是你的本家了。（2001:92）<br />
<br />
Which appears most strongly in bearing thus the absence of your lord. (Act 3, Scene 4)<br />
<br />
如此安然的忍受着新婚的郎君的远离。（2001:126）<br />
<br />
I have heard your Grace hath ta'en great pains to qualify his rigorous course; (Act 4, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
我已听说大人很为我费力设法减轻他的凶恶的威胁;（2001:138）<br />
<br />
A form of address is an embodiment of national culture. The Chinese people attach great importance to family and family relations. Thus more forms of addressing members and relatives of a family can be found in Chinese than in English. The two examples“舅父”，“本家”are particular cases in Chinese.“舅父”shows clearly that this uncle is a relative from one's mother 's clan, while “本家”refers to a member of the same clan. During the feudal society, there was a strict classification among different social status which was also reflected in addressing terms. “大人”signify people who occupy higher class in a society while “奴才”refers to people with low social status. The above translations bear more or less some Chinese color, thus betraying the original to some extent. These typical examples of domestication bring Chinese readers a familiarfeeling.<br />
<br />
He lends out money gratis, and brings down the rate of usance here with us in Venice.<br />
(Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
他把钱出借而不取利息，于是把我们在威尼斯放的印子钱的利率都给拉低了。（2001:36）<br />
<br />
For when did friendship take a breed for barren metal of his friend? (Act 1, Scene3)<br />
<br />
因为哪里有朋友为臭铜钱而向朋友取利息的?（2001:42）<br />
<br />
Supply your present wants, and take no doit of usance for my moneys, and you'll not hear me: (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
借给你急需的钱，一文利息也不要，而你不肯听我说完了:（2001:43）<br />
<br />
And then the boy, his clerk, that took some pains in writing, he begg' 'd mine; (Act 5, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
随后那个年青人，他的书记，笔墨上出过力所以他就要我的; （2001:24）<br />
<br />
The above examples “印子钱”，“铜钱”“一文”，“笔墨”are typical products of Chinese culture. In the feudal society, “铜钱”, i.e. copper, was used as money for people to do business and Y"as a monetary unit referred to one copper. And “印子钱”was a kind of usury in the Qing Dynasty of China. Because every time a borrower repaid a certain amount of money to a moneylender, he had to stamp the book with a mark. This was the reason why this kind of usury was called“印子钱”at that time. China is a country with excellent history of calligraphy. For quite a long time in the history of China, scholars and men of letters usually used brushes and prepared Chinese ink to do their writings. So the translation “笔墨”does lead to some local imagination. All these four translations are typical examples of domestication, for the Chinese culture are heavily loaded in the version.<br />
<br />
In Belmont is a lady richly left, and she is fair, fairer than that word, of wondrous virtues;<br />
(Act 1, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
在贝尔蒙有一位拥有巨产的姑娘，很美貌，更美的是出奇的贤慧;（2001:28）<br />
<br />
Your father was ever virtuous, and holy men at their death have good inspirations; (Act 1, Scene 2)<br />
<br />
你的父亲一向 是贤明的，并且善人临终时必有灵感; （2001:38）<br />
<br />
This was a way to thrive, and he was blest: and thrift is blessing, if men steal it not. (Act 1, Scene 3)<br />
<br />
这是他获利的方法，他是有福气的;获利是福气，只消不是偷来的。 （2001:46）<br />
<br />
I swear the best regarded virgins of our clime have lov'd it too;(Act 2, Scene 1)<br />
<br />
我们国土里最著名的闺秀也都爱我的容貌;（2001:66）<br />
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If e' er the Jew her father come to heaven, it will be for his gentle daughter's sake; (Act 2, Scene 5)<br />
<br />
如其她父亲那犹太人还有升天之一日，那必是托他女儿的福；（2001:150）<br />
<br />
The original text is based on western culture, closely related to the Bible culture. The original English holy", blessing", and bless' d are obviously biblical words. Unlike westerners, however, we Chinese do not believe in God, but, instead, many of us more or less identify ourselves with Confucian and Buddhist ideas. Therefore, when it comes to translating such kind of culture-loaded words, it is very likely that a translator could not find such counterparts in the target language but have to domesticate them. Look at the words “贤明”,“善人”,and “闺秀”. They are good words that Confucius often teaches us Chinese to follow. And“福气”，“福”and “福佑”are obviously Buddhist words. Liang's translations indeed bring our Chinese readers a familiar feeling.<br />
<br />
As we know, translating is a process of intercultural communication. Cultural differences or gaps always exist. Sometimes, it is difficult for a translator to find proper counterparts in the target language and what a translator can do is to replace the original with seemingly-matched but actually culturally-different translations.<br />
<br />
In the era of Liang Shiqiu’s life,translation activities could hardly be deemed as mature as they are today. Many things were new to China, and many translations of foreign words were not finalized. A translator could not find in China some cultural phenomena peculiar to foreign countries, let alone find corresponding Chinese to describe them. In this case, domestication occurs. Of course, chances are that some translators adopt domestication on purpose so as to bridge cultural gaps and help readers to appreciate works. Both reasons could explain Liang 's adopting domestication in his translations.And the next part of this paper will further explore the reasons why Liang Shiqiu chose foreignization as the main translation strategy and domestication as the auxiliary translation strategy.<br />
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====2.3The reasons of Liang’s translation strategies====<br />
<br />
“the translator who is the reader of the original text and the creator of the translated text as well plays an important role in translation. Translating is not simply a kind of transition between different language systems but a kind of creative activity. In the process of translating, the translator is the bridge communicating the culture of source language and the culture of target language, and his subjective dynamics influence the success of this kind of communication to some extent. He would unconsciously put his own life experience, acquirements, personality, aesthetic views and habits into his reading, understanding and expressing of the source text.”(Yang Xi,2009:23) Just based on this idea, Liang Shiqiu's translation strategies are closely related to his life experience and background.<br />
<br />
Firstly, Liang Shiqiu was nurtured by Confucianism since he was a child, and the essence of Confucianism is similar to the core idea of the Doctrine of the Mean. The Doctrine of the Mean refers to compromise and harmony, requiring people to follow the state of harmony and goodness among all things. This became the foundation of his philosophy of life.From his domestication strategy,we can see his strong accumulation of Chinese traditional culture,he opposed to europeanize completely, which resulted in disputation among some famous writers like Lu Xun. This will be further discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
<br />
Secondly, Liang Shiqiu went to the United States to study in order to broaden his horizons. During this period, he was deeply influenced by his mentor Irving Babbitt. He also recognized the new humanistic ideas and gave it time significance. Professor Irving Babbit is proficient in Confucianism, and to a large extent his theory has many similarities with Confucianism. He admires Western culture very much and advocates that Chinese could learn Western culture. Therefore, he chosed many classic works with Western cultural connotation for translation，He kept the original text as much as possible in the translation process. Sometimes when he encounters obscure and difficult sentences,He often used the method of literal translation with annotation to bring readers many fresh cultural experiences.<br />
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Thirdly, In that time,China was in a special historical period when modern society and modern society were handed over. The cultural exchanges between China and the West influenced his way of thinking and translation concepts. Although Liang Shiqiu affirmed the mentor's new humanistic viewpoint, he did not separate romanticism from classicism, but found a balance between romance and classicism. He integrated Chinese and Western cultural concepts, based on Confucian spirit, added Babbitt’s theory, And it is the combination of these two ideas that made his translation strategy.<br />
<br />
====2.4 The evaluation to Liang’s translation strategies====<br />
<br />
During the New Culture Movement and the May 4th Movement, a number of outstanding patriotic scholars emerged, and the translated literature was also full of vitality. These scholars were not only influenced by traditional culture, but also influenced by foreign culture. However, it is worth noting that there was a group of scholars appeared who opposed Liang Shiqiu's translation strategy, among whom Lu Xun was the most representative one.<br />
<br />
Lu Xun's standpoint has to do with an important function of translation, that is, the enrichment of the Chinese language and culture, which can be better fulfilled by literal translation. Here he obviously thought it natural and necessary for the readers to try their best to understand those new expressions and structures, but with gradual acceptance of such expressions and structures the Chinese language would be enriched. He insisted on complete literal translation and criticized Liang Shiqiu's domestication strategy as old and decadent.But Liang thought faithful but not fluent translation" is as bad as fluent but not faithful translation. To him a desirable translation is one that is faithful to the content as well as other original features of the source language text. However, the translator cannot create obscure expressions for the so-called keeping the source text's mood (Yang Yulin, 2006:89 ). Besides, the translator should not confuse translation with the improvement o Chinese. In a word, Liang insisted that the translator should be responsible for both the source language writer and target language readers. On the other hand, Lu insisted that word-for-word translation" is more faithful to the source text and he would rather have faithful but not fluent translation" than fluent but not faithful translation.<br />
<br />
Taking into account the social background at that time, our nation was still in a weak position and its development was lagging behind that of Western countries, so Lu Xun also hoped to use translation to "input new content and new expressions" to Chinese to improve Chinese and promote Chinese language development. Development, so that Chinese as a language medium can better integrate domestic talents with international standards. Liang Shiqiu believes that translation is mainly to convey the original author’s thoughts and content to those who do not understand the original content. Therefore, loyalty to the original text and expression in conformity with the target language habits are the focus of Liang Shiqiu’s translation, and Liang Shiqiu advocates "read first-rate Books, translated first-class books", I believe that only in masterpieces can people have profound ideological content. The author believes that looking at the dispute between the two dialectically, it can be said that both sides have their own merits, which is conducive to academic discussions in the translation industry and promotes the development of translation studies.<br />
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It would be good to add a reference and Shorten the number of words in a paragraph--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 03:02, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===III.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu devoted his whole life to bringing many western classics to Chinese readers, and his translations of ''The complete works of Shakespeare's plays'' have exerted a great influence on Chinese translation. Liang Shiqiu adopted the strategy of combining domestication and foreignization in translating Shakespeare's plays.<br />
<br />
On the one hand, from the perspective of language and culture, he adopted the strategy of foreignization. For example, when translating proper nouns such as names and places, he disapproved of misleading Local Chinese translations and advocated transliteration. He transliterated "Julius Caesar" as"朱利阿斯西撒" instead of "凯撒大帝". If a person's name reflects certain characteristics of the person, he would naturalize appropriately to convey this information in the translated name, so that readers can understand the personal characteristics. And there are so many puns, slang and colloquialisms in ''The Shakespeare’s Plays'' that they are almost impossible to be translated., then he adopted foreignization strategies, supplemented by annotations, to enrich the Chinese language with heterogeneous cultures. Culturally, he recreated exoticism. There are many vulgar and obscene words in ''The Shakespeare's plays'', which he reserved for the sake of their truth. He advocated the true reflection of Shakespeare's times, the translation of elegant and vulgar should be faithful to the original. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, human emotions are common and there are similarities between eastern and western cultures. Therefore, Liang Shiqiu supplemented his translation with domestication strategies. Although he stressed the "existence of truth", he did not "dead translation". He objected to the "Europeanization" of the target language, that is, using translation to reconstruct Chinese syntax directly from western grammar structure. Liang Shiqiu gave full consideration to readers, for texts with similar cultural connotations, he advocates "nationalization", or domestication, of the target language. This makes the translation more fluent and in line with the expression habits of domestic readers, and greatly improves the readability and appreciation of the translation.<br />
<br />
===IV.References===<br />
<br />
[1] Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator 's Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. London & New York: Routledge, 1995.<br />
<br />
[2]朱安博.归化与异化:中国文学翻译研究的百年流变[M].北京:科学出版社, 2009.<br />
<br />
[3]柯飞.梁实秋谈翻译莎士比亚[J].外语教学与研究,1988,(1):48-53.<br />
<br />
[4]梁实秋，2001.《莎士比亚全集》序[A].莎士比亚全集[M].北京:中国广播电视出版社.<br />
<br />
[5]朱生豪译，1978. 《莎士比亚全集》.北京:人民文学出版社.<br />
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[6]杨迅文.梁实秋文集(5).厦门:鹭江出版社, 2002c.<br />
<br />
[7]刘军平. 西方翻译理论通史[M]. 武汉：武汉大学出版社，2009:445.<br />
<br />
[8]肖忆鑫.梁实秋之中庸翻译观研究.2013.赣南师范学院,MA thesis.<br />
<br />
[9]杨曦.梁实秋翻译思想研究.2010.浙江财经学院,MA thesis.<br />
<br />
[10]许玲.梁实秋的新人文主义思想与莎剧翻译.2007.安徽师范大学,MA thesis.<br />
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Please standardize the format of references.--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 03:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br />
<br />
==Contrast between literal translation and free translation - Liu Yi 刘艺 202070080640 MTI==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The discussion of literal paraphrase has been present throughout the development of translation theory. However, the ongoing debate between literal and paraphrase is not always at the same level and about the same translation issues. Literal translation and paraphrase can be regarded as both translation methods and translation strategies, and the discussion of literal translation and paraphrase first requires a conceptual analysis of the two terms and a clarification of the scope of the discussion. The theories of literal and free translation in Chinese and Western translation studies can be examined from the meta-theoretical level, which not only enables a rational understanding of the debate between literal and free translation, but also enables a better understanding of the relationship between translation theory, practice and their historical contexts. In this paper, we first analyze the concepts of literal translation and free translation, and then Throughout the thesis, we have introduced the application of literal translation and free translation and used some examples to show their application in proverb and idiom. At last, we will analyze the relation between literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
free translation, literal translation, application.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
在翻译理论的发展过程中，关于字面转述的讨论一直存在。然而，直译与意译的持续争论并不总是在同一层面上，关于同一翻译问题。直译和意译都可以看作是翻译方法和翻译策略，讨论直译和意译，首先要对这两个术语进行概念分析，明确讨论范围。中西方翻译研究中的直译和意译理论可以从元理论层面进行考察，这不仅可以理性地认识直译和意译的争论，而且可以更好地理解翻译理论、实践及其历史背景之间的关系。本文首先分析了直译和意译的概念，然后在论文中通篇介绍了直译和意译的应用，并用一些例子来说明它们在谚语和成语中的应用。最后，我们将分析两者之间的关系。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
直译，意译，应用。<br />
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===I. Introduction===<br />
In intercultural communication, translation plays a very important role. Translation is the process of replacing chapters of material in one language (source language) with chapters of material in another language (target language), How to effectively translate between English and Chinese? The two languages have both commonalities and differences, as they belong to different language families: English is an Indo-European language, while Chinese belongs to the Sino-Tibetan language family. However, there are some common points between the two languages, such as the same subject-predicate word order and the same verb-object word order. In order to realize the interchangeability of the two languages, we have to make use of some translation methods, such as literal translation and paraphrase translation.<br />
<br />
The essence of translation is the conversion of information from one language to another or to several languages. In the translation process, translation is influenced by many factors, including contextual and cultural factors. Among translation strategies, literal and paraphrase are the most popular. Both literal and paraphrased translations have their own applications and cannot be generalized. Translators need to make good use of both literal and paraphrase translations in order to produce good translations. Literal translation and paraphrase are important translation strategies, and they are related, complementary and inseparable.<br />
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===II. Sources of Literal and free Translation===<br />
In the West, during the Roman era, literal translation was used to translate Greek into Latin. Later, Cicero advocated paraphrasing to preserve the overall style and power of the language (Tan Zaixi, 2009:19). After that, people used these two translation methods to translate, literal translation and paraphrase translation. In China, as early as the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the famous Buddhist scripture translator Zhi Qian put forward the idea of "not emphasizing the wording, but keeping the original meaning" as a method of literal translation.<br />
<br />
"In his disciple Zhi Qian, he opposed such a literal translation from a stylistic point of view, and advocated a free translation. His disciple Zhi Qian, on the other hand, opposed such literal translation from a stylistic point of view and advocated free translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the commentator of Buddhist scriptures translation, Dao An, advocated literal translation of every word of the scriptures, without any addition or deletion to the original text. Kumarajiva, as the representative of the School of Free Translation of Buddhist Scriptures, proposed the method of free translation as "faith-based," "Tao practicing and compounding," and "making quality rather than wild". In his evaluation of his translation, Liang Qichao said: "All translations by Xuanzang, for the original, either add or subtract, in order to achieve the purpose." In the 1930s, both Lu Xun and Qu Qiu Bai advocated literal translation, Zhao Jing Shen favored free translation, and Lin Yutang advocated the integration of literal and free translation.<br />
<br />
===III. Definition of Two Translation===<br />
'''3.1 Definition of Literal Translation'''<br />
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Literal translation refers to a method to render of text from one language to another by following closely the form of the source language. Definitely different from mechanical translation (word for word translation), literal translation shall provide fluent and accurate translation that is easily comprehended by the readers of the target language. "The so-called literal translation is a translation method or translated text that keeps the content and form of the original text" (Feng Qinghua, 2002:37). There are a lot of differences between English and Chinese, but there are some commonalities between the two, which is the basis and reason for the existence of literal translation.[1]<br />
<br />
Literal translation refers to a method to render of text from one language to another by following closely the form of the source language. Definitely different from mechanical translation (word for word translation), literal translation shall provide fluent and accurate translation that is easily comprehended by the readers of the target language. "The so-called literal translation is a translation method or translated text that keeps the content and form of the original text" (Feng Qinghua, 2002:37). There are a lot of differences between English and Chinese, but there are some commonalities between the two, which is the basis and reason for the existence of literal translation.[1](Fang Yili.2012, 000(003):16-20.)--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 04:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Mr. Mao Dun once explained and emphasized that literal translation is not a dead translation of "word for word, not one more, not one less" [2]. The real intention of literal translation is not to distort the creative purpose of the original work, but to express the spirit of the original work.<br />
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Mr. Mao Dun once explained and emphasized that literal translation is not a dead translation of "word for word, not one more, not one less" [2].(Wei Lu;Hong Fang,2012,2(4):741-746.) The real intention of literal translation is not to distort the creative purpose of the original work, but to express the spirit of the original work.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 04:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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You can also say that it refers to translate a sentence originally, keeping the original forms, including construction of sentences, meaning of the original words, and metaphor of the original and so on. It can not only reproduce the meaning and frame of language, but also keep its vivid image figure of speech and novel and unique expressive ways so that readers can comprehend the origin’s literal grace.<br />
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For example: The winter morning was clear as crystal. The sunrise burned red in a pure sky, the shadow on the rim of the woodland were darkly blue, and beyond the white and scintillating fields patches of far off for forest hung like smoke.<br />
Literal translation: 冬天的早晨水晶般明澈。纯净的东边天上朝日烧的通红，林子边上的影子时暗蓝色，隔着那耀眼的白茫茫的天野远处的森林像挂在半空中的烟云。<br />
This translation keeps the original form and meaning totally. It comes out the author’s writing style and transfer the source language to target language perfectly.<br />
<br />
'''3.2 Definition of Free Translation'''<br />
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Free translation is a method to deliver the intended meaning of the source text without paying attention to details such as syntax, style and so on of the original text. Free translation is suitable in case the translation is difficult to be understood or accepted by the readers or the translation seems not as attractive or powerful as the original text by approach of literal translation. It can also means a method of making the target text smooth and perfect .On the basis of them, places of word and constructions of sentence have to be almost changed to suit real meanings of original text.[3]<br />
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Free translation is a method to deliver the intended meaning of the source text without paying attention to details such as syntax, style and so on of the original text. Free translation is suitable in case the translation is difficult to be understood or accepted by the readers or the translation seems not as attractive or powerful as the original text by approach of literal translation. It can also means a method of making the target text smooth and perfect .On the basis of them, places of word and constructions of sentence have to be almost changed to suit real meanings of original text.[3](Zhu Liyun,Xu Jingxian.2019(14):107-108)--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 04:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In general, a paraphrase is a translation that is consistent with the original text in terms of content, but changes in form. In short, the translation should be faithful to the basic content of the original text, while the form of expression should be original. In the history of Chinese translation, the definition of free translation is also divided. For example, Fu Lei believed that a paraphrase should, to the maximum extent possible, maintain the syntax of the original sentence, not that the grammar of the original sentence can be completely thrown away. It is not that the grammar of the original sentence can be left out completely. Eskridge once said that a translator cannot arbitrarily add or delete sentences from the original in order to achieve the standard of "up" translation, but that the original should be taken into consideration. According to Qian Gechuan, although the translations use paraphrase and change form, they should still be faithful to the original.<br />
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For example: It’s an ill wind that blows nobody good.<br />
Free translation: 对于某些人有害的事可能对于另外一些人有好处。<br />
In this translation, we can see that there is no word in Chinese that equivalence to the word “wind” in English. So we use free translation which not only keeps the original meaning but also makes source language to target language comprehensively. <br />
However, free translation does not mean to neglect or add the original. When to use free translation, translator must know both source language and target language very well, including the cultural background, the equivalence words and make the translation fluent and comprehensible. Free translation is a flexible translation skill. Once literal translation can not express the original well, it’s time to use free translation.<br />
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===IV. The different applications of literal and free translation===<br />
'''4.1 The application of literal translation'''<br />
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Firstly, if it is possible to translate literally, translate it word-for-word. The advantage of literal translation is to keep the liveliness of the text which has rhetoric in it. Let’s take two sentences below as examples:<br />
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(1) For my father know and I know that if you only dig enough, a pasture can be made free.<br />
Literal translation: 因为我父亲知道，我也知道，只要挖到一定程度，早晚可以在这里劈出个牧场的。<br />
Free translation: 因为我父亲知道，我也知道，功到自然成。<br />
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(2) But I hated Sakamoto, and I had a feeling he’d surely lead us both to our ancestors.<br />
Literal translation: 但是我恨坂本，并预感到他肯定领着咱们去见祖先。<br />
Free translation: 但是我恨坂本，并预感到他肯定会领着咱们去送死。<br />
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For the first one, we can see the free translation expressed the general meaning of the original sentences with the metaphors. It’s better and comprehensive. But for the second one, though free translations make sentences more fluent, literal translations are closer to the original and express author’s emotion much lively. Because the differences of two languages, sometimes it is difficult to retain the intrinsical thoughts and style of the source language. <br />
Secondly, some sentences are hard to translate literally in some circumstances, especially the different expression of metaphors, proverbs and idioms. To people in English speaking countries, they are hard to understand some old sayings in Chinese and literal translation is unacceptable in this situation. They can’t get the original meaning accurately.<br />
For example:<br />
<br />
(1) Our son must go to school. He must break out of the pot that holds us in.<br />
Literal translation: 我们的儿子一定得进学校，他一定得打破这个把我们关在里面的罐子。<br />
Free translation: 我们的儿子一定要上学，一定要出人头地。<br />
<br />
(2) Their legs moved a little jerkily, like well-made wooden dolls, and they carried pillars of blank fear about them.<br />
Literal translation: 他们的腿轻轻痉挛地移动着，像做得很好的木偶一样，他们随身携带者黑色的恐怖柱子。<br />
Free translation: 他们每向前迈进一步，腿就抖动一下，好似精致的木偶一样，他们身上带着一股阴沉的杀气。<br />
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In these sentences, literal translation is improper. We cannot use literal translation if the presentation of the version does not conform to that of the source language. “Break out the pot that holds us in” is an English idiom. When we translate it to Chinese, we have an idiom “出人头地” that has the similar meaning. <br />
Generally speaking, literal translation is the basic technique in translation practice. It can keep the original form, including sentences’ structure and the original expression. But sometimes it needs some necessary changes to make the ways of expression be consistent between source language and target language.<br />
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'''4.2 The application of free translation'''<br />
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First of all, we use free translation when it’s difficult to translate them literally; especially there are differences on the ways of expression between the two languages. Moreover, in some sentences, though literal translation can make it understandable, it cannot express the profound meaning smoothly. Under this circumstance, free translation can help us get a better result.<br />
For example:<br />
<br />
(1) It is an ill bird that fouls its own nest.<br />
Literal translation: 弄脏自己巢的鸟的确是一只坏鸟。<br />
Free translation: 家丑不可外扬。<br />
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(2) Cast pearls before swine.<br />
Literal translation: 把珍珠扔到猪前面。<br />
Free translation: 对牛弹琴。<br />
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Free translation should be fluent and natural. It can express the general idea without paying much attention to the details; especially in the translation in idioms or proverbs. <br />
Secondly, never add our own emotion to the translation. A successful translation must be objective and clearly. Free translation gives the translators more freedom to express source language and readers can get the original meaning comprehensively. Once the translators add their own emotions to it, the two version’s readers would have different feelings on the same task.<br />
Finally, free translation is a flexible and technical skill. The translators must learn abundant knowledge and possess the general knowledge of both the two countries as much as possible. More extensive knowledge translators have, more completely they can comprehend the meaning of the original task.<br />
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'''4.3 The comparison of applications of literal and free translation'''<br />
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'''4.3.1''' What are the advantages of literal translation? Generally speaking, the use of rhetoric in a text makes it more vivid and lively, and through literal translation, the rhetoric of the original text is preserved and the target language is similar to the original text. In contrast, free translation only reflects the general idea of the original text, and the original rhetoric disappears through the original translator's ingenuity and processing. So, in general, literal translation is a good choice.<br />
For example, <br />
<br />
For Maria, this is a great success in her life, just as the brave winning over a great battle against the gigantic man in the black forests.<br />
<br />
Literal translation:在玛丽亚看来, 这是她一生中最了不起的成功, 这种成功就好像她英勇无畏地战胜了黑暗森林中的巨人。<br />
<br />
Free translation:在玛丽亚看来, 这是她一生中最了不起的成功。<br />
In this sentence, the literal translation only reflects the main idea of the original, which is too simple and bland, and the metaphorical rhetoric and description of the character's psychological state are lost. The literal translation, however, is much clearer and more vivid than the free translation, which is more vivid and natural. Due to language differences, it is sometimes difficult to retain the ideas and style of the original text in the translation process. The advantage of literal translation is precisely this: it can keep the ideas and style of the original text.<br />
<br />
'''4.3.2 A literal translation is not the same as a word-for-word translation.''' <br />
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What is word-for-word translation? --When translating, every word in the source language is considered, and every word in the target language is translated one by one.Usually, the target reader does not know what the translated text is really saying, and this is also a word-for-word translation. For example, <br />
<br />
John had to face the music after his father came back for he had broken his father’s expensive vase.<br />
Literal translation :在他的爸爸回来后, 约翰不得不面对音乐, 因为他打碎了爸爸的昂贵的花瓶。<br />
<br />
The translation of these two sentences is clearly not in line with the Chinese way of expressing oneself; it is word-for-word, sentence-for-sentence, and overly rigid. It does not conform to the way the target language is expressed, and the meaning it is intended to convey is ambiguous, making it difficult for the target reader to understand what the translator is trying to say. A word-for-sentence translation is a substandard translation, as it confuses the target audience.<br />
A literal translation retains the style, rhetoric, and structure of the original text, while at the same time making the necessary adjustments to make it smooth, clear, and acceptable to the target language. After reading, the target language reader can have almost the same feeling as the source language reader.<br />
Some people make the mistake of thinking that a translation that keeps the structure and form of the original text exactly the same is a literal translation, confusing the concepts of literal and word-for-word translation. In the end, literal translation is not a word-for-word translation; it is an acceptable and flexible translation.<br />
<br />
'''4.3.3''' Some sentences should not be directly translated Some source sentences are difficult to translate. Some sentences do not fit the way the target language is expressed after literal translation. Different countries have different cultures, different customs, different rhetoric and different ways of expressing the same idea, and different idioms. In China, people usually use some idioms to describe an event or a person, and this is also the case in foreign countries. In the eyes of Westerners, Chinese idioms are very difficult to understand. In these cases, the result of a literal translation would be unacceptable. When the target language readers read such a translation, they cannot know the exact meaning of the source language, because the message in the target language is ambiguous. For example, if:<br />
<br />
The bastard finally kicked the bucket in an accident.<br />
Literal translation:那个坏蛋最后踢了木桶在一场交通意外中。<br />
Free translation:那个坏蛋最后在一场交通意外中丧命。<br />
<br />
'''4.3.4.''' The literal translation of this sentence is nonsensical, even absurd; but with a paraphrase, the translation becomes clearer and more acceptable to the target audience, and is culturally appropriate.<br />
But under what circumstances should a literal translation be done? How to use literal translation correctly? When the expression of the source language is not the same as that of the target language, literal translation should not be done. As a translator, you should pay attention to the following aspects:<br />
<br />
Firstly, to understand the culture of the source and target language, to acquire as much extensive knowledge as possible, and to become more familiar with the issues talked about in the source language, otherwise the translation work cannot be carried out. We often have the experience that we do not know or do not understand something, even after it is explained to us, because we do not have the appropriate knowledge. Therefore, a professional translator must have some knowledge of the relevant discipline or specialty. If a translator does not know the material he wants to translate and the content of the knowledge of the relevant discipline involved, his translation will be unqualified.<br />
<br />
Secondly, it is very important to understand the information in the source language correctly and thoroughly. The translator should not only know the apparent meaning of the text, but also read through the original text to thoroughly understand the idea and meaning of the original text. If a translator only knows the literal meaning of the original text, and translates literally, then his translation will not be successful. The target language reader will be confused when reading such a translation, and will have a different feeling between the intended message of the original text and the translation, or even a misunderstanding.<br />
<br />
Third, translation is not the same as reading. When reading, it doesn't matter how we understand or whether we can understand or misunderstand, because the reader's level is limited. Reading is only a sense of self. But a translation can affect other people. Therefore, translators should have a thorough understanding of the information in the source language and repeat the information correctly.<br />
Fourth, improve the acceptability of the translation. From the above, we know that the translation should be consistent with the expression of the target language, so that it can be easily accepted by the target language readers. In fact, it is not difficult to preserve the style of the source language; the real difficulty is to translate the source language into a language that is consistent with the mode of expression of the target language.<br />
<br />
Literal translation is a basic skill necessary for translation work. It preserves the form of the source language, including the sentence structure and diction. Sometimes, it makes necessary changes to the source language to make it closer to the expression of the target language and to make the translation more acceptable. But literal translation is not a panacea. Translators should expand their knowledge and practice extensively. After all, practice is an important aspect of translation work.<br />
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'''4.4 The application of literal translation and free translation in idiom'''<br />
<br />
Idiom is also a kind of saying. Idiom is an expression, word, or phrase that has a figurative meaning that is comprehended in regard to a common use of that expression that is separate from the literal meaning of definition of the words of which it is made. Idioms are numerous and they occur frequently in all languages. <br />
<br />
The formation of idiom accords with the formation of culture. It is to say that the culture give birth to the idiom. Thousands of years ago, people draw lessons and experience from their daily life and then write down to tell their generations what they have gotten. As a result, most of idioms mirror almost everything related to the life. They contain experience and philosophy. We should know the basic structure of the sentences well, rather than the face value of words. Only in that way you would know what shouldn’t be reserved and what can be ignored. <br />
<br />
Every country has its own unique culture. We know most idioms are produced by farmers, hunters, and fishermen and came from daily life. So they often use much different imagery in the idioms. England is an island and fishery country so a great number of English idioms relate to fish and sea. On the contrary, China has been an agricultural country with a very large agricultural population. As a result, we have a great many Chinese idioms that contain farming experience, especially we use animals to signify person. When we translate the idioms, in some circumstance we can translate them literally; but under most circumstance, in order to make readers understand, we take free translation.[4]<br />
<br />
Every country has its own unique culture. We know most idioms are produced by farmers, hunters, and fishermen and came from daily life. So they often use much different imagery in the idioms. England is an island and fishery country so a great number of English idioms relate to fish and sea. On the contrary, China has been an agricultural country with a very large agricultural population. As a result, we have a great many Chinese idioms that contain farming experience, especially we use animals to signify person. When we translate the idioms, in some circumstance we can translate them literally; but under most circumstance, in order to make readers understand, we take free translation.[4](Gao Qiang, Li Cao.2008(14):265-266)--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 04:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
These imageries should be translated freely.<br />
For example: <br />
<br />
(1) Teach fish to swim.<br />
Free translation: 班门弄斧。<br />
<br />
(2) Beat the dog before the lion.<br />
Free translation: 杀鸡儆猴。<br />
<br />
(3) One must howl with the wolves.<br />
Free translation: 入乡随俗。<br />
<br />
(4) Love me, love my dog.<br />
Free translation: 爱屋及乌。<br />
<br />
(5) Put the cart before the horse.<br />
Free translation: 本末倒置。<br />
5 The relationship of <br />
These imageries can be translated literally. <br />
<br />
For example:<br />
<br />
(1) The style is the man.<br />
Literal translation: 文如其人。<br />
<br />
(2) To be on thin ice.<br />
Literal translation: 如履薄冰。<br />
<br />
(3) Hasty makes waste.<br />
Literal translation: 欲速则不达。<br />
<br />
(4) Fish in troubled water.<br />
Literal translation: 浑水摸鱼。<br />
<br />
(5) Business is business.<br />
Literal translation: 公事公办。<br />
<br />
(6) Honey sweet words.<br />
Literal translation: 甜言蜜语。<br />
<br />
(7) A gentleman’s agreement.<br />
Literal translation: 君子协定。<br />
<br />
'''4.5The application of literal translation and free translation in proverb'''<br />
<br />
Proverb is a kind of sayings. It prevails in the community with concise words. Most proverbs reflect the practical experience of working people's life and are generally passed down orally. It is mostly spoken in the colloquial form of phrases or rhymes easy to understand. And proverbs are to some extent similar to idioms, twisters, common sayings, and aphorism.<br />
Readers can enrich themselves with plentiful interesting information of other cultures by familiarizing themselves with proverbs. Thus, the function of proverb translation is not only to absorb and introduce the vivid expressions, but also to enrich the readers with the culture of other nations and learn their basic philosophy of life or world. <br />
<br />
In order to understand the features of proverb translation, let’s take some examples:<br />
<br />
(1) One boy is a boy, two boys half a boy, three boys no boy.<br />
Literal translation: 一个男孩是男孩，两个男孩抵半个，三个男孩什么都不是。<br />
Free translation: 一个和尚挑水吃，两个和尚抬水吃，三个和尚没水吃。<br />
<br />
(2) One picture is worth a thousand words.<br />
Literal translation: 一张图胜过千言万语。<br />
Free translation: 百闻不如一见。<br />
<br />
(3) Where there’s a will, there’s a way.<br />
Literal translation: 有一种意愿，就有一种方法。<br />
Free translation: 有志者事竟成。<br />
<br />
(4) A new broom sweeps clean.<br />
Literal translation: 新扫帚能打扫干净。<br />
Free translation: 新官上任三把火。<br />
<br />
(5) The same knife cuts bread and fingers.<br />
Literal translation: 同一把刀可以切面包也会割到手指。<br />
Free translation: 水能载舟，亦能覆舟。<br />
<br />
(6) The pot calls the kettle black.<br />
Literal translation: 锅笑壶黑。<br />
Free translation: 五十步笑百步。<br />
From these examples, when the metaphors are different, free translation could help us understand the source language better. However, in some circumstance, Chinese proverbs have the same meaning, expression ways and metaphors using, taking literal translation is easier and convenient.<br />
For example:<br />
<br />
(1) Books are ships that pass though the vast sea of time.<br />
Literal translation: 时光好比汪洋，书籍好比航船。<br />
<br />
(2) Hedges have eyes, walls have ears.<br />
Literal translation: 隔篱有眼，隔墙有耳。<br />
<br />
(3) Out of sight, out of mind.<br />
Literal translation: 眼不见为净。<br />
<br />
(4) Like father, like son.<br />
Literal translation: 有其父必有其子。<br />
<br />
(5) Well begun, half done.<br />
Literal translation: 好的开始是成功的一半。<br />
<br />
===V. The relation between literal and free translation===<br />
Because of the different metaphors and imageries using between English and Chinese, once we cannot translate literally, we should make some changes. Such as “dog” signifies good things in English but just on the contrary in Chinese. So sometime we choose free translation to make the sentence perfect. <br />
(1). Both literal and literal translations are intended to be accurate, both figurative and spiritual reproductions of the original meaning of the work, and there is no good or bad in either.<br />
"Among wolves one must howl" can be literally translated as "你在狼群中必须得嗥", or it can be translated as "入乡随俗".<br />
Nevertheless, we must note the difference between these two translation strategies. Literal translation has a higher requirement for "faithfulness to the original", and is usually used for scientific, legal, and other texts, because it must be precise and not misleading to the reader. In addition, literal translation can also be used to translate general everyday language. In contrast, free translation is more abstract and is generally used to translate poetry, prose and other literary works, expressing the main connotation of the original work with divergent thinking to increase its beauty and artistry.<br />
(2) Literal translation and free translation are not mutually exclusive, but complementary and inseparable.<br />
<br />
===VI. Conclusion===<br />
Throughout the thesis, we have introduced the definition of literal translation and free translation and used some examples to show their application in proverb and idiom. According to the analysis, we know literal translation and free translation are two basic methods in translation practice. Literal translation emphasizes both the form and meaning of the text, while free translation lays stress on the conveying of the spirit of the text. However, literal translation is different from word-to-word translation or dead translation, which converts words out of the text simply. Free translation, on the other hand, translating the text in a flexible way does not means to translate random but reasonable. Both of the two methods have their own beauty.<br />
Literal translation can keep the original expressing style and meaning of the text and achieve formal equivalence between Chinese and English. And it can be more directly in the expression. But not all sentences can be translated literally. In some circumstance, especially the poetry, proverb and idiom, literal translation shows its limitation. So we use free translation.<br />
The beauty of free translation lies in its freedom of the forms. It does not pay so much attention on details of the source language and it demands the translators to handle target language culture and customs and readers of target language could accept the translation easily and clearly. It can be used when literal translation cannot be taken. Translators should remember not to add their own emotion in their translation task, for that will make the readers have the different feeling in two languages versions then the translation is not appropriate. And free translation is not uncontrolled translation, it also require the correctness.<br />
Literal translation and free translation are two main forms of translation. They are not repulsive but complementary. In practice, we should not stick to one of the methods. We can translate the texts neatly and take the right method which is more suitable for the practical situation. Every country has its own history, culture and customs. Those aspects could be reflected by their language expressing. A good translator should have more extensive knowledge and apply these two methods flexibility, experientially and properly. We must accumulate knowledge of different nations in our daily life, read more books and practice as much as possible. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1] 方仪力. 直译与意译:翻译方法、策略与元理论向度探讨[J]. 上海翻译, 2012, 000(003):16-20.<br />
<br />
[2] Wei Lu;Hong Fang.Reconsidering Peter Newmark‟s Theory on Literal Translation[J].Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(4):741-746.<br />
<br />
[3] 朱丽云;徐静娴.有关直译和意译的讨论.汉字文化.2019年(14):107-108<br />
<br />
[4] 高强;李曹.浅谈直译法与意译法在翻译工作中的应用.科技信息(科学教研).2008年(14):265-266<br />
<br />
[5] Wensheng Deng.“Cultural Self-confidence” or “Cultural Trust”—A Proposal for Teaching Literal Translation[J].Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2020,10(3):300-305.<br />
<br />
[6] Rui Manuel Cruse.The Importance of Literal Translation in the Process of Learning English as a Foreign Language[J].The ESPecialist: Research in Language for Specific Purposes,2011,31(1).--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
='''Cultural Differences'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences 李凌月 Li Lingyue 202020080611==<br />
<center>李凌月 Li Lingyue</center><br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Idioms are unique cultural products of different nationalities, regions and societies. It contains a long historical background and rich cultural connotation. It not only reflects the colorful social life of all ethnic groups, but also carries a unique aesthetic feeling of language. Due to the differences in geographical environment, religious beliefs and customs, English and Chinese idioms have different cultural characteristics and cultural information. Translation is not only an interlingual communication, but also a cross-cultural transfer. Cultural factors are often the focus and difficulty in translating idioms. Mastering the principles and methods of idiom translation is not only conducive to the translator's translation, but also conducive to the further construction of cross-cultural communication.<br />
===Key words===<br />
idiom translation; cultural differences, cross-cultural communication; translation principles; translation methods<br />
===题目===<br />
从文化差异看英汉习语的翻译<br />
===摘要===<br />
习语是各民族、地域和社会特有的文化产物。它蕴含着久远的历史背景和丰富的文化内涵，不但反映了各民族丰采多姿的社会生活，且承载着独特的语言美感。因地理环境、宗教信仰、生活习俗等方面的差异，英汉习语具有不同的民族文化特色和文化信息。翻译是语际交流，更是跨文化的迁移。文化因素往往是翻译习语时的重点和难点。熟练掌握习语翻译的原则和策略，不仅有利于译者的翻译，且有利于跨文化交流的进一步构建。<br />
===关键词===<br />
习语翻译、文化差异、跨文化交流、翻译原则、翻译策略<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Idiom is a cultural product of various regions. After the passage of time and the social and cultural changes and development of various regions, idioms have formed a unique cultural system, which is also a reflection of local cultural thoughts. It not only contains a large number of language and local living habits, but also reflects the local history and culture. Idioms have stable structure and distinctive national color, fixed form and profound implication. Idioms are one of the most effective ways of emotional expression, which can achieve the purpose of communication in a proper and implicit way. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Therefore, idioms are widely used in people's daily communication activities, as well as in various language textbooks and classroom teaching contents and practices. Idioms are also the crystallization of the wisdom of the peoples of the world and the gem of the language essence. They are the concentrated expression of national personality and national culture, and contain rich and colorful intension. Stylistically, idioms in a broad sense include proverbs, slang, colloquial, twin words, trinomials, catchphrase, lexical phrase and habitual collocation. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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===2. Features of Idioms===<br />
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====2. 1 Vividness====<br />
Many idioms use some images to reflect the meaning it expresses, and use a lot of rhetoric, such as metaphor, metaphor, personification, etc., especially the metaphor. These images and rhetoric increase the language effect of idioms, make them more vivid, and the language color more lively. For example, in Chinese, there is the saying of “漏网之鱼”, which literally refers to the fish escaping from the fishing net, which is used to describe the escaped criminals or enemies; another example is “光阴似箭，日月如梭”, which compares time to an arrow and a shuttle, which means that time passes by amazingly fast, just like an arrow out of a bow and a shuttle in operation. In English, for example, armed to the teeth, a snake in the grass. These idioms use rhetorical devices and some images to describe their meanings. In this way, not only can the language be vivid and vigorous, but also the rhythm is beautiful and easy to read. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 2 Historic Background====<br />
Idioms are all developed from people's long-term life and practice. They have certain historical imprints, and different nationalities have different expressions. For example, the idiom “换汤不换药” has a certain historical origin. Literally, it means to change the decoction water, but the prescription has not changed. Although the name and form of metaphor have changed, the content is still the same. As we all know, traditional Chinese medicine has existed since ancient times and is very popular. In this way, this proverb is obviously historic. In English, “at the eleventh hour” comes from the Bible. Even if the employees who enter the vineyard at 11 o'clock only work for one hour, they will be paid the same wages at 12 o'clock as those who enter the vineyard before 11 o'clock. It means that 11 o'clock is the last time, but it is still not too late. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 3 Stability====<br />
The stability here mainly refers to the stability of the structure and semantics of idioms. After a long period of continuous development and evolution, idioms gradually have certain norms, and their structures are no longer inconsistent. Idioms cannot be reduced or changed at will, nor can their structures be changed at will. Chinese idioms often retain the form of ancient classical Chinese, and their grammatical structure is different from that of modern Chinese. Taking “唯命是从” and “何陋之有” as examples, here “是” and “有” are the signs of the advance of the object, that is, to obey orders, there is no rudeness. In English idioms, the singular and plural can't be changed at will, and the part of speech can't be transformed at will. Just like Chinese, it can't increase or decrease components or change sentence structure arbitrarily. For example, we can't change it to “hang by hair” or “hang by a hair of his”. This is the stability of English and Chinese idioms. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====2. 4 Semantic Unity====<br />
The semantic meaning of an idiom is a complete and indivisible entity. Therefore, we can't understand the idiom according to the meaning of the words that make up the idiom. Otherwise, we will make the mistake of taking the literal meaning for granted. “Pull one's socks up” cannot be understood as “lifting one's socks up” according to its four parts. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
Of course, the structural stability of idioms is not absolute. Many idioms in both languages have their own variants. The change of idioms must be based on the overall meaning and basic structure of the prototype idioms, and be accepted by convention. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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====2. 5 Euphony====<br />
Idioms often use the harmony of pronunciation and structure to achieve the catchy, harmonious and pleasant effect. In terms of pronunciation, alliteration and final rhyme are mainly used to increase the phonetic beauty and rhetorical effect of idioms. For example, “hot and heavy”; “money makes the mare go”; “by hook or by crook”; “fair and square”; “wear and tear”; “A friend in need is a friend indeed”. In terms of structure, it is reflected in the neat antithesis and the use of repetition to form idioms. For example, “like father, like son”; “out of sight, out of mind”; “cool and calm”; “safe and sound”. On this point, Chinese idioms are more incisive, and most of them are four character structure. Such as “匆匆忙忙”，“如火如荼”，“兴致勃勃”. (Ma Guozhi, 2019)<br />
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English and Chinese belong to different language families, English belongs to Indo European language family, Chinese belongs to Sino Tibetan language family, English belongs to hypotaxis language, and Chinese belongs to parataxis language. There are many static words in English and dynamic words in Chinese. Chinese idioms are very expressive, especially idioms with stable structure, many overlapping words and harmonious syllables; English idioms often bring beauty of sound in word stress, sentence stress and pitch fluctuation. (Ma Guozhi, 2019)<br />
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===3. Cultural Differences in English and Chinese Idioms===<br />
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====3. 1 Differences Based on Natural Environment====<br />
People living in different natural environment will form different culture, because each culture will have different characteristics according to its region and climate environment. Idioms, as a unique cultural gene, fully integrate the differences of natural and geographical environment. It can be said that the specific geographical environment is the basis for creating a specific culture, which makes the language in the culture be expressed through different idioms. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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Chinese people live in a semi closed continental geographical environment with mild climate, and their self-sufficient small-scale peasant economy can meet people's living needs. Therefore, people believe that a good harvest cannot be separated from the gift of nature. They pay attention to the unity of man and nature, and pay more attention to human relations. Since ancient times, the Han nationality has given priority to agriculture, so many of its idioms are related to farming and planting. For example, “吃饭不忘种田人”；“不耕不种，终身落空。”；“瓜熟带落”；“生米煮成熟饭”；“牛郎织女”；“巧妇难为无米之炊”；“一份耕耘，一份收获。”and so on.<br />
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Greece, the birthplace of western culture, is an open marine geographical environment. People need to fight against the harsh nature for a long time. Therefore, it has formed the tradition of exploring and conquering nature. The geographical environment makes the fishery, shipbuilding and shipping industry flourish and develop. Therefore, English idioms naturally have a lot of things about the sea. For example, the English idiom “spend money like water” is used to describe the waste of money and extravagance, while the Chinese idiom uses the idiom “挥金如土” to express this meaning; In English idiom, “between the devil and the deep sea” means “进退维谷” in Chinese idioms; Similar English idioms about ships and water are: “to keep sb's head above water", “miss the boat”, “rock the boat”, “feel at sea”, “in the same boat”, “take the helm”, etc. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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In addition, English and Chinese idioms also reflect the differences in weather and climate between China and the West. In addition, due to the differences in geographical environment, the “west wind” in English is equivalent to the east wind in Chinese. Just as Shelley, a famous English poet, praises the west wind in his ode to the west wind, in English, the west wind has warm and pleasant meaning, while in Chinese, the west wind is bleak and desolate. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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====3. 2 Differences Based on Religion====<br />
The development of human religion has gone through a process from irrational witchcraft and superstition to mature and non-exclusive rational religious civilization. As different cultures choose different scales in the process, the development direction and track of religion are also different, which reflects different temperament. In the attitude towards religion, Chinese culture reflects the love of real life and has the value scale of humanism, while the western culture shows a yearning for the transcendent other side of the world and praise God. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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As early as the Xi Han Dynasty, Buddhism has been introduced into China from ancient India. After a long time of development, it has become China's largest religion and related idioms, such as “平时不烧香临时抱佛脚”；“放下屠刀，立地成佛”；“借花献佛”; While in the western countries, as early as the first century A.D., Judaism, the source of Christianity, was born. In the later period of the Roman Empire, it was established as the state religion, and then developed through the monopoly in the middle ages. Christianity was closely related to the life of Westerners. The idioms such as “Judas kiss”, are used to describe shameful treachery; “as old as Adam”, means very old; “God help those who help themselves” and so on. Nowadays, these two religions have been integrated into the eastern and Western cultures respectively, and become an inseparable part of the daily life. Therefore, it is very important to deepen the understanding of Chinese and Western culture through idioms. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)<br />
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====3. 3 Differences Based on Historical Allusions====<br />
Every nation has its own history and culture, which leads to different customs due to different historical cultures. In fact, many idioms come from history, which mainly come from historical stories or historical documents. These idioms are simple in structure and far-reaching in meaning, so they cannot be understood and translated only from the literal meaning. For example, “周瑜打黄盖，一个愿打一个愿挨”，“姜太公钓鱼，愿者上钩”，“身在曹营心在汉”，“三顾茅庐”,“名落孙山”. Many of these idioms, come from history and have profound significance. In western countries, there are many idioms related to history, such as "an apple of discord", which comes from the Greek story of the war caused by an apple. “Greek Gift” is also derived from Greek mythology. At that time, the Trojans gave the Greek horses as gifts, and there were many soldiers in the horses, which led to the defeat of Greece. There is a certain historical story behind each idiom. Therefore, in order to translate idioms better, we must understand the history and culture of the West. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
<br />
In China, “dragon" is our spiritual totem, a symbol of auspiciousness and power. Chinese people are also proud of being the descendants of dragon. However, in the eyes of Westerners, there is no such special feeling for “dragon”. Even “dragon" is regarded as a dreadful monster with teeth and claws. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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====3. 4 Differences Based on Living Customs====<br />
The difference of life customs is often one of the important reasons for language differences. Due to the differences of national customs and habits in different countries, there are great differences in attitudes and views on many things. Western civilization has the characteristics of searching for the outside world and a strong desire to conquer. This has formed the British and American people's outlook on life that emphasizes innovation, enterprise and boldness, which can be reflected in idioms such as “knowledge is power”. The English idiom “bread is the staff of life” embodies his pragmatic outlook on life, while “money talks" embodies his pursuit of material interests and utilitarianism. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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In Chinese idioms, the spirit of “collectivism” and “selfless dedication” is often emphasized, such as “天下兴亡，匹夫有责”. Take the attitude towards animals as an example. In Western English speaking countries, dogs are regarded as the most loyal friends of human beings, and are often loved by people. Therefore, there are many English idioms about “dog", such as: “a lucky dog”, “every dog has his day”, “love me, love my dog”, “rain cats and dogs”, “the dog days of summer”, “work like a dog”, etc. However, in Chinese culture, “dog” is often regarded as a humble animal, it is often given a derogatory meaning in Chinese idioms, such as: “狗咬吕洞宾，不识好人心”、“狗口里吐不出象牙”、“狐朋狗党”、“狗急跳墙”、“狼心狗肺”、“狗腿子”、“丧家之犬”and so on. In Chinese idioms, we often find such examples as “静如处子，动如脱兔” praising rabbit's cleverness and agility. However, in English idioms, rabbit has become a synonym for timidity. Therefore, “as timid as a hare" can be used to express the meaning of “胆小如鼠” in Chinese. Custom is the hotbed of idioms, and the idioms which record the national customs and culture are also shining the glory of national culture in the language. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)<br />
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===4. Translation Principles and Methods of English and Chinese Idioms===<br />
Chinese and foreign theorists have put forward different opinions on translation standards. From Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, Fu Lei's “spirit like but not form like”, to Zhang Peiji's “faithfulness and smoothness"; from Qu Qiubai's “equivalent concept” to Eugene A. Nida's “functional equivalence” or “dynamic equivalence” We can see that these propositions influence each other, complement each other, and constantly improve. Although the emphasis is different, the central point is that the translation should faithfully and accurately express the meaning of the original text, maintain the style of the original work, and faithfully oppose the appearance of the original work. The so-called faithful expression of the original meaning should refer to the literal meaning, the image meaning and the implied meaning of the original text. However, not every sentence, every idiom and vocabulary in the original text has three meanings at the same time. Some may only have literal meaning, but have no image meaning; some may have both literal meaning and image meaning, but have no implied meaning. In particular, it is impossible for any two languages and cultures to be identical. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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====4. 1 Translation Principles====<br />
=====4. 1. 1 Retain the Cultural Characteristics of the Original Language=====<br />
Idioms are unique cultural products of different nationalities, regions and societies. It contains a long historical background and rich cultural connotation. It not only reflects the colorful social life of all ethnic groups, but also carries a unique aesthetic feeling of language. When translating idioms, the translator must flexibly deal with it according to the specific situation of the context and retain the cultural characteristics of the original language. For example, “上天” is the ruler of heaven and earth in ancient Chinese view, which is usually translated as “heaven”. Christianity believes that God created heaven and earth, human beings, animals and plants, and is the master of all things in the universe. When encountering similar concepts in English and Chinese, translators should be careful to keep the cultural characteristics of the source language and not borrow the surface corresponding sentences in the target language. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 1. 2 Keep the Style of the Original Language=====<br />
Translation is not only the conversion of words and sentences, but also the expression of the original idea in the target language. The ideological connotation is often contained in the style. Therefore, it is very important to show the style of the original text in translation practice. Only by doing the corresponding style can we accurately convey the ideological connotation of the original text and make the target language readers understand the essence of the original text. However, it is extremely difficult to achieve the corresponding style, because people from different cultures have great differences in the way of thinking and cultural concepts, which requires the translator to first understand the ideological connotation of the original text, to figure out the style of the original text, and then to express this style in a flexible way of target pragmatics. This kind of flexibility is indispensable in the translation of literary works. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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The art of translation lies in keeping the style of the original text in the translation. To do a good job of translation, we need to have the ability to express the style while recognizing it. The translator should try to preserve the style of the source language in the translation. If the idioms are archaic, they need to be translated more quaint. If the idioms are colloquial, they should be translated lively and colloquial. (Wang Xia, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 1. 3 Do Not Take Words Too Literally=====<br />
In the translation of idioms, the translator often only interprets the literal meaning of the text, which cannot correctly express the true meaning of it, so that the translation completely lost credibility. In idiom translation, it is difficult to judge the meaning of an idiom with a certain word from its literal meaning. It is necessary to understand its original meaning, transferred meaning and the relationship between it and other words, and its context, so as to make clear its real meaning.<br />
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====4. 2 Translation Methods====<br />
Idioms are not only rigorous in structure, concise in form, incisive in meaning, vivid in image and alive in expression, but also rich in cultural information. Therefore, when translating idioms, it is the most difficult to maintain the flavor of the original language and conform to the habits of the target language. However, not every sentence, every idiom and vocabulary in the original text has the equivalent expression of two languages at the same time. Moreover, the culture carried by any two languages cannot be completely equivalent. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
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The choice of foreignization and domestication has always been one of the core issues in the field of translation. Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication. His translation thoughts are mainly embodied in the theory of "dynamic equivalence" and "functional equivalence". Nida advocates domestication translation from the perspective of readers' acceptance, and believes that the translation should be as fluent as the original without any traces of translation. On the contrary, Vernuti, a translation theorist who first combines domestication and foreignization with translation, is a representative of foreignization. On the basis of deconstruction and from the perspective of cultural colonialism, he put forward “impedance translation”, advocating that when translating a foreign language into English, it should retain the characteristics of the source language rather than follow the norms and patterns of the target language, so as to resist the cultural hegemony. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
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Due to the different characteristics, forms and meanings of idiom culture in Chinese and Western countries, it is necessary to think twice in choosing translation strategies. In the process of translation, we should try our best to keep the characteristics of the original text and meet the requirements of readers. It is not enough to use a single translation strategy. We should analyze the specific situation and take its advantages to achieve the best effect. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)<br />
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=====4. 2. 1 Literal Translation=====<br />
Literal translation is a kind of translation method that maintains both the content and the form of the original text, especially the metaphor, association and national and local characteristics implied in the original idioms, without violating the language norms of the target language and causing wrong associations. (Zhang Yanxin, 2017)<br />
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Although the cultural background is different, human beings as a whole have many common factors, such as happiness, anger, sadness, joy and life, old age, disease, death and so on. These things determine that in the language and culture, English and Chinese have a lot of the same artistic conception, especially idioms, most of which come from feelings and life experiences. Therefore, when the same image is read in different languages, the same association can be aroused in people's mind. In idiom translation, those images and metaphors that can cause the same feelings and associations can be directly translated by literal translation. For example, Blood is thicker than water (血浓于水); Kill two birds with one stone (一石二鸟) ; A good medicine tastes bitter (良药苦口); To add fuel to the fire (火上浇油); Practice makes perfect (熟能生巧); to fish in the troubled water (浑水摸鱼). The Chinese word “纸老虎" is literally translated into “paper tiger". Foreigners not only seem to understand its meaning, but also feel very vivid, so it has become the official British and American national language. In addition, “丢脸" in spoken Chinese is also translated into “lose face”; and “走狗” is translated into “running dog”. Literal translation helps to maintain the style of the original text, and can also introduce new words, syntax and expressions to enrich the content of the language. (Zhang Yanxin, 2017)<br />
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=====4. 2. 2 Borrowing=====<br />
In both Chinese and English, some synonymous idioms are consistent in content, form and color. They not only have the same meaning and rhetorical color, but also have similar forms or metaphors. Borrowing means that when some English idioms and Chinese idioms are consistent or basically consistent in meaning and form, they can be replaced by corresponding idioms in translation. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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For example, wall have ears (隔墙有耳); lain sail (一帆风顺); Love me, love my dog (爱屋及乌); When shepherds quarrel, the wolf has a winning game (鹬蚌相争，渔翁得利); Set a fox to keep one' s geese (引狼入室). In western culture, cunning foxes are specially designed to steal geese. If the geese are handed over to the foxes, it is like sending sheep into the tiger's mouth, which is almost equivalent to the Chinese saying “引狼入室”, and the translation is very vivid. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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It can be seen that borrowing can not only maintain the charm and form of the original text, but also be easily accepted by readers or listeners. However, when using borrowing, we should pay attention to the fact that although some English and Chinese idioms have similar literal meanings, their meanings are very different. At this time, we can't pull them together, or we will destroy the image of the original text and appear far-fetched, There are even misunderstandings. For example, “pull one's leg” seems to be the Chinese word for “拉后腿”, but the two idioms have completely different meanings. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 2. 3 Free Translation=====<br />
Each national language has its own vocabulary, grammar, sentence pattern and expression. When the content of the original text conflicts with the language standard of the translation, literal translation is not suitable, and the same idiom cannot be found for borrowing, so the free translation method should be adopted. Free translation cannot be confined to the expression form of the original text, but it must faithfully express the content of the original text. Such as The kettle and the (一丘之貉); Once in the blue moon (千载难逢); Actions speak louder than words (事实胜于雄辩); The apple of one's eye (掌上明珠). (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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In addition, some idioms contain historical allusions or ancient people's names, and some involve place names or religions. If they are translated literally, they will be very difficult for the target readers to understand. At this time, it is better to adopt the free translation method, because on the one hand, it can reflect the simplicity of the original text, on the other hand, it is more acceptable to the readers. For example, “赔了夫人又折兵” comes from the allusions of the Three Kingdoms. We can translate it into “suffer a double loss instead of making a gain”. “A new broom sweeps clean” cannot be translated as “新打帚打扫得干浄”，and it should be“新官上任三把火”。Therefore, free translation should be used as a major method in the translation of English idioms which possess metaphor. Of course, the use of free translation will inevitably damage the image metaphor of English idioms and reduce the expressive power, which requires translators to be more careful in translation and make full use of the advantages of Chinese to make up for it. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)<br />
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=====4. 2. 4 Annotation=====<br />
Some idioms have strong national and local characteristics or allusions, and some involve ancient names or place names. We can fully express their significance only after we understand their historical background and the source of ancient books. In the process of translation, if the original text is translated literally, it is difficult for readers to fully understand its implication; if free translation is adopted, the unique image and style of the original text cannot be retained. At this time, the use of annotation to translate can not only make readers understand the original meaning, but also help readers to further understand the potential meaning of the language itself. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
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For example, “The heel of Achille”: the literal translation of such idioms will make Chinese readers feel confused. The ancient Greek hero Achilles was carried upside down by his mother after he was born and soaked in the river Styx, so he was invulnerable. However, his heel was not immersed, which made him his only fatal weakness. In later battles, he did die of heel injuries. When we encounter such idioms, we can translate them with annotation, that is, Achilles' heel (fatal weakness) will be clearer. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
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From the above translation examples, it is not difficult to find that although the annotation method can keep the original flavor of the original language, and can take into account its form and other aspects, some translations are somewhat lengthy and cumbersome, thus losing the characteristics of short, concise and humorous. Therefore, this method has some limitations. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
This paper mainly compares English and Chinese culture from four aspects: regional culture, religious culture, historical culture and custom culture, and then analyzes the differences between English and Chinese idioms, and puts forward some translation methods, including literal translation, borrowing, free translation and annotation. Idioms are characterized by rich cultural connotations, and the quality of their translation is closely related to the degree of cultural understanding. The translation of idioms needs to express the implied cultural meaning and communicate with the target audience smoothly to achieve better communication effect. (Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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Therefore, this paper compares English and Chinese Idioms from the perspective of language and culture, analyzes the differences between English and Chinese Idioms from the perspective of culture, and deeply understands idioms, so as to put forward appropriate translation methods and promote communication. However, the comparison of English and Chinese culture and the translation methods are not comprehensive enough and need further study.(Chen Jian, 2016)<br />
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===6. References ===<br />
Zhang Yanxin张严心.(2016). "谈文化差异背景下的英汉习语翻译策略" [On the Translation Strategies of English and Chinese Idioms in the Context of Cultural Differences]. "中国教育学刊" [China Education Journal].(S1):1-3<br />
<br />
Wu Xiaoli吴晓莉.(2008). "从文化差异的角度看英汉习语的翻译" [On the Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences]. "鸡西大学学报" [Journal of Jixi University].(05):87-88.<br />
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Ma Guozhi马国志. (2019). "文化视域下的英汉习语对比与翻译" [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Culture]. [Science and Education] "科教文汇". (03):180-183.<br />
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Guo Huiqing郭卉青. (2019). "从英汉文化差异看英汉习语翻译" [On Idiom Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Differences between English and Chinese]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):218-219.<br />
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Zhou Suhan周苏菡.(2017). "从文化差异的角度看英汉习语的翻译" [Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Idioms and Their Translation]. "湖北函授大学学报" [Journal of Hubei Correspondence University].30(23)167-169<br />
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Deng Qiufeng邓秋峰.(2020). "浅谈中英习语的文化差异和翻译" [On the Cultural Differences and Translation of Chinese and English Idioms]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (04):242-243.<br />
<br />
Chen Jian陈坚.(2020). "基于英汉语言文化对比探析习语的翻译方法" [On the Translation of Idioms based on the Comparison between English and Chinese]. "商务英语教学与研究" [Business English Teaching and Research]. (00):92-99.<br />
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Zhang Yue张悦.(2013). "试论英汉习语的文化差异及教学思考" [On the Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Idioms and Teaching Thinking]. "中国教育学刊" [China Education Journal].<br />
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==Cultural Differences On English Interpretation And The Coping Strategies马娟 Ma Juan 英语语言文学202020080623==<br />
马娟Ma Juan202020080623<br />
===Abstract===<br />
English interpretation as a cross-cultural social activity refers to the cultural differences between English and Chinese. Because of cultural differences in these asapects such as historical background , customs, religion and the way of thinking, English interpretation is necessary to take all of these influences into consideration and the interpreter must have a penetrating mind of the cultural differences.When the interpreter does English interpretation, he must know the coping strategies to grapple with these problems caused by cultural differnences so as to transmit the proper,correct and decent information to the target audiences.<br />
===Key words===<br />
Cultural differences; English interpratation; Coping strategies;<br />
===题目===<br />
英语口译中的文化差异及应对策略<br />
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===摘要===<br />
英语口译作为一个跨文化交际活动，涉及到英语和汉语的文化不同，因为历史背景、习俗、宗教和思维方式等等这些方面的不同，英语口译必须把这些因素的影响考虑进去，口译员也必须有跨文化交际意识。<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化差异；英语口译；应对策略；<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
====Research Background====<br />
From the ancient time to now, the communication between peoples and nations is achieved through language. Because of the multitude of human’s languages in the world, translating rises in response to the proper time and conditions. Translating is divided into two kinds; one is translation and the other is interpretation. On the ground that interpretation is characterized by the properties of presence, time limit and live, it plays a prominent part in our daily life.(Hu Kun,2014) <br />
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However, as we all know, people are living in a speech community. Hence, They are not immune to the culture of the community. It is precisely because the communication between people in different communities has this sort of characteristic, the interpretation between these communities speaking different languages is the transfer of ideas and cultures. Thus we can see that the interpretation as a cross-cultural activity, it can not avoid the effects of cultural differences between the target language and the source language.(Liu Yan,2015,08)<br />
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As we all know, Chinese as an oriental language and English as a western language originate form two kinds of completely different community background, geographical conditions and cultural setting. Thus it is not hard to imagine the colossal differences behind these two languages, a simple but all-round representative of all the differences between these nations. So the interpretation between Chinese and English is obviously a way of culture spreading, which is absolutely influenced by the cultural differences between two or more sorts of cultures. Additionally, from the previous practice of cultural communication, a great number of interpreters chorus that the cultural differences affects the interpretation, a information transfer activity, a lot. For the sake of the cultural differences, it follows some problems caused by these differences such as misinterpretation and an informational loss in the process of English interpretation. Only can these problems be solved, a relatively complete and successful communication can be reached.(Gai Xiaoyu,2016)<br />
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====Research Significance====<br />
In that many problems are produced by cultural differences between Chinese and English, there must be some solutions to these problems in order to pursue better communication between people and facilitate the exchange of man’s ideas and minds. Therefore, this chapter is also going to introduce some kinds of coping strategies to improve the effects of interpretation despite of the long-existed cultural differences between the west and China. These coping strategies stretch from the ideal aspect to action aspects. Because the cultural differences includes many aspects such as way of thinking, customs and religious culture, it is required that the interpreter is capable of clearly mastering the two languages and also understanding the cultural differences in all aspects.(Ding Yin,2015) <br />
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That is to say, the interpreter must have a awareness of cross-culture and a master of all kinds of flexible switching skills between Chinese and English, which are as follows; they are domestication and foreignization,natural equivalence, literal translation with a annotation or the method to borrow synonym in English and some flexible handling. All these coping strategies that will be advocated in this thesis are beneficial for achieving better effect of information transfer and also the culture exchange.To sum up, the research significance of this chapter is to improve the effects of English interpretation to guarantee a higher quality of the integrity on the information transfer and the same reaction of the listeners through the use of these strategies, and thus to promote culture exchanges between China and the west in spite of the influences of cultural differences.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
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====The Structure of The Chapter====<br />
The chapter is divided into five parts. The first part is to explain the research background and the research significance of this chapter. With the development of globalization, exchange between nations and peoples is more and more frequent. As a witness and an indispensable participant of the international communication, interpretation plays an important role in this process. Nevertheless, for the sake of cultural difference between China and the west, there is always some misinterpretation and informational loss in the process of information exchange. Given this, the chapter also takes a part in the group that aims to find some strategies to improve the effect of interpretation. With the help of these strategies, the English interpretation may be more better in the aspect of informational transfer and emotional expression.(Gai Xiaoyu,2016) <br />
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The second part will have an outlook of several cultural differences between China and the west. On account of a long period of discrepancy in the lifestyle, customs, geographical environment, religious belief and history, the difference between China and the west is countless. This chapter just give explanation to some of them.(Ding Yin.2015)<br />
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The effects of these differences caused in the English interpretation will be down to the point in the third part. The effects of the influence is so colossal that the interpreter can not ignore them when they are doing the interpretation.(Ding Yin.2015) <br />
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The forth part will finally make an account for the antidote to the problems that are evoked by cultural differences. This strategies will do a favor to the integrity of informational transfer and emotional expression.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
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The fifth part concludes the whole chapter. As the conclusion, this part will be responsible for the variety if the cultural difference and the effects of the cultural interpretation on the English interpretation and most importantly the strategies to the settlement of these problems led by cultural differences.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
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===The Several Aspects of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English===<br />
During a long period of individual development of culture, there are many aspects of cultural difference existing between China and the west.These differences are influenced by plenty of factors such as historical culture, regional culture, custom culture,religious culture, digital culture and social code. <br />
====Historical Culture====<br />
First and foremost, the definition of historical culture would be introduced. The difference in historical culture here lies in cultural accumulation of the social heritage and the specific historical and cultural development process. These differences generally are reflected in the allusions, proverbs, idioms and so on .For thousands of years, China is an agricultural country and thus has developed the agricultural culture which largely influenced the shape of language. As the Sapire-Whorf hypothesis has demonstrated. the culture of a community can influence people’s in this community way of thinking. The way of thinking straightly decides how people use their language to express a signifier.(Ding Yin,2015) <br />
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On the contrary, the western countries have been living next to the ocean and thus progressed an ocean culture. Under the influence of this kind of lifestyle, western people pays have developed the respect of the spirit of adventure, which reflects in their language performance is their direct expression of their emotion. Contrast to the ocean culture, Chinese people have worked on the agricultural production generation after generation. So they are more inclined to adopt the euphemistic expression because they have the modest and reserved character compared with the western people. These two kinds of completely different character reflects clearly in their language expression.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
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====Regional Culture====<br />
China is located in the east of the earth while the west countries set in the other side of the world. The spatial distance is considerable and also the differences in the geography is immense. China is a land of high plateau and has more high mountain ranges, which gives rise to huge temperature difference between territories and vagaries of climate. While the Europe is a land of plains with a law altitude. On the side, because the west is on the edge of the Atlantic Ocean, the weather is moderate oceanic climate where the four seasons is like spring. Considering these regional differences leading to the distinctive climate on the year, they inevitably exert an influence on the culture and people’s way of expression.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
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For example, the British people who speak English as their mother tongue are characterized by slight melancholy and are more conservative, partly because of their changeable weather on the whole year, than Americans who also speak English.Generally speaking, the phatic communion between British people whether they are strangers or not is often about the weather. The topic on the weather is the expected and inherent greetings between British people.(Ma Nan,2016) <br />
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Similarly, the feature of geographical territory plays an part in Chinese people’s culture and their way of talking. Because China has a vast land for farming and the weather is also naturally suitable for the plant of rice. Chinese people have been dependent on the rice for making a living, which has been generated the agricultural culture after thousands of years. Therefore, the greeting between Chinese people is always about the food. When they make an acquaintance with someone, they will say “Have you eaten？” in a general way. It’s worth noting that when a Chinese people ask you this question, you can not mistaken their intentions. The implied meaning of this sentence is just “hello” rather than the invitation of you to go their home to eat. From these two examples, we can distinctly have a grasp of the difference on their way of expression caused by regional difference.(Ma Nan,2016)<br />
====Custom Culture====<br />
Every nation has its own inherent customs through thousands of years’ cultural accumulation. These customs originate from people’s way of life and habits formed over thousands of years. They are deep-rooted in their culture to the extent that the later generations even have no awareness of the reason why to use them but have to abide by these customs habitually. By this token, a nation’s customs generated over their generations have so tremendous power over this nation’s way of action and way of expression.(Xia Zengqiang,2016) <br />
2.4.Religious Culture<br />
The element of religion influences and to some degree plays a decisive role in people’s moral value and belief. As we all know, in the history people in the English world have a firm belief in the Christianity while Chinese people tend to believe and receive an influence of Buddhism and Confucianism. A huge gap between these kinds of cultures can be obviously seen in the aspect of the nature of religion. Christianity believes in the God named Jesus who can show people the truth and thus belief in the God is the trust in the truth. However, in the Buddhism, the disciple of the Buddhism believe in the Buddhist thoughts which they deem as divinity. Furthermore, the Buddhism is to teach people some Buddhist thoughts while the Christianity is a real religion. Similarly, the Confucianism is also to moralize and educate people and it can not be taken as a religion in a strict way.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
====Digital Culture====<br />
As a part of culture, the digital culture as a matter of fact is influenced by other kinds of cultures such as religious culture and custom culture. Digital culture can be seen as a reflective of the other culture mentioned above. However, the difference reflected by digital culture also plays an important part in the huge background. There are many different linguistic use of digital characters between Chinese and English. For example, many idioms can find the track of digital characters such as “七嘴八舌”“三心二意”“四面八方” ans so on. When these idioms are translated into English, we can not use the literal translation otherwise the target audience will be completely confused. Instead of direct translation of these digital characters in the idioms, the translator or the interpreter normally adopt the free translation to explain the deep meaning contained in these idioms. Additionally, some likes and dislikes for the digital characters between English people and Chinese people is also different(Li Jing,2014). <br />
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For example, Chinese people have an affectation of number six and number eight and dislike number four. While for the English people, affected by the religious culture, they dislike number thirteen.In the West, most people believe in Christianity, while in the Bible, Jesus, the most revered figure, was betrayed by his thirteenth disciple. Therefore, in the eyes of westerners, the number 13 represents deceit and betrayal, and is regarded as an unlucky number. Therefore, in western countries, there is usually no 13th floor, or row 13 seats on the plane. People’s preference for the digital characters mirrors their language use. They will be inclined to use the digital character that they dislike to represent some bad things and bad luck. Instead, the digital characters they are fond of are mostly to be on behalf of good luck and merry things.Different countries have different religious beliefs and customs, and different cultural differences lead to different concepts of numbers. (Li Jing, 2014)<br />
====Social Code====<br />
Among all these parts, the social code can be seen as the most direct way to differential the cultural differences between two societies when we step into a new society. Due to the differences in the social norms that Chinese and Western cultures rely on in the process of linguistic and non-linguistic coding, Chinese and Western cultures have fixed patterns that are restricted by their national cultures in such aspects as greetings, apologies and comity, acknowledgements, taboo euphemisms, terms, topic selection, polite culture, etc.(Shi Huiying,2014) <br />
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Therefore, there are obvious differences between Chinese and westerners in greeting, saying goodbye, praising, thanking, inviting, apologizing and so on, which leads to cultural conflicts. For example, when people meet in China, they often ask each other some questions about family, income, marriage experience and other aspects of life to show their concerns, but such topics will make westerners very disgusted, they think it is a violation of their personal privacy. Obviously, in contact with the target of the negotiation, if we don’t try to avoid such questions, definitely it can lead to culture clashes. For another example, Chinese people stress vanity and courtesy Li, and their words are often duplicative and contemptuous of others. When people in the west abuse their personality and self-affirmation, they will feel very confused when they hear Chinese people deny others' praise or their own achievements, and think Chinese people are dishonest and hypocritical.(Shihuiying, 2014) <br />
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Therefore, in cross-cultural business communication, if we ignore the differences in communication principles and modes caused by the different social norms between China and the West, we will use the communication habits of our own nation and misunderstand both sides due to cultural differences, which will lead to the failure of communication and even bring serious consequences. (Shihuiying, 2014)<br />
<br />
===The Effects of The Several Aspects of Cultural Differnences On English Interpretation===<br />
As mentioned above, there is so much cultural differences existed between the western culture and Chinese culture. These cultural differences are bound to have an impact on the language use. As we all know, the English interpretation directly has a relation with the language differences. Thus, when it is concerned with English interpretation, it must take the cultural differences into consideration. This part will mainly demonstrates the several aspects that the cultural differences has influenced on the English interpretation.(Zhang Wen,1998)<br />
====Lexical Representation====<br />
Because every nation has its own unique history and culture, way of life and diet is also have many differences, so in the diet and lifestyle of interpreting, something with untranslatability in translation, this requires two process to further explain the culture of different places. For example, in the north of China, people will light their own stoves and watch them, while there is no kang in the West. Therefore, if the translator only has to suffer directly when translating, the recipient will not know why. In the same way, the Chinese rice cake "zongzi" and so on need to have the awareness of cultural difference in the interpretation, and the information needs to be further processed and exported.(Liu Yang,2019,17)<br />
====Pragmatic Rules====<br />
The pragmatic rules of appellation are quite different in Chinese and Western cultures. In more formal occasions, the Chinese people in general like the title after the surname plus I, said the respect, for example, director of the "king" Eva airways had scheduled another round-trip charter "teacher zhang, at the same time, China has a good traditional virtue, pays attention to pecking order, such as" big jiu "enforced" elder sister-in-law "sister", while westerners for appellation is simpler, more formal occasions, married with known people before the surname plus Mr Or Ms, for unmarried with MR. or Miss is not a Teacher Zhang, but can be addressed on a first-name basis. In informal situations, westerners will usually address the Teacher by his or her first name.(Liu Yang,2019,17)<br />
<br />
For the pragmatic rules of communication, China and the West are also quite different. In China, people like to say "have you eaten yet? Where are you going? This, to westerners, is an invasion of privacy. It simply means that westerners feel that someone is inviting them to eat or that they are likely to be followed. Therefore, this cannot be translated directly into "Have you eaten? Where are you going?" ", but through cultural transformation, translated in a western way into "How do you do? How is everything going?"(Liu Yang,2019,17) <br />
====Way of Thinking====<br />
Different forms of social development lead to different values for each nation. This also affects the interpreter's translation quality and the accuracy of information transmission. For example, at the end of a group meeting, Chinese people like to end the meeting with a solidarity speech, such as "let's work together to achieve greater success!" As long as we keep our hearts together, we will have a better tomorrow. "In the eyes of westerners, it seems to have little to do with themselves. Therefore, in interpreting activities, information should be processed to express the information presented in the source language based on the thinking mode of westerners.(Zhang Wen,1998)<br />
====Historical and Cultural Background====<br />
China has a long history, and its long history has created many historical figures and events, such as the Terracotta Warriors, imperial officials and the Great Wall. Similarly, due to its different development history, the West also has its own unique historical figures and events, such as Shakespeare, the poet emerging in the Renaissance. Therefore, in interpreting activities, if the interpreter simply translates the names of historical figures and events, the recipient of the information will be confused and the information transmission will not be able to reach the role of "bridge".(Liu Yang, 2019,17）<br />
<br />
===The Coping Strategies of The Effects===<br />
As the reality that there is much more cultural differences between the Western culture and Chinese culture is presented in front of the interpreters working on the English interpretation. And furthermore these differences have some effects on the cultural exchange activity——the English interpretation. To improve the efficiency and quality of the English interpretation, some strategies must be employed in the process of English interpretation. These strategies involves many aspects such as domestication and foreignization,natural equivalence and flexible handling.Each of them can be correspondingly to the solution of the problems that caused by cultural differences.(Wang Yaqing,2014,27)<br />
====Domestication And Foreignization====<br />
Domestication and foreignization are widely used techniques in translation. Domestication means to take the target language or target language reader as the destination, and to adopt the expression way used by the target language reader to convey the content of the original text, so that the translation can be easy to understand. In translation, foreignization ADAPTS the language characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs the expression ways of foreign languages, and requires the translator to draw closer to the author and adopt the expression ways of the source language used by the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to turn the target language into a destination. Many scholars believe that naturalization should be the main method to deal with cultural differences in interpretation, which is reasonable and wise to a certain extent. However, if the interpreter finds that the audience does not understand it well enough, he should try to find the closest expression in the target language or be easily understood by the audience.(Ding Yin,2015) <br />
====Natural Equivalence====<br />
At its core is its principle of functional equivalence. This principle emphasizes that what the translator pursues is not literal correspondence but the reflection of cultural factors in the translation to achieve functional equivalence. In dealing with cultural differences, the search for natural equivalents is always the most desirable strategy because it best represents the source language information of the target language. In general, natural equivalents can be achieved in the following ways.(Ding Yin, 2015)<br />
4..2.1.Transliteration<br />
There are some things or things that cannot be found in other cultures. For example, there are a large number of things that cannot be found in Chinese and English, and the translation of these things is transmitted to other cultures by transliteration.In China, "jiaozi" and "baozi" are different foods, but they are both interpreted as "dumpling", which in English means fruit wrapped in sweet dough. As a result, if "jiaozi" and "baozi" are interpreted as "dumpling", people who have never seen "jiaozi" and "baozi" may misunderstand them and they are transliterated as "icaxi "and "baozi". Similarly, many of the words we use in daily life have transliterations from English, such as "coffee", "gene", "Internet"and so on.(Guo Yanan,2016)<br />
4.2.2.Explanation of The Literal Meaning<br />
Literal interpretation of definitions, also known as direct interpretation. When the cultural connotation of the source language and the target language can be expressed in the same or similar words, it can be interpreted literally.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
4.2.3.Explanation of The Connotation<br />
When a word or expression cannot find the same meaning and form equivalent to the native-language, its interpretation often abandons the form of the original text and interprets it according to the connotation of the source language. In dealing with these languages, it is necessary to combine the cultural essence of the source language and avoid overly lengthy explanations as much as possible.(Ding Yin,2015)<br />
<br />
====Flexible Handling====<br />
Because Chinese and English are so different in expression, it is not a one-side process to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. In addition to the countermeasures mentioned above, to solve specific problems must be combined with the characteristics of interpretation, strive to seek truth from facts. Because the translation has to be done in a very short time. The target language of interpretation cannot be completely separated from the influence of the source language, so in practice, it is necessary to make logical reasoning according to the context, understand its main meaning, and try to use the original meaning of the target language words and phrases to express. It’s better to adopt appropriate domestication or foreignization method to deal with flexibly. The treatment of cultural phenomena in interpretation should focus on naturalization to achieve a better understanding for the audience.(Ding Yin,2015) <br />
<br />
For instances, “In the past few days, the election situation in Taiwan has taken a sudden turn for the worst, and all political tricks have been used.” In the past few days, the Taiwan election campaign with dramatic changes, has been fraught with treachery and schemes. However the hidden intention is clear for anyone to see. Some people are trying their best to make the one who is for Taiwan independence win the election.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
<br />
These two sentences are composed of three four-character phrases and one idiom in two Chinese sentences. It is difficult to accurately express the four-character phrases and idioms in English in a very limited time. Here translators understand the actual meaning of these phrases and idioms through the context, and combine the words of "changeable" and intrigue with the words of "magic trick and Intrigue", which can be translated appropriately and smoothly. Not only does "dramatic change" reflect the original meaning of Chinese, but it also accurately describes the tense atmosphere in Taiwan's election which caused the situation to go into a dramatic downward spiral due to the hidden exhaustion of political scheming and cunning. The hidden intention of Si Mazhao is clear for anyone to see.(Zhong Zaiqiang,2004) <br />
<br />
In this translation, the interpreter makes logical reasoning according to the context of the main text and adopts the domestication method to get rid of the shackles of the Chinese sentence pattern, which not only concisely expresses the meaning, but also makes a net profit.( Zhong Zaiqiang,2004)<br />
<br />
Since interpretation, as a form of translation, has the function of cultural communication in a certain sense, foreignization has its own value in dealing with some special cultural phenomena. Take this sentence as an example. “人们说, 到了北京不吃烤鸭是最大的遗憾。在就餐之前, 我向大家简单介绍一下烤鸭和它的来历。”And its translation is “People say that it would be a great pity to visit Beijing without tasting some Beijing Roast Duck .It really makes sense. Now , before we start to eat , I' d like to tell y ou something about this specialty.” Here, the direct alienation of Beijing Roast Duck into "Beijing Roast Duck" will not cause the guests' misunderstanding, because the term "Beijing Roast Duck" is a cultural vacancy in English, and the real object is placed in front of the guests to make it clear at a glance.( Zhong Zaiqiang, 2004)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In summary, this chapter is all about the cultural differences between Chinese culture and western culture. These differences range from the religious aspect to the consciousness aspect such as the way of thinking. There is no question that these aspects have done a lot of influences in our way of expression during our interpretation. For instances, it will have an impact in our lexical expression, pragmatic rules and way of thinking. To have a pursuit of the efficiency and better informational transfer, this chapter offers some strategies to achieve this goal. These strategies is very beneficial and they include foreignization and domestication, achievement of the natural equivalence, transliteration and some flexible handling in accordance with the specific situation. With the help of these practical strategies, the interpreter can produce a more incredible and proper translating. Ultimately, a bridge can be build .As a result, though the cultural differences is still at present, the people from two different cultural backgrounds can be understandable for each other.(Li Jing,2014)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Liu Yang.刘洋.(2019).文化差异对英语口译的影响与应对.The impact of cultural differences on English interpreting and coping with them.智库时代,Think Tank Times(17):198-199.<br />
<br />
Xue Shengjiao.薛胜娇.(2019).“两会”记者会的长句汉英交替传译策略研究[D].Study on the strategy of consecutive interpretation of long sentences between Chinese and English in the press conference of the "two sessions"华侨大学,Huaqiao University.<br />
<br />
Gai Xiaoyu.盖晓雨.(2016). 功能对等理论指导下的口译策略[D]. Interpretation Strategies Guided by Functional Equivalence Theory内蒙古大学, Inner Mongolia University.<br />
<br />
Xia Zengqiang.夏增强.(2016).浅析英汉语言文化差异——以英语口译为例. An analysis of the cultural differences between English and Chinese languages - taking English interpretation as an example.辽宁广播电视大学学报,Journal of Liaoning Radio and Television University,(04):127-128.<br />
<br />
Guo Yannan.郭亚楠.(2016). 顺应理论视角下的口译策略[D].Interpretation Strategies in the Perspective of Conformity Theory.内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
<br />
Ding Yin.丁颖.(2015).浅析英语口译中的文化差异与应对.An analysis of cultural differences and responses in English interpretation.教育观察(上半月),Educational Observation (First Half of the Month),4(09):143-144.<br />
<br />
Zhong Zaiqiang.钟再强.(2004).试论口译中文化现象的翻译策略.Experimental translation strategies of cultural phenomena in interpretation.柳州职业技术学院学报,Journal of Liuzhou Vocational and Technical College,(04):99-102.<br />
<br />
Hu Kun.胡坤.(2014). 口译活动中文化差异引起的交流障碍及应对策略分析[D].Analysis of communication barriers caused by cultural differences in interpreting activities and coping strategies内蒙古大学,Inner Mongolia University.<br />
<br />
Ma Nan.马楠.(2016). 联络口译中文化差异引起的障碍及对策[D]. Barriers caused by cultural differences in liaison interpreting and countermeasures.黑龙江大学,Heilongjiang University.<br />
<br />
Liu Yan.刘燕.(2015).浅谈英语口译的文化差异现象.A Brief Introduction to the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in English Interpreting.校园英语,Campus English.(08):245.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆.口笔译理论研究[ M]. Research on Interpretation and Translation Theory.北京:中国对外翻译出版公司,Beijing: China Foreign Translation and Publishing Corporation,2004.<br />
<br />
==Polysystem Theory and Cultural Turn-吴琪 Wu Qi，202020080653==<br />
<center>吴琪 Wu Qi </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Even Zohar took the lead in putting forward polysystem theory, which was further developed in the descriptive translation studies put forward by his student Gideon Toury. On this basis, Susan Bassnett and André Lefevere first put forward the concept of cultural turn. Now, the issue of cultural factors in translation studies has received considerable scholarly attention. This paper sorts out several reasons why translation studies turn from linguistic studies to cultural studies bascically in chronological order. By revealing the role of cultural factors in translation, their influence on translation strategies and translation studies are objectively analyzed. Finally, it looks forward to how translators can better spread Chinese culture with the help of the cultural turn that has not disappeared.<br />
<br />
===Key words=== <br />
Polysystem theory; Cultural turn; Translation studies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
多元系统理论和文化转向<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
伊文·佐哈尔率先提出了多元系统理论，并在他的学生吉迪恩·图里提出的描述性翻译研究中得到进一步发展。在此基础上，苏珊·巴斯内特和安德烈·勒弗维尔首次提出了文化转向的概念。目前，翻译研究中的文化因素问题已经引起了学术界的广泛关注。本文基本按时间顺序梳理了翻译研究从语言学研究转向文化研究的几个原因。通过揭示文化因素在翻译中的作用，客观地分析了文化因素对翻译策略和翻译研究的影响。最后，展望了译者如何借助尚未消失的文化转向之风更好地传播中国文化。<br />
<br />
===关键词=== <br />
多元系统理论；文化转向；翻译研究<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
The overall structure of the study takes the form of five chapters. Chapter I will systematically contextualize the research by introducing the historical background and ideological resources of polysystem theory；Chapter II will deal with the research carried out mainly by Zohar and Toury to develop polysystem theory and its application in translation practice; Chapter III will review the studies related to cultural turn; Chapter IV will clarify advantages and disadvantages of scholars’views on the role of cultural issues in translation studies；Chapter V will give a brief look forward to future research trends.<br />
<br />
===2. Development of polysystem theory===<br />
<br />
====2. 1 Research Background====<br />
<br />
=====2. 1. 1 Historical Background=====<br />
The representatives of Polysystem theory are Israelite scholars Zohar and Toury. Israel is an emerging country established after World War II. and there are almost no native cultures and literary works. The development of its own culture can only rely on absorbing the excellent cultures of other countries. In this context, Zohar can only focus on translated works(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:1). <br />
<br />
=====2. 1. 2 Influence of ideological sources=====<br />
Russian formalism prevailed in the 1920s, and the goal of Russian formalism theory was to improve the status of literature in society. Formalist scholars believed that "literary works should be regarded as a part of the whole literary system instead of being an independent research object", and they also put forward the concepts of "defamiliarization" and "literariness", aiming at establishing a research field for literature and distinguishing it from other disciplines. Zohar studied Russian formalism and Czech structuralism for many years, on the basis of which, in the 1970s, he put forward a new Polysystem theory to guide translation studies. Polysystem theory was proposed by Itamar Even Zohar(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:2). <br />
<br />
====2. 2 From Linguistic-centered to Cultural-centered====<br />
Chomsky put forward transformational generative grammar in the mid-late 1950s, which deeply influenced a group of linguists and translators and changed the position of structural linguistics established by Saussure. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Science of Translation, also known as the Linguistic Approach, emerged with Nida, Jacobson, Newmark, and so on as its representatives. They maintained that translation studies were regarded as a subsidiary discipline of linguistics. They also proposed that the task of translation was to achieve functional equivalence, that is, translating should consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style(Zhu Huichao 2017,88).<br />
<br />
Gradually, translation studies were restricted to the micro-linguistic level, with emphasis on the text, and the subjective initiative of translation was ignored. Translation studies focused on discussing the differences and discovering the laws between languages, then, a set of mechanical rules that could guide translation were summarized, translation studies were treated as a "science" with a complete theoretical system. This also formed a mindset, which narrowed the translator's eyes to the information level of the original text, ignoring the influence of wider culture and these factors on the generation and acceptance of the translation(Zhu Huichao 2017,88).<br />
<br />
Also, in the 1970s, Zohar put forward Polysystem theory based on Russian formalism, and he thought that the process of studying translation is also the process of studying the target language culture. Polysystem theory studies literature from multiple perspectives, not just in the field of literature, but through the study of other extension factors, it studies literary translation more comprehensively and deeply(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:113). <br />
<br />
Toury, a student of Zohar, put forward Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS) and translational norms, which provide a more perfect research idea for cultural studies. The International Association for comparative literature held a seminar about polysystem theory which allowed more scholars to study Polysystem theory and descriptive translation(Zhang Suwen 2019,93). <br />
<br />
By the mid-1990s, the cultural turn completely broke the situation that translation studies were confined to micro-linguistics. At that time, translators have shifted their focus from the micro-linguistic level to the macro-cultural level. Scholars, such as Susan Bassnett, Lefevere, and Venuti, began to pay attention to other factors outside the source text such as culture, philosophy, politics, poetics, and so on(Zeng Wenxiong 2006,196). <br />
<br />
Thanks to the efforts of these scholars, more intellectuals have been influenced by developments in cultural studies. They believed that because the source text is produced placed in the specific context of the cultural environment, the target text should not be regarded as a simple transformation between languages. Of course, in the process of translation studies, translators are most concerned about disciplines across the cultural spectrum. The emergence of cultural studies opened a new door for closed translation studies at that time. This new paradigm broadened the scope of translation studies and played a vital role in the construction of translation studies(Zeng Wenxiong 2006,196). <br />
<br />
====2. 3 Representatives of Polysystem Theory====<br />
=====2. 3. 1 Main points of Zohar=====<br />
In order to better explain the theoretical core of the Polysystem system, I would like to roughly explain several basic concepts of the Polysystem system. First, what is the definition of Polysystem systems? Zohar generalized it as follows: The social symbol system is multiple and dynamic，which is composed of several different systems (such as culture, language, literature, society). Because the various systems interact and connect with each other, the status of each system is not equal，some subsystems are at the center, but some are at the edge. Second, what does the polysystem theory refer to? It points out that in different periods, the culture of a certain society may be superior or inferior to another culture.(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45).<br />
<br />
In different historical contexts, translators will choose different translation strategies. Translators' choice of strategies will change in diverse situations, thus forms a dynamic translation study. Third, how are the levels in the Polysystem system classified? Zohar locates his translation studies in a Polysystem system of literature and classifies them according to the scale of their scopes. For example, the first layer is distinguished by country, the second layer is classified by literary type, the third layer is distinguished by whether it is translation literature, and the fourth layer is classified according to which country the original text comes from(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45).<br />
<br />
Zohar was the first to uncover the status of translated literature and point out that translation literature can be a major role in the cultural system. For example, the three translation climaxes in Chinese history have functioned as a key element of the formation and development of Chinese culture(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:46). <br />
<br />
He stated that, in three cases, the system of translated literature will be at the center.<br />
<br />
①. When a polysystem has not yet been crystallized, that is to say, when a literature is"young," in the process of being established(Gillespie & Even-Zohar, 1994); Take Israeli literature as an example, Israel was established after the second world war. The original Hebrew cultural tradition is very weak. So it is necessary for this country to introduce advanced literature from western countries and translate classical literature from other countries so that they can provide new thoughts and skills for the local country(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:47).<br />
<br />
②. When a literature is either“peripheral”(with in a large group of correlated literatures) or “weak,” or both. when a literature is either “peripheral”, it will approach mainstream literature. The best way to approach it is to learn its techniques and skills by translated literature which can provide samples for imitation(Gillespie & Even-Zohar, 1994:47).<br />
<br />
③. When there are turning points, crises, or literary vacuums in a literature. For instance, after WWII, the vibrant American literature in the past two decades end abruptly and experienced a period of stagnation, because the existing literary model can no longer arouse the creative enthusiasm of a new generation of writers(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:47).<br />
<br />
When it comes to the position of literature, notice that，firstly，the innovation of the “weak” literary system is much lower than that of the center literary system. But we still have to affirm its function to spur it. Second, some literary systems are relatively strong when they are formed, and their own literary systems are often in the central position and are not easily influenced by other systems(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:50). <br />
<br />
Therefore, when the translated literature system is at the marginal position, literary translation is required (sometimes even necessary) to use words close to the target language so that the culture of the source language can be integrated into that of the target language. But if all the cultural features of the source language are eliminated in translation, then the translated literature will always be in a marginal state in such a system(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:50).<br />
<br />
=====2. 3. 2 Main Points of Toury=====<br />
Based on Zohar's theory, Toury made the following efforts to establish a generalized theory to describe translation. Above all, he proposed that the methodology of translation should be divided into three steps. First, the source text should be evaluated in the target cultural context to analyze its significance and acceptability; Second, the target language should be considered according to the target language environment; Third, a comparative analysis should be made between the source language and the target language, so as to identify the translation transformation. This can be used to explain the factors that influence or determine translation quality(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
<br />
Besides, it is convenient to guide the translation practice of different topics by establishing relevant corpora. With the continuous advancement of translation and the accumulation of a large number of materials, different translation models can be concluded by conclusions, and finally, the universal rules for describing translation can be drawn, which is part of Toury's description translation theory(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
<br />
Moreover, Toury put forward the concept of translation norms, which he thought were generally accepted in the process of translation. These norms are social and cultural restrictions on specific times, and people need to comprehend them through the necessary process of education and socialization. This is a powerful regulation，which means once they are established and recognized, translators must strictly abide by them, just like social legal documents(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63). <br />
<br />
It can be seen that Toury's theory is also based on the specific social and cultural context, and especially pays attention to the descriptive research of translation. His translation research method can be generalized as follow: before the research, a pre-set standard should be established, and then verified step by step in the process of translation research. Finally, the target text and the original text are compared, and the governing standards of the translated works are analyzed. Toury further suggested that translators can classify themselves into different standards, including source language standards, target language standards, and so on(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63).<br />
<br />
Toury's theories also attract more and more scholars to study translation from a cultural perspective. Likewise, Andrew Chesterman put forward new translational norms based on those of Toury's. He holds that the most important norm is "expectation norm", that is, readers' expectation of the influence and communication power of translated works, and other norms are restricted by this "expectation". It can be said that these two viewpoints provide the initial inspiration and theoretical basis for "cultural turn”(Wu Ji 2018,205). <br />
<br />
====2. 4 Polysystem Theory’s Influence on Translation Strategy====<br />
Zohar discusses the translator's choice of different translation strategies for foreignization and domestication when the translation literature system is at the center or marginal state of the polysystem. Foreignization and domestication were put forward by American translation theorist Lawrence Venuti in 1995 in The Translator's Invisibility. Historically, foreignization and domestication can be regarded as extensions of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent terms(Song Yue 2018,93). <br />
<br />
The core issue of literal translation and free translation is how to deal with form and meaning from the micro-linguistic level. Domestication refers to the translation strategy of adopting a transparent and fluent style in translation to minimize the strangeness of the original text. Foreignization refers to the translation that deviates from the local mainstream values, preserves the linguistic and cultural differences of the original text. It can be seen that literal translation and free translation are mainly limited to the language level, while foreignization and domestication are based on the cultural context(Song Yue 2018,93).<br />
<br />
In translation practice, translators often choose the appropriate strategies according to the specific status the target culture places in the multicultural context. If the source text plays a central role in the whole language communication, the translator is more inclined to not be limited by the language model of the target text and can restore the content of the source text to the maximum extent, which can introduce a new language mode from the source text to the target language. If the source text plays a secondary role in the cultural system, usually, the translator will integrate the source text into the target language context to enrich the target language color(Song Yue 2018,94).<br />
<br />
For example, before the May Fourth Movement, translated literature was at the edge of the literary polysystem. Translators tend to adopt domestication translation strategies. Influenced by the Chinese literary tradition, Lin Shu adopted domestication in order to meet the needs of readers. Therefore, his translation works were restricted by the target language, and he translated the western source text into familiar ancient classical Chinese language, so that readers can more accept and recognize this translation activity(Xuan Huifang 2019,92).<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
<br />
Source text: I’ll fight for my liberty to the last breath I breathe. You say your fathers did it; if it was right for them. It is right for me(BEECHER & DAVID).<br />
<br />
Target text: 盖吾之自由，必与持压力者抵死争之，必胜而后已。该美国之自由，美国同英伦力争而得。今吾之自由，必当力与美人争之(Stwoe, Li Shu, & Wei Yi, 1981)。<br />
<br />
However, situations are not always the same. Liang Shiqiu began to translate Shakespeare's plays in the early 1930s. Here, the number of translated literary texts was in a growth trend. At the time of the translation of A Midsummer Night's Dream, China was eager to rejuvenate the country by absorbing foreign cultures. Translated literature had a higher position in the pluralistic system of Chinese literature(Ji Qiming 2016,66). <br />
<br />
Fang Ping's translation began in the early days of the founding of the People's Republic of China. Literary and artistic creation at this time emphasized the socialist characteristics of literature, and a lot of socialism excellent literature swarmed. Affected by ideology, China was resistant to the literary works of capitalist countries. When translating and researching with a strong color of ideology and class struggle. It can be seen that when Fang Ping translated and introduced A Midsummer Night’s Dream, translated literature was not at the center of the literary polysystem(Ji Qiming 2016,66).<br />
<br />
According to the polysystem theory, Liang Shiqiu should adopt foreignization and Fang Ping's translation strategy should accept domestication. However, in the practice of translating ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'', this is not the case. Here are examples.<br />
<br />
Source text: “By’r lakin, a parlous fear(William).<br />
<br />
Liang’s version:天啊， 是可怕的紧。<br />
<br />
Fang’s version:我的圣母娘娘,这可不是跟你闹着玩的事啊。<br />
<br />
The translation strategy Liang adopted is foreignization, while Fang Ping used the translation strategy of "domestication." <br />
<br />
The above application gives us inspiration, that is, in a specific translation, the cultural exchange is complicated, which leads to the diverse choices of translation strategies. Therefore, translators can give full play to their subjectivity choosing appropriate translation strategies,not strictly abide by a certain theory. Because translation is a process of dynamic communication and re-creation. Only combined specific cultural context with personal understanding can translators figure out the best translation strategies(Ji Qiming 2016,67).<br />
<br />
===3. Development of Cultural Turn===<br />
The view of "cultural turn" was formally put forward by Bassnett and Lefevere in the book ''Translation, History and Culture： A Sourcebook'' in the 1990s. The cultural turn mainly depends on the scholars of cultural approach, who actively advocate translators to shift their eyes on translation studies from the text itself to the cultural context outside the text, so as to change the long-standing existence of translation studies as the "vassal" of literature and art, and elevate translation studies to become an independent discipline(Lefevere 2004:110). <br />
<br />
Bassnett is one of the leaders, and her works often reveal the importance attached to the cultural background in translation studies(Bassnett, 1995). Translation has indeed become an independent discipline later with its own characteristics, which become the basis of research on cultural turn(Bassnett 1995:11). <br />
<br />
Bassnett also has a famous metaphor about culture and language, which expresses her emphasis on culture. She points out that culture is compared to the human body, and language is the heart of this body. Only when the heart and body interact can human vitality continue; Therefore, surgeons can't ignore the whole body that bears the heart when performing the ng surgery on the heart, similarly，it is dangerous for translators to treat the text isolated from culture(Lefevere 2004:110). <br />
<br />
The concept “cultural turn” inherited Zohar's polysystem theory, which has attracted many scholars to discuss the phenomenon. This theory examines translation activities from a macro perspective, that is, it puts translation in the context of culture, instead of exploring translation in a vacuum separated from culture and context(Bassnett 1995:88). <br />
<br />
Using Zohar's polysystem theory, the cultural school holds that culture has a restrictive effect on translation, and shifts the focus of translation studies from the original to the target text, from the author of the original to the translator of the target text, from the source language culture to the target language culture, and has a deeper understanding of the position and role of the target text(Bassnett 1995:88).<br />
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At the same time, it is noteworthy that Jacques Derrida, a famous philosopher, put forward the theory of "deconstructionism", which holds that the meaning of words is not only restrained within the source text but also multiple factors can influence it. He also points out that the original author is not the only creator, which also inspires scholars of cultural school to think about the role of translation and enhances the social status of translated works(Bassnett 1995:88). <br />
<br />
Chinese traditional translation theory is influenced by the thought of cultural turn. Xuan Huifang(2019)mentioned that the cultural turn of Chinese traditional translation theory can be regarded started from the scientific and technological translation in the late Ming Dynasty. Chinese translators, such as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao and Yang Yanjun, were the first to advocate transferring translation from religion to natural science. They also jumped out of the linguistic category of contrast between the source language and target language and directly introduced Chinese traditional translation theory into the social and cultural background concerned by the cultural school(Xuan Huifang 2019,95). <br />
<br />
At that time, translation theories began to focus on how to use translation as a tool to stimulate national consciousness. China lagged behind the West in terms of science and technology and ideas. Therefore, the purpose of translation was to absorb the essence of Western culture and arouse the learning enthusiasm of the Chinese. Only by learning the strengths of others can we surpass others. The function of translation is to convey new knowledge and ideas. As to the type of the source text, they tend to choose the technology that is closely related to people's lives and most urgently needed by the country, such as western astronomy, meteorology, machinery and land construction, and other related books. According to Lefevere, translators at that time were sponsors of translation activities, and they regarded translation as a way to maintain feudal autocratic rule, so the scope of attention was very narrow, and the cultural turn at this time was not obvious(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).<br />
<br />
Only later on, especially in the late Qing Dynasty, the feudal rulers adopted a policy of seclusion, which hampered China's progress and its exchanges with the outside world. That state was completely broken by the Opium War, which also crushed the illusion that many people thought the Qing Dynasty was powerful and stimulated many literati to "opening the eyes to observe the world". Many translators have translated a wide range of foreign newspapers, histories, geography, and other books, not just scientific texts. Many defeats pushed more Chinese people to recognize the deficiencies of their own and the strength of the West. Although they were not direct translators, they acted as sponsors, which was the main reason for the abundance of translated works and the rapid development of cultural turn at that time(Xuan Huifang 2019,96). <br />
<br />
However, it didn't take long for the Westernization Movement to fail, which inspired some elites to realize that China's backwardness was not in technology at all, but in its feudal autocratic system. The reformists, represented by Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, have become new sponsors. In this short period of only ten years, a large number of excellent translators have appeared, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Lin Shu, in particular, did not understand any foreign language but translated a lot of works, like ''la Dame aux Camelias''，''Uncle Tom's cabin'' and ''David Copperfield'', etc. Dictated by others, he translated in classical style. Such kind of translation to some extent can be said to be no respect to the original text. This also reflects that the purpose of translation at that time was not to highly restore the thoughts and styles of the original text, but to convey conducive information part of the original text to the target readers. This period was also the development period of the cultural shift of Chinese translation theory(Xuan Huifang 2019,96).<br />
<br />
Developing to the May Fourth Movement, the ideological emancipation of Chinese intellectuals was more extensive. The translation mainly focuses on how to transform Chinese traditional culture benefiting from western culture and make the Chinese nation rejuvenate. The translation is regarded as an important tool to promote social change. Some scholars believe that the transmission of western new ideas is also to import new expression methods, and at the same time, in order to break the feudal traditional ideas, more intellectuals began to call for the use of vernacular Chinese. For example, Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai, who are well known to us, are representative figures(Xuan Huifang 2019,95). <br />
<br />
However, not everyone supports this idea. Mei Guangdi proposes that while introducing western culture, we should also carry forward the traditional culture. Western advanced ideas and technologies are needed to be absorbed, but it does not mean that our own language form, Classical Chinese, should be abandoned. But it can be seen that their ideas have not been widely supported. Just like Gu Zhengkun's viewpoint, unlike the cultural turn that emerged more than 100 years later in the West, cultural translation and translation studies in China at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century has presented its obvious characteristics of subjectivity(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).<br />
<br />
===4. Judgement===<br />
Since both the polysystem theory and cultural turn are not universal, so they have both advantages and disadvantages at the same time. We should keep rational and critical thinking when studying these theories, and treat their influence on translation studies objectively and dialectically. <br />
<br />
====4. 1Advantages====<br />
Polysystem theory makes translation studies no longer an isolated linguistic study, but brings descriptive translation studies and cultural turn to translation studies. Linguistic schools tend to pay too much attention to static semantic contrast, focusing on language patterns or underdeveloped literary theories, while the polysystem system combines translation with many factors such as the cultural context, social conditions and politics, especially affecting translation studies at the political level, such as post-colonial translation studies, feminist translation studies and cannibalistic translation studies derived from historical events(Zhang Xiujuan 2017,47). <br />
<br />
Generally speaking, these theories have opened up a wide research field for translation studies, which makes translation studies no longer in a vacuum environment, and opens up a way for translation studies to finally get out of the prescribed aesthetic limitations(Zhang Xiujuan 2017,47). <br />
<br />
To enable people to look at translation from a broader perspective and grasp its true nature, people will not be limited on the equivalence between the source text and the target text, but also regard the target text as an entity in the target system to study its various properties. This is the very point that developed into Toury's "Target-oriented approach"(Zhang Suwen 2019,94). <br />
<br />
Since the translation is not only selected from several existing linguistic models but restricted by various systems, we can understand the translation phenomenon from the perspective of wider inter-system transmission. After fully understanding this phenomenon, it can also be used to guide us on how to better promote our own culture through translation, which is an unprecedented opportunity for translation studies. At the same time, according to Zohar's theory, we can also know that only with a higher level of research can we better convey our own culture and contribute to our translation studies(Zhao Bo 2017,112). <br />
<br />
====4. 2 Disadvantages====<br />
Polysystem theory and the view of cultural turn neglect the translator's subjectivity, and the principle of choosing original texts is determined by the situation that dominates the (native) polysystem, which means that texts are chosen because they are consistent with the new methods of target literature, and also because of their possible innovative role in target literature. However, the choice of the target text is not only determined by the polysystem, but also by the translator's subjectivity. Translators will try their best to choose texts or familiar genres consistent with their own styles to give full play to their advantages and improve the quality of translations(Wu Ji 2018,205).<br />
<br />
Although the linguistic school pays too much attention to the micro-level of translation studies, which limits the development of translation studies, scholars such as Nida and Newmark put forward a series of scientific theories to study translation by studying syntax and vocabulary, which has merits(Wu Ji 2018,206). <br />
<br />
However, the attitude of the cultural school towards the linguistic school is to completely negate and abandon it. According to the cultural school, before putting forward the theory of cultural turn, translation studies lacked a set of macroscopic theories to guide them and did not form a theoretical system to guide translation practice, which is undesirable. At the same time, the cultural school's eyes are completely detached from the text, exaggerating the influence of macro factors other than the text, which has been criticized by later generations(Wu Ji 2018,206).<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
The following conclusions can be drawn from the present study. Taken together, these findings suggest a role for cultural elements in promoting translation studies. Up to now, polysystem theory and cultural turn still have a wide influence on translation studies, and cultural factors are still important factors that must be considered in translation activities. The findings reported here also shed new light on the responsibilities of today’s translators(Han Xue 2019,138). <br />
<br />
When the earth is like a "village", our cultural exchanges with other countries are getting closer and closer. It is necessary for contemporary translators to think about how to maintain cultural confidence through translation and effectively convey excellent culture to other countries. In the process of translation, translators should not only pay attention to linguistic equivalence, but also change their attitudes, think from the perspective of cultural exchange. They should explore a way to combine the inspiration of the polysystem theory and cultural turn, give full play to their subjectivities, and make efforts to tell Chinese stories well and build China's translation system in the world.<br />
<br />
===6. References===<br />
Bassnett, S. (1995). Comparative literature : a critical introduction: Blackwell.<br />
<br />
BEECHER, S. H., & DAVID, B. UNCLE TOM'S CABIN: Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
Gillespie, G., & Even-Zohar, I. (1994). Polysystem Studies. Comparative Literature, 45(4), 374. <br />
<br />
Lefevere, A. (2004). Translation/history/culture: a sourcebook: ''上海外语教育出版社''[Shanghai foreign language education press].<br />
<br />
William, S. A Midsummer Night’s Dream: Yale University Press.<br />
<br />
Zeng Wengxiong. 曾文雄. (2006). 翻译学“语用学转向”:“语言学转向”与“文化转向”的终结. [Pragmatic turn in translatology: the end of linguistic turn and cultural turn]. ''社会科学家''[Social Scientist],（05）,193-197. <br />
<br />
Gao Feng, &Zhang Deng. 高峰, & 张灯. (2018). 翻译研究发展的推动力——多元系统理论研究. [The Driving Force of the Development of Translation Studies: A Study of Multiple Systems Theory]. ''吉林省教育学院学报''[Journal of Educational Institute of Ji Lin province], 34(02), 62-64. <br />
<br />
Han Xue. 韩雪. (2019). 多元系统翻译论本土化策略及其创新性研究[Research on Localization Strategy and Innovation of Multi-system Translation Theory]. 福建茶叶[Fu Jian Tea], 41(02), 137-138. <br />
<br />
JI Qiming. 纪启明. (2016). 莎士比亚戏剧中意象的厚重翻译法—以梁实秋的《仲夏夜之梦》译本为例. [Heavy translation of images in Shakespeare's plays —— Taking Liang Shiqiu's translation of A Midsummer Night's Dream as an example]. ''青岛科技大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Qingdao University of Science and Technology (Social Science Edition)], 32(03), 64-67. <br />
<br />
Stowe, Lin Shu &Wei Yi. 斯托, 林纾, & 魏易. (1981). 黑奴吁天录 [Uncle Tom's Cabin]: ''商务印书馆''[Commercial Press].<br />
<br />
Song Yue. 宋越. (2018). 浅析多元系统理论在文学翻译中的应用. [On the Application of Multi-system Theory in Literary Translation] ''教育教学论坛''[Education Forum],(34), 93-94. <br />
<br />
Wu Ji. 吴际. (2018). 翻译学中“文化转向”的前世今生. [Past and Present Life of "Cultural Turn" in Translation Studies]. ''校园英语''[Campus English],(10), 205-206. <br />
<br />
Xuan Huifang. 轩慧芳. (2019). 中国传统译论中的“文化转向”.[Cultural Turn in Chinese Traditional Translation Theory]. ''延安大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of Yan'an University (Social Science Edition)], 41(03), 92-96. <br />
<br />
Zhang Suwen. 张素文. (2019). 探析多元系统论的理论构建.[On the theoretical construction of polysystem theory] .''文理导航''[Wenli Navigation],(03), 93-95. <br />
<br />
Zhang Ziujuan. 张秀娟. (2017). 对翻译研究“文化转向”的思考.[Reflections on the Cultural Turn in Translation Studies]. ''文化创新比较研究''[A Comparative Study of Cultural Innovation], 1(11), 48-49. <br />
<br />
Zhao Bo. 赵勃. (2017). 多元系统翻译理论的批判性阐述. [Critical exposition of multi-system translation theory]. ''北方文学''[North Literature],(12), 112. <br />
<br />
Zhu Huichao. 朱慧超. (2017). 简析翻译学中的文化转向. [A Brief Analysis of Cultural Turn in Translation Studies]. ''文教资料''[Data of Culture and Education], 000(009), 86-88.<br />
<br />
==The Influence of Cultural Differences on Translation Methods 姚佳 Yao Jia No.202020080662 ==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
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Translation activity may appear to be a communication and transfer between languages, but it is closely related to culture. Language and culture permeate each other, and no language can be created and developed without its cultural background, while cultural differences also affect the language expression of the users to a certain extent. In this paper, we analyse the main cultural differences in translation in terms of historical background, way of thinking, social customs and other factors, but the existence of cultural differences makes translation activities often face some difficulties, which requires translators to master translation skills and correctly look at cultural factors in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
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<br />
===Key Words===<br />
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Cultural differences, Translation methods, Influences, Translation skills<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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翻译活动看似是不同语言之间的交流与转换,实则与文化密切相关。语言与文化之间相互渗透,任何语言的产生与发展都离不开其文化背景,而文化差异在一定程度上也影响着使用者语言的表达。本文从历史背景,思维方式,社会习俗等因素来分析翻译中几种主要的文化差异,而文化差异的存在又使翻译活动常常面临一些困难,这就要求译者熟练掌握翻译方法和一定的翻译技巧,正确看待文化因素,从而实现交流沟通之目的。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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文化差异,翻译方法,影响,翻译技巧<br />
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<br />
===Introduction===<br />
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The long-term transmission of culture depends on language. Language has always been an important basis for cultural inheritance. And it is also one of the tools used by different cultures in communication. The exchanges between different countries and regions have deepened in recent years. The demand for translation activities has been increasing, and the requirement for translation quality has also been gradually improved. Translation is a cultural communication activity between different countries. It is not only the conversion of two sets of language symbols. In a sense, translation has gone beyond language and become a cultural transfer between countries. There are certain differences in social values and ways of thinking between China and the West. So it is easy to make mistakes in English translation if many words are understood purely from the point of view of performance. This, coupled with the fact that different nationalities are often influenced by their own culture in the course of their historical development, can also lead to errors when translating between Chinese and English. In the face of cultural differences, we should choose appropriate translation methods to achieve the purpose of communication. In recent years, the focus of translators has gradually shifted from language level to cultural level. They have started to study translation methods from a cultural perspective.<br />
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<br />
===The Main Aspects of Cultural Differences in Translation===<br />
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Translation is the process of transforming a relatively unfamiliar expression into a relatively familiar one. Wang Zuoliang, a famous translator and linguist, once said that translators are dealing with individual words, but they are facing with two large cultures.(Wang Zuoliang 1997, 42) Therefore, translation should include not only language but also culture. The development of each country's language has gone through a long process of cultural accumulation and it is influenced by its own history, culture, ethics and many other aspects. The differences between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in the following aspects: historical background, way of thinking, and social customs.<br />
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2.1 The Historical Background<br />
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Every country has a unique historical background, which inevitably gives rise to different cultural forms in the course of development. And this has a significant impact on the language as a carrier of culture. At the same time, differences in language can have a huge impact on translation activities. This requires the translator to be able to understand the different historical circumstances of the source and target language in order to improve the level of accuracy of the translation.<br />
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First of all, we can see the difference in historical background between China and the West in the process of historical development. Agriculture has always been the lifeblood of the country's development, and the development of agriculture is even directly related to the stability of society. The Chinese people have created many excellent cultures through their industrious agricultural work. As a result, Chinese culture is rich in written expressions relating to agriculture. One of the most unique expressions of Chinese culture is the agricultural proverb. It is a fixed phrase that is widely spread among the people. It reflects the principles of agricultural production and summarises a wealth of experience in simple, popular, concise and vivid words, which is a cultural treasure of the Chinese nation and has always been loved by the people.<br />
<br />
We can appreciate the unique charm of Chinese culture in some idioms. For example, "cast pearls before swine"(对牛弹琴). We cannot simply interpret this as throw pearls at pigs, for this does not conform to the practical use of Chinese adage. And we can see another example, "As you sow, so shall you reap"(种瓜得瓜种豆得豆) We must realize that many expressions of proverbs in Chinese have been endowed with profound connotations. The deep meaning of this proverb is that one cannot enjoy the fruits of one's labor without putting in it a lot of hard work. There are many other Chinese agricultural proverbs. For example, “There are three rains in the early spring, all over the place”(立春三场雨,遍地都米), “Snow is in the field, wheat is in the barn”.(雪在田,麦在仓). As for Britain, it is an island country surrounded by the sea. Its national development is closely related to Marine civilization. Britain's development into the "empire on which the sun never sets" in the 18th century was largely dependent on overseas colonial expansion. Even in today's society, Britain's national development cannot be achieved without its favourable Marine environment. Moreover, Britain has a temperate maritime climate, with humid climate and good vegetation, which makes it very suitable for sailing and grazing. Therefore, there are a lot of idioms related to sailing or sheep herding in English culture, such as, “A small leak will sink a great ship” (微小的裂隙能使一艘巨轮沉没), “A smooth sea never makes a skillful mariner” (平静的大海孕育不出优秀的水手), Being on sea, sail; being on land, settle. (在海上就航行,在陆上就安居). (This paragraph is too long)<br />
<br />
Secondly, we can find the cultural differences between English and Chinese from the specific historical background. “In the time of Queen Elizabeth, for example, government loyal Jesuits protested against a "fish only Friday" rule imposed by the Catholic Church, which opposed the government. In this context, "Juhn can be relied on, He eats no fish and plays the game" should be translated as "约翰忠诚可靠".” (Lu Wei 2019, 200) If we do not analyze the specific historical background directly, it is bound to lead to cultural cognition errors. In Chinese, "鸿门宴" should be translated as "Hongmen Feast with a trap for the invited", but it is easy to translate into "Hongmen Feast" if the translator does not know the historical background of the appearance of the word "鸿门宴", which would create a barrier to cultural exchange. Therefore, it can be seen that cultural background has a great impact on the smooth progress of translation activities, and translators can better choose translation methods only if they are proficient in the cultural background of source language and target language.<br />
<br />
<br />
2.2 The Social Customs <br />
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Customs and habits are mainly reflected in the language and behaviour that people use in communication, which is most likely to reflect the human mind and convey certain meanings. If, in the process of cultural exchange, there are significant differences in customs between countries, this can often lead to misunderstandings when expressing their views. The differences in social customs between China and the West can be extremely obvious. Therefore, in translation, the influence of language and behavioural habits on translation activities cannot be ignored. The differences between English and Chinese social customs are mainly reflected in customs, manners and habits of life.<br />
<br />
“We can feel the differences between Chinese and Western customs through people's habitual cognition of some animals in their daily life. ” (Wang Jingjing 2013, 28) In China, for example, the dog is a relatively lowly animal. Since ancient times, those Chinese idioms related to dogs have mostly expressed derogatory meanings. For example, "狼心狗肺","鸡飞狗跳" . In English-speaking countries, dogs mean the opposite. For example, "Love me, Love my dog"(爱屋及乌), A lucky dog(幸运儿), etc., which reflects the love of dogs in English-speaking countries. <br />
<br />
In addition to dogs, we can also see the different meanings of cats in different Chinese and Western customs. In Chinese culture, cats do not show a one-sided extreme phenomenon. Although there are derogatory words such as "猫儿偷腥","猫儿念经-假慈悲", there are also "无论白猫黑猫,抓到老鼠就是好猫". In general, cats are relatively neutral in Chinese culture. In Western customs, black cats are often associated with negative connotations. “Cats are known in the West as the familiar of witches and wizards, which stems from a medieval superstition ---- The Satan, the devil's favourite incarnation, was a black cat that witches used to take with them as a familiar.” (Zhu Yahui 2014, 25) For example, the idiom “she is a cat”. The translator cannot simply translate the literal meaning into "她是一只猫", but should put it in the context of certain western social customs. So the proper translation should be "a woman with a hidden agenda". <br />
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Some Cat idioms are unique to English culture, such as "Cat s paw." The idiom comes from The Monkey and the Cat, written by the famous 17th century fable writer La Fontaine. “The cunning monkey wanted to eat the chestnuts from the fire but was afraid of being burnt, so he encouraged the cat to take the chestnuts out of the fire with his paws, but when the cat asked for his share, the monkey ate all the chestnuts.”(Wang Aihua 2008) This idiom is used to describe a person who is used to do risky things. If such cultural differences are not well understood, there will be a lot of translation misinterpretations. (This paragraph is too long）<br />
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In addition to the animal derivation, the same colour also has different meanings in both Chinese and English cultures. For example, in Chinese, blue generally represents a bright or relaxed feeling. In English expressions, blue generally stands for melancholy and deep depression. In Treasure Island, when Jim and his crew are faced with pirates, they are put in a very bad situation. “If we had been allowed to sit idle, we should all have fallen in the blues, but Captain Smollett was never the man for that”.(Stevenson 2013, 118) The word blue here refers to their emotionally depressed state. When translating 'blue' as it is used here, the different customs and habits of English-speaking countries should be taken into account in order to avoid incorrect translations. Here's another example of red. Chinese people believe that "red" stands for fighting spirit, passion and joy. Since ancient times, weddings and festivals have been celebrated with red lanterns and colours. But in the West, red represents blood, it represents killing, it represents death. For example, "red alert" (空袭) "紧急警报",see the red light (觉察危险逼近). In the process of translation, we should have a deep understanding of the cultural background of customs to ensure the accuracy of words and to avoid unnecessary misunderstanding or even wrong translation. <br />
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<br />
2.3 The Thinking Mode <br />
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“The way of thinking is the synthesis and unification of the stereotyped forms, methods and procedures of thinking of the subject in the process of reflecting on the object.” (Chen Hongwei&Li Yadan 2005) “The way of thinking is mainly composed of eight elements: knowledge, conception, method, intellect, emotion, will, and language habits. These elements are interconnected and interact with each other to form a dynamic, organic and complex system. It is the characteristics of each of these elements and their structure that define the nature, type and characteristics of the way of thinking and produce differences in the way of thinking.” (Lian Shuneng 2002) Different ethnic groups not only have different national cultures, but also have their own different ways of thinking and thinking characteristics, which is what we call thinking differences. Each language reflects the thinking characteristics of the people who speak it, and the English and Chinese languages are no exception. The differences in thinking styles are mainly reflected in the different lines of thought that people are used to, and the different perspectives that are favoured in thinking. <br />
<br />
Chinese people think in a forward direction, while Westerners think in a reverse direction. Chinese and Westerners may use completely different, or very different, language to describe the same objects or images. It is not difficult to find that English is used to describe and explain things from small to big, from special to general, from individual to whole. The Order of Chinese is generally from big to small, from general to special, from whole to individual. “When introducing people, Chinese usually lists titles first and then calls them by name, and the titles are listed from the largest to the smallest. English is to announce a name first and then speak a series of duties from childhood to adulthood.”(Liu Wenhui 2002) For example, “现任中国共产党中央委员会总书记，中共中央军事委员会主席，中华人民共和国主席，中华人民共和国中央军事委员会主席于2020年一月十七日对缅甸进行了国事访问”.This sentence, if it is to conform to English language usage, should be translated as “January 17, 2020 saw the state visit to Myanmar of Xi Jinping, currently general Secretary of the CPC Central Committee, Chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission, President of the People's Republic of China, and Chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission”.<br />
<br />
Chinese people think in a spiral way while Westerners think in a straight line way. The Chinese people's philosophical thinking is good at making Chinese people think in a broad way. “No matter doing or speaking, they always do everything from the surface to the point, from the big to the small. First, they have a general view of the whole situation and make plans; then, they refine details and make plans. Westerners, on the contrary, like to think from the detailed to the overall, from the single to the whole, which is a completely different way of thinking”. (Li Dan&Zhou Xiaoling 2006) It is a reflection of culture and also affects culture. Therefore, Chinese people always put the overall situation in the spiral thinking, while Westerners always put a straight line thinking and a straight line clue in it. <br />
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The Chinese like to "paint the dragon and dot the eyes". First, they like to put unimportant information on the top, and then talk about the main content, such as people and events, event results. “In narration, the emphasis of a sentence is usually placed at the end of the sentence, and the story is explained first, and then the theme is entered. The way of argument is the consequence of the first cause; Give the premises before you make a conclusion; Give the background first, then the topic.”(Bu Jia 2012, 123) The Western way is to come straight to the point. “The way they speak is the opposite, picking the main ones first, as if telling the answer first and then announcing the process. The narrative sequence is to first state the results and then analyze the reasons. Make a conclusion before you give a premise. Explain the topic first, then the background.”(Bu Jia 2012, 123) Therefore, it is necessary to adjust the word order in the English-Chinese translation so as to conform to the narrative logic of the two languages. For example, "求稳定、谋发展、促合作 , 是当今各国人民的共同愿望"。This sentence can be translated into：It is the common aspiration of all the people in the world to m aintain stability, seek development andpromote cooperation.<br />
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===Influences of Cultural Differences on Translation===<br />
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Translation is not only the transformation between languages, but also the transformation between language forms, and even the transformation of culture. Therefore, in the process of language translation, communicative context, which refers to cultural factors, should be considered. On the one hand, culture is common, and there will be some overlap between cultures, which is also the basis of translation. On the other hand, the culture is also diverse, which is the difficulty of translation. The cultural diversity and uniqueness between English and Chinese often lead to lexical vacancy, semantic conflict and other phenomena that hinder translation. This requires translators to pay attention to such cultural differences and choose appropriate translation methods to solve the translation difficulties and make up for the lack of culture in the process of translation.<br />
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3.1 Lexical Gap <br />
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Language is the carrier of culture. Every language has its own cultural peculiarities. As a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, translation not only conveys text information, but also inherits cultural significance. However, "different cultures break down and describe the world in different semantic categories. Therefore, some semantics in one culture may not exist in another language."( Lado 1957, 78 ) This phenomenon is known as semanticzero. Practice has proved that the great differences between Chinese and English traditional cultures make English and Chinese words and meanings often difficult to correspond one to one, which makes translators have to take necessary strategies to eliminate or reduce barriers to communication. “Language is a culture created by people in the process of long-term practice, which naturally reflects the objective material world. If something does not exist in the community, there is often a vacancy in the meaning of the word.”(Cui Jing 2012, 38) For example, silk, which was not used by westerners at first, belongs to one of the earliest inventions in Chinese history. It was not until the Western Han Dynasty (202 BC-8 AD) that Zhang Qian, on his mission to the Western Regions, opened the door to China and the West by opening the "Silk Road", which connected the Mediterranean countries and spread silk to the world. So, English borrowed Chinese pronunciation to translate the word. <br />
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Another example is Peking Opera, which is beloved by the Chinese people. It is a comprehensive art that combines singing, reading, doing and playing. However, opera, dance drama and drama that Europeans and Americans like are all in a single form. There is no dance in opera and no singing in dance drama, while drama is mainly dialogues. In view of this, the translator needs to make English readers fully and correctly understand the differences between Chinese quintessence and other art forms. In China, for example, there was no "咖啡"coffee, "冰淇淋"icecream, "沙发"sofa, etc., which had to be completely transplanted from English. But as time changes and cultural exchanges, the development of material culture in China has been synchronization with the west, even beyond. Such as "可乐"(cola), "自助"(buffet), "互联网" (Internet), "超市"( supermarket ), the previous social lack of cultural awareness in China such as vocabulary, has now been welcomed the broad masses.<br />
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The lexical vacancy also appears in the different gods known in the East and the West. Westerners believe that God created human beings and dominated the world, while The Chinese traditionally accept the myth that Pangu created the world and Nu Wa made man. They believe that the Buddha and Guanyin Bodhisattva have supernatural powers and are able to "save suffering and all living beings". Similarly, the Puritans and Protestants in The English language had a color of religious movement that was not known in China as Puritans. Therefore, it is not easy to translate both in form and in spirit. Chinese people attach great importance to ethics, order of seniority and clear distinction between seniority and inferiority. “In the appellation of relatives in Chinese, clan relationship is very complicated. In contrast, English kinship terms are more vague and general.”(Cui Jing 2012, 38) For example, the English uncle, aunt, and cousin only show gender and simple relatives， the only way to tell them apart may be by their name. In addition, words with Chinese institutional culture characteristics, such as lunar solar terms, heavenly stems, earthly branches and traditional festivals, have no meaning at all in English. Such as The Chinese "清明", "端午", "拜年", "一国两制", and in English “Christmas”, “Easter”, “capitalism” and so on.<br />
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3.2 Semantic Conflict<br />
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Due to the macroscopic similarity of human living environment and thinking structure, "what can be said in one language can be expressed relatively accurately in another language" (Nida, 1975). However, in addition to these semantically consistent words, there are many other pseudo-semantically consistent words between Chinese and English that seem to be the same. “In translation, this seemingly identical but different words and sentences are impossible to achieve the coexistence of source language and target language. We put this seemingly identical but different phenomenon in translation, known as the incompatibility of form and semantics in translation.”(Lu Guoqiang 2012) Incompatibility is contradiction. In translation practice, this kind of form and semantic incompatibility is very deceptive, which often leads to mistranslation of many words and phrases. For example, "这个故事发生在巴黎." "The story takes place in Paris."; "我们的当务之急是要深化改革" "To deepen reform is the most urgent task. ". Grammatically speaking, the above two translations seem to be sound, but they are semantically incompatible. They are all typical examples of Chinglish and should be amended as follows: 1) The story is set in Paris. 2) To deepen our commitment to reform is the top priority.<br />
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In addition, there is another kind of semantic conflict, that is, the asymmetry of emotional meaning in Chinese and English translation. In addition to conveying information, language should also express the attitude of the speaker or the author towards what is said and the attitude of the listener and reader, that is to express feelings. In translation, the lack of a thorough understanding of the emotional meaning of a word often leads to incompatibility between form and meaning. The Chinese words for "干部" and "当官的" have the same conceptual meaning but different emotional colors. The former is neutral and sometimes even has a positive meaning, while the latter obviously has a negative meaning. Another example, the Chinese word for "农民". Farmer is a neutral word in Chinese, while peasant has a derogatory meaning in English, referring to a rude and uncultivated person, so it is more appropriate to translate "农民" as a neutral word farmer. "物美价廉", which means cheap and good. "Cheap" often reminds people of a cheap and inexpensive product, while "economical" has the associative meaning of "good and inexpensive". Therefore, the positive word "物美价廉" should be translated into “economical and good” or “nice and inexpensive”.<br />
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In translation, the semantic contradictions caused by improper collocation should be paid special attention to by translators. “Collocation meaning is a collocation of associations acquired by a word from the meanings of other words combined with it. In translation, due to improper collocation, a large number of target languages with incompatible formal and semantic meanings are produced.”(Liu Yang 2016, 18) Only by truly mastering both Chinese and English and getting familiar with their fixed collocation patterns and idiomatic expressions can translators avoid mistranslation caused by improper collocation to the greatest extent. “For example, "假花"(artificial flowers); "假牙" (false tooth), "假新闻"(pseudo-event), etc. In each of the above examples, "假" means "untrue" and is the opposite of "true". However, if you use "fake" or "false" in the translation, it is not in line with the English collocation habit.”(Liu Yang 2016, 19) <br />
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When Chinese people study English, they often suffer from the semantic incompatibility caused by improper collocation. One of the important reasons is that they are not familiar with the national expression methods of English speaking. This kind of English collocation translated by Chinese thinking is something we need to work hard to correct. For example, “学习英语知识”，many people will translate it into "learn a knowledge of English" . But the proper translation is acquire a knowledge of English/has a knowledge of English. Leech pointed out that, unlike other types of meaning, collocative meaning has the property of generalization. It is only a special property of individual words. When it cannot be explained by other types of meaning, collocative meaning is resorted to as a special category. (Leech 1974) The particularity of collocation makes it more difficult for us to improve our expressive ability. Therefore, translators need to keep learning these commonly used fixed collocations to improve the accuracy of translation.<br />
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3.3 Use Specific Translation Methods from the Perspective of Cultural Differences<br />
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Transliteration is a form of translation based on the pronunciation of the original language, generally based on the pronunciation of the content of the original language to find alternative translations in the target language with similar pronunciation. Transliteration is usually used for translating names, place names, country names, proper nouns or words with national characteristics. The transliterated words can only be used together, not separately, otherwise they have no meaning. Since there is a big difference between China and the West in terms of name calling, the transliteration is usually done by transliteration. For example, Charles is translated as "查尔斯", David Copperfield as "大卫科波菲尔得", Romeo and Juliet as " 罗密欧与朱丽叶". There are many examples of transliteration of Chinese and Western place names. For example, Washington, the capital of the United States, is transliterated as "华盛顿", Florence as "佛罗伦萨", and Bristol as "布里斯托". The list of place names is endless. The phonetic transliteration of place names is too numerous to mention. In addition, due to cultural differences, both Chinese and Western countries have developed their own proper nouns and words with unique national characteristics, which generally require phonetic translations. For example, "功夫" translates into "Kongfu", "秧歌" translates into "Yangko". Another example, there is a famous line from a Tang poem:姑苏城外寒山寺,夜半钟声到客船. “"寒山寺" here is not because there is a "Cold Mountain" outside Suzhou, but because it was named after a monk who was called "寒山" in the Tang Dynasty. Therefore, the translation of “Cold- Hill Monastery” would be misleading as "a temple on Han Shan Mountain," which should be translated as “Han Shan Monastery”. ”(Wang Jianghong 2007)<br />
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Literal translation is the translation into English of words and phrases that have the same or similar meaning according to their original meaning. Literal translation is an important translation method that has many advantages, such as its ability to convey the meaning of the original text and to reflect its style. It is estimated that around 70% of sentences are processed by literal translation, so literal translation is a widely used translation method by translators, which shows the importance of this method. However, as there are certain differences between Chinese and Western cultures in various aspects, two situations must be taken into account when using literal translation. The first is to pay attention to the mistranslation of proper nouns or technical terms, and the second is to pay attention to words that have the same form but very different meanings in the two languages. For example, when selling something, you can't call your goods cheap, but inexpensive, because cheap means "of inferior quality"; "继承人" don't use successor but heir; "白酒"is not white wine but liquor.<br />
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A free translation is different from a literal translation. A free translation is a translation that is based on the main idea of the original text rather than a word-for-word translation. It is usually used more often when translating sentences, phrases or larger groups of meaning. Free translation is mainly used in situations where the original language and the translated language reflect significant cultural differences. From the point of view of cross-cultural linguistic communication and cultural exchange, free translation emphasises the relative independence of the cultural system of the translated language from the cultural system of the original language, and is more capable of reflecting the linguistic characteristics of the nation. For example, the Chinese proverb "三思而后行"usually translated into "Look before you leap","一朝被蛇咬十年怕井绳"可以译为"A burned child dreads the fire","心急吃不了热豆腐"译为"A watched pot never boils". <br />
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In English there are also many words that need to be paraphrased and the cultural differences between the two languages in different situations should be respected when translating, otherwise it can lead to misunderstandings in the language transfer. For example, "Every life has its roses and thorns."is translated into："人生有苦有甜。In Hamlet, Act II, Scene 2, there is this depiction and praise of mankind:"What a piece of work is a man! How noble in reason! How infinite in faculty! In form and moving how express and admirable! In action how like an angel! In apprehension how like a god! The beauty of the world! The paragonof animals!" It was translationed into： "人类是一件多么了不得的杰作！ 多么高贵的理性！ 多么伟大的力量！ 多么优美的仪表！ 多么文雅的举动！ 在行为上多么像一个天使！ 在智慧上多么像一个天神！ 宇宙的精华！ 万物的灵长！" “Words such as "仪表", "天神", "灵长" corresponded to Chinese cultural imagery and free translation was used for this purpose.”(Sun Yiwen 2019, 170)<br />
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===The skills to choose the proper translation methods from the perspective of cultural differences===<br />
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The ultimate effect of translation should be that the audience receives complete and correct information and that they have the same experience of reading the translation as if it were their mother tongue. In order to achieve the best possible translation results, it is important to focus on the cultural characteristics of the translation itself and to analyse the target audience of the translation. At the same time, the differences between Eastern and Western cultures should be compared and analysed to identify the cultural factors that influence translation and to clarify that the influence of cultural differences in translation cannot be ignored. The aim is to enable people to face up to cultural differences and to value the dynamic equivalence of translation practice. The aim is to improve sensitivity to cultural differences and the accuracy of language use, to overcome cultural barriers in translation and to achieve intercultural communication.<br />
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4.1 Focus on the work itself<br />
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When carrying out translation activities, it is essential that the translator carries out an in-depth analysis of the work to be translated. Therefore, the type of work, style, cultural features should be taken into account if the translator wants to achieve the desired results. If the type of work to be translated into English is different, then the requirements can vary considerably. Take the translation of poetry as an example. Poetry is the essence of language and culture. Poetry is usually a harmonious blend of emotions and scenery, and the theme of the poem is usually expressed by the mood. <br />
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In the process of translating Chinese poetry, the ambiguity of the language and the problems that arise in the translation process actually stem from cultural differences. We can look at an example of Cao Xueqin’s work: "空对着,山中高士晶莹雪; 终不忘,世外仙姝寂寞林."(1982, 17) And the translation is "Vainly facing the hermit in sparkling snow － clad hills, I forgot not the fairy in lone woods beyond the world". (Yang Xianyi 1978, 67) “The "雪" in the poem ostensibly refers to snow in nature, but those who familiar with Dream of the Red Chamber will know that it is actually the Chinese character for "薛". It refers to Xue Baochai. "林" appears to refer to a forest, but actually refers to Lin Daiyu. If the meaning of the puns in a poem is not clear, the original mood and emotion of the poem will be lost and the reader will be less able to understand the meaning of the poem.”(Li Yafeng 2016, 70) Therefore, the translator should never adopt an ambiguous attitude towards the translation of such punning words in poetry. The translator should start from the work itself, thoroughly clarify the cultural background of the original text and the profound meaning of the work, and choose the appropriate translation to reproduce the true meaning of the poem to help the reader better understand it.<br />
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In addition, in the English translation process, the translator must have an accurate grasp of the cultural characteristics of each term in order to choose the appropriate translation method, so that the content of the translation is accurate and comprehensive. For example," 汉皇重色思倾国,御宇多年求不得。"It was translated into: “The beauty － loving monarch longed year after To find a beautiful lady without a peer.”(Xu Yuanchong 2010, 222) “The word 'Han Huang' in the poem is the title of the emperor in Chinese feudal society, a term used in China, and Chinese readers are able to grasp the cultural han meaning of it. The word 'monarch' has been chosen to be more accessible to the reader, who has a general idea that he is a ruler of a country and can get a general idea of the meaning of the original poem". (Li Yafeng 2016, 72) We can see that both Chinese and Western cultures have one thing in common: they are the result of a long process of sedimentation and accumulation and are characterised by diversity and stability. English translators must accurately grasp the differences between Chinese and Western cultures and choose a suitable translation method in order to complete the translation work successfully.<br />
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4.2 Focus on the reader <br />
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In the whole translation activity, the source material, the translation and the reader are the three elements. And translators should not only pay attention to the high degree of restoration of the source material, but also pay more attention to the feelings of the reader and take the readers’ reaction as the fundamental point of reaction. The translation activity itself is to serve the reader, and translators try to make their translations more accurate. If the problem of inaccurate translation still exists, it is necessary to combine naturalisation and alienation to prevent the translation language from being too rigid, and in cases where some local conditions are not understood, markings can be made to enhance the readers’ understanding.<br />
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Depending on the type of reader, the translation strategy the translator should adopt should also change. For example, if the reader is a minor, the language used in the English-Chinese translation should be straightforward and simple, and the rationale should be clearly visible. Authentic translation not only restores the authenticity of the linguistic content, but also reflects the vividness of the cultural content, thus achieving the purpose of being available for research. The degree of difficulty, translation method and interpretation of the content should be decided according to the target audience in order to produce different effects for different people and thus achieve the purpose of English-Chinese translation.<br />
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Eugene Naida has said that as white as snow (白如雪)is translated as "white as goose feathers" where the word is not familiar at all or does not exist in the language, because the readership or group of readers is different. By analogy, the English idioms 'birds of a feather flock together' and 'shed crocodile tears ' can be translated as " 物以类聚, 鸟以群分" and "掉鳄鱼眼泪" at higher readership levels; at lower readership levels it can be translated as "鱼找鱼, 虾找虾" and "猫哭耗子", otherwise it will not only fail to resonate with the reader, but will also confuse the reader. “Eugene A.Nida strongly advocates that the translator should take into account the reader's receptivity, ‘The first task of the translator in a translation is to convey the information in the original text faithfully’, ‘The text must be interpreted correctly for the reader’.” (Tan Zaixi 1984, 21)<br />
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4.3 Focus on the dynamic equivalence of translation<br />
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The principle of "dynamic equivalence" was coined by the famous American linguist Eugene Nida in the 1960s. According to Nida, "the translation process aims to reproduce the information content of the source language in the recipient language that is closest to the source language, firstly in terms of equivalence of meaning and secondly in terms of equivalence of style”. (Nida 2001, 87) In this concept, Naida emphasises 'closest' rather than 'equivalent'. <br />
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The so-called "nearest equivalent" means that the information in the source language is reproduced in the target language using the nearest "natural equivalent", so that the translation is as natural as possible, both semantically and stylistically. According to the principle of dynamic equivalence, the translator starts with the reader in mind, and does not focus on the linguistic equivalence between the original and the translated form, but on the meaning and spirit of the original, reproducing the main idea of the original as completely as possible. The measure of a good translation is not how close the form of the translation is to the original, but whether the function of the information to be conveyed is the same as that of the original. The principle of "dynamic equivalence" has enormous implications for intercultural translation. To achieve bicultural understanding and communication, it is necessary to have a deep understanding of the differences between the two cultures and then be flexible enough to use translation methods that faithfully reproduce the cultural flavour of the original.<br />
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In translation activities, the treatment of cultural background information is crucial. Translation plays the role of a bridge for cross-cultural communication, and its aim is not only to transform language and text on the surface structure, but also to transfer the cultural connotations embedded in the original work. For example, the famous English poet Shelley's Ode to the West Wind expresses a perfect eulogy of spring with beautiful and rich imagination. Because Britain is located in the northern temperate zone of the western hemisphere, it is subject to oceanic weather all year round, so the west wind generally heralds the arrival of spring. The differences in geographical location and climate between the two countries have resulted in different understandings of the easterly and westerly winds, resulting in different cultural connotations in the language. In order for the readers of the translated text to agree with the readers of the original text, the translator must find a translation in the culture of the target language as opposed to that of the source language. If this geographical and cultural difference is ignored and a literal translation is made, not only will cultural information not be exchanged, but it may also mislead the reader of the translated text.<br />
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Over the course of their long history, all peoples have developed cultural symbols, also known as cultural imagery. Cultural imagery is mostly the result of the wisdom, history and culture of each nation. The same object, in a different cultural atmosphere, represents different cultural symbols, carries different cultural connotations and triggers different associations for the reader, leading to different interpretations.<br />
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As in Jin Changxu's Spring Complaint': "打起黄莺儿,莫教枝上啼；啼时惊妾梦,不得到辽西". The poem vividly expresses the woman's helpless desolation and her fervent longing for her husband, who has left home and gone to the battlefield. As a military stronghold on the northeastern border of the Tang dynasty, "Liaoxi" refers to the area around Yingzhou and Yanzhou, west of the Liao River in the Tang dynasty, and often appears in ancient Chinese poetry, referring to the "battlefield". "This typical Chinese cultural imagery of "辽西" carries a strong sense of Chinese culture that is difficult for Western readers to comprehend. “A literal translation would never work, but a transliteration plus an explanation of the "辽西" as "Liao- xi, the frontier" would make it as much of a cultural fax as possible. The abundance of cultural imagery conveys the cultural connotations of the cultural imagery of "Liaowest" well.” (Ke Zhao 2012, 114) Obviously, if the equivalence of form undermines the equivalence of meaning in the translation process, then the form should not be hesitated to be abandoned in favour of the fidelity of content.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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Cultural differences in translation are a complex matter, and there are no fixed rules for dealing with them. Therefore, only with a deeper understanding of the cultural differences between the East and the West can a translator maintain the original style of the translated work and make the translation accessible and acceptable to the target audience. As an important factor in building cultural bridges, translators should be prepared to understand the differences in historical background, ways of thinking, social customs and other aspects of different cultures before processing the translation. At the same time, translators should be able to adopt flexible translation methods according to different situations, overcome obstacles caused by cultural differences in translation activities, and respect other cultures as well as their own.<br />
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===References===<br />
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Wang Zuoliang 王佐良. (1997) ''翻译:思考与试笔'' [Thinking and Testing] . [Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press] 北京:外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
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Lu, Wei 卢薇.(2019). ''探讨中西文化差异对英语翻译的影响'' [Exploring the Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on English Translation]. ''海外英语'' [English Abroad].(04)200-201.<br />
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Wang Jingjing 王经晶. (2013). ''浅谈汉英文化差异对翻译的影响'' [An Introduction to the Influence of Chinese-English Cultural Differences on Translation]. [Success(Education)] ''成功(教育)''. (06)28.<br />
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Zhu Yahui 朱亚辉. (2014). ''从中西猫文化视角看猫习语的翻译策略'' [Translation strategies of cat idioms from the perspective of Chinese and Western cat culture]. ''文史博览(理论)'' [Literature and History (Theory)]. (09)24-26. <br />
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Wang Aihua 王爱华.(2008). ''动物在英语谚语中的寓意浅析'' [An analysis of the allegorical meaning of animals in English proverbs]. [Lanzhou Journal] ''兰州学刊''. <br />
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Robert Louis Stevenson.(2013). ''Treasure Island''.[Cambridge University Press].<br />
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Lado, Robert.(1957). ''Linguistics Across Cultures''. [Ann Arbor:The University of Michigan Press].<br />
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Cui, Jing 崔竞.(2012). ''从文化差异角度看英汉翻译中的词义空缺现象'' [The Phenomenon of Word Meaning Vacancy in English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Differences]. ''文教资料'' [Literary and Educational Materials]. (01)38-39.<br />
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Nida，E. A. (1974). ''Language Structure and Translation: Essays''. [Stanford University Press].<br />
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Lu, Guoqiang陆国强. (2012).''思维模式与翻译''［Thinking Patterns and Translation]. [Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 上海: 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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Leech，G. (1974). ''Semantics''.［Penguin］ .<br />
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Liu, Yang 刘扬.(2016). ''翻译中的形式与语义不相容问题'' [The problem of formal and semantic incompatibility in translation]. ''外语与翻译'' [Foreign Language and Translation]. 16-21. <br />
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Wang, Jianghong王江宏.(2007). ''四种常用的翻译方法'' [Four common methods of translation]. ''Journal of Vocational University'' [职大学报].(03)77-81.<br />
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Sun Yiwen孙一文.(2019). ''从翻译目的论视角看译者对翻译策略的选择——以《哈姆雷特》<第二幕>朱生豪译本为例'' [The Translator's Choice of Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Translation Purpose Theory--Taking the Translation of Hamlet <Act II> by Zhu Shenghao as an Example]. ''English Abroad'' [海外英语]. (13)170-171.<br />
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Ke Zhao柯招. (2012). ''翻译中不同文化背景下的动态对等'' [Dynamic Reciprocity in Translation in Different Cultural Contexts]. [Journal of Mudanjiang Normal College (Philosophy and Social Science Edition)] ''牡丹江师范学院学报''.(06)114-116.<br />
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==Study of Domestication and Foreignization in Cross—Culture Translation 李海泉 Li Haiquan No.202020080610 English Language and Literature==<br />
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=='''Abstract'''==<br />
For a long time, translation has been regarded as a conversion activity between languages. However, with the increasing international communication, translation studies gradually turn to cultural transfer. Generally speaking, there are two principal strategies to deal with cross-culture involved in translation, namely, TL (target language) culture-oriented domestication and culture-oriented foreignization. Domestication means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture,making the target text recognizable and familiar to the readers. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the source text and in turn to the foreign culture, making him or her see the differences. Because of the differences between the SL culture and the TL culture,a translator is bound to face a choice. So it is inevitable to have the inclination of domestication or foreignization for a translation. It can be said that the subject of domestication and foreignization is one of the core topics of translation. This paper starts with the historical origin of domestication and foreignization, analyzes their respective strengths and weaknesses and discusses the relationship between them. The paper reaches a conclusion that the relationship between domestication and foreignization is dialectic and they can complement each other in the process of translation. And by analyzing the factors influencing and restricting the choice of translator’s strategy, the author puts forward some methods and means to realize cultural transmission through two translation strategies in order to guide translation practice.<br />
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=='''Key words'''==: domestication; foreignization; cross-culture translation<br />
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=='''摘要'''==<br />
长期以来，翻译一直被视为语言间的转换活动。但随着国际间交往的日益紧密，翻译研究逐渐转向文化间的比较。一般而言，翻译中文化的转换有两种基本策略:即以目的语文化为归宿的归化和以源语文化为归宿的异化。归化是指尽量将译语文化纳入译文读者的知识范围，将作者引向读者;异化是指在翻译中保留原文语言文化的特异之处，将读者引向作者。由于源语和译语文化的巨大差异，译者在翻译过程中必然会面临两难选择，因而一篇译作也必然会出现归化或异化的倾向。可以说，归化和异化的课题是翻译的核心课题之一。<br />
本文从归化和异化的历史渊源入手，分析二者各自的优势和缺陷，探讨了归化和异化两者之间的关系，认为二者既对立又统一，在翻译过程中可以互相补充，并通过选择一些翻译实践的例子加以说明二者的互补性。通过分析影响和制约译者策略选择的因素，作者最终提出了一些能够通过两种翻译策略实现文化传递的方法和手段，以期对翻译实践起指导作用。<br />
<br />
=='''关键词'''==：归化；异化；跨文化翻译<br />
<br />
=='''Introduction'''==<br />
<br />
Translation is not only an activity of lingual exchange and information transfer, but also a kind of cultural communication between different countries and nations. With the growing ties among countries, cross-translation has become a hot topic. And in recent years, translators have shown increasing interest in the problems arising from cultural differences in translation. Generally speaking, there are two principal strategies to tackle them in translation, namely, "domestication" "foreignization". The domestication is target language oriented, while the foreignization is source language oriented.<br />
<br />
<br />
The study on domestication and foreignization has lasted for quite a long time. <br />
<br />
There have been numerous disputes over domestication and foreignization both in China and abroad. In these disputes, people have been trying to obtain a<br />
conclusion as to which translation strategy is better. They tend to overemphasize one strategy and ignore the positive and indispensable role of the other. In fact, their relationship is dialectic. The paper tries to hold a dialectic attitude towards the dispute over domestication and foreignization and study the relationship between the two and tries to make a conclusion that domestication and foreignization are both useful in translation and translators should choose different strategies in various situations. In fact, an excellent translation always well combines the two strategies.<br />
<br />
This thesis mainly consists of three chapters.<br />
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Chapter I is a brief survey of the history of domestication and foreignizatio.The paper will provide a detailed account of some fundamental issues in the study of domestication and foreignization, including their definitions, their details and their advantages and limitations.<br />
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Chapter 2 presents that the disputes on domestication and foreignization have permeated the history of translation both in the West and in China. The disputes in translation history show that both sides take absolute and one sided attitude towards the two translation strategies and they just overemphasize one of them. Thus many translators feel puzzled at what strategy to choose according to different situations.<br />
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Chapter 3 focuses on the factors influencing the choice of the translation strategies. General speaking,there are three major factors: translation purpose, the text type, and the target reader. Understanding these factors can help translators choose an appropriate translation strategy.A translator should try to avoid biases and remain objective. What’s more, he should consider the above three factors before he decides whether to adapt the original text or to retain as much as possible the foreign flavor of the original text.<br />
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In conclusion, the writer tries to conclude that a good translator should adopt different devices to realize different strategies according to different situations, and a good translation is one that well combines domestication and foreignization.<br />
<br />
=='''Ⅰ A Brief Study of Domestication and Foreignization'''==<br />
<br />
In many cases controversy is due to the looseness of clarification of fundamental issues (Hou Yanan 2004,5 ). Many people talk about domestication and foreignization when the fundamental issues are seldom clearly defined.In this chapter, the paper will provide some fundamental issues of domestication and foreignization which are based on the following arguments.<br />
<br />
1.1 Definition<br />
<br />
The terms of domestication and foreignization were first introduced by the famous American translator Lawrence Venuti in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation'', which was published in 1995. Domestication and foreignization are defined by Lawrence Venuti as follows:”Domestication means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture, making him or her see the cultural and linguistic difference"(Venuti 1995:19-20). Domesticating means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignizing, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture, making him or her see the differences.Compared to marriage, translation practice is similar to the marriage of a Chinese girl with a foreigner. By domestication,"the Chinese girl" will be forced to undergo the cosmetic in order to make her look like a westerner. By foreignization, the bride’s appearance will be left intact although she has to put on the western-style wedding gown. Her cultural identity is also kept to the maximum (Chen Fu 2004,4-5).<br />
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1.2 Details About Domestication<br />
<br />
There are various opinions as to the forms of domestication.According to Ke Ping (Ke Ping 1993,23),domestication only refers to adaptation of words or phrases.That is domestication means that translating a word or phrase which is of target language (TL) cultural color and which is used as frequently in the TL as the original in the source language (SL) (Hou Yanan 20046).Qin Hongwu (Qin Hongwu 2000,372) holds that domestication also includes the adaptation of SL syntactic structure.According to the definition given by Lawrence Venuti, all the forms of adaptation aim to make the TL more acceptable and familiar to the TL readers.<br />
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Many scholars who favor domestication have put forward their own point view on domestication. Eugene Nida is widely considered as an influential representative of domesticating translation who puts much emphasis on the communication function of translation.His concept of "dynamic equivalence" or "functional equivalence"in translation is the representative of domestication strategy.Dynamic equivalence is defined as"a translation principle according to which a translator seeks to translate the meaning of the original in such a way that the target language wording will trigger the same impact one target culture audience as the original wording did upon the source text audience"."A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression. And tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture:it does not insist that he understand the cultural patterns of the source-language context in order to comprehend the message”(Nida,1964,159). <br />
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Therefore, Nida pay much attention to readers response."the relationship between the original receptors and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and message"(Nida,1964:159).So a translation of dynamic equivalence directs its focus of attention not so much toward the source message as towards the receptor response (Zhou Min 2007, 23) For example,according to Nida’s approach of domestication,the Chinese idiom "智者千虑,必有一失"will be translated into "Homer sometimes nods"; the English idiom "to cast pearls before swine" can be translated into "对牛弹琴". A dynamic equivalent translation shifts the focus from verbal comparison between the originala and translation to readers' response (Zhou Min 2007,24).<br />
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Meanwhile, domestication involves alteration of the SL cultural images, syntactic structure, and so on. This kind of alteration is designed to make the translation more understandable and smoother to the TL readers. For example, in ''Hong Lou Meng'',<br />
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谋事在人，成事在天。（第六回）<br />
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Man purposes, God disposes. (Hawkes)<br />
<br />
Hawkes quotes the English proverb directly and make it untouched. In this way,he changes the Buddhist flavor into the Christian flavor. The SL image is replaced with TL cultural image.<br />
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He’s always been strong as a mule．<br />
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他一向壮得像头牛。<br />
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‘牛’is often used to express physical fitness in Chinese culture, while’牛’is expressed in‘horse’or‘mule’according to English expression habits.In summary, domesticated translation can provide readers with closeness,nature and fluency.TL readers easily accept this translation and have more profound understanding of the connotation of the target language(Zhou Min 2007,25).<br />
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1.3 Details About Foreignization<br />
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Foreignization signifies the differences of the foreign text. Lawrence Venuti,the representative of foreignization, views such kind of translation method as"a strategic cultural intervention in the current state of world affairs, against the hegemonic English-language nations and the unequal cultural exchanges in which they engage their global others” (Venuti 1995,20). Venuti puts forward that foreignization can be a form of resistance against ethnocentrism and racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism (Hou Yanan 2004,10).<br />
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Translators who adopt the foreignization strategy try to avoid any alteration or departure from the SL. The culture-specific elements, literary form, and linguistic feature are preserved as much as possible. Foreignization is based on the differences between different national cultures and advocates the original flavor of culture. The purpose of foreignization is to make the TL readers fully experience the exotic atmosphere, feel different nationalities and realize the differences among different language traditions and national cultures by retaining the language styles and national characteristics of foreign countries. Therefore, the appropriate foreignization not only promotes the cultural exchange,but also greatly enriches the expressiveness of the translated language(Tian Yunping 2005,107 ).<br />
<br />
With the expansion of cultural exchange,many English loanwords gradually infiltrate into Chinese through foreignizing translation and are widely familiar and accepted by us. For example,in English-Chinese translation, we have talk show(脱口秀),ivory tower(象牙塔),crocodile tears(鳄鱼的眼泪),sour grapes(酸葡萄) and so on. And in Chinese-English translation,there are 气功(qi gong),豆腐(to fu),功夫(kong fu),君子协定 (gentleman’s agreement ), 门户开放政策(the open door policy) and so on (Hou Yanan 2004,12).<br />
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1.4 Advantages and Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization<br />
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Domestication and foreignization are the main translating strategies. While in translation,translators have a tendency to overemphasize the significance of one strategy and ignore the role of the other one. In fact, both domesticating and foreignizing strategies have their advantages and limitations.As the main strategy,domestication holds its advantages. Mark Schuttleworth and Moira Cowie regard domestication as"a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for the TL readers" (Schuttleworth and Cowie,1997,43-44). This involves erasing the linguistic and cultural differences of the original text and adapting them to the norms and conventions of the target culture.Therefore, this target-culture-oriented approach makes the foreign familiar and avoids cultural conflicts and communication barriers. However, every coin has two sides. Venuti holds that domestication has negative connotation "as it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are ‘aggressive monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign’, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribes foreign texts with TL values and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other"(Venuti, 1995,20). <br />
<br />
For example, Nide said that "to grow like mushroom" can be translated into "雨后春笋" so as to achieve functional equivalence, but "雨后春笋" may mislead Chinese readers into believing that there are bamboo shoots in the English-speaking countries.Though domestication is easier for the reader to understand and accept, its naturalness and smoothness of the TT are often achieved at the expense of the cultural messages of the SL. What's more, if the translator always adopts the domestication strategy to replace the cultural differences with the information familiar to TL readers, the TL readers will be further apart from SL culture. Readers just review their own culture which is against the purpose of intercultural communication.<br />
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Foreignization, source-culture-oriented approach, respects the foreignness of the source language and culture and try to retain the foreign linguistic forms and cultural differences in target text, so that it enables the target readers to gain "an alien reading experience"(Venuti,1995,20), to know the cultural otherness and to promote cultural communication. Besides, foreignization will play an significant role in preventing cultural hegemony and enhancing the status of foreign culture in the target culture. It is necessary for the target reader to acquaint himself with the foreign culture. What’s more, translation with foreignization could broaden the view of readers.It accords with the needs of cultural transmission and exchanges among different nations. <br />
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For instance,there are plenty of expressions concerning animals in every language.The tiger is considered to be the‘king of animals' and stands for dignity in Chinese, while in English,the same meaning is carried by the image of ‘lion’. For example,"他结婚了,太太是只母老虎”,in English, it can translates"He was married and had a lioness at home ". In the foreignized expressions, it is natural for readers to associate them with their native expressions. Through the comparison, they can understand different usages and the exact connotations of the lion and those of the tiger. It is in this way that target readers enrich their acquisition of foreign cultures and accelerate cultural communication (Hou Yanan 2004,14).However,there are limitations in foreignizating translation.Sometimes, alien cultural image and linguistic features may cause information overload to the readers. For example,if the reader can’t understand the ST image, he can’t receive the cultural message contained in the ST, and he may even fail to understand the ST.<br />
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=='''Ⅱ Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in History'''==<br />
<br />
No study of domestication and foreignization would be complete without consideration of them in a historical perspective.Throughout the history,there are many different opinions on domestication and foreignization in cross-culture translation.<br />
<br />
2.1 Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in the West<br />
<br />
In the west,there are various opinions on domestication and foreignization.It was Cicero in the first century B.C.who first eloquently formulated that a translatormust be either an interpreter or rhetorician (Zhou Min 2007,38).For the next two thousand years, translation theory was mainly limited to a heated discussion of this dichotomy.In the western translation field of today, the loudest speaker for domestication is Eugene Nida, and Lawrence Venuti is the representative of those who favor foreignization.<br />
<br />
Domestication recommends fluent translation. Eugene Nida is the representative of those who favor domesticating translation. The concept of dynamic equivalence is a clear indication of his inclination towards domestication. "A dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture" (Nida,1993,159). Dynamic equivalence or functional equivalence is based on the principle of equivalent effect,i.e.the relationship between receiver and message should aim at being the same as that between the original receivers and the SL message(Zhou Ming 2007,41).<br />
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A minimal definition of functional equivalence is stated as “ The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it" in the book ''Language, Culture and Translating'' (Nida, 1993,117).He claims, "Anything less than this degree of equivalence should be unacceptable"(Nida,1993, 118). The maximal,ideal definition is stated as “the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, 1993: 118). Nida’s "Dynamic Equivalence" can be viewed as a euphemism for domestication (Zhou Ming 2007,41). This can be evidenced also in Nida's own words "The translator must be a person who can draw aside the curtains of linguistic and cultural differences so that people may see clearly the relevance of the original meaning"(Nida, 1993: 121). All in all, Nida's theory virtually reinforces the status of domestication as a canon in English-language translation.<br />
<br />
Since the publication of the Translator’s Invisibility in 1986, Lawrence Venuti has become one of the most prominent figures in contemporary U.S. translation circle. Lawrence Venuti is a major advocator of foreignization. His aim is "rather to develop a theory and practice of translation that resists dominant target-language cultural values so as to signify the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text" (Venuti, 1995, 23). He states"the fact of translation is erased by suppressing the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign text, assimilating it to dominant values in the target-language culture, making it recognizable and therefore seemingly untranslatable. With this domestication the translated text passes for the original"(Venuti,1995,23). Hence,he puts forth the principle of"resistancy" to signify the difference from the foreign text by disrupting the cultural codes that prevail in the target language.<br />
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2.2 Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in China<br />
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The disputes over domestication and foreignization can be dated back to the period of translating the Sanskrit Buddhist scriptures into Chinese， which is known as the dispute over"simple translation"(文)and"sophisticated translation"(质) Sutra scriptures. Dao’an (Luo Xingzhang 1984，26) firmly advocated faithful translation of "zhi", namely,foreignizatiing translation. While Kumarajiva is strongly against foreignization. He advocated the translation of "wen".In the 1930s,Zhao Jingshen (Luo Xingzhang 1984:267) proposed the translation principle of “smoothness over faithfulness”. Zhao declared that a piece of translation should be smooth, even if smoothness was achieved at the expense of faithfulness. Thus he chose to “rearrange Yan Fu’s three points in a new order, as follows: expressiveness, faithfulness, elegance"(Luo Xingzhangv1984,267). The most famous Chinese scholar who firmly advocates domestication in the 20th century might be Qian Zhongshu. He insists that the highest standard of translation be "sublimation" and a translation be "so faithful to the source text that it does not read like a translated work, because the text in the source language will by no means read like a translated one"(Qian Zhongshu,1981,18-19).<br />
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That is to say,a piece of good translation should not reveal its foreignness.Compared with the advocacy of foreignization, the school of domestication is more powerful and popular.Most acknowledged translators century were the representatives of the domestication school,such as Yan Fu,Zhang Guruo,Yang Bi ,just to name a few. (Zhou Min 2007,39) Professor Xu Yuanchong favors domestication. He sees clearly the differences between eastern and western cultures，and proposes the theory of cultural competition to deal with the cultural differences.That is, a translator should make full use of the strength of the TL in order to make the TT more beautiful (Xu Yuanchong,2000:90).As using of four-character-phrases is widely acknowledged as one of the characteristics as well as strong points of the Chinese language,Xu uses a lot of four character phrases in his translation. He also likes to use phrases from ancient Chinese literary works in his translation. For example,“ Elle morul”is translated into“魂归离恨天”which is a phrase used in ''Hong Lou Meng''(Hou Yanan 2004，21).<br />
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=='''Ⅲ Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization'''==<br />
<br />
In essence, domestication and foreignization are only two different translation methods used to deal with the linguistic and cultural differences between in the process of translation. Whether to choose domestication or foreignization is determined by many factors. Generally speaking, there are so many factors influencing the translator's strategy choice. For example, the text type,the translation purpose,the target reader, the translators cultural attitude,the context, etc.This paper will make a discussion about the three factors: the translation purpose,the text type and the target reader.<br />
<br />
3.1 The Translation Purpose<br />
<br />
Translation is a purposeful activity.Any human activity is conducted with certain intention in mind.Translation as a human activity is no exception.According to Manttari，the famous functional translation theorist,translating behavior is a complex activity designed to realize the information convey across different cultures and different languages. In his opinion, purpose principle is the first principle of translation(Zhou Min 2007, 60). As Hermans points out: “Without such intention, without taking into account the function which the translation is meant to serve or the problem it is trying to solve,the translators choices appear whimsical, or pointless,or wholly idiosyncratic" (Hermans,1999,39).Because of the existence of linguistic and cultural differences,there is no complete equivalence between TL and SL.Then what should be preserved and what should be altered, or to what degree the SL should be preserved, in other words, what translation strategies the translator should chose is determined by the purpose of translation (Zhou Min 2007,60-61). On the one hand, if the main purpose of translation is to introduce the culture of the SL, to promote the mutual understanding and communication between different cultures in order to broaden the view of the target readers. We should adopt the foreignization strategy. <br />
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On the other hand, if the main purpose is for amusement or to please the target readers, and avoid the cultural obstacles or conflicts that may occur in readers reading and comprehending of the TT, domestication should be chosen firstly. Therefore,if translation is for a specific purpose and the task is very urgent, his major concern will be the fluency and readability of the translation in order to avoid obscurity and ambiguity. In such case,the domestication approach is preferable. On the contrary, if translation is for a pressing task of communication,he may adopt foreignization in order to meet the need of appreciating foreign cultures on the part of the readers. For example,in the Chinese sentence "谋事在人, 成事在天", the word "天", in China, is a Daoism concept, while in western we will use 'God'(Zhou Min 2007,62). Foreignization strategy should be adopted if the purpose of translation is to popularize the Daoism and broaden the westerners’ horizon about Chinese culture.The translator can use the word 'heaven' to keep foreign flavors. On the contrary,when the purpose of translation is to make the target readers know the meaning of the sentence and improve the readability of the sentence, domestication should be adopted to make TT more acceptable to the readers and the word‘god’should be used. <br />
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So the purpose of translation can shift cultural orientation, which may also determine which translation strateg to choose,domestication or foreignization in some aspects.<br />
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3.2 The Target Reader<br />
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In the translating process, the translator acts as the producer and the readers the receptor. The relationship between the producer (translator) and receptor (readers)is considered one of the most important among relations involved in translating process (Zhou Min 2007,67).A translation process is not complete without the participation of the readers.Nida (Nida 1993: 139) once said:“The target audience for which a translation is made almost always constitutes a major factor in determining the translation procedures and the level of language to be employed.” Therefore, the level of the intended readers plays an important role in determining a translator’s translation strategy. As target readers are different from each other in almost every aspect, the translator is responsible to analyze their respective communicative needs. The readers are the ultimate judges of a translation. Therefore,the first and foremost thing the translator should bear in mind is to recognize what type of readers his work will probably face.The readers will be they children,general public or experts and so on, in order to have his versions acceptable to the target readers.<br />
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Depending on the different groups of readers, the translator can decide which kind of approach he may adopt. For example, for the sentence below, there will be different translations according to different groups of readers.<br />
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He is a modern Samson. <br />
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(1)他简直就是现代的参孙。<br />
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(2)他是一个大力士。<br />
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Samson is a character in Bible, who is famous for his strong figure. For readers who know western culture very well, version(1), which is the result of foreignization,seems to be a vivid translation. However, for those who are not familiar with or those who know little about western culture, version (2) is more comprehensible and preferable (Zhou Min 2007,68).<br />
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All in all, translators should pay attention to the target reader in the translating process.Domestication and foreignization both take target readers,their cultural backgrounds,their expectation and the time the are in and so on, into consideration but with different focuses of emphasis. The translator should stress the significant role of target readers in order to make a better translation.<br />
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3.3 The Text Type<br />
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Different types of texts require different translation strategies. Because different types of ST have different functions and intentions, which requires the translator to choose different translation strategies. So different types of ST also affect the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord,translation can be classified into instrumental translation and documentary translation (Christiane Nord,1997,36).Instrumental translation refers to transfer information of communicative activity in the source culture into the target culture in the translating process.This type of translation is mainly used in the true information and tries to preserve the truth.It stresses the transmission of information,which mainly includes non-literary writing such as advertisement, journalistic writing,reports,scientific and so on. Therefore, the aim of translation is to achieve the accuracy of the content and fluency in language without paying attention to the foreign flavor. Thus domestication is more accessible and can be obtained as much as possible.<br />
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Documentary translation refers to the translation that is the medium to represent authentic communicative activities in the source language culture for the target readers(Zhou Min 2007,63). Documentary translation is suitable for translating the original expression where the specific language of the speaker or writer is as important as the content. It is often used in fictional texts like literature. Mainly concerning the mental field and imaginary things, this kind of text contains rich cultural connotations, and reflects the social thoughts and customs (Zhou Min 2007,63).So,in the documentary translation, the foreignization strategy is preferable. <br />
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From the above analysis, we could have a conclusion that different strategies should be adopted according to different types of the source text. For example, when translators translate political, historical or philosophical texts,the method of foreignization is often adopted because the aim of these texts is to introduce and reveal the source cultures. On the other hand, when translators translate texts of practical styles, such as notices, news reports, advertisements and popular literature, domestication tends to be the general guideline because the purpose for these texts is to achieve wider readers and better readability (Zhou Min 2007, 64).<br />
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In summary, understanding these factors can help a translator to choose an appropriate translation strategy. <br />
<br />
=='''Conclusion'''==<br />
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In a word, in the cross-cultural perspective, domestication and foreignization have their own advantages, and have a profound impact on translation. In different contexts, they should be reasonably selected, which puts forward higher requirements for the translator’s cultural literacy. In the process of translation, translators should adopt more appropriate translation methods according to specific problems and specific conditions, so that domestication and foreignization complement each other to achieve the ultimate goal of promoting cultural exchanges and communication. If one-sided emphasis on domestication or the pursuit of foreignization will lead to a very short translation work. Therefore,it is necessary to combine the two methods scientifically and grasp the degree to improve the translation effect.<br />
<br />
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[19] 孙丽 Sun Li.(2016).以跨文化交际为基准观察翻译中的异化及归化[To Observe Foreignization and Domestication in Translation Based on Cross-cultural Communication].Wuzhou:Journal of Wuzhou College 梧州：梧州学院学报(07):93-95.<br />
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[20] 王静 Wng Jing. (2018).''跨文化视角下的英语翻译理论与实践探究''[''A Study of English Translation Theory and Practice from a Cross-cultural Perspective'']. Changchun:Jilin People's Publishing House 长春：吉林人民出版社.<br />
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[21] 许钧 Xu Jun. (2001).''文学翻译的理论与实践:翻译对话录''[''Theory and Practice in Literary Translation: A Dialogue on Translation''].Nanjing:Yilin Press 南京:译林出版社.<br />
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[22] 许渊冲 Xun Yuanchong. (2000).''翻译的艺术''[''The Art of Translation'']. Beijing:China National Translation and Publishing Company北京:中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
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[23] 严智千 Yan zhiqian. (2007).''归化还是异化？''[''Domestication or foreignization''?].Shanghai:Shanghai Jiao Tong University 上海：上海交通大学.<br />
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[24] 周蕗 Zhou Lu. (2015).基于跨文化视野的归化与异化翻译研究[Research on Domestication and Foreignization Based on a Cross-cultural Perspective].Suzhou:Journal of Suzhou Institute of Education 宿州:宿州教育学院学报（2）:55-57.<br />
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[25] 周敏 Zhou Min. (2007).文化视角下的归化异化研究[Research on Domestication and Foreignization from the Perspective of Culture].Beijing:China University Of Petroleum 北京:中国石油大学.<br />
<br />
==Cultural Differences in Interpreting and Corresponding 吴琼 Wu Qiong==<br />
<center> 吴琼 Wu Qiong 英语口译 MTI ( interpreter ) 202070080644 </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Language and culture are very closely related. It is language that allows culture to be recorded, transmitted and perpetuated. With rapid development of globalization, the demands for interpreting between languages are also increasing. <br />
However, cultural differences hinder the smooth expression of interpretation. As Mr. Wang Zuoliang said, "What is the greatest difficulty in translation? It is the difference between two cultures.Something can be told without words in one culture, but in the other culture, interpreters might take a great deal of effort in explaining it." （姜怡.浅谈在口译中如何弥补中英文化的差异[J].海外英语,2014(13)). The same applies to interpretation. This paper will mainly study on the cultural differences analysis, cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, and corresponding strategies to cope with the cultural differences in interpreting. And hoping it can provide some references for the study of English interpretation.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
Cultural differences; Interpreting; Corresponding Strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
口译及相关领域的文化差异研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
语言和文化之间的关系十分紧密。正是因为语言，文化才得以记载、传播和延续。随着全球化进程的加快，不同语言间的口译需求也日益增加。然而在口译时，不同语言间的文化差异阻碍了口译的顺利进行。就像王佐良先生所言：“翻译最大的困难是什么？就是两种文化的不同，在一种文化里头不言而喻的东西，在另一种文化里头却要浪费很大力气加以解释。”（姜怡.浅谈在口译中如何弥补中英文化的差异[J].海外英语,2014(13)）这句话对口译同样适用。本文将就文化差异的分析、口译及相关活动的文化差异以及其应对策略三个方面对口译及其相关活动的文化差异进行研究，希望能为英语口译的研究提供一定的参考。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
文化差异；口译；应对策略<br />
<br />
===I. Cultural Differences Analysis===<br />
Due to the differences in cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, English and Chinese often have completely different expressions for many similar concepts. After analysis, the reason can be reflected mainly in three aspects.<br />
<br />
'''I.I. Different Perceptions'''<br />
<br />
Both English and Chinese languages have a time-honored history and connotation. Due to many differences, Chinese and Western perceptions are also very different. <br />
For instance, when foreigners talk about "Black Friday", if it is only translated as "黑色星期五" literally in Chinese(target language), the target language receiver may not know the true meaning.Therefore, when interpreters do this kind of translation, regardless of whether it is an "unlucky" day or a "shopping day". The interpretation should be made according to the context. <br />
Another example is "touch the wood", which is believed in the West to ward off evil spirits or find protection.<br />
Since the origin of the phrase is somewhat related to religious beliefs or superstitions, in addition, there is no similar phrase in China. So in the process of interpreting, we should also pay attention to explaining the meaning of the phrase.<br />
<br />
In the West, it is impolite to discuss on a man's salary or a woman's age. It is not even allowed to ask how much are the furniture in their homes.<br />
In Chinese, for example, when people praise an old person's good health, they usually say, "您老身子骨很硬朗啊！“ But in English-speaking countries, if you interpret it directly as "Although you are so old, you still look very healthy" will make the other disguised. The reason is that in their view, mentioning age, especially while noticing the word "old" will indicate others'age. So the correct translation would be"You look great or amazing. "<br />
<br />
'''I.II. Vocabulary Absence'''<br />
<br />
"Due to the difference of language and culture, a few vocabulary can not be found in the other language sometimes, and if this happened in the process of interpretation, it can easily lead to information is lost or mistranslated." （范雄杰.浅析文化差异对翻译的影响[J].校园英语,2014(26))<br />
For example, for those foods which are full of Chinese characteristics, i.e. "dumplings" and "doughnuts", they don't have corresponding vocabulary in English, as in English-speaking countries, those foods can hardly be seen or eaten. So in this circumstance, it is very difficult to describe them clearly unless the person concerned sees or tastes them in his own eyes. Therefore, when interpreters encounter such words, they can choose to translate them phonetically, i.e. "Zongzi" and "Youtiao", then explain the words. The full translated sentence should be "Zongzi, a kind of traditional Chinese rice - pudding" and "Youtiao, a kind of deep-fried dough sticks". <br />
<br />
Furthermore, the Chinese language is very profound. It has phonetic, direct, and meaningful translations, as well as passages words, multiple meanings, and so on. In contrast, the English language is more direct. For example, in the Analects of Confucius, there is a sentence that reads, "Isn't it a pleasure to study and practice what you have learnt?" In this sentence, the Chinese word "说" is pronounced as "悦", which means pleasant. But in colloquial language, the two are pronounced the same. If the sentence is translated backwards into Chinese, it becomes " It is not a pleasure to learn with perseverance and utilization?" Although the translation conveys the meaning expressed in the original text, the meaning of the original text, the rhythm of the original text is lost due to the absence of the corresponding expressions. In this kind of translation, there is no way to compensate for the cultural differences, but we can only minimize the lack of meaning and try to accurately convey the connotation expressed in the original text as much as possible.<br />
<br />
'''I.III. Different Linguistic Customs'''<br />
<br />
Under the different cultural background and due to different linguistic customs, greetings or other communicative terms are different as well. <br />
For example, when Chinese people greet guests, they usually would say, "欢迎各位，一路辛苦了！" In this case, the interpreters can not translate it literally in the Chinese thinking mode"Welcome, everyone! You must be very tired in the long journey". Actually for native English speakers, on such occasions, they should express their concerns rather than greetings. Therefore, according to the English thinking habit, the interpreter can translate it as "How about your flight?" or "You've had a long trip."<br />
<br />
China is a country of ceremonies, and Chinese people take modesty as a virtue. When Chinese and foreigners negotiating, the Chinese people used to saying, "请多提宝贵意见。" At that time, if the interpreter translates it as "Please give us your valuable comments.",then it will easily cause misunderstanding. Because English speakers will be puzzled that they are forced to give valuable comments, or you should not mention it. Such a translation is obviously impolite, so it should be translated as "We appreciate your comments." or "Please offer Your comments."<br />
<br />
===II. Cultural Differences in Interpreting and Corresponding===<br />
<br />
With the continuous improvement of China's international status, China has more dialogues and business with other countries. We can see foreign affairs interpretation and business interpretation play pivotal roles in these perspectives. And in such interpretation processes, we also see many cultural differences. There are different domains in interpretation, such as escort interpreters, traveling interpreters, business interpreters, foreign fairs interpreters.etc. We will definitely encounter cultural differences in different scopes of interpretation. And here we mainly discuss about foreign fairs interpretation and business interpretation.<br />
<br />
'''II.I. Cultural Differences in Foreign Fairs Interpretation'''<br />
<br />
Foreign affairs are diplomatic affairs between states, and foreign relations are primarily military and diplomatic, with the executive branch of the national government being the main participant in the various "foreign affairs" is a broad term that refers not only to relations, but also to "fairs". "It includes issues, events, relationships, and legal rights granted by the Constitution. Foreign affairs are matters relating to foreign countries, not domestic matters, especially those involving national and foreign interests. Foreign affairs interpreting is the oral translation of activities dealing with international affairs. The quality of foreign affairs interpretation directly affects the interests and honor of the country. Foreign affairs interpretation is not only a kind of Language behavior is more a kind of cultural behavior. <br />
<br />
Foreign interpreters have to play different roles such as interpreters, receptionists, advocates and tour guides. For this reason, foreign interpreters should try to reduce the communication barriers caused by cultural differences so that communication can proceed smoothly. In political or commercial negotiations between countries, proverbs, idioms and allusions that are closely related to national cultures can cause difficulties in understanding. For example, in a business negotiation, we used the phrase "鹬蚌相争" to express that in a fierce competition, the third party wins, which is simply translated as "the mussels between the snipe and oyster". That is difficult for foreigners to understand the essence and connotation of the term, which needs to be further explained as "Please be more considerate, and do not only pay attention to the very close interests, we must take the long run to avoid the third competitor's attack." <br />
<br />
When an interpreter is accompanying a foreign guest as a host, there may be more barriers to understand something caused by cultural differences. The interpreter should make the necessary adjustments in order to make the name of the dish better understood by the listener. For instance, "童子鸡" is a very popular dish in China, and it is difficult to understand and absurd to translate it directly as "virgin chicken". If it is translated as "spring chicken" or "baby chicken", foreigners can easily understand that the dish is made of chickens and not "unmarried chickens". <br />
<br />
"Interpreters should also be aware of the cultural differences between China and the West when introducing our profound culture to Westerners. For example, in Liu Yuxi's poem "东边日出西边雨，道是无情却有情", the interpreters should further interpreted the connotation of the Chinese "日出" and "晴". Xu Yuanchong translated as "The west is veiled in rain, the east enjoyed sunshine; my dear one is as deep in love as day if fine." Westerners do not understand puns and rhymes, especially when combined with the profound culture of China.<br />
<br />
'''II.II. Cultural Differences in Business Interpretation'''<br />
<br />
The Belt and Road Initiative has led to large quantity of business activities both at home and abroad, and the practice of business negotiation interpretation has continued to heat up. Interpreters should take the responsibility to be proficient in business interpretation and of course should be familiar with the cultural differences in the business field.<br />
<br />
In the process of business negotiation, interpreters are not only involved in business negotiation, but also in reception activities in some cases. Interpreters should not only have sufficient foreign language and business knowledge, but also need to understand the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. For example, when greeting an elderly foreigner at the airport, the Chinese interpreter says, "Since you are old, let me help you with your luggage."<br />
But the foreigner said. "I'm not old." This is a misunderstanding caused by the difference between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. Respecting and loving the elderly is a traditional Chinese virtue, and China has always attached importance to social ethics, but in the West, offering help to the elderly seems to say that the elderly are incompetent, which is offensive to foreigners.<br />
<br />
The Chinese emphasize ethics and the Westerners emphasize perception. When greeting foreign guests, there is a lot of etiquette of presenting flowers. In business activities, any details need to be considered culturally. For example, lilies are seen as auspicious flowers in China, but in the UK, white lilies are used for funerals and it is taboo to use this flower for congratulations or gifts. The different meanings of the same plant in different cultures reflect the different perceptions of the Chinese and British people, and are essentially a reflection of the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. If you don't understand the cultural differences, you will lay the groundwork for the failure of the negotiation even before the business negotiation begins.<br />
<br />
The Han Chinese way of thinking is heavy on harmony. This also confirms the difference between Chinese and Western ways of thinking of dissimilarity. At the same time, Westerners are more logical and precise, while the Chinese are more intuitive and vague. Language is the code of culture and the medium of cultural transmission. The differences in thinking styles are an important reflection of cultural differences, and the differences are inevitably reflected in language.<br />
<br />
Some business negotiation activities include not only the negotiating process, but also the dining and banqueting process. When interpreters escorting, they should pay attention to the various cultural taboos of foreigners. These cultural taboos are reflected in almost all aspects of life, and the cultural taboos also reflect the differences between Chinese and Western ways of thinking. For example, Chinese people prefer the number six, but "666" represents the devil in the Bible; and in Christian countries, everything in the shape of a cross is taboo, which is not so obvious in China. (Flaskerud. Cultural Differences in Interpreting Behavior: Staring and Spitting[J]. Issues in Mental Health Nursing,2013,34(12).)<br />
<br />
===III. Corresponding Strategies to Cope With Cultural Differences===<br />
<br />
The most important feature of interpretation is immediacy, and the use of dissimilation strategy can quickly translate the source language directly into the target language, but it may cause difficulties for the audience to understand. In foreign interpretation, it is not allowed to make further interpretation after dissimilation. If the domestication strategy is adopted, the interpreter directly converts the source language into the target language, which is familiar to the audience, saving time and achieving instantaneous effect. Interpreters should use both strategies alternately according to their characteristics and other factors. In addition to naturalization and dissimilation, direct translation, meaning translation, word enhancement and substitution can also be used. Foreign interpreters should choose appropriate strategies according to the situation, and these strategies can also be used together to achieve the desired purpose.<br />
<br />
Many famous theorists have put forward various criteria to judge the quality of translation, but the principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" proposed by Yan Fu is most accepted by the Chinese people. Interpretation is a kind of translation, and its criteria are similar to those of translation. Interpretation has its distinctive characteristics, among which, time constraint is the most significant feature. Interpreters do not have enough time to strictly comply with "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", so "interpreters" will believe in the principles of "accuracy, immediacy and fluency". <br />
<br />
'''III.I. Accuracy'''<br />
<br />
Accuracy is considered by interpreters and interpreting theorists to be the most basic and important criterion. The interpreter's duty is to translate the source language into the target language with accuracy in terms of subject matter, argument, style, wording, number, expression, speed, tone and intonation.<br />
<br />
'''III.II. Immediacy'''<br />
<br />
Immediacy is a unique criterion determined by the distinctive characteristics of interpretation, where the interpreter needs to get the message to the listener quickly without much time to reorganize the sentence. In consecutive interpreting, the interpreter is required to interpret two to three seconds after the speaker finishes, and simultaneous interpreting places greater demands on the interpreter.<br />
<br />
'''III.III. Fluency'''<br />
<br />
Fluency is another criterion that interpreters need to adhere to. The communicative nature of interpretation requires the interpreter to deliver the message quickly and fluently to the audience with as few interruptions as possible. Fluency includes the speed at which the interpreter perceives the source language, the speed of encoding, decoding, and expression. (杨秀芳.外事口译中文化差异问题的应对策[J].湖北函授大学学报,2014,27(14):141-142.)<br />
<br />
Due to cultural differences, there are occasions when the two languages are not interpretable. Cultural differences, we should acknowledge that interpretation is not always possible, but only within certain limits. It is only possible within a certain range and limit. Thankfully, interpretation does not require as much accuracy as translation. The author believes that cultural differences certainly exist in the process of interpretation, but as long as they can be "faithful and accurate," the author will be able to make the interpretation process more accurate. However, as long as the two criteria of "faithfulness and fluency" can be achieved, i.e., on the one hand, there is no tampering with the meaning expressed by the speaker, and on the other hand, there is no tampering with the meaning expressed by the speaker.<br />
<br />
This reflects the importance of the interpreter's daily study and only by understanding the similarities and differences between Chinese and Western languages and cultures as deeply as possible can the interpreter reduce errors in the process of interpretation and effectively and play the role of a bridge between Chinese and Western languages and cultures. This shows the importance of daily study and accumulation of interpreters. （陈永智.浅谈口译过程中的文化差异及应对策略[J].国际公关,2019(09):279.）<br />
<br />
===IV. Discussion===<br />
<br />
In order to accurately interpret the connotation of the source language, it is necessary to let the interlocutor fully grasp the connotation expressed by the other party. In the context of China's " Belt and Road Initiative" economic development, global interaction is getting closer, which makes the extension of communication between countries deeper, and in such an environment, in order to build a good cooperation relationship and reach a consistent economic development strategy, it is necessary to complete the corresponding communication for several times in order to achieve mutual development goals. In the process of communication, most of them are face-to-face communication, and both sides communicate and exchange with each other with the assistance of interpreters. So how did those cultural obstacles happened in the process of communication? Here are analysis of the factors leading to the emergence of cultural barriers in interpretation.<br />
<br />
'''IV.I. Interpreters have less basic knowledge of the source language and the translated language.'''<br />
<br />
In the process of interpreting the source language, the interpreters may not be able to translate accurately due to the cultural barriers, and the translation may even be odd. In view of this problem, this paper considers that the interpreters' basic knowledge of the language is one of the most important factors that cause the interpreters to be unable to translate the source language better due to cultural barriers. In the process of interpreters' translation of foreign language contents, they will be affected by cultural barriers because they know less about some basic knowledge, and they cannot translate the corresponding contents accurately. This is due to the fact that after the implementation of China's economic reform and opening-up strategy, the frequency of business and trade with the British and American countries is greater, which makes many translators in China know more about the basic knowledge of the language contents of the British and American countries, but for the translation of the foreign language contents of some small languages, they do not have enough basic knowledge as a guarantee in the process of translation, so the phenomenon of inaccurate interpretation content will naturally occur.<br />
<br />
Interpretation is the foundation of cross-cultural communication activities, and it is difficult to communicate across cultures because of the commonality and individuality of cultures, and different languages carry different cultures. Therefore, as interpreters, in the process of foreign communication, in order to better improve the spoken language, they should consolidate the foundation of the source language and the translated language, and learn the basic linguistic knowledge of the translated language in depth and be familiar with the characteristics of the syntax and grammar of the source language, so that they can accurately complete the translation of the language in the process of translation. We should study the structure of the translation language carefully and in detail, so that in the process of translating some source languages, we can complete the translation of the contents through all the languages of the translation language. Especially when focusing on the translation of some small foreign languages, we must choose to pay attention to the learning of the basic knowledge of the corresponding language, and pay attention to the learning of the basic knowledge of our language, only by paying attention to the cultural basis of both languages can we better improve the translation level of interpreters.<br />
<br />
'''IV.II. Less knowledge of the cultural history of the source language.'''<br />
<br />
The factors that lead to cultural barriers in interpretation are not only a low level of basic knowledge but also a low level of knowledge of the cultural history of the source language, which can lead to inaccurate translations. The language of a country is closely related to the history and development of that country's language. In China's trade activities with other countries or in the process of cooperation in other fields, there will be times to ease the atmosphere of cooperation negotiations, and during this period, some proverbs will be used to join the communication, and if some interpreters know less about the cultural history of the source language, they naturally cannot accurately translate the corresponding content, and this phenomenon mainly exists in non-political communication. This phenomenon is mainly found in the non-political communication. In economic trade, tourism, education, medical treatment, science and technology, and construction cooperation, some unofficial languages are often used for communication, and the frequency of proverbs or special vocabulary used in this process is high, so if we cannot grasp the cultural history of the source language, we cannot understand the meaning of the language spoken by the other party in communication. From this perspective, it can be understood that if the interpreters do not know the cultural history of the source language, it will naturally lead to cultural barriers in the process of translation.<br />
<br />
As different countries are influenced by history, culture and society in terms of language application, different languages will show different meanings, especially in some countries with deep cultural traditions, some words in proverbs have richer meanings, and if interpreters fail to pay attention to the in-depth study of the source language culture in the process of interpretation, the phenomenon of oops translation may occur. If the interpreters do not pay attention to the in-depth study of the source language and culture in the process of translation, the phenomenon of oops translation may occur. Therefore, in the process of transnational cultural exchange translation, interpreters should master the cultural history of the source language, especially the proverbs and traditional culture of the country, and master the meaning of different language applications in different contexts and word combinations, so as to better improve the translation level and avoid some sensitive problems in the process of communication between the two sides, and interpreters should pay attention to In the process of communication between the two sides, interpreters should pay attention to the comparison of cultural differences and master some sensitive words in the language of both cultures so that they can have the ability to translate foreign languages accurately.<br />
<br />
'''IV.III. Lack of practice in interpreting.'''<br />
<br />
Among the factors influencing cultural barriers in the interpretation process, the lack of practical experience of interpreters may also lead to inaccurate translation of foreign languages. The practical experience of foreign communication in any situation can improve the working ability of interpreters to a great extent, and only through continuous practice can interpreters understand the language characteristics and considerations of the source language countries. In China's contemporary economic development, after the implementation of the "Belt and Road Initiative" economic reform and opening-up strategy, China's trade and other cooperation with other countries have become more frequent, which makes the demand for foreign-related interpreters in China greater. In such a situation, fresh graduates who are involved in the work of foreign-related communication translators have less working experience and do not have enough practical experience, which leads to the phenomenon of cultural barriers affecting the translation content more frequently. Therefore, from this perspective, it is clear that the lack of practical experience of interpreters also hinders them from translating accurately the content of the source language.'' （孙明慧.口译中的文化障碍问题研究[J].产业与科技论坛,2019,18(20):166-167.）<br />
<br />
After the interpreter has consolidated the cultural foundation of the source language and the translated language and mastered the cultural history of the source language, he or she should focus on actively participating in the practice of interpreting, constantly summarizing the experience of interpreting in practice, and reflecting on some problems that have arisen, so that he or she can have the awareness of intercultural communication and learn some strategies of intercultural translation work, and discover the shortcomings through continuous practice, Likewise, a large amount of knowledge must be applied in practice to achieve the goal of accurate translation and improve the level of communication, and interpreting practitioners should reasonably handle and organize some corresponding skills and special cultural potential factors, and form their own guiding principles of translation, and through continuous practice, they can have high intercultural communication translation ability, which is important for the development of current social activities. This is an important contribution to the development of social activities. Especially for some fresh graduates, they must learn more about the translation characteristics of the language they are translating in some foreign-related communication occasions through continuous study, so as to better improve their own interpretation experience and enrich their interpretation ability. (Simona Simon,Lavinia Suciu. Raising Cultural Awareness in Interpreting Students[J]. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences,2015,197.)<br />
<br />
===V. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Through the whole paper, we've gotten an overview of the reason of the emergence of cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, and also the strategies to cope with it. For interpreters, it is necessary to absorb more knowledge and experiences to broaden our horizon and improve our professional skills. At the end of the paper, the writer wants to recommend some suggestion to readers for further improvement, hope more interpreters could learn something from it. In this regard, this paper points out the necessity of improving the cross-cultural barrier of interpretation, so as to accurately translate the connotation of the source language on the one hand, so that the interlocutor can fully grasp the connotation expressed by the other party. On the other hand, improving the level of interpreters can show the respect of our country to the other party, which can also play a certain role in facilitating the cooperation between them. It is also pointed out that the strategies to improve the spoken language across cultural barriers are to strengthen the foundation of the source language and the translated language, to master the cultural history of the source language and to increase the practice of interpreters.<br />
<br />
This paper discusses the cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding in the aspects of Cultural differences analysis, cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, e.g. foreign affairs interpretation and business interpretation, and corresponding strategies to cope with cultural differences, thus in order to help improve interpreters' capability. The existence of cultural differences places higher demands on the ability of translators and raises higher expectations on the mode of training translators. The translators themselves should strengthen their knowledge of different cultural backgrounds and learn more about the relevant contents to enrich their accumulation. When preparing work before translation, they should collect relevant information well. Due to the immediate and on-site nature of interpretation, the learning of cultural background knowledge should be put in the usual way. For the translation master training institutions, they need to make up for the lesson of cultural differences in the curriculum, especially for the institutions offering business English, they should be more specific and detailed in cultural differences, and they can understand the cultural differences of different countries and regions by regions, not limited to the cultural differences between China and Britain, but also detailed to the cultural differences in different aspects of business activities, and they can simulate business activities in class, so that Students can simulate business activities in class, so that they can deeply experience the necessity of understanding cultural differences under the context of teaching.<br />
<br />
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<br />
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<br />
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<br />
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<br />
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<br />
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<br />
==The Translation of Cultural Elements in Tourism Promotional Materials Under Skopos Theory 杨子泠==<br />
<br />
杨子泠 Yang Ziling 202070080647<br />
<br />
==Abstract==<br />
<br />
As China has become an increasingly large inbound tourism country, efforts are put in the promotion of supporting facilities, among which promotion service, especially Tourism Promotional Materials (TMP), is the main way to introduce to not only Chinese tourists themselves but also the great number of foreign travelers, China’s scenic spots, natural resources and culture, and thereby arouse their interest in the landscapes and ancient cultural relics. Therefore, the translation of TMP is of vital importance in the publicity. Based on Skopostheory, this paper first introduces TPMs, then compares cultural differences in TPM translation. Finally it concludes some strategies and techniques used in TPM translation under the framework of Skopostheory. The author deems it that TPM translation should stand on the side of foreigners, meanwhile revealing the main idea of Chinese original sources.<br />
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==Key Words== <br />
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TPM translation cultural differences Skopostheory<br />
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==摘要==<br />
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中国已经成为了一个旅游大国，政府开始大力完善旅游配套设施，其中旅游宣传服务，特别是旅游宣传资料是向中外游客介绍中国旅游景点，自然资源以及文化的最主要方式，从而激起他们对自然风光和古文物的兴趣。因此，旅游宣传资料对宣传工作十分重要。文章从目的论的角度出发，首先介绍了旅游宣传资料，然后对比了宣传资料中中西方的文化差异。最后基于目的论，文章总结出几种实际可行的翻译策略和技巧。作者认为旅游宣传资料的翻译应该站在外国游客的立场来传达中文素材的主要信息。<br />
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==关键词==<br />
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旅游宣传资料翻译 文化差异 目的论<br />
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==I. Introduction==<br />
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Economic globalization boasts the rapid development of tourism industry around the world and the interaction between people (Yang, 2014, 3). Tourism has become increasingly more an entertainment enriching people’s spiritual life. Serving as promotional materials and advertisements, Tourism Promotional Material (hereafter referred to as TPM) play increasingly important role in introducing China’s specialty to the world. With the development, more and more TPMs have been translated into English in recent years. Indeed, some good translation materials leave a strong impression on travelers to China, especially those from English speaking countries. It is truly a better way to attract more visitors across the world, to introduce famous scenic spots, tourist attractions and food specialties and to promote the development of international tourism and cultural communication.<br />
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TPM, to a certain degree, is a trademark and an external promotion work of tourism destinations, revealing the first image of the tourist attractions, landscapes and the surrounding environments. A good translation is of great significance in the first impression it leaves on potential visitors. (Wu, 2008, 319)<br />
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Since TPM has a strong effect on the image of tourist attractions in domestic tourism industry, the study of it is of great importance. Mr. Liu Fagong (2012, 70) once said, “some translation errors seem to be very slight, but it can reflect the international communicative competence of a certain area or a certain enterprise”. Inappropriate translation will not only lead to cultural misunderstanding, but also result in barriers in the development of international tourism as a whole.<br />
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This thesis focuses on the possible strategies to improve the quality of TMP by comparing Chinese and western cultural differences. To guide the practice of Chinese TPM translation, various theories have been adopted and used, among which Skopostheory is going to be testified. The merits of it and the awareness of cultural differences are to be revealed. Therefore, it first introduces the definition and features of TPM. Then it reveals the difficulties in the translation of TPM caused by cultural differences. After that, the framework of Skopostheory is introduced and the methods and strategies of cultural translation in TPM is discussed under the framework of Skopostheory.<br />
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==II. Literature Review==<br />
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2.1 Tourism Promotional Materials (TPM)<br />
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2.1.1 Definition of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
In order to define tourism promotional materials, the definition of promotional materials should first be made clear. Mr. Duan Liancheng (1990, 97) has put TPM into two separate categories: the general type and the official type. The former refers to general reports and region guiding brochures, mainly introducing China’s current issues to the public, including introduction of economy, politics, society, culture, people’s living situation and historical heritage. The latter refers to official documents, diplomatic conference and legal instruments, etc. Written in a special form, TPM covers many fields and areas. (Ding, 2008,14)<br />
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TPM in this article is the general type, dealing with the tourism industry and resources in tourism cities, which aims at foreign readers. TPM has various types, including books, brochures, maps, paintings, videos, TV documents,newspapers, periodicals and tourism-guided websites as well. TPM serves to depict China’s scenic spots, culture and historical heritages, broadening viewers’ sight, arousing interests among them and finally making them eager to pay a visit. (Yang, 2014, 3)<br />
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2.1.2 Characteristics of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
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As an informative type of material with certain purposes, tourism promotional materials are very distinct from other type of text, for example news, document, reports etc. They are equipped with features as follow:<br />
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Firstly, informative as they are, abundant messages covering all parts of social life are included. Since tourism, nowadays, not simply embraces scenery and transportation, but is a concept including experiencing different culture convention, food distinction and language confliction. Therefore, tourism publicity materials should convey a wide range of ideas that may be involved in tourism activities. (Ding, 2008,1)<br />
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Secondly, tourism publicity materials mainly boost deep cultural connotation. They aim at tourists all over the world who come from different cultural backgrounds, who share distinct religions and who have various thinking modes and patterns. To make TPM understood and accepted by all, cultural connotation is to be expressed with the aid of aspects of laws, politics, economics and so on. (Ding, 2008,16)<br />
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2.1.3 Function of Tourism Promotional Materials<br />
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Intended for the potential tourists, tourism publicity materials provide basic information about destinations, including its cultural background, local people and services. With the assistance of such materials, people’s overview about the target destinations is formed; their interests of visitation are aroused. It aims at convincing tourists, say target readers, of the beauties of destinations. Taken this intention into consideration, TPM contain functions as follows:<br />
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First, TPMs are informative and serve informative function. Generally speaking, TPM passes the first images of tourist attractions, cities or provinces on to target readers. Tourism materials such as brochures, photo albums and leaflets impress people at first. TPM carry basic information not only about culture, history but also always nature and ethnic relics as well. (Cheng, 2015,203)<br />
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Second, TPMs are attractive, intending to attract people when they see them at the first sight. In order to make it a success, only to provide information is far from enough. A successful promotional material needs to be equally informative and attractive, making the content easy to remember. Rather through their bright colors and magnificent landscapes, TPM are attractive in the way they depict and express. Therefore, often a series of writing techniques are required and used to achieve this effect. (Wu, 2008,319)<br />
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Third, apart from being informative and attractive, TPM should be persuasive as well. Actually speaking, persuasive function is the most important of the three functions, as through it visitors’ interests and final minds are to be stimulated. As a promotion function, it is always significant to appeal to target readers.(Cheng, 2015,204)<br />
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Consequently, the translation of TPM should also take these three functions into consideration in order to achieve final goal of TPM.<br />
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==III. Difficulties in The Translation of TPM Caused by Cultural Differences==<br />
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The so-called cultural difference is what people form in different ecological and natural environment, such as various language, knowledge, belief, outlook on life, values, ways of thinking, ethics, customs and other aspects of social life. In their own living environment, distinct ethnic groups create their own unique cultural system, shaping their own culture. The difference of culture, especially between Eastern and Western countries, leads to people's different understanding and interpretation on the same thing or even causes misunderstanding (Yu, 2000,58). <br />
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3.1 Differences in Food Culture<br />
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Chinese pay close attention to diet, and have formed a rich diet culture, emphasizing color, smell, taste of each dish. However, some foods, such as traditional salted production, are not good for the body with some auxiliary materials due to the pursuit of taste. In the process of cooking, Chinese fry the dishes in many ways. To name the dishes, menu also expresses the people's pursuit of beauty, such as Sixi Wanzi, glutinous Rice Balls etc. They have all been granted special meanings. Nevertheless, people in western countries focus on nutrition. They pay attention to the quantity of protein, Calorie, and raw materials in each food. So American "KFC" -- Kentucky Fried Chicken -- is a simple combination of production process and the raw material. So in the translation of diet culture, translators should also take into account the differences between Chinese and western people.(Cheng, 2015,232)<br />
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3.2 Differences in Customs<br />
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Every nation has its own unique folk customs. Many foreign tourists are very interested in Chinese people's way of life, especially the origin of some festivals and the way local people celebrate them. For example, during Chinese lunar spring festival, people make dumplings and eat them. During Chinese Lantern Festival, people boil sweet dumplings and hang up lanterns. Tomb-sweeping Day is not only a solar term, but also a day for people to worship ancestors. Dragon-Boat Festival and Mid-Autumn Festival have customs respectively. <br />
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In western countries, they have Halloweens and Christmas, carrying distinct cultures as well. People in China bow to Heaven and Earth as part of a wedding ceremony while westerners go to churches. Westerners have Valentine's Day and China Double Seven Day. Although the origins are different, they have evolved into special days for lovers to exchange passion between each other. Increasingly more young westerners know The Legend of Love in China. Therefore, apart from distinctions, culture also has something in common, which makes it translatable and understandable. (Wu, 2008, 328)<br />
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3.3 Differences in Religions<br />
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The majority of westerners believe in Chris, and Chinese people have more religious belief include: Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism and Protestantism. They are having far-reaching influence on people's ideology in China. These places have also become the tourist hot spots. Temples, Buddha, Buddhist scriptures in many attractions have attracted a large number of foreign tourists across the world. (Cheng, 2015,38)<br />
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==IV. Tourism Text Sources Translation Under Skopos Rules==<br />
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4.1 A Functionalist Theoretical Framework: The Skopostheory<br />
The functionalist approach to translation came into being in the late 1970 in Germany. After its emergence, it had become a prominent strategy and one of the dominant theories used in translation studies. A German scholar Hans J. Vermeer (Vermeer, 1879,208) first proposed Skopostheory which is widely applied in translating various projects. Skopostheory is to be the functionalist theoretical framework of this research.<br />
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4.1.1 An Overview of the Functionalist Approach<br />
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According to Bassnett (Bassnett, 2002,43-44), the purpose of translation theory is to achieve an understanding in the course of translation behavior. The act of translation was purely a linguistic activity then. Because of the limitations of linguistic theories, translation theorists started to approach the act of translation in a different point of view in the 1970s. Therefore, the functionalist approach to translation began to emerge. <br />
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According to Nida, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style” (Nida & Taber, 1983,12). Later, Nida proposed dynamic/functional equivalence theory, which breaks the stereotype of the traditional linguistic approach and then leads the way of further studies. This theory is very practical in TPM translation because it achieves functional equivalence while sharing the same purpose of TPM translation.<br />
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4.1.2 Development of Skopostheory<br />
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In Paul Kussmaul’s (Kussmaul, 2005,37) point of view, the functional approach is closely related to Skopostheory. To translate the source text into a new language, target readers’ culture characteristics, religion relics and historical backgrounds are to be considered, which determines whether the source texts are to be preserved, modified, or even changed. As TPM is highly practical and pragmatic, its function value is not to be ignored. <br />
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In Nord’s (Nord, 2005,10) words, “in the translation of practical texts (such as advertisement, instructions), instead of literary works, theorists adhering to equivalence are more likely to adopt the method of non-word-for-word translation. They choose translation methods followed by identifying different or even contrary standards in accordance with different types of texts and genres of discourses, which makes them more on fused by equivalent theory”. Some scholars agreed with Nord’s view and made functional approaches more practical in translation, which makes the theory more useful in TPM translation. Consequently, the Skopostheory developed with the main study of the four theorists: Katharina Reiss, Hans J. Vermeer, Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord. <br />
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Katharina Reiss (Reiss, 2004,32) first put forward the concept of text topology, denying the proposal that any target sources not equivalent to the original ones are considered as “non-translation”. Reiss pointed out comprehensive communicative translation, which made the ideas equivalent to the corresponding sources rather than individual words. His contribution laid the foundation for the development of Skopostheory. Katharina Reiss’s view better serves the function purpose of TPM translation, making Chinese traditional culture features well revealed in a foreign way.<br />
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Vermeer was the first one who proposed Skopostheory. According to his theory (Vermeer, 2000,228), “translation is a type of human action”, and “any action has its own purpose (skopos)”, thus “translation is an intentional and purposeful behavior”. It can be concluded that translation is a purposeful action aiming at target readers, so the target text should bear fully their culture, religion and background to be better appropriate.<br />
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Then Skopostheory was improved by Justa Holz-Manttari (Manttari, 2001,35) with his translation action method. Translation is defined as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose or function”(Nord, 2005,16), and according to Holz-Manttari, it should be regarded as the “translation action” instead of “translation”. Her theory highlighted oriented outcome and driven purpose. Moreover, the commissioner is concerned. The translation action proposed by Holz-Manttari is later widely used in TPM translation due to its practical features.<br />
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Christiane Nord (Nord, 2001,197) finally refined Skopostheory by proposing her own functional practice “function plus loyalty”. She added the concept of “loyalty” to the framework of functional approaches. In her theory, “Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation” (Nord, 2001,125), which is basically in accordance with Vermeer’s view.<br />
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4.2 Skopos Rules (Wu, 2008,28)<br />
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Skopos rule itself is above all in three rules. There are many purposes in the field of translation, but skopos refer to the purpose of target text. According to it, what determines the process of translation is not source text itself or the effect it has on target readers, but the expected function of the target source. Therefore it is regarded as results determining methods.<br />
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Second one is the coherence rule. As a target source, the translation is for target readers who share different cultural backgrounds or religion relics and who are going to find the parts that interest them. In this regard, translators should bear in mind their distinct backgrounds and cultural situations, making the translation reasonably understandable and acceptable.<br />
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The third rule is the loyalty rule. Since target text is originated from the source text, they are related to each other. However, the relationship is depended upon the skopos and explanation of the translator.<br />
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According to Skopostheory, the skopos rule is above all to follow, then the coherence rule and then the loyal rule.<br />
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4.3 The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory<br />
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Translation of TPM aims at ordinary foreign tourists, introducing Chinese tourism industry and various natural resources, not including monographs for experts traveling in China(Cheng, 2008,30). Tourism promotional materials are practical, which arouse interests among tourists. As a result, TPM translation should first follow the basic rule of Skopostheory.<br />
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The purpose of the target text-oriented principles are concerned about the target text itself and the tastes of readers. The majority of the source text is written to attract tourists at home, so it will not have the same effect on foreigners. If the source text is created for translation, the translator is also short of indispensable target culture. The translator should be aware that he is translating one culture to another and that he needs to pick out useful information from source text. Furthermore, the source text is one kind of all messages. It does not necessarily be the primary standard. Translation should aim at tourists, so translators should translate to attract them and arouse their interest. This is the final goal of TPM translation (Yang, 2014,5). TPM can be various in style and form. As for a translator, cultural elements are huge challenges. However, under Skopostheory, it is to pass cultural messages on to potential foreign visitors.<br />
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What is more, those who travel distances to China are not only for bird viewing landscapes, but also for exotic culture and lifestyles. Therefore, culture translation should include as many Chinese cultural messages as possible, to a certain degree, following the third rule – loyalty rule. (Yang, 2014, 5)<br />
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==V. The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory==<br />
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Skopostheory<br />
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Traveling is not only for landscapes but cultural differences as well. The translation of TPM is intended to attract visitors to come and consume. Consequently, cultural translation is a matter of primary importance. (Wu, 2008, 328)<br />
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Susan Bassnett (Bassnett, 2002,59), the famous Britain translation theorist, pointed out four specific concepts in Cultural Translation Theory. Firstly, translation should be based on the culture rather than text itself. Secondly, translation is not simply to decode restructuring, but a communication process. Thirdly, target text should not be restricted to source text, and should focus on functional equivalence in two cultures. Last but not least, there are difference norms and standards for translation in different period, each meeting distinct needs. The translation of cultural elements in TPM is to meet the need of people experiencing Chinese local culture. There are various cultural elements in TPM, such as food culture, custom, religion, poetry and landscape architecture etc. Under the framework of Skopostheory, the translation strategies of cultural elements can be concluded into transliteration, literal translation and free translation.<br />
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5.1 Transliteration with Explanation<br />
Transliteration is often adopted when translating Chinese words that do not exit in English. However, only transliteration may lead to misunderstanding sometimes, therefore, it is usually followed by explanations. Explanations always well express the meaning, enabling target readers better understand the different culture it embraces.<br />
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Example 1. 党参 dangshen (Codono pilosola)<br />
厚朴 houpu (Magnolia of ficinalis)<br />
天麻 tianma (Gastrodiae elata)<br />
枣 Chinese date ( jujube)<br />
当归 Chinese angelica (Angelica sinenses) (Jin, 2006, P265-266)<br />
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Examples of transliteration are often found in food translation. Chinese traditional foods are short in Chinese and rarely seen in western countries as well. Therefore, only using transliteration is hard to explain clearly what the main source of the foods are and how they come into being, as these elements are highlighted by western countries. So transliteration is followed by explanation in such translation. (Jin, 2006, 264)<br />
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Example 2. 土家族建筑的独特之处在于，在正屋左右两端建有吊脚楼。吊脚楼分上下两层，楼上有伸出的悬空走廊，下面有雕刻而成的柱脚。走廊外沿两边，檐角翘起，雄伟壮观。<br />
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The special feature of the Tujia architecture – Diao Jiao Lou is represented by the house with an extending corridor supported by wooden pillars on both side of the main room. There are two stories in the house, the upper floor of which has an extending corridor seemingly suspended in the air while the lower one has sculpted pillars on the ground. Grand are the eave points tilting up on both ends of the corridor edge. (Xu, 2007,133)<br />
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People take granted for “吊脚楼” in Chinese, because the name suggests the appearance of the building. However, when translated into English, Diao Jiao Lou is followed by explanations – “the house with an extending corridor supported by wooden pillars”. If it is literally translated, the sound effect of revealing a picturesque image will not be achieved. (Xu, 2007: 133)<br />
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Example 3. 西湖犹如西子，无论晴雨，无论四季更迭，都有着美丽的容颜。正如苏东坡所写：“欲把西湖比西子，淡妆浓抹总相宜。”<br />
West Lake is often likened to Xizi, one of the four ancient beauties in China. No matter whether it is sunny or rainy, or no matter in great Northern Song poet, wrote, "West Lake may be compared to Beauty Xizi at her best, / it becomes her to be richly adorned or plainly dressed." (Wu, 2008, 324)<br />
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In this example, if translation stops by transliteration, target readers will not get the full picture of the history behind the West Lake. The impression made on them will not that deep so it may not achieve the effect of attracting them to visit. Therefore, explanation is indispensable in such special words that merely exist in Chinese. (Wu, 2008, 324)<br />
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5.2 Literal Translation<br />
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Literal translation refers to the faithful translation that is loyal to original sources. The translators do not need to make any adjustment in addition to the sentence structure due to the essential information and not much special cultural contents provided in original sources. This translation method is often used in the introduction of the area, location, development and entertainment. The examples are as follow:<br />
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Example 4. 酸辣汤 Hot and Sour Soup<br />
老醋蜇头 Jellyfish with Black Vinegar <br />
砂锅排骨Stewed Spare Ribs in Casserole<br />
三鲜海参 See Cucumber with Three Delicacies (Cheng, 2015,234)<br />
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In this menu, literal translation is used because essential information has been given and there is not much special culture contents. Under this circumstance, literal translation will not lead to misunderstanding among target readers. (Cheng, 2015:234)<br />
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Example 5. 桂林位于广西壮族自治区的北部，面积565平方公里，人口100多万，是国内外旅游胜地之一。<br />
Located in the north of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Guilin is one of the tourism attractions famous both at home and abroad, with an area of 565 square kilometers and a population of more than 1 million. (Yang, 2014, 56)<br />
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In this example, the English expressions of places and numbers are kept the same as those in Chinese. However, when translated into English, this sentenced in re-sequenced in order so as to make it more coherent in English. Chinese emphasizes on parataxis while English stresses hypotaxis. This is what should be paid attention to when we translate sentences. (Yang, 2014, 56)<br />
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Literal translation is practical for TPM that does not contain specific substantive cultural content. It is not necessarily to adopt various methods to translate. (Yang, 2014, 53)<br />
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5.3 Free Translation<br />
Considering that not every original text can be literally translated because of the differences of sentence structures or words. Free translation is to express the original meaning in a complete English way, not word for word or sentence for sentence translation, which focuses more on the content of sentences. Translators should pay more attention to the whole meaning rather than single words.<br />
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Example 6. 白云凤爪 chicken leg（鸡脚）<br />
四包豆腐羹 steam tofu soup（蒸豆腐汤）<br />
炒素丁 vegetable roll（菜卷）<br />
鸳鸯馒头 Shanghai buns（上海馒头）<br />
百年好合 red bean fresh lily bulb（红豆百合茎）<br />
鱼香肉丝 fried shredded pork with sweet and sour sauce <br />
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There are many original dish names with no sources in them because they always have stories behind and are often well-known among Chinese, however, with which foreigners will be frightened. These examples often contain exaggerated elements. If translated literally, it will not express the original idea or the true features of the dishes which foreigners value most. (Yang, 2014, 60)<br />
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Example 7. 梁山伯与祝英台的故事，是西湖爱情的又一不朽之作。(Wu, 2008,342) <br />
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Translation 1. The love story of Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai is another imperishable work of the West Lake Romance.<br />
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Translation 2. Butterflies Romance, known as a Chinese Romeo and Juliet, is another heartbreaking love story engendered by the West Lake.<br />
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The first version is noticeably literal translation, without the explanation of the two names. In China, the names are well-known to all. However, it is not the same story with westerners. After reading the first version, they are not deeply impressed. Therefore, here merely transliteration cannot work. In comparison, the second translation takes free translation, omitting the names and adding “known as a Chinese Romeo and Juliet”. In this way, they immediately know what has happened by the West Lake, because they are quite familiar with the love story between Romeo and Juliet. (Wu, 2008, 342)<br />
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Example 8. 南京的风俗：但凡新媳妇进门，三日就要到厨房收拾一样菜，发个利市。这菜一定是鱼，取“富贵有徐”的意思。 (Wu, 1958,285)<br />
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The custom in Nanjing is for all brides to invite good luck by going to the kitchen on the third day and cooking a fish, which stands for fortune. (杨宪益、戴乃迭译) (Bao, 2001,340)<br />
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In this sentence, it is “收拾” in Chinese and “cooking” in English. In Chinese “收拾” has many meanings such as tidy(the room), clear away(the kitchen), and even repair(a bike). However, these are not related to the dishes. So Mr. Yang and Mr. Dai used free translation and put it into “cooking”. Then the idea is clearly delivered. (Bao, 2001: 340)<br />
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Free translation is widely used in TPM translation when much special cultural content is included and literal translation is not practical. Free translation can better maintain cultural features of original sources while expressed in a foreign way. (Yang, 2014,56)<br />
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==VI. Conclusion==<br />
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Tourism promotional materials translation plays an important role in the development of tourism. Translators should not translate word by word or sentence by sentence, but they should translate under a certain theoretical guidance, adopting some translating methods and strategies and taking into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures. Only in this way can translation be possibly understood and accepted.<br />
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Tourism promotional materials are practical, aiming at attracting potential visitors to come and visit China after reading them. In this regard, they should be translated under the framework of Skopostheory. Based on translation practice, this paper studies the method of translation from several cultural points under the guidance of Skopostheory. <br />
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Part one gives a brief introduction of this paper. Part two discusses the definition and the main features of TPM and the importance of a better translation. Then it analyzes the difficulties in translation caused by cultural differences and the framework of Skopostheory. Finally, under this framework, translation strategies and methods are discussed.<br />
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There are many other aspects in the field of cultural differences in tourism promotional materials, such as poetry, landscapes and architecture etc. Due to the limited length of the paper and my own knowledge, other parts cannot be fully illustrated. To conclude, it is worthwhile to study TPM translation from the perspective of cultural differences.<br />
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Liu Fagong 刘法公. (2012).《汉英/英汉译名统一与翻译规范研究》. 国防工业出版社<br />
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Wu Feng 伍锋. (2008).《应用文体翻译:理论与实践》. 浙江: 浙江大学出版社<br />
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Wu Jingzi 吴敬梓. (1958). 《儒林外史(第一版)》. 北京: 人民文学出版社 <br />
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Xu Luya 徐鲁亚. (2007). 民族文化翻译策略的探讨.《中国青年政治学院学报》<br />
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Ding Dagang 丁大刚. (2008).《旅游英语的语言特点与翻译》. 上海：上海交通大学出版社<br />
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<br />
='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==On the study and analysis of three kinds of beauty and transformation in the mid autumn festival prelude to water melody under the guidance of functional equivalence 林敏 Lin Min==<br />
<br />
==Research on C-E Translation of Corporate Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong Student Number 202070080641 ==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the further deepening of global economic integration, more and more Chinese enterprises are going to the global market and the English translation of enterprise publicity text becomes the bridge between domestic enterprises and foreign customers. The English translation of the publicity texts of Chinese enterprises includes a large number of excellent translations; But at the same time, there are many enterprises publicity English translation with bad quality. In the practice of translation of publicity texts of enterprises, Nida’s functional equivalence theory can well guide the translation of publicity materials of enterprises. Therefore, this paper compares China’s corporate publicity texts with foreign corporate publicity texts and makes deep discussion and exploration in C-E translation of corporate publicity texts.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
corporate promotional materials; Functional equivalence; translation methods<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
功能对等视角下企业外宣文本英译研究<br />
<br />
===摘 要===<br />
随着全球经济一体化进程的不断发展，越来越多的中国企业开始走向全球市场，企业外宣文本的英译文本成为了国内企业与国外客户联系的桥梁。查阅我国企业外宣文本的英译本，其中不乏大量优秀译作；但同时,也有不少企业外宣英译文本的质量有待提高。在翻译企业外宣文本实践中，奈达的功能对等理论能够很好地指导企业外宣资料的翻译。因此本文将中外外宣文本进行对比，并对中外企业外宣文本的英译做深入的分析探讨。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等理论；企业外宣文本；翻译方法<br />
<br />
===I. Introduction===<br />
Nowadays, with the development of economic globalization, corporate publicity texts are used frequently across the world. Corporate publicity texts constitute an important part of corporate international publicity. The translation of corporate publicity texts has become a significant bridge and connection between different countries in the world in the exchange of trade and culture, which poses a brand new challenge to translators across the world. Corporate publicity texts translation is different from other types of translation because of its unique vocabulary and syntactic features. The study of domestic corporate publicity texts translation mainly focuses on stylistics, registration or functional grammar. The study of corporate publicity texts translation started late. Fortunately, Chinese scholars have recently strengthened research in this area, including language features, translation standards and translation strategies for corporate publicity texts translation. However, the results of Chinese corporate publicity texts translation research are relatively limited. There is a lack of systematic theoretical research and lack of comprehensive articles on the description of some translation examples. At present, domestic research on this aspect is mostly empirical and decentralized. How to systematize existing theories, how to develop in depth, and to propose a clear methodology are important topics for each researcher. This paper studies the translation of commercial contracts based on Nida’s functional equivalence theory. This paper first reviews the current research status of corporate publicity texts translation, and points out the application value of functional equivalence theory in corporate publicity texts translation. Then the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed and elaborated from two aspects: vocabulary and sentence structure. On this basis, the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed through examples. This article focuses on the translation of corporate publicity texts. Based on the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores and studies the translation of corporate publicity texts, which is expected to enrich the application of translation theory and research. In addition, it helps to draft and translate corporate publicity texts for companies outside China for reference and guidance. （Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
===II. Brief Introduction to Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
The functional equivalence theory exerts a significant influence on translation in the world. Nida is one of the founders of the western linguistic translation theory. One of his greatest contribution to the translation theory is to put forward the functional equivalence theory, a theory that is different from most of the early theories that focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to provide a new way to generate equivalents that take into account the relationship between receptors and text. It is believed that “the relationship between the target language receptor and the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptor and the original text.” The basic ideas of Nida’s functional equivalence theory are mainly reflected in the following three aspects.(Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Concept of Equivalence====<br />
One way to defining functional equivalence in translation is to describe it as “the natural equivalent of the source language information” .There are three basic terms in this definition that deserve our attention: closest, natural, and equivalent. “equivalent” here should not be understood as the meaning of “identity”, but should only be understood as “close”. Functional equivalence translation focuses on the equivalence of receptor “response” rather than the equivalence of linguistic forms. Using the term “equivalent”, Nida recommends to bring the response of the target language receptor as close as possible to the response of the source language receptor.(Nida,1964)<br />
In terms of language, the term “natural” means that the presentation must be readable (related to the linguistic form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target recipient, as different languages have different grammatical features and vocabulary. As far as culture is concerned, functional equivalence is considered to be rendering.<br />
Translators should be familiar with the cultural patterns familiar to the target receptors, and translators should domesticate those foreign cultural patterns. It is allowable to make some adjustments in the form and even in the content to achieve a functionally equivalent effect.(Nida,1993)<br />
Nida uses the term “closest” to describe the proximity between the source language and the target language. Functional equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity. Personally, the author believes that the word “closest” should be analyzed in two different ways: linguistic form and meaning discourse. The ideal situation is to make the version of the form and meaning “closest” to the original message. No aspect should be sacrificed at the expense of the other, but in fact, in translation practice, problems between linguistic forms and discourse meanings always occur, especially when it comes to culturally loaded words or expressions. The transferred information directly determines the response of the target receptor, so in most cases, the linguistic form is forced to give way to the transferred information in order to obtain the closest response between the receptors in two different cultures.(Nida,1964)<br />
<br />
====2.2 The Concept of Receptor Response====<br />
It is essential that functional equivalence be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the way in which the original receptors understood and appreciated the text and the way in which receptors of translated text understand and appreciate the translated text. From this point of view, we can see that Nida emphasizes the response of different receptors ‘source language and target language, i.e, language function, instead of language form.<br />
Functional-equivalent translation is receptor-directed and places great emphasis on the response of target receptors. In judging the version, Nida put the receptor in a very important position. Traditionally, translation has always been judged by the comparison between the original text and the translated text. Compared to formal equivalent translation, functional equivalence translation focuses more on the response of the receptor and the naturalness of the target language rather than the linguistic form.(Nida,1993)<br />
<br />
====2.3 The Concept of Diversity====<br />
Functional equivalence theory provides varying degrees of sufficiency for the minimum translation to the largest qualified translation, rather than a fixed standard. In the case of given the minimum and maximum levels, all translations between the two levels are considered acceptable. Nida pointed out many different factors that the adequacy of translation depends on“the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made.” All of these factors can produce enough translations. In fact, a series of different degrees of equivalence are understandable and reasonable.<br />
Therefore, functional equivalence theory provides translators with more freedom to deal with specific situations. (Nida,1993)<br />
Compared with many other translation theories that attempt to develop a single standard, functional equivalence theory not only establishes an ideal definition of translation, but also has the lowest standards, and allows for a wide variety of translations.<br />
As mentioned above, according to the theory of functional equivalence, the response of the target reader to the translation should be basically consistent with the response of the original reader to the original text. To this end, Nida emphasizes that the translation should faithfully convey the original information. As a propaganda text, the corporate text is reflected in the recommendation of enterprises and the promotion of corporate products. The translation should faithfully conveys the original information, so that the target reader can obtain the same amount of information as the original reader, understand the enterprise, produce a response consistent with the original reader, and then recommend the enterprise among the target readers, so that the reader can recognize the business philosophy of the enterprise and have confidence in the company’s products. The similar response of readers is what Nida’s functional equivalence theory emphasizes. Therefore, equivalence theory can be used to guide the translation of corporate texts.<br />
At the same time, Nida also emphasized that the translation should conform to the expression habits of the translated words. The corporate publicity text of the company represents the image of the company in the eyes of the reader. The original text of the company’s external materials is in line with the reading habits of the source language readers. The translation cannot be bound by the structure of the original text in the text. Moreover, the translation should conform to the reading habits of the target language reader. Functional equivalence proposes the lowest level of equivalence and the highest level of equivalence, and translations within both limits are acceptable, but the quality of the translation is different. When translating a company’s external propaganda text, the translator can use the functional equivalence theory as a guide and adopt appropriate translation methods to make the translation conform to the reading habits of the target readers, and to achieve the highest degree of equivalence of the translations as much as possible. Therefore, functional equivalence at the specific translation operation level can also guide the translation of the corporate publicity text.(Nida,1969)<br />
Based on the above two points of analysis, it is feasible that functional equivalence theory guides the translation practice of corporate publicity texts.<br />
<br />
===III. Features of Corporate Publicity Texts===<br />
With the vigorous development of Chinese enterprises, more and more enterprises are turning their eyes to foreign countries in order to open up a larger and broader market and development space. Of course, the quality of their products is significant. In addition, the quality of the corporate publicity texts translation is also a very important part. To produce high-quality translation, translators need to grasp the characteristics of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts, compare them, find differences, and translate them with the guidance of functional equivalence theory.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
Corporate publicity texts have their own unique characteristics. The two main functions of corporate publicity texts are information function and imperative function, and communication are its characteristics. There are four basic elements in the process of foreign exchange: communicators, translators, communication channels and foreign audiences.<br />
Chinese corporate publicity texts have obvious Chinese expression characteristics: pursuing the glory word and abusing the “flowers of speech”; using empty phrases, slogans, and official language. In the process of translation, the language, culture, politics, economy and ideology in the primitive and translated language society play a significant role in macro or micro. In order to achieve effective translation of foreign materials, it is necessary to understand the translation principles (information prominence, summoning and simplicity), the content of translation, and specific purposes on the basis of understanding the characteristics of the text itself. At the same time, the factors of the target language, reader response and translation culture should be taken into account. In the process of translation, we should follow the style of the target language, focus on the reader, pay attention to the reader’s reaction, respect the culture of the target language, and moderately control the value information between the source language and the detailed language to ensure the realization of intercultural communication.<br />
In contrast, foreign corporate publicity texts highlights the delivery of practical information for the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company’s products and service and the company can obtain a favorable position in the customer’s mind. Therefore, it focuses on the history, performance and future development of the company, rather than the ideological and political belonging of the company.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
====3.1 Features of Chinese Corporate Publicity Texts====<br />
The Chinese corporate publicity text offers readers a view of beautiful language and strong momentum; while the text provides corporate information, it also allows readers to gain aesthetic enjoyment in reading. Specifically, Chinese corporate publicity texts have the following main features:<br />
<br />
=====3.1.1 Four-character Structure=====<br />
The corporate publicity text presents the soft power of enterprise competition, and its function is to promote the enterprise, recommend products and services. In order to attract readers and realize the function of corporate publicity texts, Chinese corporate publicity texts often have a four-character structure. The four-character structure has rich and concise forms. It is a unique structural form of Chinese and an expression favored by Chinese readers. The proper application of the four-character structure in the corporate publicity text can not only enhances the cultural connotation of the enterprise, but also enables the text to be neat, rhythmic and musical, so that the corporate text is more aesthetically pleasing than the general text. Moreover, corporate publicity texts satisfy the aesthetic psychological need, enhance the appeal of the text and leave a good impression in the minds of customers. <br />
E.g: “The core concept of a company’ s culture is ‘至诚无息,博厚悠远’ .” <br />
“至诚无息,博厚悠远”源自《中庸》,原文是“故至诚无息。不息则久,久则征。征则悠远。悠远则博厚,博厚则高明。博厚,所以载物也；高明,所以覆物也；悠久,所以成物也。博厚配地,高明配天,悠久无疆”Qiao Junchen, Du Yuzhu, 2007) Combined with the actual situation of the company, this company has integrated and summarized this famous saying. It has condensed the “sincere and uninteresting, profound and far-reaching”. These two four-character structures illustrate its corporate culture, and make the readers add a sense of trust to the company, which makes the company take an advantage in the market competition.<br />
In another example, in 2013, China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation ranked first in the top 500 Chinese companies. The company also likes to use the four-character structure in its text. On the basis of full investigation, they formulated and promulgated the outline of China’s petrochemical enterprise culture construction, and announced the outline to the public, leaving a deep and good impression on the people. The outline puts forward the corporate tenet of “发展企业,贡献国家,回报股东,服务社会,造福员工” and reaffirm the enterprise spirit of “爱我中华,振兴石化”. Moreover, the outline also clarify the fine style of “精细严谨,务实创新” and establish the business philosophy of “诚信规范,合作共赢”, and comprehensively promoted the development of company’s corporate culture.<br />
The above examples show that the four-character structure is a feature of the domestic corporate propaganda text. Appropriate use of the four-character structure can increase the vividness and attractiveness of the text, and is conducive to the propaganda function of the corporate propaganda.(Wang qin,2010)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.2 Curve Thinking=====<br />
When expressing in Chinese, the Chinese are accustomed to knocking out sideways, turning around, explaining the external environment, and then speaking the main purpose, reflecting the characteristics of curved thinking. This feature is also reflected in the corporate publicity texts. The corporate publicity texts often list the excellent achievements of the company in various aspects, and then the central idea of the bright future of the enterprise. To this end, the corporate publicity texts firstly give the facts, draw conclusions, and then use the inductive method which is in line with the curve thinking to introduce the enterprise and the products of the enterprise to our customers. For example, Aucma wrote in his external text:<br />
“澳柯玛拥有员工7000多人,具备年产冷柜300万台、冰箱300万台、生活家电500万台、洗衣机400万台、电动车100万辆、自动售货机1万台的生产能力,营销网络覆盖全球五大洲100个国家和地区,呈现出蓬勃向上的发展态势。”<br />
The text first enumerates the number of employees, annual production capacity, and broad product sales channels, and finally proposes the main purpose of Aucma’s development prospects. The method of first dividing and then concluding is in line with the thinking and reading habits of the Chinese people, which helps the company to win the reader’s goodwill.<br />
The corporate publicity texts written by the curve thinking is in line with the reading expectations of domestic readers. Such text helps to promote the enterprise. At the same time, the Chinese corporate publicity texts also focus on the second-person perspective to recommend companies. <br />
<br />
=====3.1.3 The Third-person Perspective=====<br />
The Chinese corporate publicity texts often adopt the third-person perspective, and regard the enterprise as the narrative theme, highlighting the subjectivity of the enterprise. This kind of perspective makes the reader feel that the facts stated in the text are objective, without personal feelings, exaggeration, and then trust the enterprise. The following example sentences are taken from Zoomlion’s official website:<br />
“中联重科股份有限公司创立于1992年,主要从事建筑工程、能源工程、环境工程、交通工程等基础设施建设所需重大高新技术装备的研发制造,是一家持续创新的全球化企业。<br />
中联重科成立20年来,年均复合增长率超过65%,为全球增长最为迅速的工程机械企业。<br />
中联重科是中国工程机械首家A+H股上市公司。<br />
中联重科开创了中国工程机械行业整合海外资源的先河……”<br />
When introducing a company, Zoomlion’s publicity texts often refer to the enterprise as the company name. Using a third-person perspective, the name of the company can continually stimulate the minds of customers and leave a deep impression on the minds of customers; at the same time, it makes the texts of the propaganda objective and authoritative.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
=====3.1.4 With Political Color=====<br />
China’s socialist economic system determines the dominant position of state-owned enterprises in the Chinese economy. At the same time, private and individual enterprises are also an important part of the socialist economy and make positive contributions to the development of socialist construction. Party organizations in state-owned enterprises, private enterprises and individual enterprises play a guiding role in China’s economic development. Therefore, Chinese companies have an ideology with a strong political color. When discussing the nature of the enterprise, the corporate publicity texts emphasize the care and support of the Chinese Communist Party. Domestic customers believe that the party branch of the company reflects the recognition and attention of the state to the enterprise. Therefore, in the corporate publicity texts, domestic enterprises have focused on highlighting the work of their party construction departments, enhancing the soft power of enterprise competition, and winning the trust of customers.<br />
The official website of Sinopec Group has a column of “Party Construction” advocates the activities organized by the company in the implementation of the party’s guidelines, which shows that the company has always supported the party’s leadership. Domestic readers believe that their development prospects are worth looking forward to with the trust and support of the party. Therefore, this part of the content has important publicity value in the external propaganda text for domestic customers.<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that the Chinese corporate publicity texts have formed four characteristics of this type of text in order to better recommend the enterprise. These characteristics are in line with the reading habits of domestic readers and can be accepted well by readers, thus effectively realizing the function of corporate texts.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Features of English Corporate Publicity Texts====<br />
The purpose of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts is to recommend corporate products and services to customers. The functions and purposes of the two are the same, but their direct readers are different, and their styles are naturally different, showing their different characteristics. To be specific, western corporate publicity texts have the following characteristics. (Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 Use Common Vocabulary=====<br />
The western corporate publicity texts advocate the beauty of simplicity, use everyday vocabulary, and are easy to read, which can meets the needs of customers at all levels of reading, and achieve the effect of the enterprise propaganda. These everyday vocabularies help to build a bridge of communication between readers and businesses, making it easy for companies to reach their customers.<br />
Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM’s corporate publicity texts frequently use everyday vocabulary. For example, Wal-Mart’s slogan “Have money, Live better”. It not only reflects Wal-Mart’s business philosophy, and draws closer to the customer’s psychological distance, bringing customers a sense of intimacy. Moreover, it also makes Wal-Mart leave a good impression in the hearts of customers.<br />
There is such a sentence in Chevron’s official website:<br />
“We also care about the environment and are proud of the many ways in which our employees work to safeguard it.”<br />
The “care about and are proud of” in the sentence explain the company’s efforts in fulfilling its environmental responsibilities, and familiar words make customers feel more intimate. The sentence also adds a sense of closeness and trust of the company.<br />
An example in the official website of the automobile giant GM is:<br />
“Our culture, one which represents diversity, inclusion, mutual respect, responsibility and understanding, welcomes fresh perspectives and varied experiences.”<br />
The familiar vocabularies of “mutual”, “fresh” and “varied” in the sentence embody the closeness of the enterprise. Among them, “fresh” and “varied” highlight the company’s continuous innovation and introduction of various talents when providing high-quality products to customers, so that the products can meet the needs of customers to the greatest extent.<br />
Western companies have a large number of everyday vocabularies, which not only make the text easy to read, but also have a sense of intimacy. In the meanwhile, the everyday vocabularies can eliminate the strangeness of customers to the company.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Linear Thinking=====<br />
Westerners follow linear thinking. When communicating, westerns often get to the point, unlike the Chinese who are mealy-mouthed. This linear way of thinking is also reflected in the text of western corporate publicity texts. In narrative, westerners are accustomed to first explaining the main points and then interpreting them. The layout of the articles follows the principle of from general to concrete, from general to example, and from whole to individual. The linear thinking in the western corporate publicity texts: using the deductive method, the important information is placed at the beginning of the paragraph, and then the cases is used for argumentation. This is in line with the reading habits of western readers and is conducive to propagandizing the company. For example, when GM introduced the development process of the company, it has the following text:<br />
In fact, there are a lot of exciting things to share about our company. This text is straightforward to show that GM has a gratifying performance, allowing readers to quickly get the meaning of the text, and then use specific examples to prove.<br />
The western corporation publicity texts influenced by linear thinking use deductive method of writing, which can help readers quickly find the center of the text. At the same time, the author also found that western corporate publicity texts often introduce enterprises in the first-person perspective.(Li Quandong,2013)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 The First-person Perspective=====<br />
The function of the corporate publicity texts is to propagandize the enterprise. In order to better perform this function of the text, one can give the text the emotional color. The corporate publicity texts often use the first-person writing when introducing companies. Adopting the first person perspective can give the company vitality, let the company and customers communicate close the distance between the company and the customer, which is beneficial to recommending the company to the customer.<br />
For example, Chevron wrote in its corporate profile:<br />
“Chevron is one of the world’s leading integrated energy companies. Our success is driven by our people and their commitment to get results the right way.... We explore for, produce and transport crude oil and natural gas; refine, market and distribute transportation fuels and lubricants; manufacture and sell petrochemical products”<br />
The example uses “us”, “we” to call the enterprise, letting the reader feel that it is a face-to-face conversation with the company. In this way, the sentence closes the psychological distance between the company and the customer, which is conducive to recommending the enterprise.<br />
The first-person perspective of writing has given the company the emotional color. This kind of feeling encourages readers to get in touch with the company.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.4 Focus on the Transmission of Practical Information=====<br />
The western corporate publicity texts highlight the delivery of practical information of the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company’s products and services and the company can win a favorable position in the customer’s mind. Therefore, it focus on the history, the performance and future development trend of the company, rather than the ideology and political belonging of the company.<br />
Reading Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM’s corporate publicity texts, we can easily find that western companies’ introduction focuses on introducing the history of the company, propagandizing the scale of the business, and explaining the social responsibilities, development prospects, and enterprises of the company. The practical information is what readers care most about, and it is also the most convincing.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
For example, in its corporate text, GM first focused on the company’s excellent design, quality products and caring services, then introduced the history of the company, its achievements and development prospects, and finally focused on how the company provides its customers with high-end products and high-quality enjoyment. The information such as “safety and Quality” and “Create Lifelong Customers” appearing in the text will leave a deep impression on the customer’s mind and make the customer feel good about the company. In this way, the corporate publicity texts can achieve the functions of recommending the company and products.<br />
Through the analysis of the characteristics of the Chinese and western corporate publicity, we can see that the Chinese and western corporate publicity texts have their own characteristics. These characteristics are consistent with the reading habits of the respective text readers, so they can play a very good publicity role in their respective fields. The characteristics and differences of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts require translators to appropriately transform the text structure into the target language structure when translating the Chinese corporate publicity texts. In this way, the translations can have the characteristics of western corporate publicity texts, which are in line with western readers’ reading habit.(Lin Qingyang&Shi Chunrang,2011)<br />
<br />
===IV. C-E Translation Methods in the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
Combining the theory of functional equivalence, the classification of textual functions, and the theory of translation function, the author believes that foreign translation should follow the principle of functional equivalence and functional translation. Translators should adopt interpretive translation, omission and re-creation methods, and use the strategy of domestication and foreignization .(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)<br />
<br />
====4.1 Explanatory Translation====<br />
Cultural omission is the biggest obstacle of readers in a cross-cultural environment. If the translator ignores the cultural omission or avoids the translation, it will result in the omission and absence of the important information of the original text, which will affect the understanding of the target reader. The translator must create the fullest contextual effect for the target readers and narrow the cultural information, such as:<br />
“863计划” “The Match 1986” “Program to stimulate the development of high technologies”<br />
“三讲” “the Three Stresses-the stresses of studying ,raising political awareness and ensuring honesty and integrity”<br />
<br />
====4.2 Omission in Translation====<br />
Translators who translate foreign propaganda must cut down some low-value information, try to reduce the reading and thinking burden of the target readers and convey the meaning of the original text. For example:<br />
“昆明物华天宝,人杰地灵,曾孕育和涌现出郑和,兰茂,徐霞客,聂耳等许多风流人物,留下了许多历史文物。”<br />
“As a place of excellent products and outstanding people, Kunming has numerous historical relics with time passing by.”<br />
<br />
====4.3 Re-creation Translation====<br />
Re-creation translation is not simply a “check-in seat”. It must be multi-level and multi-angled. It must be “designed and meticulously constructed”. It must first adjust, sort, summarize, refine, adjust and then carry on the interpretation. Such as:<br />
“把国家电网公司建设成为“电网坚强、资产优良、服务优质、业绩优秀”的现代公司。”<br />
“To build a modernized power grid company with a strong grid, excellent assets, service and performance. ”<br />
“我厂轴承产品多次荣获国家金奖、国家质量金奖杯,并获重大科研成果奖。”<br />
These products are finely machined and highly meet the specifications of relevant standards. Choosing them , you are choosing the best,<br />
<br />
====4.4 Domestication and Foreignization====<br />
In the translation of the corporate publicity texts, in order to make the target readers better understand, it is recommended to adopt the domestication strategy, with the target language culture and readers as the center, and use the easy-to-accept expression method of the target language to make the translation easy to understand. Such as “金鸡奖” translated as “JinJi Award”或 “the Golden Rooster Award”, The effect is not good, but it is naturalized as “China’s Oscar”. The effect is obviously improved. For some languages with Chinese characteristics, the alienation strategy can better preserve its exotic atmosphere, which can let the Chinese culture affects the world. 10 domestication and 10 alienation complement each other, such as: “鸳鸯”, “lovebird” , “龙舟”, “dragon boat” , “公积金”, “public accumulation fund” , “梁祝”, “China’s Romeo and Juliet” , “七彩云南”, “7-Colored Yunnan”, “汉文化”, “the Han Culture”, “中原”, “Zhongyuan”, “the central plains” , and “鱼米之乡”, “a land of rice and fish or a land of milk and honey”等.<br />
Foreign translation, aiming to introduce China objectively and truthfully to foreign readers, is a strategic issue. All sectors of society should give more attention and support to quality control, academic control, administrative control, media monitoring, and work together to improve the quality of translation.<br />
Foreign translators must have a deep understanding of the corporate publicity texts translation work and have a highly responsible attitude. Translators should take the word seriously and accurately understand the meaning. Translators should pay attention to the cultivation of language skills, expand the knowledge, enhance cross-cultural communication awareness, be familiar with Chinese and English, and strive to become an expert of Chinese and English language and culture. The translation of the corporate publicity texts is “to let other countries and people in the world understand China”, and its translators should uphold cultural conscious and cultural self-confidence and actively deal with the specific words of the original text. <br />
In short, the translation of the corporate publicity texts is not a corresponding copy of the machine, but the use of the linguistic advantage of the translation under the guidance of functional equivalence. To achieve effective cross-cultural communication, foreign translations must have sufficient audience awareness and strive to achieve cultural self-awareness and demonstrate cultural self-confidence.(Ning Hailin&Xu Jianzhong,2008)<br />
<br />
===V. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, corporate publicity texts put forward more stringent requirements for the accuracy of the translation. As a translator, one should constantly accumulate professional knowledge and improve professional literacy, which should be combined with specific context. Also, one should be good at making use of grammatical rules and strengthening cultural cultivation to enhance the ability to transform different cultural connotations and enrich the experience of improving the accuracy of translation of corporate publicity texts from practice, in order to promote the smooth development of international communication in the world. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Nida, E. A. Towards a Science of Translating[M]. Leiden: E.J.Brill, 1964. <br />
*Nida, E. A. Language, Culture, and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br />
*Nida, E. A. & Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E. J.Brill, 1969.<br />
*李权东.Li Quandong 中文企业简介英译研究[D].[Research on English Translation of Chinese Corporate Profiles] [D]. 上海外国语大学,2013. [Shanghai International Studies University, 2013.]<br />
*林庆扬,石春让.Lin Qingyang,Shi Chunjan. 基于语料库的企业简介文体分析及英译启示[J]. [A Corpus-based Analysis of Corporate Profile Style and English Translation Insights][J]. 长春师范学院学报,2011,(1):107-111.[Journal of Changchun Normal University,2011,(1):107-111.]<br />
*宁海霖,许建忠.Ning, Hailin, Xu, Jianzhong. 知“异”方可“异”——谈企业简介的汉译英[J].[The Chinese Translation of Enterprise Profiles into English] 中国科技翻译,2008,(4):21-23.[China Science and Technology Translation, 2008,(4):21-23.]<br />
*王青. Wang Qing 论外宣资料的编译 [J]. [On the Compilation of Foreign Propaganda Materials] [J]. 淮海工学院学报:社会科学报,2010,(4):86-88. [Journal of Huaihai University of Technology: Journal of Social Sciences, 2010,(4):86-88.] <br />
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<br />
--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 03:18, 8 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A study of Functional Equivalence in Translating the Prose——A Case Study on Cong Cong 汤伊然 Tang Yiran==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing's masterpiece ''Cong Cong'' is highly popular in the translation community, and several English translations have been published. However, the study on English versions of ''Cong Cong'' started late in China and focuses on a few domestic translators. While researches on translations by foreign translators or [[those]] based on functional equivalence [[are]] rather limited and need further in-depth explorations. Therefore, this paper analyzed the translations of Ge Haowen, [[Howard Goldblatt]], the foremost translator of modern and contemporary Chinese literature [[from America]], and the young Chinese translator Peter, Jingcheng Xu from the perspective of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence in meaning and style, so as to discuss the guiding significance of this theory to prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
''Cong Cong''; Translation comparison; Functional equivalence; Ge Haowan; Peter Jingcheng Xu<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
基于功能对等视角下的散文翻译——以《匆匆》为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
朱自清的代表作《匆匆》在翻译界备受青睐，目前有多个英译本刊行。但国内对其英译本的研究起步较晚，且重点关注译者国内少数译者，对国外译者译文研究严重不足；同时基于功能对等视角下的研究较少，有待进一步深入研究。因此，本文选取素有"中国文学首席翻译家"之称的葛浩文和翻译后起之秀许景城的译文，基于尤金·奈达的功能对等视角，从意义和风格两个层面进行分析，探讨该理论对散文类文学文本翻译的指导意义。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
《匆匆》；译文对比；功能对等；葛浩文；许景城<br />
<br />
===I. Introduction===<br />
<br />
This paper probes into the applicability of Nida's functional equivalence theory in prose translation via comparing two English versions of ''Cong Cong'' translated by a foreign and domestic translator respectively. The whole paper centers on two main aspects of Nida's functional equivalence theory: meaning equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br />
The paper consists of five chapters. Chapter One gives a brief outline of this paper. Chapter Two serves as the theoretical framework in which two main aspects of functional equivalence theory are elaborated in detail. Chapter Three has a glimpse of the studies on the English translations of "Cong Cong" from the perspective of functional equivalence theory both at home and abroad. Chapter Four firstly provides an in-depth appreciation of ''Cong Cong'' by paragraphs and then an introduction of the two translators Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu. Chapter Five offers a detailed case analysis of the two translations from the perspective of meaning and stylistic equivalence, trying to confirm the guiding significance of Nida's theory in prose translation. And the last Chapter is an overall summary of the whole paper.<br />
<br />
===II. Theoretical framework===<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Development of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
In 1959, in the article "Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating", Nida characterized his new concept of translation: "Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style." It was in this article that Nida first mentioned the idea of dynamic equivalence. Later in 1964, in his "Towards a Science of Translating", Nida put forward the principle of dynamic equivalence in explicit terms. (Nida, 2001)<br />
<br />
In 1969, Nida worked with Charles R. Taber on The Theory and Practice of Translation, in which he developed the contents of Towards a Science of Translation. Nida further clarified the definition of dynamic equivalence and shifted the focus of translation from the message itself to the response of the receptor, which created an epoch-making brand-new perspective of studying translation. In 1986, Nida replaced the term "dynamic equivalence" with "functional equivalence" in his From One Language to Another so as to avoid misunderstandings of the word "dynamic". But the essence of the theory is the same. (Nida & Taber, C.R. 2004)<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, Nida improved his Functional Equivalence. In his revised theory, there are two levels of equivalence, minimal equivalence and maximal equivalence. Minimal equivalence means that the readers in the target language text should be able to understand content to the degree that they can imagine how the source language text readers must have understood the content, while maximal equivalence is defined that audiences in the target language should be able to understand the content in basically the same style as the source language audience did (Nida, 1993).<br />
<br />
====2.2 Key Aspects of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Meaning Equivalence===== <br />
Nida states that functional equivalence should be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the degree to which the original receptors understand and appreciate the text and the target receptors do. From Nida's point of view, translation is aimed at the target language readers. That is to say, the readers of the target language should have the same reaction as those of the source language. Because of linguistic and cultural differences in literary translation, a translator should not only pursue structural equivalence, but also value the reproduction of meaning, which is in line with the theory of functional equivalence. (Hong Chen, Kaimeng Zhao, 2016)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Stylistic Equivalence=====<br />
In light of his definition of translation, Nida points out that though style is secondary to content, it is nevertheless important. Therefore, Nida makes exceptions of rules for some literary translations, poetry, for example. From Nida's point of view, the style itself is indeed a part of the message, especially in literary translation, which cannot be totally separated from content. Stylistic equivalence is also an important way to achieve functional equivalence. (Hong Chen, Kaimeng Zhao, 2016)<br />
<br />
===III. Research on the English Translation of "Cong Cong" from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
The earliest study on English versions of "Cong Cong" began in 2003 and draw many scholar's attention since then. There are 29 papers related on China Knowledge Net, with translations by Zhu Chunshen and Zhang Peiji as the core. Moreover, major breakthroughs are made in the research perspectives that are being more diverse and refined. However, there are very few papers from each perspective. For example, only three papers were searched in the full-text database of China Knowledge Net using "匆匆" and "功能对等" as the subject, keywords, title or abstract. (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015). <br />
<br />
In terms of the contents, these three papers mainly focused on the comparative analysis of different English translations of "Cong Cong" in vocabulary, syntax, and chapters. (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015). <br />
<br />
Concerning the research perspectives, Yang Fan analyzed the English translation of ''Rush'' by Zhang Peiji based on the functional equivalence theory and proved that this theory is a helper to the discovery of a better literary translation technique (Yang Fan, 2017). <br />
<br />
Cen Junhao entered on the flexibility and rationality of Nida's ''Dynamic Equivalence'' theory via analyzing three methods—corresponding, paralleling, and substitution of transforming words and sentences, as well as their application in "Rush" translated by Zhu Chunshen's, from Chinese to English (Cen Junhao, 2015). <br />
<br />
Zhai Zihui and Liu Lingling compared the similarities and differences in the rhetoric of ''Cong Cong'' and its translation by Zhu Chunshen, such as parallelism, rhetorical questions, similes, and personification, based on the theory of functional equivalence, and confirm that Zhu's translation is faithful to the original text and reproduces its rhetorical features (Zhai Zihui, Liu Lingling, 2015).<br />
<br />
Here is the summary: First, the studies on ''Cong Cong'' in English were mainly conducted on Zhang Peiji's translation, followed by Zhu Chunshen's and Zhang Mengjing's, only one on that of foreign translators. Second, among the existent researches from the perspective of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory, analysis confines to a single English version either by Zhu Chunshen or Zhang Peiji, and foreign translators are excluded. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020)<br />
<br />
Given this, this paper will take the English translations of Ge Haowen (Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu, and do a comparison based on meaning and stylistic equivalence, trying to prove the guiding importance of functional equivalence in prose translation. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020)<br />
<br />
===IV. Appreciation of ''Cong Cong'' and Introduction of the Translators=== <br />
<br />
====4.1 Zhu Ziqing and his prose ''Cong Cong''====<br />
Zhu Ziqing, a well-renowned master in prose-writing, made a very important contribution to modern Chinese literature. His works were designed to reflect his inner feelings about the objective world, and were characterized by simplicity, naturalness, meticulousness, freshness in language, and sincerity in emotion. Zhu advocated the "conversational style" of writing, attempting to make the literary works colloquial while attaching great importance to the beauty of language and sound. (Zhang Jing, 2006)<br />
<br />
''Cong Cong'' was written in 1922, during the ebbing of the May Fourth Movement. It was a time of silence and turmoil, of disappointment and hope. This article shows the despondency and bewilderment of ambitious young people who were disappointed with reality. Zhu Ziqing, in his lamentation of the rapid passage of time, expressed his thinking of cherishing time and making progress. At this time, Zhu was gradually shifting from poetry to prose, so "Cong Cong" combines the characteristics of both of them, with rich emotion, imagery and philosophy. (Zhang Jing, 2006)<br />
<br />
At the beginning of "Cong Cong", a set of neatly worded sentences of consistent length and contrast depicts a scene of changing natural landscape, followed by a set of interrogative sentences of varying length and colloquial expressions. While lamenting the passage of time, the author shows his helplessness. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020) <br />
<br />
In the second paragraph, through metaphors, personification, and other rhetorical devices, the author describes the disappearance of more than eight thousand days without "声" or "影" so that he can't help "禁头涔涔而泪潸潸," displaying his frustration and anxiety with the traceless, fleeting time. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020) <br />
<br />
In the third paragraph, via a series of daily life scenes, the author uses repetition and anthropomorphism to describe how the days pass when "洗手", "吃饭"，"默默". This deepens his anxiety about the loss of time. The fourth paragraph climaxes the author's worries about the vanishing days through six questions, thus leading to the question of life with indignation and discontent: "为什么要白白走一遭啊？".(Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020)<br />
<br />
The fifth paragraph restates the first question of the text: "我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢?" which reiterates the theme and implies that time is irreversible and that it is important to cherish it. The text has a variety of sentence patterns scattered in an orderly fashion, both long and short, regular and variant, making the whole structure of the text evolve in a well-organized manner, with a rising and falling tone. (Yi Hongbo, Xu Shanshan, 2020)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Introduction of the Two Translators：Ge Haowen(Howard Goldblatt) and Peter Jingcheng Xu ====<br />
As one of America's most prolific and influential translators of any language, Howard Goldblatt, whose Chinese name is Ge Haowen, has introduced generations of English readers to a wide spectrum of contemporary Chinese-language literature and brought translated Chinese literature from the confines of academia into the mainstream. He is the only official English-language translator of novelist Mo Yan, who won the Nobel Prize in literature.(''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', 2019). <br />
<br />
With nearly 50 translations of novels, memoirs, and a major anthology of poetry, he is also hailed as the foremost translator of modern and contemporary Chinese literature in the West. (''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', 2019). <br />
<br />
PeterJingcheng Xu is a Chinese poet and translator. He has translated into Chinese context many contemporary British poets, such as ''Gillian Clarke'', ''Jason Walford Davies'', ''Ian Gregson'', ''Robert Minhinnick'' and ''Emily Critchley'', and into English a wide spectrum of Chinese literary texts (both ancient and contemporary). His translation works and reviews are published in some key journals, such as Foreign Literature and Art, The World of English, and Journal of World Chinese Studies. (Poetry Hall, 2019)<br />
<br />
One is the most prestigious foreign translator of Chinese literature, and the other is a young Chinese translator with a good English education, how would the two present different tactics to the translation of ''Cong Cong''?<br />
<br />
===V. Case Analysis===<br />
<br />
====5.1 Functional Equivalence in Meaning====<br />
Example one：但是，'''聪明的，你'''告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？<br />
<br />
Ge：'''You who are wiser than I''', tell me, then: why is it that the days, once gone, never again return?<br />
<br />
Xu：Now, '''you my sage''' would you please tell me, why should our days roll by, never to return?<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example one, the author put forward the question—“我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢?”. Obviously, here, it is not a philosophical question calling for the answers like Marx’s time and space view, but just a lamentation of the passing time.<br />
<br />
Xu translated “聪明的，你” into “You my sage”, which refers to a very wise person. It showcases humility, also a sense of detachment. Maybe even the sage has no idea since the question remained unsolved [[till]] at the end of the source text. In this way, it reflects the smallness of human beings in front of immortal time. Ge used a comparison, “you who are wiser than I”, creating a sense of intimacy. The two versions reproduced the original meaning while having their own distinctive highlights. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example two：我掩着面叹息。但是'''新来的日子的影儿'''又开始在叹息里闪过了。 <br />
<br />
Ge：But '''the shadow of the new day''' begins darting by, even in the midst of my sighing.<br />
<br />
Xu：Burying my face in my hands, I heave a sigh, and '''the new day''' begins thrilling through it.<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example two, Xu adopted omission and translated “新来的日子的影儿” in a straight-forward manner, while Ge applied literal translation and preserved “shadow”. Time in nature is colorless and invisible, but light and shadow can project its trajectory. Hence, it is the “shadow” that fully manifests how fast the time goes by, uncovering stronger disappointment of the author. Ge’s version achieved meaning equivalence very well. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example three：'''过去的日子'''如轻烟，被微风吹散了，如薄雾，被初阳'''蒸融'''了； <br />
<br />
Ge：The days that are gone are like smoke that has been dissipated by a breeze, like thin mists that have been burned off under the onslaught of the morning sun.<br />
<br />
Xu：The bygone days like wisps of smoke, have been blown away by breezes and like clusters of thin mist, have been evaporated by the rising sun.<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example three, the two metaphors not only paint a beautiful picture of the rainy south of the Yangtze River but also make us feel that time passes quickly and without a trace. <br />
“过去的日子” was translated by Xu as “The bygone days” and Ge, “The days that are gone”. From the [[perspective]] of accuracy, Ge’s version is more inclusive because it covers [[all]] moments in the past while “bygone” means happening or existing a long time ago. <br />
<br />
Another distinction falls on the translation of “蒸融”. Ge used “burn off” and Xu “evaporate”, both of which [[connote]] “vanish” and thus depict the fleeting time vividly. Besides, Ge applied addition with “the onslaught of the morning sun”. However, “初阳” indicates that the sunlight is generally not intensive, so the word “onslaught” is not suitable here. In conclusion, Xu’s translation is more meaning-equivalent. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example four：'''燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候。'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''The swallows may go, but they will return another day; the willows may whither, but they will turn green again; the peach blossoms may fade and fall, but they will bloom again.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Gone are swallows, but they may come back again; withered are willows, but they may turn green again; fading away are peach blossoms, but they may flower again.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example four, both Xu and Ge chose the plural form of the noun for “燕子”, “杨柳” and “桃花”, with the exception that the latter is preceded by a definite article. The original wording of “Cong Cong” is highly colloquial, so here “燕子”, “杨柳” and “桃花” should refer to [[specific]] things we see in the real world, [[rather than]] imagery with profound connotation. Thus, “the swallows” “the willows” “the peach blossoms”, in which definite articles were added, are more accurate. <br />
<br />
In respect of the tense, Ge used “may do” while Xu “are” in the first simple sentence. The general tense better indicates that “燕子去了” “杨柳枯了” “桃花谢了” are natural phenomena. Another difference lies in the following "but" clause. Ge picked the future sense "they will" while Xu kept "they may". The former "will", to some extent, further strengthen the cycle of nature. Overall, meaning equivalence is better accomplished by Ge's version. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example five：'''默默时，便从凝然的双眼前过去。'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''When I am standing still and quiet, my eyes carefully follow its progress past me.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''When I am in contemplation, my gazing eyes feel the day passing by.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example five, firstly the two translators chose a different expression for “默默”. Compared with Xu’s “in contemplation”, Ge’s “standing still and quiet” is more vivid and touching, creating a picture that attracts the readers’ empathy. Secondly, apart from taking “my eyes” as the subject, one translated “凝然” into an adjective “gazing”, the other an adverb “carefully”. In this case, Ge’s “carefully”, together with the verb “follow” reproduced the scene in the source text more specifically and [[convincingly]]. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example six：'''在逃去如飞的日子里，在千门万户的世界里的我能做些什么呢？只有徘徊罢了，只有匆匆罢了；''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''During these fleeting days what can I, only one among so many, accomplish? Nothing more than to pace irresolutely, nothing more than to hurry along.<br />
'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Amid the fleeting days, what could I do in the world of hustle and bustle, but roaming and sighing the flight of time?'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example six, for “千门万户的世界”，Xu’s “the world of hustle and bustle” not only contain Ge’s “so many” people, but also the fast-pace of the world. Besides, their treatment of “徘徊” and “匆匆" saw a big difference. Ge used "pace irresolutely" and "hurry along" while Xu "roaming and sighing the flight of time". Obviously, Ge adopted the literal translation and Xu, free translation.<br />
<br />
Here, given the context, "徘徊” “匆匆” is no way just point to the exact action. To sum up[[,]] Xu’s version is more consistent with the meaning of the original.<br />
<br />
====5.2 Functional Equivalence in Style====<br />
Example one：'''《匆匆》'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''Haste'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''The Fight of Time'''<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
<br />
In example one, “匆匆” in the source text varies in part of speech. For example, “匆匆” in “去来的中间，又怎样地匆匆呢？” “我觉察他去的匆匆了" is an adverb, in "只有徘徊罢了，只有匆匆罢了” is a noun. Here both Ge and Xu translated it into a noun form, which conforms to the title-style. Ge’s “Haste”, compared with Xu’s “The Flight of Time”, is more concise and consistent in form.<br />
<br />
Moreover, “Haste” pronounces with only one syllable and ends in a combination of fricative and blast, which sounds like a sigh and is more in line with the emotional tone of the source text. Therefore, Ge’s version reproduces the original style in a better way. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example two：我不禁'''头涔涔而泪潸潸'''了。<br />
<br />
Ge：Uncontrollably, my '''sweat and tears stream down'''.<br />
<br />
Xu：Aware of this, I feel '''sweats exuding from my forehead, and tears brimming in my eyes'''.<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example two, Xu translated it into two simple sentences, with diversity in the use of words such as “exude” “brim”. Nevertheless, Ge’s “stream down” is more precise, and condensed as same as the style of the original. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example three：'''你聪明的，告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？'''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''You who are wiser than I, please tell me why it is that once gone, our days never return.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''You my sage, please tell me, why should our days roll by, never to return?<br />
'''<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example three, here the sentence is the last paragraph, and repetition is applied. From the two versions, we can tell that both Xu and Ge maintained this rhetorical, wording, and tone. One thing worth mentioning is that Ge emphasized “the days” for the first time and the second “once gone”. Besides, he transformed this question into a definite sentence.<br />
In an overview, the first “你聪明的，告诉我，我们的日子为什么一去不复返呢？” provokes the reader to think. After elaboration, the question appears again at the end of the text, which is a finishing touch but implies a certainty: our days are gone. Ge’s translation reproduces the repetitive rhetoric of the original text, and more skillfully reflects the different connotations in line with the sequence of the two questions by emphasizing different words.<br />
<br />
The treatment of the last sentence into a definite sentence is even more exquisite, serving both as the answer and conclusion for the whole text: the past cannot be repeated, only time can be cherished. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example four：'''燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候。''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''The swallows may go, but they will return another day; the willows may whither, but they will turn green again; the peach blossoms may fade and fall, but they will bloom again.'''<br />
<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Gone are swallows, but they may come back again; withered are willows, but they may turn green again; fading away are peach blossoms, but they may flower again.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example four, both Ge and Xu preserved the sentence structure of the source text. Differing from Ge’s version which strictly abided by the original wording, Xu creatively adopted inversion. He underlined the verb of “去” “枯” “谢”, attempting to stress the changes brought by time: as spring goes by and autumn comes, flowers bloom and fall, but only time remains unchanged and keeps moving forward. Yet from the point of retaining the style and melody beauty, Ge’s version is more fluent and catchier. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example five：'''是有人偷了他们罢：那是谁？又藏在何处呢？是他们自己逃走了罢：现在又到了哪里呢？ '''<br />
<br />
Ge：'''Are they stolen by someone? Then, by whom? And where are they hidden? Or do they run away by themselves? Then, where are they now?'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Are they stolen by someone? If so, who could it be, and where could they be hidden? If they run away by themselves, where are they now?'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example five, there are three questions and two declarative sentences combined. Xu copied this pattern in his translation while Ge turned the two declarative sentences implying guesses and doubts—“是有人偷了他们罢”, “是他们自己逃走了罢” into questions. By enhancing the questioning tone, Ge’s version effectively fulfills the purpose of guiding the readers along with the author to explore the answer, as well as the style equivalence in translation. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example six：早上我起来的时候，小屋里射进两三方斜斜的太阳。'''太阳他有脚啊'''，轻轻悄悄地挪移了；我也茫茫然跟着旋转。<br />
<br />
Ge：In the morning when I get up, there are two or three rays of sunlight slanting into my small room. '''The sun, does it have feet?''' Stealthily it moves along, as I too, unknowingly, follow its progress.<br />
<br />
Xu：When I get up in the morning, the sunshine the slanting sun sheds beams into my room, edging away gently and quietly, '''as if he is footed.''' Without awareness, I feel myself already echoing his revolution.<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example six, with personification, “太阳他有脚啊” illustrates that time flies like a shuttle. Xu used the adjective "footed" and related it as a clause led by “as if”. Ge, in another way, translated it into a question—“The sun, does it have feet?”. He put “The sun” at the beginning of the sentence and used the pronoun “it” to emphasize the temporal symbolism of the sun. Ge’s version, with a stronger questioning tone, reinforced the author's helplessness about the passage of time. Does the sun have feet? How else could time pass so quickly? <br />
<br />
<br />
Example seven：'''过去的日子如轻烟，被微风吹散了，如薄雾，被初阳蒸融了；''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''The days that are gone are like smoke that has been dissipated by a breeze, like thin mists that have been burned off under the onslaught of the morning sun.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''The bygone days like wisps of smoke, have been blown away by breezes and like clusters of thin mist, have been evaporated by the rising sun.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example seven, Ge and Xu both used the preposition "like" and the perfect tense "have/has been". Given the sentence pattern, the two translators paused at a different beat. Xu cut it as the same as the source text, and flows more smoothly, structured in neat style with "wisps" and "clusters", "blow away" and "evaporate". To conclude, Xu observed the style equivalence. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example eight：'''于是——洗手的时候，日子从水盆里过去；吃饭的时候，日子从饭碗里过去；''' <br />
<br />
Ge：'''Then as I wash up, the day passes through my washbasin, and at breakfast through my rice bowl.'''<br />
<br />
Xu：'''Thus, when I wash my hands, the sink washes away the day. When I have a meal, the bowl vanishes the day.'''<br />
<br />
Analysis:<br />
<br />
In example eight, although Xu’s translation is consistent with the original text in terms of syntax, and shows his innovation in not using “the day”, namely, “time” as the subject, which restored the scene and created a sense of being in it. The materialization of time, that is, the use of tangible things to replace the invisible time to show the dynamics of its passing. Compared with Ge’s translation, his seems slightly abstruse, but it cannot efface its shining points.<br />
<br />
===VI. Conclusion===<br />
The motion of this paper derives from the gap of research on foreigner’s translations of ''Cong Cong'', especially from the perspective of Nida’s functional equivalence theory. Moreover, this paves the way for further analysis of this theory’s significance and applicability in prose translation. In this process, based on translations of Ge Haowen and Peter Jingcheng Xu, cases are listed and exemplified to discuss how does Nida’s functional equivalence in meaning and style be achieved in Cong Cong, a typical literary work with distinctive colloquial and sound style. <br />
<br />
In general, both Ge and Xu have their own strengths and characteristics. By comparison, Ge’s translation is better in light of the correspondence of the theory and features of prose translation. Ge better preserved the language style and emotional tone of the source text, reproduced the beauty of its meaning, and achieved a perfect combination of “translation” and “expressiveness”. <br />
<br />
What’s more, Peter Jingcheng Xu, a promising young translator, also left a great impression with his translation. His succession of three exclamations—“Alas” “Nothing” “Nay, not even…” sends the readers into a shock both visually and mentally; His “the sink washes away the day” and “the bowl vanishes the day” open a new perspective for readers to taste ''Cong Cong''.<br />
<br />
To conclude, the functional equivalence initiated by Nida is of great importance and profound significance in prose translation which is worthy of being paid more attention to.<br />
<br />
===VII. References===<br />
<br />
* GOLDBLATT, H. Haste. In J.S.M LAU&H. GOLDBLATT (eds.) The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature[C]. New York: The Columbia University Press, 1955.<br />
<br />
* Ge Haowen (2011) ‘A Mi Manera: Howard Goldblatt at home A self-interview’, Chinese Literature Today, 2(1): 97-104.<br />
<br />
* Hongping Chen, Kaimeng Zhao. On the Functional Equivalence in Literary Translation[C]. Information Engineering Research Institute, USA. Proceedings of 2016 3rd International Conference on Psychology, Management and Social Science (PMSS 2016). Information Engineering Research Institute, USA:智能信息技术应用学会, 2016: 139-143.<br />
<br />
* ''Howard Goldblatt Collection'', Chinese Literature Translation Archive, University of Oklahoma (USA).<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene A. ''Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
* Nida, Eugene A. & Taber, C. R. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br />
<br />
* Tan Zaixi. ''On Nida’s Translation Theories''[M]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation, 1999.<br />
<br />
* 蔡丹, 陈文安．从音律美的角度分析叠词的英译——以《匆匆》的两个英译本为例[J]．现代语文（语言研究版），2014(9): 159-160．<br />
<br />
* 郭建中. 当代美国翻译理论[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社, 1999: 65.<br />
<br />
* 李现勇, 逄强. 秉原文之形，传原文之神——《匆匆》朱纯深译本审美赏析[J]. 青春岁月, 2012(08).<br />
<br />
* 闵西鸿. 《匆匆》两译本修辞翻译风格对比研究[J]．牡丹江师范学院学报（哲学社会科学版）, 2013(4).<br />
<br />
* 易红波, 许姗姗. 修辞视角下《匆匆》英译赏析——以朱纯深与葛浩文译文为例[J]. 四川民族学院学报, 2020, 29(04): 69-73.<br />
<br />
* 尤金·A·奈达. 翻译科学探索[M]. 上海外语出版社, 2004.<br />
<br />
* 叶乃芳. 朱自清名篇散文的诗意[J]. 语文教学与研究, 2008 (08).<br />
<br />
* 张静. 试论朱自清前期散文的抒情特色[J]. 现代语文(文学研究版), 2006(04). English Versions missing--[[User:Zhang Weihong|Zhang Weihong]] ([[User talk:Zhang Weihong|talk]]) 11:59, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Zhang Weihong<br />
<br />
==Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation 阳慧 Yang Hui 202070080646,英语口译==<br />
Yang Hui 阳慧 202070080646<br />
<br />
<br />
=== '''Abstract''' ===<br />
<br />
In the early 80 's of the 20th century, Peter Newmark, a famous translation theorist, put forward a profound theory of semantic translation and communicative translation. It is considered that there are both differences and links between the two. Under the guidance of semantic translation and communicative translation, the translator uses corresponding translation strategies according to the type of source text and the characteristics of target language readers. From the perspective of semantic translation and communicative translation, this paper discusses the translation strategies under the <br />
guidance of this theory to demonstrate the application of Newmark's translation theory in translation practice.<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''=== <br />
<br />
semantic translation; communicative translation; application<br />
<br />
==='''题目'''===<br />
语义翻译与交际翻译<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
20世纪80年代初期，著名翻译理论学家彼得·纽马克提出了影响深远的语义翻译和交际翻译理论。认为这两者之间既存在差异又存在联系。在语义翻译和交际翻译的指导下，译者根据源文本的类型和目的语读者的特点，使用对应的翻译策略。本文将从语义翻译和交际翻译视域出发，通过具体翻译案例的展示，探讨这一理论指导下的翻译策略论证纽马克翻译理论在翻译实践中的应用。<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''关键字'''===<br />
语义翻译；交际翻译；应用<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
At present, when we discuss the western schools of modern translation theory, we always refer to Eugene a . Nida, a prominent representative in his field of research. Nida's translation theories, such as those on " dynamic equivalence ", are particularly popular among domestic translators. By contrast, peter Newmark, another prominent translation theorist, has little influence. In fact, Newmark's translation theory in the Western modern translation theory schools can also be called unique. In this paper, the author divides translation into two methods of " communicative translation and semantic translation " . From the two aspects of language form and content, the author discusses the translation methods of achieving different " equivalence " and provides new ideas and approaches for translation practice.<br />
<br />
=== '''Development of Semantic translation and Communicative Translation''' ===<br />
Semantic translation and communicative translation are important translation theories put forward by British translation theorist Peter Newmark. On the basis of summing up the previous translation theories and his own translation experience, he put forward these two important translation concepts. In the development of translation theory, it has made outstanding contributions. The essential difference between them is that semantic translation emphasizes retaining the style of the original text, while communicative translation focuses on communicative function, which makes it easy for the readers of the target language to understand(Tang Jie 2016,19). literal translation and free translation are inextricable topics when translation is discussed in the field of translation. It is under this kind of <br />
thinking that the target text rarely considers the factors such as reader reflection, the category of the text and the purpose of translation (Ye Zinan 2001, 17). <br />
<br />
At present, when we discuss the Western modern translation theories, we frequently refer to Eugene Nida, who is the most prominent representative in this research field. Nida's translation theories, such as those on "dynamic equivalence", are particularly popular among scholars of translation studies in China. By contrast, Peter Newmark, another prominent translation theorist, has relatively little influence. In fact, Newmark's translation theory within the Western modern translation theory schools can also be called unique. (Please indicate the source!)--[[User:Root|Root]] ([[User talk:Root|talk]]) 10:11, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In this paper, the author divides translation into the two strategies of "communicative" translation and "semantic" translation. From the two aspects of language, form and content, the author discusses the translation methods of achieving different "equivalences" and provides new ideas and approaches for translation practice. Nida once remarked on the theory of Newmark: "..." (The quote and its source is missing.)--[[User:Root|Root]] ([[User talk:Root|talk]]) 10:11, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Semantic translation and communicative translation are important translation strategies put forward by British translation theorist Peter Newmark. On the basis of summing up the previous translation theories and his own translation experience, he put forward these two important translation concepts. Within the development of translation theories, they are an important part. (Please indicate the source!)--[[User:Root|Root]] ([[User talk:Root|talk]]) 10:11, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The essential difference between them is that semantic translation emphasizes retaining the style of the original text, while communicative translation focuses on the communicative function, which makes it easy for the readers of the target language to understand (please indicate the object). (Tang Jie 2016, 19).--[[User:Root|Root]] ([[User talk:Root|talk]]) 10:11, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Literal translation and free translation are inextricable topics, when translation is discussed. If we follow this kind of thinking, we rarely consider factors such as reader reflection, the category of the text and the purpose of translation in regards to the target text. (Ye Zinan 2001, 17).--[[User:Root|Root]] ([[User talk:Root|talk]]) 10:11, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At present, when we discuss the Western modern translation theories, we frequently refer to Eugene Nida, who is the most prominent representative in this research field. Nida's translation theories, such as those on "dynamic equivalence", are particularly popular among scholars of translation studies in China. By contrast, Peter Newmark, another prominent translation theorist, has relatively little influence. In fact, Newmark's translation theory within the Western modern translation theory schools can also be called unique. (Please indicate the source!)--[[User:Root|Root]] ([[User talk:Root|talk]]) 10:08, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In this paper, the author divides translation into the two strategies of "communicative" translation and "semantic" translation. From the two aspects of language, form and content, the author discusses the translation methods of achieving different "equivalences" and provides new ideas and approaches for translation practice. Nida once remarked on the theory of Newmark: "..." (The quote and its source is missing.)--[[User:Root|Root]] ([[User talk:Root|talk]]) 10:08, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Semantic translation and communicative translation are important translation strategies put forward by British translation theorist Peter Newmark. On the basis of summing up the previous translation theories and his own translation experience, he put forward these two important translation concepts. Within the development of translation theories, they are an important part. (Please indicate the source!)--[[User:Root|Root]] ([[User talk:Root|talk]]) 10:08, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The essential difference between them is that semantic translation emphasizes retaining the style of the original text, while communicative translation focuses on the communicative function, which makes it easy for the readers of the target language to understand (please indicate the object). (Tang Jie 2016, 19).--[[User:Root|Root]] ([[User talk:Root|talk]]) 10:08, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Literal translation and free translation are inextricable topics, when translation is discussed. If we follow this kind of thinking, we rarely consider factors such as reader reflection, the category of the text and the purpose of translation in regards to the target text. (Ye Zinan 2001, 17).--[[User:Root|Root]] ([[User talk:Root|talk]]) 10:08, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''3.Comparison Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation'''===<br />
Newmark regards language as a "tool for thinking and self-expression", which means that individual thinking differences determine the differences in style characteristics. In view of the extensive differences in texts, Newmark makes a detailed analysis of semantic translation and communicative translation in his book About Translation (1991).<br />
Liao Qiyi (2004) gives a more detailed explanation of semantic translation and communicative translation based on the summary given by Newmark. And according to Liao's explanation, it is summarized as follows:<br />
<br />
===='''3.1 Objectivity and Subjectivity'''====<br />
First, semantic translation is objective, precise and subject to the culture of the source language and the original author. When translating the semantic meaning of the source text, it should be interpreted only when the connotation of the source text constitutes the biggest obstacle to understanding. In order to reproduce the thought process of the source text, semantic translation strives to keep the language features and unique semantic expressions of the source text, and gives full play to the expression function of the language. Communicative translation, on the other hand, is subjective, and the core lies in the transmission of information, making the reader think, feel and act, giving full play to the function of language to express information (informative)and producing effects (vocative), concentrating only on the response of the target language readers, making the source language yield to the target language and the culture of the target language. Therefore, when using communicative translation strategies, the translator has some freedom to modify the source text, but this does not mean that the translator cannot respect the source text.<br />
<br />
===='''3.2 Forms of Expression'''====<br />
Second, there are differences between semantic translation and communicative translation in the form of expression. Semantic translation makes the form of the target text closer to that of the source text, and tries to retain the sound effect of the source text. Communicative translation focuses more on the response of the target language readers to easy reading, reorganizes syntax, utilizes more general words and collocations, and strives for a straightaway translation Semantic translation focuses on the transmission of textual meaning. Communicative translation, on the other hand, focuses on the transmission of textual context Semantic translation is still centered on the source language. Communicative translation, whereas, centers on the reader of the target language. mean that the translator cannot respect the source text.<br />
<br />
===='''3.3 Highlights on Contents '''====<br />
Third, semantic translation and communicative translation have diverse highlights when the content and effect of information are contradictory. Semantic translation emphasizes content over effect, while communicative translation emphasizes effect over content.<br />
<br />
===='''3.4 Language Style'''====<br />
Fourth, compared with communicative translation, semantic translation is more technical, intricate, arcane even unintelligible. It does not lay emphasis on reproducing the intention, but focuses on reproducing the thinking process of the author of the source text. It tends to over translate, choosing more professional specific words than the source text to express the subtle differences of meaning. Communicative translation, on the other hand, is more unobstructed, simple, clear and direct, which is more in line with the language habits of the target language readers.<br />
<br />
===='''3.5 Length'''====<br />
Fifth, the translation with semantic translation generally has no explanatory words to help readers comprehend, so the translation of communicative translation is usually longer than that of semantic translation. In addition, semantic translation takes smaller words, phrases or clauses as translation units, while communicative translation tends to take sentences and paragraphs as translation units.<br />
<br />
===='''3.6 Inferiority and Superiority '''====<br />
Sixth, semantic translation is an art, which is more than one person's responsibility, there can be no inaccurate translation, and the translation is generally inferior to the original, but communicative translation is a skill, which can be undertaken by many people. The translated text is generally superior to the source text because of its emphasis on effect, concise and straightforward language, and appropriate polishing to make up for some missing meanings in semantic translation. <br />
<br />
Although there are many differences between semantic translation and communicative translation, they are closely related and cannot be separated completely. emphasis text only has a function alone, plays a single guiding role or only reflect a kind of method strategy, just for a variety of functions, methods, strategy , When semantic translation and communicative translation overlap in translation practice, no matter which strategy is adopted and guidance is reflected, the target text should subject to the basic grammatical structure and some fixed stylistic features of the target language while reflecting the ideological content of the source text.<br />
<br />
===Relation Between Semantic and Communicative Translation===<br />
Previously, Karl Buhler, a German linguist, proposes the model of "Language tools" to study Language in his book Theory of Language (1990. According to Buhler, there are four elements in )daily communication the speaker, the receiver, the symbol and the context, so in the process of language in communication, it should be at least three basic functions, that is, expressive function, informative function and vocative function; Then, the linguist R. Jakobson thinks that there should be six important factors in the process of intersection: that is, mode, context, receiver, sender, contact channel and message itself. On the basis of the theory of language function, Newmark divides the source text into three types: that is, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts.<br />
According to Newmark, translation is the translation of the text, the study of translation cannot be separated from the text. And according to Newmark's point of view, the core of the expressive function of language lies in the thought of the speaker. The typical expressive texts mainly include: First, literary works such as poetry, novels, plays and ancient books; Second, authoritative works such as philosophical works, legal documents and political speeches; Third, autobiography, essays and literary works are included. The core of the expressive text is the author-centered, and the author's status is sacred. When translating expressive texts, the translator should reproduce the features of the source language expression form in the target language to reflect a more complete aesthetic effect. Therefore, the translator should reproduce some figures of speech in the source language when translating this text. On the contrary, in some special expressive texts, the expressive function of the language, which requires the translator to be able to distinguish the emphasis when translating expressive texts, is higher than its aesthetic function.<br />
As for the informative function of language, Newmark believes that the core of the informative function of language hinges on the external situation context, the authenticity of topics and the objective world beyond the language. Therefore, the core of informative text lies in the objective authenticity of the information content. In the process of translating informative texts, the translator should present the authenticity and accuracy of the information content of the source text in the target language as completely as possible. Therefore, the translator should take the target language as the orientation and pay attention to the effectiveness and accuracy of communication. However, it should be noted that the success of the translation of informative texts largely depend on the linguistic features and stylistic features of the texts themselves. In addition, for example, in the translation of informative texts, the greater the cultural differences between the source culture and the target culture, the more difficult it is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the source text.<br />
The third type of text proposed by Newmark is the vocative text. He believes that the vocative function of language lies in the reader or the language receiver. The so-called "vocative" is that the author appeals to the reader or the receiver to act, think or feel something based on the emotional level, specifically, the author makes some response according to the intention of the reader. Therefore, when translating vocative texts, the translator should be guided by the target language rules and culture, and reproduce the vocative effect that is relative to the original author and the vocative elements that are faithful to the original author.<br />
<br />
===Application Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation===<br />
These three text types cannot be completely separated. Very few texts are pure fragmentary expressive, informative and evocative texts, but usually three or two texts have both functions, but with some emphasis. The formation of text type theory opens up a new perspective for translators to do translation work. In this way, before translation, translators should carefully study the text content and linguistic style after selecting the translated text, and determine the appropriate perspective of text type according to Newmark's analysis of text type. Given the above, the ultimate goal of text type classification is to provide the most appropriate translation method, strategy and guidance for translated works. In succession, Newmark proposes the effective translation strategies and he thinks that semantic translation and communicative translation are the most convenient and extensive applications. As mentioned above, semantic translation lay emphasis on the thinking process of the original author, while communicative translation pays more attention to how the language itself achieves proper effect. Therefore, semantic translation is applicable to expressive texts, while communicative translation is applicable to the latter two types of texts. He puts forward: materials suitable for semantic translation include texts that are as important to the specific language as the content of the speaker or author, whether it is philosophy, religion, political science, technology or literature. Materials appropriate for communicative translation include: news, informative writing, non-personal communication, propaganda, announcements, standardized writings and popular fictions" In a word, the English version of Jingui Yaolue (Synopsis of Prescriptions of the Golden Chamber) is a type of text with both expressive and informative. According to Newmark(Peter Newmark, 2001, 44). The knowledge to readers. Based upon the connotation of semantics and communicative translation theory and their discrepancies, the translator gives a general overview of the roles they play in practical application. <br />
On the score of transforming the content of the original text and author 's intention well and truly, the translator retains the linguistic characteristics and unique expressions of theorists when illustrating their theoretical notions and insights. When the translator translated certain words with cultural background, era background, and historical background, such as academic vocabulary and proper nouns in diversified subject domains, the translated names cannot be obtained based on her own assumptions and judgments. Instead, the translator should confirm whether her translation is a generic term recognized within the academia. The author abides by this rule firmly ,,ring the translation process. Besides, sometimes, if the objective things are described in chronological order, causal order, logical order, or in the same primary and secondary order, the two languages have basically the same way of writing, it can be translated by linear translation method according to the specific situation, maintaining the consistency of voice and tense. Semantic translation can better reflect the author 's thinking process and the expression of opinions so that the target readers can read it without obstacles. The communicative translation provides the translator with more freedom. In translation, the translator must consider the target reader 's feelings and strive to guard linear translation method according to the specific situation, maintaining the consistency of voice and tense. English and Chinese have different thinking modes, language habits and means of expression. When translating, it is sometimes the case that certain words and phrases should be added, so that the translation can achieve the same effect as the original text in terms of content, spirit and style (Cheng Mei, 1993,58). Additional translation is to add words that are not in the original text but actually have certain meanings. In a word, through additional translation, firstly, it can ensure the integrity of the grammatical structure of the target text, and secondly, it can make certain that the meaning of the text is explicit and consistent with Chinese expression habits.<br />
Example 1: <br />
<br />
Source text: The mother inclines over the child and both verticality and horizontality cease to be operative.<br />
<br />
Target text:母亲的情感向孩子倾斜，纵向思维与横向思维都不再奏效。<br />
<br />
It mentioned the inter-subjectivity theory earlier before this sentence. the author inquired relevant materials and found that this theory is the discussion of emotional cognition. Therefore, the word "t !" should be added to complete the content that is not clearly explained but gives a hint, so as to facilitate readers' understanding.<br />
Inter-subjectivity theory is concerned with the horizontal expansion and vertical extension of thinking. Horizontal thinking, as the name implies, refers to the person's thinking has its characteristics of lateral, broad development. People with this kind of thinking are good at drawing inferences from one example. Vertical thinking refers to the thinking form that is carried out in a sequential, predictable and stylized direction within a kind of structure. It is a clear and logical thinking mode that is consistent with the development direction of things and human cognition habits. In Example 1, the author indicates that because parents love their children so much, they will easily lose their sense of reason when they encounter problems with their children. This is realistic and commonplace phenomenon. Verticality and horizontality denote "垂直性"和" 横向性 " respectively, they are both abstract words. English expressions are sometimes abstract, while Chinese express abstract contents in concrete images. Literal translation will cause confusion. In this case, appropriate word likes " 思维" should be added according to the context to make the meaning concrete.<br />
The four-character structure is the crystallization of the wisdom of the Chinese nation. It has a compact and flexible structure, gives the essentials in compendious language, and is easy to read. It is a major component of Chinese expressions, a terse language material.<br />
Example 1:<br />
Source text: This dissemination, however, has also been a kind of domestication(perhaps inevitable), as anyone who lived through the heady days of the late 1970s and the 1980s of line-in-the-sand warring factions - Marxists versus post structuralists, feminists versus Marxists, psychoanalytic theorists versus all three.<br />
<br />
Target text:然而，这种传播也是一- 种归化(或许是不可避免的)，就像任何经历过20世纪70年代末和80年代那些令人兴奋的，界限分明的交战派别一样一马克思主义者与后结构主义者、 女权主义者与马克思主义者、精神分析理论家与以上三者，这些派别的对抗。<br />
<br />
“Line-in-the-sand" has the definition of dividing the demarcation line. As can be seen from the context, what is said here is the fighting status of various theoretical factions. These factions resisted each other. If the translation is rendered directly, the translation will be too plain, and it will not manifest the intense and tangle some circumstances. Thereby, based on her accumulation of Chinese traditional civilization, the translator adopted a vivid four-character idiom to describe such a situation, displaying the linguistic characteristics and particular qualities of Chinese, and giving the article an affinity.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
As Newmark said, it is impossible to use a single theory to support any work, nor can it use a single technique, nor can semantic translation and communicative translation. The ultimate goal of semantic translation and communicative translation is different. The semantic translation is the original author's service, which follows the way of thinking and text genre characteristics are all original text ;The ultimate goal of communicative translation, unlike semantic translation, is to make the reader better understand the translation, let the reader think and feel. Therefore, the translator needs to translate the main content of the original text, pay more attention to the social value of the translation, and conform to the target language of speech. In the study of semantic translation strategies and communicative translation strategies, we should note that the distinction between semantic translation and communicative translation is relative, not absolute, and is often complementary and complementary. Liao Qiyi, a Chinese scholar, argues that there is a common ground between semantic translation and communicative translation, and that there is a strong connection between semantic translation and communicative translation. Secondly, both must faithfully reflect the main content of the original text ;Finally, these two translation strategies can be combined when the readers of the translation are consistent with the readers' interests and knowledge level of the original text, which means that the author and the reader of the translation are truly realized. German linguist Karl Buhler proposed that language has three functions: information function, expression function and infection function. On the basis of his theory, Newmark sums up three types of text.Informative text, expressive text and call active text. Informative text is an objective summary of events. Newmark's translation theory emphasizes semantic translation and communicative translation as a whole, because they are two different and complementary translation methods. Context, time and city are the necessary factors in the process of translation . What kind of translation strategies are adopted, and specific problems need to be analyzed. If semantic translation is adopted, the translator aims to follow the content and form of the original text, but in order to make the translation more popular and natural, avoid the language obscurity caused by the great differences between Chinese and English, sometimes it is necessary to combine the two methods, which combines the faithfulness of the author with the faithfulness of the reader, that is to promote the normal communication even in the translation of a sentence, at the same time two methods can be used to ensure the smooth communication and attract more readers.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001).Approaches to Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2001). A Textbook of Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark. (2006). About Translation. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press <br />
<br />
Cheng Mei 成梅. (1993). “翻译理论探秘，反思及应用——纽马克译论精选”[Exploration, Reflection and Application of Translation Theory--Selected Version of Newmark Translation Theory]. Shanghai: Shanghai Science and Technology Translation 上海科技翻译.<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi 廖七一.(2004）.“当代英国翻译理论”[Contemporary British Translation Theory]. Wu hai: Wuhai Education Press 武汉教育出版社.<br />
<br />
Tang Jie 唐洁. (2016).“语义翻译与交际翻译的区别与应用”[Differences and Applications Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation].Hu Nan: Hu Nan Press 湖南出版社.<br />
<br />
Ye Zinan 叶子南.(2001). “高级英汉翻译理论”[Advanced English-Chinese Translation Theory]. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br />
<br />
==A Study of Functional Equivalence in Translating Children's Literature---A Case Study on ''The Lion King'' 刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei 202020080622==<br />
<br />
<center>刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei, 202020080622 </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract=== <br />
Childhood is the most important stage of life development, and the influence of children's literature on children's education is in the first place. Children's literature is particularly required to be vivid and easy to understand, which requires that translation strategies should be adjusted according to the characteristics of children's psychological development and on the basis of functional equivalence translation theory. Based on the characteristics of children and children's literature, and combined with the translation strategies and methods of ''The Lion King'', this chapter makes a more profound analysis of translation equivalence theory.<br />
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===Key Words=== <br />
Children's Characters, Children's Literature, Functional Equivalence Theory --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 01:59, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===题 目===<br />
功能对等理论在儿童文学翻译中的使用---以《狮子王》为例<br />
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===摘 要=== <br />
儿童期是人生发育最重要的阶段，而儿童文学对于儿童的教育影响处于前位且是第一性的。儿童文学特别要求通俗易懂，生动活泼，这也就要求儿童文学翻译作品应根据儿童心理发展特点、基于功能对等翻译理调整翻译策略。本文主要是通过儿童特点、儿童文学特点，同时结合《狮子王》翻译策略与方法，对翻译对等理论进行更加深刻的解析。<br />
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===关键词=== <br />
儿童特点，儿童文学，功能对等理论<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Children’s literature contains different kinds of genres such as children’s prose, children’s novels, fairy tales and so on, in which fairy tales are the most special one and the most popular one for there are strange plots, vivid expressions and interesting characters helping children form theirs values towards the world. To make English literature suitable for Chinese kids, translators should think about the cultural backgrounds, psychological features and linguistic features of the readers of the works based on the theory of equivalence.<br />
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<br />
<br />
Children’s literature contains different kinds of genres such as children’s prose, children’s novels, fairy tales and so on, in which fairy tales are the most special one and the most popular one for there are strange plots, vivid expressions and interesting characters helping children form theirs values towards the world. To make English literature suitable for Chinese kids, translators should think about cultural backgrounds, psychological features and linguistic features of the readers based on the theory of equivalence.--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===The Introduction of the Theory of Equivalence===<br />
Functional equivalence is a translation theory put forward by Eugene Nida, which consists of dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence making great contributions to translation theory. In his book Toward a Science of Translating (1964), he put forward and distinguished what he called dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence for the first time. Later, he expounded dynamic equivalence in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation (1969).<br />
Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language. (Nida, 1969) To avoid being misunderstood and provide a clearer meaning, Nida used “functional equivalence” to replace “dynamic equivalence” in From One Language to Another (1986). According to Nida, the best version of translation should never look like a translation. To avoid such feeling of translation, certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency, the precedence of dynamic equivalence and precedence of forms that are acceptable to the readers. At the same time, translation should not be isolated and cultural background should be considered and try to make translations with original features and without cultural differences. While there is no possibility to balance between significance and culture, one must abandon the formal equivalence. Furthermore, it is better to recreate when the changes of form cannot show the original meanings of the text. <br />
According to the functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meaning, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in the response the readers act after reading the translation. To sum up, the functional equivalence theory focuses on reader’s response, which calls for the response of the original receptors to original text (Jia Xiuhai 2008).<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence is a translation theory put forward by Eugene Nida, which consists of dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence making great contributions to translation theory. In his book ''Toward a Science of Translating'' (1964), he put forward and distinguished what he called dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence for the first time. Later, he expounded dynamic equivalence in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (1969).<br />
Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language. (Nida, 1969) To avoid being misunderstood and provide a clearer meaning, Nida used “functional equivalence” to replace “dynamic equivalence” in From One Language to Another (1986). According to Nida, the best version of translation should never look like a translation. To avoid such feeling of translation, certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency, the precedence of dynamic equivalence and precedence of forms that are acceptable to the readers. At the same time, translation should not be isolated and cultural background should be considered and try to make translations with original features and without cultural differences. While there is no possibility to balance between significance and culture, one must abandon the formal equivalence. Furthermore, it is better to recreate when the changes of form cannot show the original meanings of the text. <br />
According to the functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meaning, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in the response the readers act after reading the translation. To sum up, the functional equivalence theory focuses on reader’s response, which calls for the response of the original receptors to original text (Jia Xiuhai 2008).--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:08, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===The Salient Features of Children’s Literature===<br />
Children’s literature formed in the mid-18th century with the publishment of Émile, ou De l'éducation, a book of Rousseau. The advent of Hans Christian Andersen fairytale marked the beginning of the boom period of world children’s literature. After 20th century, a large amount of excellent works came out all over the world pushing it into another boom period. There was no specific literary works for children in the early period of China until the “New Culture Movement” period when children’s literature occurred to be an independent status. (Hua Xiaofen 2020, 91)<br />
Children’s literature, as a way of enlightenment, is required to be serious but as a kind of reading material for children it is required to be simple and interesting. At the same time, children’s linguistic features, cognitive features and psychological features should be considered in order to meet the needs of children. On the contrary, a lot of authors try very hard to write children’s literature so as to make them “de-adultification”.(Zhang Yanling 2019, 248)<br />
The beginning of literature is from imitation so that a large amount of translation works of children’s literature come out. The difference between English and Chinese is clear but to make language interesting with translating it in proper way is not an easy thing.(Tang Huaying2017, 133)<br />
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The beginning of literature is from imitation so that a large amount of translation works of children’s literature come out to learn foreign works of children's literature. The difference between English and Chinese is clear but to make language interesting with translating it in proper way is not an easy thing.(Tang Huaying2017, 133)--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:27, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====Distinct Themes in Children’s Literature====<br />
Childhood is the developing period of a man which means it is the most important stage in one’s life and children in this time have a sensitive sense to learn new things. From simpleness to complexity, children have formed a complete system of perception and their understandings change to be deeper from the surface understanding. As a kind of enlightenment, children’s literature provides a way for children to learn simple lessons so that it contains simple but distinct themes, clear but positive themes with educational meanings. Furthermore, children’s literature in foreign countries, especially in British and America, emphasizes on maternal love that is often reflected in girls’ childhood. And in children’s literature, it also shows a world in imagination with a sharp contrast with the real world in order to open children’s mind. Children could recognize truth from bad things, beauty from colorful things and kindness form cruel things. At the same time, culture of religion cannot be avoided in literary works. To infuse correct religious ideas properly is what we need to think deeper in case that the literary works should get in the way for children to know the world.(Wang Yali 2020, 74)<br />
<br />
Childhood is the developing period of a man which means it is the most important stage in one’s life and children in this time have a sensitive sense to learn new things. From simpleness to complexity, children have formed a complete system of perception and their understandings change to be deeper from the surface understanding. As a kind of enlightenment, children’s literature provides a way for children to learn simple lessons so that it contains simple but distinct themes, clear but positive themes with educational meanings. Furthermore, children’s literature in foreign countries, especially in British and America, emphasizes on maternal love that is often reflected in girls’ childhood. And in children’s literature, it also shows a world in imagination with a sharp contrast with the real world in order to open children’s eyes. Children could recognize truth from bad things, beauty from colorful things and kindness form cruel things. At the same time, culture of religion cannot be avoided in literary works. To infuse correct religious ideas properly is what we need to think deeper in case that the literary works should get in the way for children to know the world.(Wang Yali 2020, 74)--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:27, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To be an excellent translator of children’s literature, one should grasp the distinct theme in each work, paying much more attention to the values that the work wants to show about, for all the literary works for children must have a positive effect on children. In other words, a translator should take the responsibility of choosing best works and translating them from the perspective of a child. Just as Chen Bochui, an author of children’s literature, says that only if an author writes his works through the perspective of a child, hearing by the ears of a child, seeing by the eyes of a child, and feeling by the heart of a child, can he have literary works understood and appreciated by children. It is the same for a translator because translating is like recreating following the footprints of the original works.(Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
<br />
To be an excellent translator of children’s literature, one should grasp the distinct theme in each work, paying much more attention to the values that the work wants to show about, for all the literary works for children must have a positive effect on children. In other words, a translator should take the responsibility of choosing best works and translating them from the perspective of a child. Just as Chen Bochui, an author of children’s literature, says that only if an author writes his works through the perspective of a child, hearing by the ears of a child, seeing by the eyes of a child, and feeling by the heart of a child, can he have literary works understood and appreciated by children. It is the same for a translator because translating is like following the footprints of the original works.(Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:27, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====Various of Genres of Children’s Literature====<br />
Various of genres can be found in children’s literature which consists of poem, novel, fairy tale and allegory and so on. Different genres may show different aspects of the world and different genres may provide different ways to know the world pushing children form a complex but colorful cognitive system. Poem is the most beautiful genre containing impressing rhythm, catchy words, and simple content, which provides an easier way for children to learn to use language in a graceful manner. Novel is usually a long story that consists of a complete system like family or society, through which children could get an overview of the world. Fairy tale is usually different from the real world but reflects the real world in some ways. Children are very fond of this kind of genre for it enriches children’s experience and has an impressive influence on their thinking. Different genre gives different possibilities but rationality and normality should be put in the first place.(Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
<br />
Various of genres can be found in children’s literature which consists of poem, novel, fairy tale and allegory and so on. Different genres may show different aspects of the world and different genres may provide different ways to know the world pushing children form a complex but colorful cognitive system. Poem is the most beautiful genre containing impressing rhythm, catchy words, and simple content, which provides an easier way for children to learn to use language in a graceful manner. Novel is usually a long story that contains a complete system like family or society, through which children could get an overview of the world. Fairy tale is usually different from the real world but reflects the real world in some ways. Children are very fond of this kind of genre for it enriches children’s experience and has an impressive influence on their thinking. Different genre gives different possibilities but rationality and normality should be put in the first place.(Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:27, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To become an excellent translator of children’s literature, one must get to know the essence of different genres in order that a translator can transfer his styles easily in different genres. Translation is a complex process that consists of many steps. Zhang Meifang (1999) once pointed out that “In the process of translation, a translator is the recipient of the source text and the producer of the target text either. In this way, he must have text analysis in both of the two processes and compare the results to finish the translation task properly.” Newmark come up with the three steps of translation: firstly, understand and analyze the source text; secondly, conceive a mind map of translating about the choice of words and sentences; thirdly, reproduce the text according to author’s intention, readers’ expectation, and proper regulation. Choosing proper translation strategies through text analysis is necessary.(Zhou Xuanfeng2004, 102) <br />
====Vivid Expressions in Children’s Literature====<br />
In the period of childhood, language system is not mature enough to accept all the linguistic phenomenon. And children cannot focus on the same thing for a long time so that abstract and complex languages cannot arise their attention. To make sure that children of different ages can understand the expression easily, vivid expressions are acceptable. In 1865, the publication of Alice's Adventures in Wonderland caused a stir and it fully showed the vivid expressions of children’s literature. It is a story about the real experience in wonderland of the sweet girl, Alice. The reason why it is still popular in the world is that it tells an interesting story with simple words and the translation even uses allusions in Journey to the West to stimulate children’s interests. (Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)<br />
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In the period of childhood, language system is not mature enough to accept all the linguistic phenomenon. And children cannot focus on the same thing for a long time so that abstract and complex languages cannot arise their attention. To make sure that children of different ages can understand the expression easily, vivid expressions are acceptable. In 1865, the publication of ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'' caused a stir and it fully showed the vivid expressions of children’s literature. It is a story about the real experience in wonderland of the sweet girl, Alice. The reason why it is still popular in the world is that it tells an interesting story with simple words and the translation even uses allusions in ''Journey to the West'' to stimulate children’s interests. (Hua Xiaofen2020, 91)--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To be a good translator of children’s literature, one must learn children’s psychological and linguistic features in order to translate the literary works in a proper manner. Different from adults, the linguistic competence of children is not as perfect as that of adults. According to a research about linguistic features of children, children acquire intonation of Chinese first and then pronunciation. The acquisition of vowel is much earlier than that of consonants. It is reported that a kid aged three years old making mistakes in speaking language is very normal. Language acquisition in the early age of childhood must go through a specific process and children in this stage don’t have a mature system for language and their cognitive ability is limited so that translators should try to use simple but vivid words to make children of different ages understand texts easily.(Cao Li2018, 437)<br />
<br />
To be a good translator of children’s literature, one must learn children’s psychological and linguistic features in order to translate the literary works in a proper manner. Different from adults, the linguistic competence of children is not as perfect as that of adults. According to a research about linguistic features of children, children acquire intonation of Chinese first and then pronunciation. The acquisition of vowels is much earlier than that of consonants. It is reported that a kid aged three years old making mistakes in speaking language is very normal. Language acquisition in the early age of childhood must go through a specific process and children in this stage don’t have a mature system for language and their cognitive ability is limited so that translators should try to use simple but vivid words to make children of different ages understand texts easily.(Cao Li2018, 437)--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Cultural Infusion in Children’s Literature====<br />
Cultural confidence is a core point in today’s development in all aspects. Culture is the soul of a nation and it pushes the development of a nation in some ways. It is like an invisible weapon which influences people’s mind and value towards the world. Nowadays, more and more literary works concern more about cultural infusion through which Chinese culture can be spread to the whole world and foreign cultures can come into China either. In this way, literary works are regarded as an important tool to transmit cultures so that assessing literary works can be an essential point. And as a way of enlightenment for children, children’s literature plays an essential role in developing Chinese culture. (Liu Xiaoqing 2020, 91) <br />
<br />
Cultural confidence is a core point in today’s development of all aspects. Culture is the soul of a nation and it pushes the development of a nation in some ways. It is like an invisible weapon which influences people’s mind and value towards the world. Nowadays, more and more literary works concern more about cultural infusion,through which Chinese culture can be spread to the whole world and foreign cultures can come into China either. In this way, literary works are regarded as an important tool to transmit cultures so that assessing literary works can be an essential point. And as a way of enlightenment for children, children’s literature plays an essential role in developing Chinese culture. (Liu Xiaoqing 2020, 91) --[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
To be a translator taking the responsibility of exchanging different cultures, one must know the east and know the west. There’s difference in social conventions affected by geographical and historical factors. There’s difference in thinking patterns and authors in the western countries take sentence stricture for granted such as Shakespeare. There’ s difference in etiquette and Chinese culture has been influenced by Confucius. To combine the two kind of different cultures and to make it easy to understand become the key point for translators.(Wang Yali2020, 74)<br />
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===A Case Study: E-C Translation of ''The Lion King'' under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br />
''The Lion King'' is story written by The Walt Disney Company inspired by Shakespeare’s Hamlet. It has been made into a movie in 1944 when it caused a stir to the whole world. Simba is the little prince of Pride Land, and his father Mufasa is the majestic king. However, his uncle Scar has designs on Mufasa's throne for a long time. In order to take the throne, Scar must eliminate the little prince for Simba will be the next king of Pride Land. Therefore, he has been wrestling to try every means to make Simba go outside of the land where there is no Mufasa protecting Simba, and then waits for the opportunity to kill him with the help of those hungry hyenas who are the army of Pride Land. It is when Simba cannot fight that Mufasa comes to rescue him in time. Later, Mufasa is murdered by Scar who has tried every means to scheme against the real king of the land. After Mufasa’s death, Scar had ulterior motives to make Simba to leave and at the same time, he sent some hyenas to kill him, but Simba escaped to other place with his wit. Simba went through the very hot and dry dessert and encountered a meerkat named Timon and a kind warthog named Pumbaa who witnessed Simba grow into a powerful lion. Not long afterward Simba met Nana, his playmate when he was in his childhood. Nana told Simba that Pride Land had suffered a disaster and she encouraged him to return to the land but Simba was unwilling to get back to the place anymore. Later, Simba met with his father's spirit and decided to restore the country with the guidance of mage Rafiki. In the following struggle to restore Pride Land and save the people, Simba understood the true meaning of responsibility and got victory with the help of his friends and relatives. (Zhang Liya2020, 20)<br />
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''The Lion King'' is story written by The Walt Disney Company inspired by Shakespeare’s Hamlet. It has been made into a movie in 1944 when it caused a stir to the whole world. Simba is the little prince of Pride Land, and his father Mufasa is the majestic king. However, his uncle Scar has designs on Mufasa's throne for a long time. In order to take the throne, Scar must eliminate the little prince for Simba will be the next king of Pride Land. Therefore, he has been wrestling to try every means to make Simba go outside of the land where there is no Mufasa protecting him, and then waits for the right opportunity to kill him with the help of those hungry hyenas who is the army of Pride Land. It is when Simba cannot fight that Mufasa comes to rescue him in time. Later, Mufasa is murdered by Scar who has tried every means to scheme against the real king of the land. After Mufasa’s death, Scar had ulterior motives to make Simba to leave and at the same time, he sent some hyenas to kill him, but Simba escaped to other place with his wit. Simba went through the very hot and dry dessert and encountered a meerkat named Timon and a kind warthog named Pumbaa who witnessed Simba grow into a powerful lion. Not long afterward Simba met Nana, his playmate when he was in his childhood. Nana told Simba that Pride Land had suffered a disaster and she encouraged him to return to the land but Simba was unwilling to get back to the place anymore. Later, Simba met with his father's spirit and decided to restore the country with the guidance of mage Rafiki. In the following struggle to restore Pride Land and save the people, Simba understood the true meaning of responsibility and got victory with the help of his friends and relatives. (Zhang Liya2020, 20)--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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''The Lion King'' is a glorious animation that praise justice and love, castigates evil and conspiracy, and it shows respect to the principle of the circle of life, and discloses a philosophy of the whole life. According to Nida’s theory, the translation work must represent the original meaning of the source text with proper words and structure. And to make the target text attract children’s attention, the translation work must find the best way to cater their interests. Due to the popularity of the movie version of The Lion King, the translation version is fewer. The translation version of The Lion King is translated by Song Ruixue and published by National Open University Press. (Zhang Liya2020, 20)--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====Functional Equivalence at Lexical Level====<br />
The use of simple words is the basic feature of children’s literature, through which the translators choose lucid and suitable words for children readers. Just as Nida mentioned that “Translation is the representation of the source text with the closest and most natural words, so the first equivalence is in semantics and the second is in literary genres.”(Xiong Ziwei2018, 9) <br />
=====The Use of Reduplication=====<br />
From the perspective of linguistic features, the use of reduplication in Chinese gives readers the beauty of rhyme, expression, and form so that it will arise children readers’ interests no matter in the aspect of reading or listening. On the other hand, the intonation will be stressed with the use of reduplication that will strengthen the emotional expression which makes the character more prominent and the translation work more readable.(Xiong Ziwei2018, 9) <br />
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From the perspective of linguistic features, the use of reduplication in Chinese gives readers the beauty of rhyme, expression, and form so that it will arise children readers’ interests no matter in the aspect of reading or listening. On the other hand, the intonation will be stressed with the use of reduplication that will strengthen the emotional expressions which makes the character more prominent and the translation work more readable.(Xiong Ziwei2018, 9) --[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Reduplication is to reuse the same word so that it gives readers catchy rhythm which makes the ordinary words special and gives more power to language itself. For example, the use of reduplication combining with the sound shows the mental activity of the character and children readers will easily get the image. (Xiong Ziwei2018, 9)<br />
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Reduplication is to reuse the same word so that it gives readers catchy rhythm which makes the ordinary words special and gives more power to language itself. In this way, the use of reduplication combining with the sound shows the mental activity of the character and children readers will easily get the image. (Xiong Ziwei2018, 9)--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Example 1: The three scared bullies ran away as Scar looked from shadows.<br />
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Translation: 三只鬣狗吓破了胆，灰溜溜地逃跑了。刀疤躲在阴影里，看见了这一切。<br />
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The first example is taken from the part that Mufasa went to resecure Simba when he was in trouble. Mufasa’s majestic looking was showed up with the sharp contrast with bullies’ coward reactions. The translator doesn’t have a literal translation but adds an adverb in the replication form in which it makes the sentence beautiful in rhyme. Furthermore, the three bullies were scared and regretful at the same time so that “灰溜溜地” represents their psychological activity in a proper way. The coward characters seem to leap off the page, from which children will understand the character better and get the kindness from the bullies. (Song Ruixue2020,18) <br />
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Example 2: Simba saw his father fall. He ran calling Mufasa’s name but the king was already dead.<br />
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Translation: 辛巴眼睁睁地看着自己的父亲掉落深谷，他痛苦地呼唤着父亲的名字，然而木法沙再也无法回应他了。<br />
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The second example is taken from the part when Mufasa was murdered by Scar, and Simba could do nothing to help his father so that he just saw the death of Mufasa and felt devastated and self-condemned. For Simba, it is because of his inability that makes his father die who has loved him so much. For children readers, they may regard themselves as Simba who felt depressed and the word “眼睁睁地” causes a feeling of useless, through which children may get to understand the importance of responsibility. In this way, it makes a contrast between the helpless Simba and brave Simba who conquered Pride Land, through which children get a more impressive image of Simba.(Song Ruixue2020,24) <br />
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Example 3: Scar could not run away. Simba hit him with a powerful blow.<br />
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Translation: 刀疤再也逃不掉了。辛巴重重一击……<br />
<br />
The third example is taken from the part when Simba began to fight with Scar and he hit him in the last second. The translator translates “with a powerful blow” to “重重地” making the sentence more easy to understand for a child and showing Simba’s power and anger. The use of reduplication not only makes the image impressive but also strengthen the emotion of Simba. It is in this part that Simba revenged for his father. Different from Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Simba didn’t have hesitations but on the contrary, he fought against Scar in a very quick and powerful manner. There is clear boundary between truth and evil so that Simba’s decisive actions show that one must not hesitate to make choice or the evil will go on making troubles. (Song Ruixue2020,47)<br />
<br />
The third example is taken from the part when Simba began to fight with Scar and he hit him in the last second. The translator translates “with a powerful blow” to “重重地” making the sentence more easy to understand for a child and showing Simba’s power and anger. The use of reduplication not only makes the image impressive but also strengthens the emotion of Simba. It is in this part that Simba revenged for his father. Different from Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Simba didn’t have hesitations but on the contrary, he fought against Scar in a very quick and powerful manner. There is a clear boundary between truth and evil so that Simba’s decisive actions show that one must not hesitate to make choice or the evil will go on making troubles. (Song Ruixue2020,47)--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
The background of a story is difficult for a writer to explain to children readers for they don’t have a mature cognitive system to accept all the social and history background. However, the lexical choices of a writer or a translator can be a best way to show the deeper meaning of a simple story. Firstly, the use of republication makes every sentence in the story vivid and clear. Like a poem, the republication in each sentence gives readers beautiful rhythm that helps children form the sense of pace in language. At the same time, it is easy for them to accept this kind of beautiful expressions rather than those straightforward and dull words. Secondly, the use of republication makes each sentence in the story filled with the psychological activities of characters so that the complex changes of a character is showed up through very simple sentences. It is reported that children in the early age when they begin to learn language are very sensitive to every word they heard. And the use of reduplication helps them to use simple words to show their own feelings. The form of reduplication itself is a kind of beauty which will fulfill children’s need of appreciation of beauty. To summarize, the use of republication makes the whole text rhythmic, makes the whole story more vivid, makes all characters impressive and interesting.(Guo Zimeng2020, 94)<br />
<br />
The background of a story is difficult for a writer to explain to children readers for they don’t have a mature cognitive system to accept all the social and history background. However, the lexical choices of a writer or a translator can be a best way to show the deeper meaning of a simple story. Firstly, the use of republication makes every sentence in the story vivid and clear. Like a poem, the republication in each sentence gives readers beautiful rhythm that helps children form the sense of pace in language. At the same time, it is easy for them to accept this kind of beautiful expressions rather than those straightforward and dull words. Secondly, the use of republication makes each sentence in the story filled with the psychological activities of characters so that the complex changes of a character is showed up through very simple sentences. It is reported that children in the early age when they begin to learn language are very sensitive to every word they heard. And the use of reduplication helps them to use simple words to show their own feelings. The form of reduplication itself is a kind of beauty which will fulfill children’s need of appreciation of beauty. To summarize, the use of reduplication makes the whole text rhythmic, makes the whole story more vivid, makes all characters impressive and interesting.(Guo Zimeng2020, 94)--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====The Use of Adverbs=====<br />
The use of adverbs in English is very common no matter in literary works or daily life. Whereas, we may hardly find adverbs in Chinese adults’ daily life. On the contrary, the use of adverbs in children’s literature makes the whole text filled with cute and clear expressions. The acquisition of Children’s emotion is the reflection of psychological states and social environment. According to Donald Olding Hebb, a Canadian psychologist, pioneer of cognitive psychophysiology, children’s emotion and cognition are inseparable. The expression of emotion relies on cognition in some way. In other word, understanding is prior to emotion and emotion is the production of cognition. In some literary works, the use of adverbs gives readers a chance to percept the emotions of characters in order to improve the ability to feel emotion and express emotions in a correct way.(Xiong Ziwei2020, 9)<br />
<br />
The use of adverbs in English is very common no matter in literary works or daily life. Whereas, we may hardly find adverbs in Chinese adults’ daily life. On the contrary, the use of adverbs in children’s literature makes the whole text filled with cute and clear expressions. The acquisition of Children’s emotion is the reflection of psychological states and social environment. According to Donald Olding Hebb, a Canadian psychologist, pioneer of cognitive psychophysiology, children’s emotion and cognition are inseparable. The expression of emotion relies on cognition in some way. In other word, understanding is prior to emotion and emotion is the production of cognition. In some literary works, the use of adverbs gives readers a chance to perceive the emotions of characters in order to improve the ability to feel emotion and express emotions in a correct way.(Xiong Ziwei2020, 9)--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 4: All the animals were quiet and bowed in respect to Simba the little lion cub.<br />
<br />
Translation: 动物们保持安静，他们心怀敬意地跪拜着小狮子辛巴。<br />
<br />
Example 4 is taken from the part when Rafiki ceremoniously marked Simba’s forehead and lift him into the air for all to see. The translator uses the adverb to show the respect of all the animals in Pride Land. The meaning of “bow” is strange for a child to understand for children don’t have any ideas about social conventions and historical background. But the use of this adverbs shows the meaning of it which is a kind of behavior with respect. The social position of little Simba is represented in this way, through which children may understand the etiquette in a social group especially in family. The contrast between the respectable Simba and the Simba chased out by Scar is produced so that the changing features of a character are clear to understand.(Song Ruixue2020,4)<br />
<br />
Example 4 is taken from the part when Rafiki ceremoniously marked Simba’s forehead and lift him into the air for all to see. The translator uses the adverb to show the respect of all the animals in Pride Land. The meaning of “bow” is strange for a child to understand for children don’t have any ideas about social conventions and historical background. But the use of this adverbs shows the meaning of it which is a kind of behavior with respect. The social position of little Simba is represented in this way, through which children may understand the etiquette in a social group especially in family. The contrast between the respectable Simba and the Simba chased out by Scar is produced so that the changing features of a character are clear to be understood.(Song Ruixue2020,4)--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 5: Simba told Scar his dad had just showed him the kingdom which he was going to rule.<br />
<br />
Translation: 辛巴高兴地告诉刀疤，父亲带他参观了整个王国。这里所有的土地都将是他的。<br />
<br />
Example 5 is taken from the part when Mufasa takes Simba to visit the whole land except the place under the shadow. The translator adds “高兴地” to show Simba’s excitement in order that children readers can feel Simba’s pure kindness that children will find themselves in this story. Comparing with Scar’s evil, Simba’s innocent character has a more impressive effect resulting in reader’s preference towards Simba.(Song Ruixue2020,13)<br />
<br />
Example 6: “Being brave doesn’t mean you go looking for trouble.” Mufasa explained gently.<br />
<br />
Translation: 木法沙温柔地回答：“儿子， 勇敢并不代表你要到处闯祸。”<br />
<br />
Example 6 is taken from the part when Mufasa rescued Simba from the hyenas and he taught him a lesson but in a very gentle way. The image of a father is usually strict and great, and the character of Mufasa makes it gentler which will make children have more admiration towards their father. At the same time, Simba’s mistake doesn’t get serious criticism because he tells the truth to his father. So in this part, children may learn to be a calm person and tell the truth no matter in what kind of situation. (Song Ruixue2020,20)<br />
<br />
Example 6 is taken from the part when Mufasa rescued Simba from the hyenas and he taught him a lesson but in a very gentle way. The image of a father is usually strict and great, and the character of Mufasa makes it gentler which will make children have more admiration towards their father. At the same time, Simba’s mistake doesn’t get serious criticism because he tells the truth to his father. So in this part, children may learn to be a calm person and tell the truth no matter in what kind of situations. (Song Ruixue2020,20)--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 7: “I can’t go back,” Simba replied.<br />
<br />
Translation: “我回不去了。”辛巴绝望地说。<br />
<br />
Example 7 is taken from the part when all of Simba’s partners come to persuade him to go back to Pride Land. The translator adds a adverb to describe his mental activity at the moment which makes the character round with guilty and desperation. But the word “绝望地” may be very strange for a child within 6 years old to understand because it is a word taught in the primary school so that it is necessary to explain about it. Regardless of this point, the use of this adverb will help children to feel the emotion of Simba who has guilty in his mind but wants to go back to his homeland hopelessly.(Song Ruixue2020,35) <br />
<br />
Example 7 is taken from the part when all of Simba’s partners come to persuade him to go back to Pride Land. The translator adds a adverb to describe his mental activity at that moment which makes the character round with guilty and desperation. But the word “绝望地” may be very strange for a child within 6 years old to understand because it is a word taught in the primary school so that it is necessary to explain about it. Regardless of this point, the use of this adverb will help children to feel the emotion of Simba who has guilty in his mind but wants to go back to his homeland hopelessly.(Song Ruixue2020,35) --[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To explain about a complex mental activity of the character is a great challenge for a writer or a translator of children’s literature, but the use of adverbs may solve this problem. And the use of adverbs in this story helps children to express their own feelings and expressing one’s own feeling is always a compulsory for a person at all ages. (Zhu Xiaotong2020, 95)<br />
<br />
=====The Use of Four-Character Idioms=====<br />
One of the features in Chinese literary works is the use of four-character idioms and it is a way for readers to learn Chinese culture in this way. However, the use of four-character idioms in Children’s literature must be chosen according to children’s cognitive feature and knowledge background.(Zhou Wenjuan2018, 81)<br />
<br />
One of the features in Chinese literary works is the use of four-character idioms and it is a way for readers to learn Chinese culture. However, the use of four-character idioms in Children’s literature must be chosen according to children’s cognitive feature and knowledge background.(Zhou Wenjuan2018, 81)--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 10:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 8: Mufasa asked why Scar had not come for the celebrations. Scar said he forgot.<br />
<br />
Translation: 当木法沙询问他为什么没有来参加庆典的时候，刀疤漫不经心地说自己忘记了。<br />
<br />
Example 9: Simba went through the very hot, dry desert until he could not go on and he collapsed.<br />
<br />
Translation: 辛巴走在一片炙热干涸的土地上，最后精疲力竭地倒下了。<br />
<br />
There are only two examples of four-character idioms used in this story. Both examples are talking about the two characters’ mental activities to highlight their mental changes. Due to children’s lack of knowledge storage, the use of four-character idioms gives a chance for them to learn in a pragmatic way.(Song Ruixue2020,7)<br />
<br />
====Functional Equivalence at Syntactical Level====<br />
The difference between children’s literature and literature for adults lies in the sense of direction, rhyme, and description. In syntactical level, it represents in the aspects of simple sentences and oral expressions. Children lack of ability to understand written language and they don’t have a mature cognitive system. To make all the content simple to understand, direct expressions should be put in the first place. At the same time, the use of simple sentences and oral expressions strengthen emotions of characters and add more interests for children readers. (Zhou Wenjuan2018, 81)<br />
<br />
=====The Use of Simple Sentences=====<br />
The use of simple sentence in children’s literature is the most common way to make it readable for children. The simple sentences that consist of fewer words and simple structures are allowed in order to accommodate children’s reading ability. Even though a few complex sentences are used, they are mostly the parallelism of simple sentences with loose structures. Furthermore, simple sentences make it easy to express naïve content like children’s childish instinct. (Lu Huaying 2017, 134)<br />
<br />
The use of simple sentence in children’s literature is the most common way to make it readable for children. The simple sentences that consist of fewer words and simple structures are allowed in order to accommodate children’s reading ability. Even though a few complex sentences are used, they are mostly the parallelism of simple sentences with loose structures. Furthermore, simple sentences make it easy to express naïve content to meet children’s childish instinct. (Lu Huaying 2017, 134)--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 10:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 10: Simba begged his father to let him join, but Mufasa simply commanded Zazu to take Simba home as he sped off to protect the kingdom.<br />
<br />
Translation: 辛巴央求父亲带他一起去，可是木法沙命令沙祖带辛巴回家，接着就迅速地离开了，他要保卫他的王国！<br />
<br />
Example 10 is taken from the part when Mufasa goes to fight and orders Zazu takes Simba to go back home. All the actions happen at once so that the source text uses a complex sentence without a stop. Different from English, a long sentence in Chinese may be so difficult to understand for a child, so the translator divided it into four simple sentences with conjunctions like “接着” making it coherent and loose. (Song Ruixue2020,10) <br />
<br />
Example 11: Under Simba’s rule, there was a lot of food and all the animals returned.<br />
<br />
Translation：在辛巴英明的统治下，荣耀国食物充足，动物回归。<br />
<br />
Example 11 is taken from the ending part that is the same as the start of the story representing a circle of life. The use of the three simple sentences produce a peaceful ending with relaxing tone. (Song Ruixue2020,48)<br />
<br />
=====The Use of Oral Expressions=====<br />
Oral expressions have differences in words, sentence structures and figures of speech comparing with formal expressions through which the literary work becomes native and naïve. On the contrary, it has the same meaning as the formal expressions but it represents the content in different tone, style and emotion which is suitable for different situations. And the choice of oral expressions depends on context in the text and social background. (Lu Huaying 2017, 134)<br />
<br />
Oral expressions have differences in words, sentence structures and figures of speech comparing with formal expressions through which the literary work becomes native and naïve. On the contrary, it has the same meaning as the formal expressions but it represents the content in different tone, style and emotion which is suitable for different situations. And the choice of oral expressions depends on context and social background of the text. (Lu Huaying 2017, 134)--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 10:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 12: Scared, the cubs ran for their lives.<br />
<br />
Translation: 两个小家伙拼命逃跑，他们被吓坏了！<br />
<br />
Example 12 is taken from the part that Simba and Nana ran away from the danger in a hurry. However, the expression of example 12 is flat and it doesn’t represent their fear. Whereas, the translator divides the sentence into two and makes it tense giving readers a feeling of hurry. Children readers may feel their fear through the sentence “他们被吓坏了” which is more vivid than a word and earlier to understand. (Song Ruixue2020,18)<br />
<br />
Example 13: Timon told Simba to forget about the past and enjoy the new life.<br />
<br />
Translation: 丁满告诉辛巴把过去抛在脑后，享受新的生活。<br />
<br />
Example is taken from the part that Simba escapes from Pride Land and meets his new friends to start a different and new life. The use of “抛在脑后” makes children readers to think about the real meaning of it but it produces a more vivid result than a single word “forget”. (Song Ruixue2020,31)<br />
<br />
The psychological features and cognitive features make us believe that only interesting things can arise children’s curiosity and children like to read interesting stories and play interesting game at the same time. So, it is necessary to make children’s literature simple but interesting, short but colorful. (Tian Hua2008, 77)<br />
<br />
The psychological features and cognitive features make us believe that only interesting things can arise children’s curiosity and children like to read interesting stories and play interesting games at the same time. So, it is necessary to make children’s literature simple but interesting, short but colorful. (Tian Hua2008, 77)--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 10:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Golgi once said that “children’s literature is a kind of happy literature” so that to make children’s literary works easier to accept by children readers, one must focus on language used in the works. To summarize, the translation of children’s literature is simple but vivid focusing on representing character’s mental activities and helping children learn to express themselves with correct words. To focus on reader’s response, functional equivalence theory in translation of children’s literature is widely used. Functional equivalence theory solves the long-standing discussion over literal translation and free translation. Both literal translation and free translation are desirable in certain translating practice so that the translation of children’s literature should be flexible according to children’s psychological and cognitive features. (Liu Xiaoqing2020, 91)<br />
<br />
Golgi once said that “children’s literature is a kind of happy literature” so that to make children’s literary works easier to accept by children readers, one must focus on language used in the works. To summarize, the translation of children’s literature is simple but vivid focusing on representing character’s mental activities and helping children learn to express themselves with correct words. To focus on reader’s response, functional equivalence theory in translation of children’s literature is widely used. Functional equivalence theory solves the long-standing discussion over "literal translation and free translation" problem. Both literal translation and free translation are desirable in certain translating practice so that the translation of children’s literature should be flexible according to children’s psychological and cognitive features. (Liu Xiaoqing2020, 91)--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 10:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Xiong Ziwei 熊子威. (2018). 儿童文学作品的句式特点 [The Syntactic Features of Children’s Literature]. ''文学教育'' Literary Education(9) 9.<br />
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Bo Lina 薄利娜. (2017). 浅析儿童文学翻译特点及影响因素 [On Translation Features of Children Literature ＆ Influential Factors]. ''太原师范学院学报( 社会科学版)'' Journal of Taiyuan <br />
Normal University ( Social Science Edition) (6) 85-87.<br />
<br />
Zhao Lei 赵蕾. (2013). 从儿童文学翻译角度看翻译心理学的表现特点 [On the Characteristics of Translation Psychology from the Perspective of Children's Literature Translation]. ''湖北科技学院学报'' Journal of Hubei University of Science and Technology (4) 41-42.<br />
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Zhang Liya 张丽娅. (2020). 浅析翻译目的论在儿童文学翻译中的应用 [On the Application of Skopos Theory in Children's Literature Translation]. ''文教资料'' Data of Culture and Education (19) 20-21.<br />
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Xue Yang, 2014. The Analysis of Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, Overseas English (10) 260-261.<br />
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Cao Li 曹丽. (2018). 儿童早期语言发育中的特点分析 [Analysis of The Characteristics of Children's Early Language Development]. ''中国儿童保健杂志'' Chinese Journal of Child Health Care (4) 437-439.<br />
<br />
Chu Jinjin 楚金金. (2014). 从目的论视角看儿童文学翻译 [On Children's Literature Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. ''产业与科技论坛'' Estate and Science Tribune (6) 193-194.<br />
<br />
Hua Xiaofen 华小芬. (2020). 儿童文学的特点及翻译——以《阿丽思漫游奇境记》为例 [The Characteristics and Translation of Children's Literature--- Take Alice's Adventures in Wonderland as an example]. ''文化综合'' Cultural Synthesis (19) 91-92.<br />
<br />
Zhang Wenjuan 张文娟. (2020). 目的论视角下的儿童文学翻译——以任溶溶汉译《吹小号的天鹅》为例 [On Children's Literature Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory--- Take Ren Rongrong's translation of The Trumpet of the Swan]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English (15) 194-195.<br />
<br />
Gong Qin 龚勤. (2011). 早期儿童语音习得的若干特点探析 [Research on the Characteristics of the Child’s Early Pronunciation Acquisition]. ''黄石理工学院学报（人文社会科学版）''Jorney of Huangshi Institute of Technology (Humanities and Social Science) (5) 48-52.<br />
<br />
Xilin Tuya 锡林图雅. (2019). 英美儿童文学作品的写作特点及翻译研究 [On the Writing Features and Translation of Children's Literature in Britain and America]. ''校园英语''English on Campus (25) 249.<br />
<br />
Zhou Xuanfeng 周宣丰. (2004). 体裁分析与翻译策略 [Genre Analysis and Translation Strategies]. ''湘潭师范学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Xiangtan Normal University(Social Science Edition) (5) 102-103.<br />
<br />
Wang Yali 王亚丽. (2020). 文化差异下的英美文学作品翻译研究 [On the Translation of British and American Literary Works Based on Cultural Differences]. ''遵义师范学院学报'' Journal of Zunyi Normal University (5) 74-77.<br />
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Liu Xiaoqing 刘晓庆. (2020). 基于功能对等理论下的英文电影片名翻译 [Translation of English Film Titles Based on Functional Equivalence Theory]. ''北京印刷学院学报'' Journal of Beijing Institute of Graphic Communication (8) 91-94.<br />
<br />
Guo Zimeng 郭梓萌. (2019). 叠词在儿童文学翻译中的应用解析 [A Study of the Application of Reduplication in Children's Literature Translation]. ''文化创新比较研究'' Cultural Innovation and Comparative Study (26) 94-95. <br />
Zhou Wenjuan 周文娟. (2018). 基于目的论的儿童文学翻译报告 [A Translation Report of Children's Literature Based on Skopos Theory]. ''语言研究'' Study in Language and Linguistics (1) 81-82.<br />
<br />
Tang Huaying 唐华颖. (2017). 目的论视域下的儿童文学英汉翻译研究 [On the Translation of Children's Literature from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. ''教育观察'' Survey of Education (24) 133-135.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yanling 张燕玲. (2019). 探析中国儿童文学的语言特点及其发展[On the Language Features and Development of Chinese children's Literature]. ''文艺评论'' Literature and Art Criticism (11) 248-249.<br />
<br />
Tian Hua 田华. (2008). 儿童文学作品的句式特点 [The Characteristics of Sentence Patterns in Children's Literature]. ''淮南师范学院学报'' Journey of Huainan Normal University (4) 77-80.</div>Hu Huifanghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=114616History of Translation Studies 92020-12-18T12:02:00Z<p>Hu Huifang: /* Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
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学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
<br />
='''Comparative Studies'''=<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language, under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, takes the relationship beween language and thought as the entry point to make a comparative study of English and Chinese language and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显而易见，语言，文化与思维模式之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，以语言和思维关系为切入口，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. Language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts and thoughts in turn is the mental reflection of the world around us. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. That is to say, without thought, language would be nothing sounds with no meaning or content. But thoughts, though accessible by various means, are best represented in language and can thus best fulfill its obligations to the speakers by such means. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921: 12) At the same time, Language is part of culture. Such as Chinese language is a part of Chinese culture. Each country has its own language in a specific culture. However, their relationship is not just between part and whole. Language is the carrier and the representation of culture, while, as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture. Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, willpower, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properities and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br />
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===2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese===<br />
The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. While in different countries, there exist vast differences in their thinking patterns, then this paper is going to illustrate four groups of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present how these thinking patterns are reflected upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. All of the opposition between Chinese thinking and occidental thinking that I present is just a matter of degree, and we have to view it critically.<br />
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===2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking===<br />
Generally speaking, human thought can be divided into two types: analytical thinking and holistic thinking. To some extent, Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical.<br />
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Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. It regard man, nature and society as an unalienable organic whole. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. Actually, there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. The formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. After accumulated, condensed and sublimated through time, such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking which is good at integrating, drawing up the guidelines and commanding the overall situation. While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analysizing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively<br />
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Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relationships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking. In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis , is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br />
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(1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br />
我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br />
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（2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br />
Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face. (Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br />
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From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one preminent feature is the aboundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br />
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===2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking===<br />
It is well know that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking. As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the oppositt side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1977: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature.<br />
On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conqure nature. Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism adovacates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration eration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974:25) While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br />
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The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br />
一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br />
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A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br />
我突然想出了一个好主意。<br />
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The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br />
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Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br />
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(1) 公交车来了。<br />
There comes the bus.<br />
(2) 我家有五口人。<br />
There are 5 people in my family.<br />
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Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by sb) “为人所骗” (be cheated by sb). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br />
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===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking===<br />
Generally speaking, Chinese people prefer thinking in images and English people prefer thinking in notions. Conspicuously, there are some cultural and historical factors leading to the formation of different thinking patterns. Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration for the concrete thinking of Chinese people. Chinese language is vivid and full of images. As we all know that the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs, which express the meaning through the outer form. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgement and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences. Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M. Young once pointed that an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end，detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness. While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” ( 1946: 15-16)The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br />
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葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br />
欲饮琵琶马上催。<br />
— 王翰《凉州词》<br />
With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br />
Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br />
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无边落木萧萧下，<br />
不尽长江滚滚来。<br />
—杜甫《登高》<br />
The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br />
The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br />
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In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br />
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“To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br />
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“为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br />
是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br />
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There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to gover the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br />
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Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br />
智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br />
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In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br />
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===2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking===<br />
According to Robert Kaplan who analynizes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br />
Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. Later in Compendium of Materia Medica writen by Li Shizheng, it collect and summarize a vast of prescription based on his practical experiences and mothods. And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging. While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotlian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br />
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(1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br />
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足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br />
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There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br />
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(2) 各位来宾:<br />
女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br />
Distinguished Guests,<br />
Ladies and Gentlemen,<br />
Dear Friends,<br />
<br />
在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br />
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With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br />
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Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br />
诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br />
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Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delightment in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br />
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Although the distinction between Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of composition above middle school, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. And also the “general discussion-sub discussion-conclusion model” is only one certain structure for English writing. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines, and we have to critically think about the differences between Chinese and English.<br />
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===3. Conclusion===<br />
The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other. While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, so we can not lump together under one head and blindly follow that the Chinese and Occidental thinking models must be opposite in certain dimension. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts a lot upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people from different nation think about the world and other objects around them, and then better understand why and how they tend to use such kind of ways of expression. Then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br />
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=== Bibliography===<br />
<br />
*Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br />
*Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br />
*Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br />
*Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br />
*Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br />
*Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br />
* Lian Shuneng. 连淑能. (2002) 论中西思维方式【J】 On Chinese and Western modes of thinking. 大连：外语与外语教学. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching.<br />
*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1992) 《汉英对比翻译》【M】 Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese, 南昌: 江西教育出版社, Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press.<br />
*Qian Mu. 钱穆，(1977)《世界局势与中国文化》The World Situation and Chinese Culture【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD.<br />
*Shen Xiaolong. 申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters《学术月刊》 1994 第14期, 74. Academic Monthly, 1994 (14), 74.<br />
*Wang Dehua. 汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36. Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br />
*Zhang Li. 张 黎. (1994) 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】on Chinese Parataxis Grammar. 长春：吉林教育出版社Changchun: Jilin Education Press.<br />
*Zhang Sijie & Zhang Boran. 张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, 中国翻译 Chinese Translation. 2001 (7), 13.<br />
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==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 英语笔译 202070080578==<br />
（缺了名字title和专业学号）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed functional equivalence, which has an overwhelming significance in the development of translation theory. This theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory.Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between original language and target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target language readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target language readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the central task in translating, which has an important guiding significance for translators.<br />
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In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed the theory of functional equivalence, which has boosted the development of translation theory. The theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory.Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between the original language and the target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the key in translation, exerting great guiding significance for translators. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, translators of China also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators. <br />
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With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, Chinese translators also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences of thse two translation theories will be presented, which will promote the understanding of them.<br />
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Nida's functional equivalence and Yan Fu's faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences between these two theories will be presented, aiming to have a better understanding in translation.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key words:=== Functional equivalence; Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance; similarities and differences; Vanity Fair.(标题格式错误，大小写不统一，名利场是书/杂志，需要斜体）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。<br />
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随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。<br />
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奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。<br />
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===关键词===：功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》(标题格式错误）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, we can see that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His “ Functional equivalence” theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reacching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” translation standard, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43).<br />
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Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, it can be seen that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His “ Functional equivalence” theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reacching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles.（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180)<br />
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Despite the different social environment and the imperfect translation standards, it is undeniable that these two are still the most authoritative and vital ones in Chinese and Western translation circles.（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====<br />
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Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible as well as a translation theorist. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). <br />
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Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible, and a translation theorist as well. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In 1964, Nida put forward “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence” in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of “dynamic equivalence” until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression “dynamic equivalence” was superseded by “functional equivalence” in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). <br />
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In 1964, Nida put forward “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence” in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of “dynamic equivalence” until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression “dynamic equivalence” was superseded by “functional equivalence” in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). （双引号没引完）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of a translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). As we all know, it is impossible for a transltion to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translator can cause differences in translation.<br />
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Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). It is impossible to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translators can cause differences in translation.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level(Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as “The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it”. The maximal level is stated as “The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did”(Nida 1993,118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida,1995,224).<br />
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In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level(Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as “The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it”. The maximal level is stated as “The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did”(Nida 1993,118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. According to Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida,1995,224).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br />
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Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as essential criteria for understanding translations since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898)（Zhang Xi 2014,1):<br />
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Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as the essential criteria for understanding translation since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898)（Zhang Xi 2014,1):--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so(Yan Fu 2009, 202).”<br />
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“Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so(Yan Fu 2009, 202).”--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of the 20th century Chinese translation theory(Zhang Xi 2014, 2). <br />
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Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of Chinese translation theory in the 20th century (Zhang Xi 2014, 2). --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. “Faithfulness” emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. “ Expressiveness” stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. “Elegance” reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics''(Yan Fu 2009, 202):<br />
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According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. “Faithfulness” emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. “ Expressiveness” stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. “Elegance” reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics''(Yan Fu 2009, 202):--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also said, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for the translator. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek elegance.(Yan Fu 2009, 202)”<br />
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“Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also added, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for translators. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek for elegance.(Yan Fu 2009, 202)”--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticisms come from the denial of standard “ elegance”. According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese charcters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons: firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br />
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Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticism comes from the denial of standard “ elegance”. According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese characters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons. Firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. “Elegance” people mentioned now has been modified by later generations, which refers to that the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard “elegance”, the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br />
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Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. "Elegance" now has been modified by later generations, which refers to that the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard “elegance”, the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Theoretial Foundation===<br />
====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====（标题之间需要隔一行）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====Modern Linguistic=====<br />
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Functional equivalence is based on modern linguistic and it has a close relationship with linguistics(Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately(Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process（Zhu Haotong 2006,64). <br />
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Based on modern linguistic, Functional equivalence has a close relationship with linguistics(Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately(Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process（Zhu Haotong 2006,64).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On Nida’s opinion, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure(Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).<br />
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According to Nida, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure(Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====Information Theory=====<br />
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Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information(Nida 1964, 68).<br />
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Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information(Nida 1964, 68).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and target language belong to different language systems and cultures(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original for the target readers to better understand the translation(Nida 1984, 34).<br />
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Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and the target language belong to different language systems and cultures(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original text for the target readers to better understand the translation(Nida 1984, 34).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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=====Social Semiotics=====<br />
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Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning(Zhu Haotong 2006,65).<br />
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Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning(Zhu Haotong 2006,65).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that it is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and it focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods(Nida 1993, 67). <br />
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In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods(Nida 1993, 67). <br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br />
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=====Chinese Aesthetics=====<br />
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Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty（Guo dingju 2013, 18). It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today.<br />
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Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty（Guo dingju 2013, 18). It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“Faithfulness” means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. “Expressiveness” means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. “Elegance” refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reveal the essence of translation(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters(Guo Dingju 2013, 18).<br />
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“Faithfulness” means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. “Expressiveness” means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. “Elegance” refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reveal the essence of translation(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters(Guo Dingju 2013, 18).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance(Guo Dingju 2013, 19).<br />
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Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance(Guo Dingju 2013, 19).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====Literary Criticism=====<br />
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Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods(Guo Dingju 2013, 19). <br />
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Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods(Guo Dingju 2013, 19). <br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is a body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered round the craftmanship of literary works(Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation(Li Jianzhong 2009, 46). <br />
<br />
On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is the body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered around the craftmanship of literary works(Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation(Li Jianzhong 2009, 46). <br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of functions of criticism. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works proper. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism and Lu Xun is its representative. The second type is aimed at an independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism and it serves politics. It works well in the period of political struggels(Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).<br />
<br />
There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of criticism functions. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism, Lu Xun being one of the representative. The second type aims at the independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism serving politics, which works well in the period of political struggels(Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===<br />
<br />
====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====<br />
<br />
=====About ''Vanity Fair''=====<br />
<br />
''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the lives of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition(Guo Dingju 2013, 21).<br />
<br />
''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the stories of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition(Guo Dingju 2013, 21).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again(Thackeray 2006，178).<br />
<br />
At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again(Thackeray 2006，178).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater living in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time written by William Makepeace Thackeray(Guo Dingju 2013, 21). <br />
<br />
This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater living in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time(Guo Dingju 2013, 21). --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at time time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveal the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, are desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, one doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness(Thackeray 2006, 89).<br />
<br />
The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at that time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveals the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, he doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness(Thackeray 2006, 89).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====Yang Bi’s Translation of ''Vanity Fair''=====<br />
<br />
There are many Chinese translation version of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of Vanity Fair was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957. Then it was published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published in 2012 by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br />
<br />
There are many Chinese translation version of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of ''Vanity Fair'' was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957, then re-published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of original text appropriately to Chinese readers and Chinese readers can have a good understanding of western literary works(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br />
<br />
Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of the original text appropriately to Chinese readers, hence having a great response from Chinese readers.(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br />
<br />
Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator. When comparing the English and Chinese version of Vanity Fair, it’s easy for us to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.<br />
<br />
Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator when translating. When comparing the English and Chinese version of ''Vanity Fair'', it’s easy to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====At Lexical Level=====<br />
<br />
In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943，89), those are <br />
<br />
In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943，89), those are --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
(1)entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on; <br />
<br />
(2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on; <br />
<br />
(3)states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on; <br />
<br />
(4)characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on; <br />
<br />
(5)processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on; <br />
<br />
(6)links, such as when, during, below and so on; <br />
<br />
(7)deictics, such as that, there, this and so on(Nida 1986, 20). （格式不统一，需要隔开）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language(Zhang Yanmei 2019,16). <br />
<br />
Exampe 1: <br />
<br />
ST1:...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br />
<br />
TT1:痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)（格式不统一，需要隔开）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In ST1, “Love” and “Beauty” are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words “Love” and “Beauty” to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates “Love” and “Beauty” into “痴情男子“and “美貌佳人”to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate “Love” and “Beauty” into “爱情” and “美人”, the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.<br />
<br />
In ST1, “Love” and “Beauty” are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words “Love” and “Beauty” to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates “Love” and “Beauty” into “痴情男子“and “美貌佳人”to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate “Love” and “Beauty” into “爱情” and “美人”, the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====At Syntactical Level=====<br />
<br />
A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences (Nida, 1946). Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence(Nida 1946, 55). He think there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:<br />
<br />
A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences (Nida, 1946). Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence(Nida 1946, 55). He think there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
(1)subject+predicate+adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;<br />
<br />
(2)subject+predicate+object, such as, John hit Bill;<br />
<br />
(3)subject+predicate+object+object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;<br />
<br />
(4)subject+be+subject complement, such as John is in the restaurant;<br />
<br />
(5)subject+be+attributive, such as, John is kind;<br />
<br />
(6)subject+be+indefinite article+noun, such as, John is a man.<br />
<br />
(7)subject+be+pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend. (符号之间隔开）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences(Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text(Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of Vanity Fair are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation. <br />
<br />
The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences(Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text(Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
<br />
ST2:His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury. (Thackeray2016,75) <br />
<br />
TT2:他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br />
（Yang Bi 2013,76) （符合和文字需要隔开） --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences(Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.<br />
<br />
(1)他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。<br />
<br />
His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.<br />
<br />
(2)他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。<br />
<br />
He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.<br />
<br />
(3)她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。<br />
<br />
She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade. <br />
<br />
(4)她死后，他许下承诺。<br />
<br />
He was hanged after her death.<br />
<br />
(5）他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。<br />
<br />
He would never take another of her sort.<br />
<br />
(6)妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。<br />
<br />
At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.<br />
<br />
(7)他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br />
<br />
He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.（格式不统一，需要隔开）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.<br />
<br />
====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br />
<br />
The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====At Lexical level=====<br />
<br />
Literary words demands that the translator has good comand of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence(Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.<br />
<br />
Literary words demands that the translator has good comand of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence(Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 3:<br />
<br />
ST3: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty?(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br />
<br />
TT3:痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)同上--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words “an image of Love” and “Beauty” to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br />
<br />
If the words “prettier”, “an image of Love” and “Beauty” are translated into “更好看”“爱情形象”“美人” respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, “痴情男子”“美貌佳人”and “赏心悦目” reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br />
<br />
If the words “prettier”, “an image of Love” and “Beauty” are translated into “更好看”“爱情形象”“美人” respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, “痴情男子”“美貌佳人”and “赏心悦目” reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
=====At Sentence Level===== <br />
<br />
English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis(Guo Dingju 2013,40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br />
<br />
Example 4: <br />
<br />
ST4:The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley.(Thackeray 2006, 74)<br />
<br />
TT4:布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)<br />
同上，格式注意修改--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the original sentence, the abstract words “behavior” and “reception” are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into “克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……” without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.<br />
<br />
In the original sentence, the abstract words “behavior” and “reception” are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into “克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……” without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====<br />
<br />
=====The Similarities of Them=====--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)（ Similarities）<br />
<br />
Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.<br />
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One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent(Nida&Taber 1969, 22).<br />
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Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers.The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty(Guo Dingju 2013, 43). Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.<br />
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The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating(Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information(Nida 1969,30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent.<br />
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Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely(Guo Dingju 2013,44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.<br />
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By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====The Differences of Them=====（Differences）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Although there are many similarities of them, they have several differences because of different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence,which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of “elegance”. What’s more, the concrete explanation of “faithfulness” is not clear. Whether the target text should only be “faithful” to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as translation standard. <br />
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Although there are many similarities between these two thoeries, there are still some differences because of the different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence,which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of “elegance”. What’s more, the concrete explanation of “faithfulness” is not clear. Whether the target text should only be “faithful” to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as the translation standard. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class(Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of differences of these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translating. <br />
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With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class(Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of the differences between these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translation. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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From comparison above, we know that there are some similarities and differences between them. I believe that these two translation theories play an important role in translating and they can guide us better understand different cultures. At the end of this paper, I will discuss the implements and limitations of this study.<br />
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From the comparison above, it is known that there are some similarities and differences between these two thoeries. It is believed that these two translation theories both play an important role in translation, guiding us to better understand different cultures. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Implements====（可以删除）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). <br />
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What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper(Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.<br />
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====Limitations====（可以删除）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions. <br />
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===References===<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene Albert奈达.(1964).''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive博睿学术出版社.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene Albert 尤金·阿尔伯特·奈达. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 博睿学术出版社.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida, Eugene Albert奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''《翻译理论与实践》. Leiden: Brill Archive博睿学术出版社.<br />
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Nida, Eugene Albert奈达, and Jan de Waard.(1986) ''From One Language to Another''《从一种语言到另一种语言》. Nashville: Thomas Nelson托马斯·纳尔逊出版社.<br />
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Nida, Eugene Albert奈达.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''《语言、文化与翻译》.Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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Thackeray,William萨克雷.（2006）. ''Vanity Fair''《名利场》.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
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Chen Minjie陈岷婕.(2013).浅谈严复的“信达雅”与奈达的“功能对等”[On Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Nida’s “functional Equivalence”].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(236)94-97.<br />
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Guo Dingju郭丁菊.(2013).功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness Expressiveand Elegance from the Translation of Vanity Fair].Harbin:Northeast Forestry University东北农业大学.<br />
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Li Jianzhong李建中.(2009)中国文学批评史[History of Chinese Literary Criticism].Beijing:Peking University Press北京大学出版社.<br />
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Tan Kai谭凯.(2011)严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness Expressive and Elegance” and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence].青年作家Young Writers(1)43-44.<br />
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Wang Yunxi王运熙,Gu Yisheng顾易生.(2007).中国文学批评史新编[A New History of Chinese Literary Criticism].Shanghai:Shanghai Classics Publishing House上海古籍出版社.<br />
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Yan Fu严复(2009).《天演论》译例言[Preface to Evolution and Ethics].Beijing:The Commercial Press商务印书馆.<br />
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Yang Bi杨必.(2013)《名利场》[Vanity Fair].Beijing:People’s Literature Publishing House人民文学出版社.<br />
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Zhang Yanmei张妍梅.(2019).功能对等理论视角下《名利场》的翻译[A Study on The Translation of Vanity Fair from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory].Lanzhou:Lanzhou Jiaotong University兰州交通大学.<br />
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Zhang Xi张曦.(2014).翻译硕士备考指南[A Guide Book to MTI].Shanghai:Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[A Comparison on :Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House中国学术期刊电子出版社(2)180-181.<br />
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Zhu Haotong 朱浩彤.(2006).奈达“功能对等”理论基础的再思考[Some Thoughts on the Theoretical Bases of Nida’s Functional Equivalence]. Journal of Fujiann Medical University福建医科大学学报(3)62-65.<br />
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（注意格式问题，需要修改）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br />
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===Abstract=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br />
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===Key words=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br />
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===摘要===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br />
===关键词===生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
The ''Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the ''National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference'', including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）<br />
As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials. In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. （Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）<br />
in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）<br />
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===1.Introduction of Government Work Report===<br />
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''Government Work Report'' has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, ''Government Work Report'' manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br />
===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br />
For ''Government Work Report'' has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br />
====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br />
The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)<br />
====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br />
As the ''Government Work Reports'' involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br />
====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br />
The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br />
===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br />
In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. (Zhou Ji,2006)<br />
Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br />
It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br />
===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br />
In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br />
====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br />
Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br />
Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) <br />
“获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) <br />
“增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) <br />
Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br />
Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )<br />
“在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)<br />
“放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)<br />
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==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br />
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Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br />
===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br />
Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br />
===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br />
====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br />
The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection". The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br />
====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br />
Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br />
Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br />
Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br />
In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br />
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==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br />
From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br />
===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br />
The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br />
Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br />
“大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br />
Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br />
In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br />
Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br />
The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br />
===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br />
The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br />
Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br />
It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br />
Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br />
In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br />
Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br />
“筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br />
===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br />
From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br />
Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br />
For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br />
“保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br />
Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br />
In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br />
In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br />
Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br />
First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br />
However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br />
<br />
==='''Bibliography'''===<br />
Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br />
Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br />
Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br />
Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 1999. <br />
Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003 (4): 283-291.<br />
Joan Pinkham. The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br />
程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br />
方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br />
胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br />
胡庚申．生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]．中国翻译,2011 (2) : 5－9．<br />
黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br />
胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br />
刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br />
童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br />
王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br />
王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br />
周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br />
周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br />
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中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br />
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==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603 <span style="color:red">专业 is missing</span>--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 08:38, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling==<br />
<center>欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br />
<br />
Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective(<span style="color:red">perspectives</span>). Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br />
Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors.By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br />
<br />
Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed(<span style="color:red">pointed out</span>) the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors.(<span style="color:red">incorrect structure and obscure sentence meaning</span>) By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br />
<br />
====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br />
Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br />
<br />
Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' (<span style="color:red">that</span>)the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated (<span style="color:red">originated from</span>)his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br />
<br />
===2.Similarities and Differences===<br />
<br />
====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br />
As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br />
<br />
As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic(<span style="color:red">linguistics</span>) was exerted in both of their equivalence theory(<span style="color:red">theories</span>). Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br />
<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br />
Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br />
<br />
Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br />
<br />
=====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br />
The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br />
<br />
The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning(<span style="color:red">meanings</span>) into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br />
<br />
The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence''. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br />
<br />
The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence''. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want(<span style="color:red">wanted</span>) to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br />
Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42). Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence(Catford, 1965: 22). And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br />
<br />
Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42). Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors(<span style="color:red">factor</span>) to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence(Catford, 1965: 22). And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br />
<br />
=====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br />
Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br />
<br />
Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before(<span style="color:red">in front of</span>) its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br />
<br />
Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language.From this we can know that it's difficult to achieve the same meaning at a linguistic level between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br />
<br />
Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language(<span style="color:red">From this we can know that it's difficult to achieve the same meaning at a linguistic level between source language and target language</span>). In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br />
<br />
=====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br />
Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42). These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory ,Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation(Munday, 2008: 43). Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br />
<br />
Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42). These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep(<span style="color:red">These two types actually reflect a shallow to deep tendency of Nida's researches on structure of language</span>). Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory ,Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation(Munday, 2008: 43). Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br />
<br />
<br />
In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.3.Different Research Approach(<span style="color:red">Approaches</span>)=====<br />
To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). In another aspect, Nida held a view that "meaning is universal" and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br />
<br />
By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br />
<br />
By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define(<span style="color:red">defined</span>) by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br />
<br />
===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br />
<br />
=====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br />
In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspective. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics(Tan, 2017: 132). I think Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages. Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect(Nida, 1964: 159). This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators. Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence offers a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language. Thirdly, Also, the equivalence theory described by Nida is concrete and practical for people to understand and adopt for it is oriented by receptors’ response that can be easily examined and analyzed. <br />
<br />
In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspective(<span style="color:red">perspectives</span>). The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics(Tan, 2017: 132). I think Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages. Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect(Nida, 1964: 159). This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators. Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence offers a guidance(<span style="color:red">have offered guidances</span>) to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language. Thirdly, Also, the equivalence theory described by Nida is concrete and practical for people to understand and adopt for it is oriented by receptors’ response that can be easily examined and analyzed. <br />
<br />
<br />
=====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br />
Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully(Munday, 2008: 38). Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory. What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators. <br />
<br />
====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br />
Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved(Caford, 1965:22), he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature way.<br />
<br />
====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br />
Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials(Wang, 2008: 166). Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators. Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinct linguistic and cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language(Catford, 1965: 101). This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete.<br />
<br />
Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials(Wang, 2008: 166). Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators. Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinct linguistic and cultural untranslatability (<span style="color:red">distinguish linguistic from cultural untranslatability </span>)for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language(Catford, 1965: 101). This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete.<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion===<br />
In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27). The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possess many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application.<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27). The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possess(<span style="color:red">possessing</span>) many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br />
<br />
Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br />
<br />
Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br />
<br />
Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br />
<br />
Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br />
<br />
Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br />
<br />
Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science & Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br />
<br />
==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605==<br />
<center>石海瑶 Shi Haiyao </center><br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people's overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'' was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, ''On the Construction of the System of Translatology''. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''=== <br />
一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
===='''Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br />
<br />
In his book ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'', Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, it should also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.<br />
<br />
Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, the study of human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.<br />
<br />
In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable, knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:21-22)<br />
<br />
From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br />
<br />
[[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]<br />
<br />
===='''Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br />
According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology.<br />
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The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology.<br />
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The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself.<br />
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The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.<br />
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The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. <br />
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The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:197-287).<br />
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From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br />
[[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]<br />
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The translations of the above terms are as following:<br />
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[[File:Shu Yu.jpg]]<br />
<br />
==='''Similarities and Differences'''===<br />
<br />
===='''The Similarities between the Two systems'''====<br />
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====='''Both deem translatology as an independent discipline'''=====<br />
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In 1951, Dong Qiusi published ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper ''Translatology must be established'', which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br />
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From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br />
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It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br />
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====='''Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation'''=====<br />
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In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br />
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For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br />
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Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br />
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====='''Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation'''=====<br />
The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that "all translations must be faithful to the original text". Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as "faithful to the original content ", " faithful to the original form ", " faithful to the original effect ", " faithful to the original function" and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that "comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style" is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br />
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As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br />
Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br />
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<br />
===='''The differences between the Two Translation Systems'''====<br />
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====='''Different structures of translation system'''=====<br />
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From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br />
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Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br />
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====='''Different views on the study of translation history'''=====<br />
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Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br />
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we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br />
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====='''Different views on translation process'''=====<br />
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For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br />
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From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive. <br />
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<br />
==='''My Thoughts on the Two Systems'''===<br />
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===='''My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br />
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====='''Contributions of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br />
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First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word "translatology" is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br />
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Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that "translatology is an independent discipline" is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br />
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Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of "harmony in diversity", which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br />
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====='''Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br />
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As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br />
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Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br />
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Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br />
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====='''My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br />
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The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br />
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<br />
===='''My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br />
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====='''Contributions of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br />
First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br />
In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br />
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====='''Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br />
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However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br />
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Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br />
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Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br />
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====='''My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br />
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Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies. <br />
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<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
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This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''Refrences'''===<br />
<br />
[1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外国语大学出版社,2000.<br />
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[2]方梦之.当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起 [J]. 外语教学理论与实践，2016（3）：55-63.<br />
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[3]蓝红军. "从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017)." 中国翻译 39.1 (2018): 7-16.<br />
<br />
[4]谭载喜.必须建立翻译学[J].中国翻译,1987b3: 2-7.<br />
<br />
[5]谭载喜.翻译学[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005.<br />
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[6]许钧,穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京:译林出版社,2009.<br />
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[7]易经.试论翻译学体系的构建[D].湖南师范大学,2009.<br />
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==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of "dynamic equivalence", and Bassnett proposed the concept of "cultural equivalence". Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of "equivalence" or "equivalence" in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br />
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==='''Key Words'''=== <br />
Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br />
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===摘要===<br />
尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br />
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===关键词=== <br />
尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek "Bible New Testament" studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society.<br />
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In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is "Toward a Science of Translation" "The Theory and Practice of translation" etc. <br />
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His "dynamic equivalence" translation theory and "reader's response theory" translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br />
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Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of "cultural equivalence" and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br />
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Nida's "dynamic equivalence" and Bassnett's "cultural equivalence" theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the "similarities" and "differences" of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br />
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===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br />
Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. <br />
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But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br />
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Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values embodied in translated texts.<br />
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===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br />
Nida's "dynamic equivalence" translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. <br />
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Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research.<br />
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In the 1950s, since Nida served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Society for several years, Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the actual work of "Bible" translation. Since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the dynamic equivalent translation theory in translation projects organized by the American Bible Society (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br />
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===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br />
As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to "Translation, History and Culure" (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that "Culural lurn" (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br />
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Bassnett believes that the linguistic school of translation faces the following problems: The method of machine translation is an effective method, but it is not suitable for literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett pointed out that the research method of translation should undergo an cultural turn (eulturalturn). She believes that translators must perform translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators must not conduct translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett’s cultural translation view is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, it is rooted in and influenced by the culture of the language.<br />
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===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br />
<br />
===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence" Theory===<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence" is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term "equivalence".<br />
<br />
3.1.1The nature of "equivalence"<br />
“Equivalence" is an important proposition in translation for it <br />
involves some key problems such as nature of translation, translation norms as well as quality and evaluation of translation. As a mathematic term, the word “ equivalence" refers to an absolutely symmetrical and equal relationship, but in many English dictionaries, it gets obscure meanings that things possess similarities or areessentially identical. Then, is the concept“equivalence in translation theories derived from its absolute mathematics reference orborrowed from its indistinct meanings as a word of general linguistices? According to many translation theorists (including Nida), it may mean more of the latter than the former.<br />
<br />
" Equivalence" is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that "loyalty" or "faith", for the concept of "loyalty"or "faith" refers to attitudes of translators while "faithful translation" indicates the quality of translation. But "equivalence" involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The "equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. <br />
<br />
The historic contribution of Nida's" dynamic equivalence" is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s "dynamic equivalence". however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br />
<br />
3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of " dynamic equivalence”<br />
It has been mentioned above that Nida s "dynamic equivalence" theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br />
<br />
3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br />
What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence" is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( 杨柳， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved." (金隄,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence " focuses mainly onthe relative side of " equivalence " rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br />
<br />
As a relative conception, the goal " dynamic equivalence" pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching.<br />
<br />
In sum, those who are against the theory argue that effect of equivalence can never be possible in translation because translation involves at least two different languages, cultures etc.which are rather hard to the non-native, while those who are in favor hold that equivalence can be achieved not only in senses and styles, but in effect as well. Nida has made it very clear that "the response can never be identical' , but "a high degree of equivalenceof response" is required and possible. And for "functional equivalence",Nida elaborates that no translation can be completely equivalent. <br />
<br />
Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, "equivalence" doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida holds that the expression“functional equivalence" is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something " identical" or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness" to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. <br />
<br />
He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity". Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term " equivalence" in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from "identity", and " equivalence"is a relative conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (金隄, 1998:44).<br />
<br />
3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of "Functional Equivalence" in China-A Comment on the Translation of "A Madman's Diary"<br />
Here are three examples to analyze the theory of "functional equivalence" used in the "Madman's Diary" in the translation of "The Call" by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br />
<br />
（1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br />
<br />
“what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers.." (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br />
<br />
If this example is literally translated "赵贵翁", it may be translated as "Zhao Guiweng" in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated "Mr. Zhao" in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The "old-year running book" here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means "old account book". If literally translated as "aged jour-nal", obviously there is no "old ledgers" which is more suitable for the time.<br />
Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br />
<br />
(2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br />
<br />
“Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home." (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br />
<br />
The personal pronoun "陈老五", if translated literally, might be translated as "Chen Laowu". Yang Xianyi translated "Old Chen", which is more authentic. "Chen Lao Wu" may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as "Lao Chen" here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br />
<br />
(3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br />
<br />
“a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop..." ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br />
<br />
"狼子村" is a place noun. If it is simply translated as "The Wolf Child Village", it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of "Cub" in "Wolf Cub Village" of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. "Cub" means "cub" and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br />
<br />
===3.2 Bassnett's "cultural equivalence" theory===<br />
Bassnett believes that the goal of translation should be changed from the text commonly accepted by people to culture, which is the so-called cultural shift. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. Only when people's heart, language and body are coordinated with each other, can people maintain vigor and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must take into account the overall physical condition of the patient. The same is true for translation practice. In the process of translating the target language into the target language, members of parliament must take into account the double standards of language accuracy and cultural adaptability, and must not strip away culture and treat translation in isolation.<br />
<br />
3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br />
Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br />
<br />
Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br />
<br />
3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br />
As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content.<br />
<br />
But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. <br />
Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br />
<br />
3.2.3 "Intelligibility" of the translation<br />
Before the rise of the cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into plain and simple language in order for the translation to be better understood by readers, deleting literary metaphors and associations. In this way, the translation will indeed become easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work has been reduced, and the interest and depth will not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett believes that the "understandability" of the translation cannot be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but should try to maintain the original flavor of the original.<br />
<br />
3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br />
For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br />
<br />
3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br />
<br />
原文:<br />
<br />
“六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br />
<br />
辜译: "Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,"<br />
<br />
韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons." (Waley, 1999:37 )<br />
<br />
"六亲" in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as "the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it "sixnear ons" , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of "six relatives". (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br />
<br />
原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br />
<br />
辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses." ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br />
<br />
韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e.."(Waley,1999:131 )<br />
<br />
Both translators translated "驷马" into "four horses", which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br />
<br />
===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br />
Nida's translation thoughts are mainly influenced by language structuralist translators, which are manifested in his use of the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core similar to Chomsky's deep structure Syntactic analysis is a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation procedures from the perspective of language translation, that is, interlingual translation. However, the essence of Nida's translation thought lies in far more than its language structuralist translation view, but more of him In "translation is science", "translation and communication", "translation must emphasize readers' reflection" and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contribution in translation theory, especially in the translation theory of the Bible, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br />
<br />
But Bassnett's "cultural translation view" focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br />
<br />
===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br />
Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br />
<br />
Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the translation process, form should give way to content. Bassnett also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, the translator can not be restricted by the literary image. It can be seen that the two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of the translation.<br />
<br />
Nida pointed out that the languages and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br />
<br />
[2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br />
<br />
[3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br />
<br />
[4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br />
<br />
[5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br />
<br />
[6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br />
<br />
[7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br />
<br />
[8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br />
<br />
[9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's "Cultural Translation" Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br />
<br />
[10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br />
<br />
[11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br />
<br />
[12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br />
<br />
[13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br />
<br />
--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:34, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory ==<br />
<center> 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br />
<br />
===目的论和严复理论的比较研究===<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. (Dun Guangang 2011, 248) <br />
<br />
In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107）As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br />
<br />
===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br />
<br />
“Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances”. (Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work, to the production of the target text. All these take the purpose as the reference. <br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br />
<br />
The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 255) Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br />
<br />
(1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br />
<br />
The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 257)<br />
<br />
(2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br />
<br />
Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br />
<br />
<br />
(3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br />
<br />
Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br />
<br />
There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br />
<br />
The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina & Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) <br />
<br />
Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. <br />
<br />
The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose. (Dun Guangang 2011,251) <br />
<br />
These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. (Vermeer, Hans J. 1989,187) From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. (Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br />
<br />
Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 113）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br />
<br />
(1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br />
<br />
The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. <br />
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The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br />
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(2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br />
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Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br />
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The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. (Chen Fukang 2000, 108) Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it, while there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory.<br />
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Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br />
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Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made. (Chen Fukang 2000, 112)<br />
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=====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br />
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Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor.(Yan Fu, 1987)<br />
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There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. (Yan Fu, 1987)<br />
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And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br />
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In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br />
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===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br />
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====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br />
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Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br />
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=====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br />
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The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory.<br />
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Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 256)<br />
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In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br />
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This coincides with Yan Fu's "Faithfulness", which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And "Faithfulness" is the premise and foundation of translation. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of "Faithfulness", as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br />
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=====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br />
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The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. <br />
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In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) <br />
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Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br />
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This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. <br />
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At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. (Yan Fu, 1987) Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br />
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=====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br />
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The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. <br />
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The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and "one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation". Translation is "the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br />
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While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br />
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====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br />
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Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br />
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=====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br />
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Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. (Dun Guangang 2011. 242) Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. <br />
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Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br />
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But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that "Faithfulness" refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br />
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Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br />
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=====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br />
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Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the "faithfulness principle" as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. "Skopos" usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, "the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers". Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br />
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In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br />
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=====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br />
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For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)<br />
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So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 257) Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity. (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)<br />
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However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156) This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. <br />
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As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br />
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===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br />
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Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br />
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====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br />
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When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach .(Tan Zaixi 2004, 242) <br />
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In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a "source of information", which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation. ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. <br />
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More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the function of translated work and translators’ subjectivity. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br />
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Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. <br />
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In particular, there are various new interpretations of "Elegance" in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”.(Shen Suru 2001,7)<br />
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====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br />
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Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory. (Pym Anthony, 1996) <br />
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Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. (Dun Guangang 2011, 247) Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable. <br />
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Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced.<br />
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In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
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There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br />
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Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br />
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Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br />
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===Reference===<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord. (1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity''. Kinderhook: St. Jerome Publishing.<br />
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Reiss Katharina & Vermeer Hans J. (1984). Groundwork for a general theory of translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br />
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Pochhacker Franz. (1995). Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, (14): 31-53.<br />
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Pym, Anthony. (1996). Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics.<br />
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Vermeer Hans J. (1982a). Translation als informationsangebot. Lebende sprachen, 27(3)97-101.<br />
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Vermeer Hans J. (1987a). What does it mean to translate. ''Indian journal of applied linguistic'', 13(2):25-33.<br />
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Vermeer Hans J. (1989a). Skopos and Commission in Translational Action. Andrew Chersterman: ''The Translation Studies Reader'', 173-187.<br />
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Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2000). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [A History of Translation Theory in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
Dun Guangang 顿官刚.（2011). ''西方翻译理论文献宣读'' [Selected Readings in Western Translation Theory]. Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press 湖南师范大学出版社.<br />
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He Xiaoling 閤小玲. (2012). 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性 [An Analysis of Translator Subjectivity in the Perspective of Purpose Theory]. Journal of Liuzhou Teachers College ''柳州师专学报''. (4):45-47.<br />
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Liu Qijia 刘期家. (2000). 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹 [On the historical development trajectory of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Journal of Sichuan International Studies University ''四川外语学院学报''. (2):96-101.<br />
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Shen Suru 沈苏儒.(2001). 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈 [The Highest Level of Translation - A Compendium of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [ A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
Yan Fu严复. (1897). ''天演论·译例言'' [Evolution and Ethics· Yiliyan]. News Collection ''国闻汇编''.<br />
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Zhou Mengzhen 周锰珍. (2007). “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较 ['Skopos Theory' and 'Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance': A Comparison of Two Translation Theories in China and the West]. Academic Forum ''学术论坛''. (8):154-158.<br />
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--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian 202020080605==<br />
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<center>纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian </center><br />
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===Abstract=== <br />
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As a representative figure of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help to the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br />
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===Key words=== <br />
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Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br />
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===题目===<br />
性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究<br />
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===摘要=== <br />
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张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br />
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===关键词=== <br />
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张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
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Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and prose have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1)<br />
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In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone has talent in creation”（Luo Xinzhang & Chen Yingnian 2009：413）, and looking through the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so much Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. <br />
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She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, prose and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1)<br />
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Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity, in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as the author or the translator, represents different gender identities. (Ma Yue & Mu Lei 2010: 67)<br />
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===2. Gender and Translation===<br />
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Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminist translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women' s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23)<br />
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During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23)<br />
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As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.<br />
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This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang' s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this chapter breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences different gender identities make to the translation. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 46)<br />
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===3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang' s Self-translation -- ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br />
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As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Hsia, while Fu Lei (whose early pseudonym is Xun Yu) also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun Yu 1994: 121). <br />
<br />
In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''(1921).<br />
<br />
Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor' s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted. She destroys her son' s marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. Besides, her daughter' s marriage is put an end to by her. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)<br />
<br />
Eileen Chang' s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation.<br />
<br />
====3.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br />
<br />
In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Chiang Chi-tse. However, the reality proves to her that Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)<br />
<br />
ST： <br />
（七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！(Eileen Chang 1992: 108)<br />
<br />
TT：<br />
( Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. (Eileen Chang 1971: 163)<br />
<br />
Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Chiang Chi-tse all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Chiang Chi-tse for love. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)<br />
<br />
However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity====<br />
<br />
In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passive and helpless of female characters under a specific era background. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145)<br />
<br />
ST：<br />
娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)<br />
<br />
TT：<br />
Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)<br />
<br />
The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by others. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145)<br />
<br />
In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)<br />
<br />
Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br />
<br />
ST：<br />
长安和长白分了家搬出来住。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)<br />
<br />
TT：<br />
Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)<br />
<br />
The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color. <br />
<br />
Instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)<br />
<br />
====3.3 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes. <br />
<br />
ST：<br />
（去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。(Eileen Chang 1992: 104)<br />
<br />
TT：<br />
（Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. (Eileen Chang 1971: 157)<br />
<br />
The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Chiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)<br />
<br />
Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, and everyone is a survivor of suffering. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)<br />
<br />
<br />
Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts. (Wang Jing 2011: 104)<br />
<br />
===4. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Conventional Translation -- ''The Old Man and the Sea''===<br />
<br />
''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway also won the Nobel Prize of Literature. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br />
<br />
Once the work was published, it attracted a wide attention. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br />
<br />
''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton.<br />
<br />
When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.(Eileen Chang 1979: 5) <br />
<br />
====4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br />
<br />
It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br />
<br />
ST：<br />
“Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” (Hemingway 1985: 39)<br />
<br />
TT：<br />
“再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱? 好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 29)<br />
<br />
Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br />
<br />
====4.2 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br />
<br />
As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. (Wang Jing 2011: 103)<br />
<br />
To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br />
<br />
ST: <br />
It is what a man must do．(Hemingway 1985: 23)<br />
<br />
TT: <br />
男子汉就应该这样。(Hai Guan 1979: 15) <br />
<br />
男子汉就该这么干。(Wu Lao 2009: 21) <br />
<br />
活总是要干的。(Eileen Chang 1979: 16) <br />
<br />
Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br />
<br />
====4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity====<br />
<br />
For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br />
<br />
ST：<br />
“But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”(Hemingway 1985: 96)<br />
<br />
TT：<br />
“但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 81）<br />
<br />
“可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（Hai Guan 1979: 79）<br />
<br />
“不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（Wu Lao 2009: 99）<br />
<br />
Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br />
<br />
Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br />
<br />
Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br />
<br />
===5. Reasons for the Transformation of Gender Identity===<br />
<br />
====5.1 Cultural Context====<br />
<br />
Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua 2017, 121)<br />
<br />
The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity.<br />
<br />
For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words. However, when the text is taken into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)<br />
<br />
For example, the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the differences of context. Therefore, in her translation, Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)<br />
<br />
====5.2 The Gender of the Translator and the Purpose of Translation====<br />
<br />
As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.<br />
<br />
And in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface that the old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)<br />
<br />
Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chang Eileen, trans. (1971). ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. <br />
<br />
Eileen Chang 张爱玲. (1955). 金锁记[M]. [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. [Shanghai Press].<br />
<br />
Ma Ruofei 马若飞. (2007). 张爱玲翻译研究[D]. [Eileen Chang Translation Studies]. 北京语言大学. [Beijing Language and Culture University]. <br />
<br />
Ernest Hemingway. (1985). ''The Old Man and the Sea''[M]. Printed in Great Britain by St Edmundsbury Press, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk.<br />
<br />
Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. [Hong Kong: Hong Kong Today World Press].<br />
<br />
Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 海观译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br />
<br />
Ernest Hemingway. (2009). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 吴劳译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br />
<br />
Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. (2009). 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection'']. 北京: 商务印书馆. [Beijing: The Commercial Press].<br />
<br />
Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. (2010). 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. [Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies]. 解放军外国语学院学报. [Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages]. 66-70.<br />
<br />
Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. (2018). 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J]. [Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 大众文艺. [Popular Literature]. 171-173.<br />
<br />
Meng Lingzi 孟令子. (2016). 从女性主义翻译到性别翻译[J]. [From Feminist Translation to Gender and Translation]. 中国翻译. [Chinese Translators Journal]. 23-31. <br />
<br />
Simon, Sherry. (1996). Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge. <br />
<br />
Wang Jing 王璟. (2011). 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. [Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation]. 中国外语. [Chinese Foreign Language]. 102-106.<br />
<br />
Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. (2015). 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. [''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation'']. 广州:中山大学出版社. [Guangzhou: Sun Yat-sen University Press].<br />
<br />
Xi Peihua 席培华. (2017). 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. [On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. [Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education]. 121-123.<br />
<br />
='''Art of Translation'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works Frontier City has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of Bian Cheng translated by Gladys Yang and Jeffrey C. Kinkley respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Translation ethics, Bian Cheng, Chesterman<br />
<br />
===翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究===<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文拟从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——金介甫和戴乃迭的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼<br />
<br />
===1. Research background===<br />
<br />
Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms. From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the ''cultural turn". With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the ''cultural turn" in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a "cultural mediator" has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br />
<br />
It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym (2001: 129-138) claims in his article: "ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle." It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.<br />
<br />
===2. Literature review===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====<br />
<br />
After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br />
It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of '"translation ethics" in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on "transmitting sense" and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.<br />
<br />
Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating "an ethics of difference". He invents the two words "domestication” and “resistancy" to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of "resistancy" seem more realistic and profound.<br />
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As the initiator of "the return to ethics" in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman’s theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about “how to translate" over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other’s work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (ibid). For Pym, the true loyalty is neither to the source culture nor to the target culture, but to the others inhabiting this space, that is, to other intercultural mediators, to the translating profession as a whole (Chesterman, 1997a). Like Pym’s words, “Translators’ prime loyalty must be to their profession as an intercultural space” (Pym, 1992). <br />
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In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman went on to propose a Hieronymic Oath for translators and interpreters worldwide by publishing a paper "Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath” in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled "the return to Ethics”，edited by Pym, in which 16 scholars presented their own thoughts on translation ethics. In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.<br />
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====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====<br />
With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose "translation ethics" based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as "a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics". <br />
Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics.<br />
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With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili (2007: 14-18) creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.<br />
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Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article "essay on three levels of translation activities” in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by "willingness", “reality", and "morality", he proposes that "the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level”.<br />
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====2.3. the Translation of Bian Cheng====<br />
The thesis adopts the classic modern novel Frontier City owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as “one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature” (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the “Nobel Literature Prize” in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. <br />
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There are four English version of Biancheng. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled Green Jade and Green Jade translated by Xing Molei( the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girl friend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled The Frontier City contained in The Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen translated by Ching Ti & Robert Payne and published by George Allen & Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Biancheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called “Panda Books” to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included The Border Town and Other Stories translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.<br />
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Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Jeffrey Kinkley and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of translation ethics.<br />
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===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===<br />
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Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.<br />
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Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman’s words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author’s intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text. <br />
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The ethics of service requires the translator to "act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator”, and the translator should be “loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”.<br />
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The ethics of communication sees translation as "an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication" and asks the translator to be "a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding”. <br />
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Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of “descriptive translation studies”. Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like “the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations”. That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.<br />
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The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: "I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator". He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.<br />
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===4. A Comparison of the Two English Versions of Biancheng===<br />
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====4.1 the version of Gladys Yang====<br />
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One of the most distinctive features of Biancheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Gladys Yang has done much jobs in representing the aesthetic prospect and makes her version as impressive as the original to make the target readers able to better enjoy the aesthetic beauty below the superficial scenery, mostly because of her full understanding of the aesthetic style of the original and of high translation proficiency. Here is an example:<br />
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[Example 1]<br />
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[ST1]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶崛” 的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文)<br />
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[TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys)<br />
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This is the beginning paragraph of Biancheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images—“官. 路”,“小山城”，“小溪”，“白色小塔七“单独的人家”,“老人”,“女孩子” and"黄狗”, making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character “一”. In Gladys Yang's version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character "一" in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven "a (an) and one "the” to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates “单独”(的人家)into a “solitary" household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of "alone” and lonely”，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original. <br />
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For Gladys Yang, her English version of Bian Cheng is included in a series of books called "Panda Books" firstly published in Chinese literature, which was initiated by the Chinese government in the 1980s in order to introduce Chinese literature, cultural legacy and China to the world. With the initiator's aim of spreading Chinese culture to the west, the translator needs faithfully transmit the linguistic and cultural information of the original. Also, with China's adoption of the policy of reform and opening-up to the outside at that time, communications between countries have become more and more popular ever since then, and more and more foreigners began to take interest in Chinese culture and were willing to enjoy and accept Chinese culture. What’s more, the advocacy of foreignization translation strategies has increasingly gained popularity in the western translation world ever since 1980's. The dominating English literary system began to take on a new stance and showed more tolerance for foreign cultures. With all these factors taken into consideration, plus her own long-term will to introduce Chinese culture to the world out of her love for it, we may understand why when the conflict appears, she chooses to put the ethics of representation in the first place. That is to say, she is guided by the ethics of service of being "loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”. What’s more, the ethics of communication lays emphasis on communicating with others rather than representing the Other, so when such conflict emerges, that is, the total representing of the Other causes confusion or banier and frustration for target readers to read, Gladys Yang would consider the importance of cross-cultural communication and adopt flexible translation strategies guided by the ethics of communication to decrease linguistic and cultural barriers to achieve mutual understanding based on the sacrifice of total representation of the original.<br />
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==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br />
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==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 202070080597 (<span style="color:red"> 专业</span>)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)==<br />
<center>刘欧 Liu Ou</center><br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to witness the world, meanwhile, an increasing number of foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Culture Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promoting Sino-foreign friendship and enhancing the world's understanding of China.<br />
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With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to witness the world, meanwhile, an increasing number of foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Culture Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promoting (<span style="color:red">promote</span>)Sino-foreign friendship and enhancing (<span style="color:red">enhance</span>)the world's understanding of China.<br />
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==='''Key words'''===<br />
English Translation Hunan Scenic Spots Names the View of Culture Translation (<span style="color:red">semicolon should be added.</span>)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
随着改革开放的不断深化，中国与世界的联系日益紧密。大批中国人走出国门开眼看世界的同时，越来越多的外国友人也来中国游览观光。湖南作为旅游资源大省，拥有许多风光迤逦的旅游景点。在欢迎国外游客的同时，旅游景点名翻译也应当准确达意。巴斯奈特的文化翻译观认为，汉语翻译成英语的过程不但是两种不同语言之间的转换，更是两种语言的跨文化交流。采用文化翻译观作为湖南旅游景点的指导思想，有利于增进外国游客在饱览景区美景的同时，了解景区背后的文化内涵。这对于促进中外友谊，增进世界对中国的了解都大有裨益。<br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
英语翻译 湖南旅游景点 文化翻译观<br />
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==='''Introduction'''===<br />
Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year. (Xin Xin, 2012) Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of Culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardize the translation of scenic spots names is an important opportunity to show the most beautiful side of Hunan culture to foreign tourists. (Xiao Fuliang, 2016)<br />
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Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year. (Xin Xin, 2012) Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of Culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardize the translation of scenic spots names is an important opportunity to show the most beautiful side of Hunan culture to foreign tourists.(<span style="color:red">语法有错误。</span>) --[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)(Xiao Fuliang, 2016)<br />
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The name of tourist attractions refers to the names of natural and cultural landscapes in tourist attractions. Some of these names are engraved on stone tablets, some are engraved on the signboards of scenic spots, and some appear in various publicity materials such as tourist brochures, scenic maps and websites. In order to leave a good impression on tourists and attract them to visit, the names of tourist attractions are usually short, concise, vivid and attractive. (Pan Hong, 2016)<br />
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This paper attempts to analyze whether the English translations of some scenic spots in Hunan Province have achieved the desired effect of publicity from the perspective of cultural translation. At the same time, if there were some improper translation in the English translation of Hunan scenic spots, the author will give his own translation for reference.<br />
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=== The Introduction of the View of Culture Translation ===<br />
Before the emergence of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralism school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory. Jakobson, Catford and Nida, the representatives of the linguistic school, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation. They claim that translation is to replace another language with an equivalent language material; while Les, Nord and Mantari, the representatives of functional school, believe that the focus of translation studies should be on the target text rather than the original text. Their research sources are communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics theory. But whether it is linguistic school, functional school or structuralism school, in their research process, all try to achieve language equivalence more or less from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers hope to find a scientific and effective way to solve the various problems in translation, but the cultural diversity determines the cultural connotation of the text. Therefore, these researchers encounter great difficulties when they encounter the context which is quite different from their own cultural background, and the emergence of cultural translation school is meant to solve such problems.<br />
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After the 1970s and 1980s, with the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination and the diversification of communication modes, the relationship between language and culture has become closer. In the process of information dissemination, differences among language become more and more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diversity of cultural values embodied in the translated text. <br />
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In 1990, Translation, History and Culture, co-edited by Andre Lefevere and Bassnett, was published, marking a cultural turn in the field of translation. The concept of cultural translation emphasizes that translation is not only a bilingual communication, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication; the purpose of translation is to break through language barriers and promote cultural exchange; the essence of translation is to transmit cross-cultural information and reproduce the cultural activities of the original with the target language; the main purpose of translation is cultural transplantation and cultural blending, but cultural transplantation is a process; Language is not the operation form of translation, but the cultural information . (Bassnett Susan, 1992: 13) Bassnett emphasizes that “translation is the communication within and between cultures”. (Bassnett Susan, 1990: 10-11) She believes that translators should carry out translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators should never carry out translation activities in isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's “cultural translation view” is that translation is not a mere language activity. It is rooted in and influenced by the culture in which the language is located. <br />
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==== The Purpose of Translation ====<br />
As for the purpose of translation, Bassnett thinks that the primary purpose of translation is to allow readers from two or more different cultural backgrounds to communicate with each other through the medium of text, and the exchange of information should be placed in the second place of translation purpose. Through effective translation, translators can not only introduce the cultural characteristics of different nationalities to other readers, but also promote the communication between different cultures and promote the comparative study between the two cultures. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br />
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====Translation Methods and Strategies====<br />
As for the translation method, Bassnett thinks that the language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological, the translator should try to use literal translation from the perspective of culture. If the source text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play a relatively free role in translation, make more use of translation skills and pay less attention to the restrictions of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high. As for translation strategy, Bassnett considers that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find out the cultural factors in the original text which are different from those in the target language, and then deeply understand these factors, and try to retain these factors. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and make them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br />
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====Content and Form of Translation ====<br />
As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposed that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br />
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As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposed (<span style="color:red">时态要统一。</span>)(<span style="color:red">efficient can be deleted</span>)that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br />
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====“Intelligibility” of Translation ====<br />
Before the rise of cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated literary language into plain language and deleted literary metaphor and association in order to make the translation better understood by readers. In this way, the translation will become very easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth can not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett thinks that the “intelligibility” of the translation should not be based on the abandonment of the style and artistry of the original text, but should try to keep the original flavor of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br />
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====Evaluation Criteria of Translation ====<br />
As for the evaluation standard of translation, Bassnett thinks that the evaluation standard of translation is not unique. The standard of translating academic articles is different from that of practical and literary articles. When examining and evaluating the standards of translation, we should start from the service object of the translation, and judge whether the translation can meet the needs of the service object. In short, translation should be based on meeting the needs of readers in different cultural contexts, and appropriate translation should be used to meet the needs.(Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br />
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===2.The Existing English Translated Versions of Names of Hunan Scenic Spots===<br />
There are 15 major tourist areas and many tourist spots in Hunan, and there are many historic sites with a long history. Such as Mountain Heng, one of the Five Sacred Mountains in China. Dongting Lake, Shaoshan Mountain, the former residence of Chairman Mao Zedong, Wulingyuan, which shows the characteristics of strangeness, danger, seclusion, beauty and wildness, and Yuelu Academy with a thousand years of history. (Chen Jiao, 2013) In order to publicize and spread the culture of Hunan Province all over the world, we should standardize the English translation of Hunan scenic spots names. Meanwhile, we should translate these scenic spot names understandable from the guiding theory of the View of Culture Translation. <br />
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====Improper English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names====<br />
When tourists enjoy the beautiful scenery, the name of the scenic spot is the first information that leaps into the their sight. In order to attract the attention of tourists, induce the tourists of English speaking countries to have a strong interest in the culture and landscape of the tourist destination, stimulate their desire to buy tourism products and promote the development of tourism, translators should pay attention to the cross-cultural awareness when translating the names of scenic spots, so as to provide accurate information as well as the cultural connotation to the tourists from English speaking countries and those who understand English. <br />
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However, the author finds that there are many improper translations in the English translation of scenic spots nemes in Hunan Province, which brings a lot of inconvenience to tourists from English speaking countries, and also has a negative impact on the publicity of scenic spots. These improper translations mainly exist in the following aspects:<br />
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Firstly, the different versions of translation in the same or different scenic spots.<br />
For example, as one of the four wonders of Mountain Heng, scenic spot “水帘洞” has two translated names, which are translated as “water screen cave” in the official website of Mountain Heng tourism website, while it is translated into “waterfall cave” on the route map. The English translation of “雁峰寺” on Hengyang tourism route map is Yan Feng Si, while on Hengyang tourism website it is “The Goose Mountain Temple”. There are also two different versions of the English translation of the name of the scenic spot “烟雨池”. It was translated as “Yanyuchi” on Hengyang tourism route map, but on Hengyang tourism website, the free translation method is adopted, that is, “Misty Rain Pond”. (Wang Zaiyu, Jiang Shihong, 2012)<br />
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Secondly, the overuse of transliteration.<br />
Huiyan Peak, located on the Bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng, also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and rank the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归 雁 亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.<br />
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Huiyan Peak, located on the Bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng, also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and rank the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. (<span style="color:red">第一句话语法有错误。</span>)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归 雁 亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.<br />
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Of course, transliteration is one of the common translation methods of scenic spot names translation, but if transliteration is used too much that without considering the cultural connotation of the original language, the name of scenic spot will be obscure and foreign tourists will be confused. Standing in front of these Pinyin, foreign tourists can not understand the cultural connotation of the names of scenic spots. So it is difficult for them to realize the historical and cultural stories of these scenic spot according to the transliterated names. Therefore, excessive transliteration will affect the transmission of scenic spot name information, make it difficult for English speaking tourists to understand the rich cultural connotation of scenic spot names, which will reduce the readability of the translations and thus affect the development of China's tourism industry and the spread of culture abroad. Therefore, the translator should carefully consider and choose the appropriate translation method.<br />
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===3. The Strategies of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation ===<br />
Tourism translation is a cross language, cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication activities. Compared with other types of translation, it is more direct, more prominent, more typical and more comprehensive in cross-cultural and cross psychological communication. (Chen Gang, 2004)<br />
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==== Characteristics and Methods of Tourism English Translation ====<br />
According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents, the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.<br />
<br />
According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents(<span style="color:red">前半部分语法有错误</span>)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC), the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.<br />
<br />
==== Characteristics of Tourism English Translation ====<br />
The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br />
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The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes(<span style="color:red">主谓不一致。</span>)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC) style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br />
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==== Methods of English Translation of Scenic Spot Name ==== <br />
In the translation of scenic spot name, in order to let foreign tourists understand Chinese culture and scenic spots, flexible translation methods should be adopted to effectively convey tourism information and Chinese culture. (Jia Wenbo, 2004) The translation of the scenic spot name is of great significance although the names are not contain too much vocabularies. How to use translation methods and skills flexibly by following the translation theory becomes very important. This requires the translators to be faithful to the content and style of the original materials in the process of translation, try to retain the cultural factors in the original text, and at the same time make it easy for the target readers to accept.<br />
Literal translation, free translation, literal translation+transliteration, transliteration+ explanation and cultural analogy are commonly used in scenic spot name translation. Through the study of the translation methods of translating the names of these scenic spots, we can use the translation skills more accurately and ultimately improve the translation ability. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br />
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1. Literal Translation<br />
Literal translation is helpful to convey the information of the source language such as place names, characters and events. (Chen Jiao, 2013) For these particular names or general names of scenic spots, it’s better to adopt the literal translation, namely word for word translation. The allusions of the figures in Nanyue Temple such as “苏武牧羊”（Su Wu Shepherding Sheep）”、“达摩东渡”（Dharm Sailing Eastward）；Fairy tale such as“后羿射日”（Houyi Shooting the Suns）、“盘古开天”（Pangu Creating the Universe）、“精卫填海”（Jingwei Filling the Sea）.<br />
<br />
2. Free Translation<br />
Free translation refers to the translation method to translate the connotative meaning when the literal meaning and connotative meaning of the original text are inconsistent (Niu Xinsheng, 2013). In addition, translation techniques such as domestication and free translation are also discussed. Due to the differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, there are differences in language form and content between the two languages. Therefore, translators need to grasp the differences between the two languages and cultures to ensure that the information of the original text are properly transmitted to the target readers. If the names of some scenic spots contain rich cultural connotations and cannot be translated by literal translation, then the names of such scenic spots are mostly translated by free translation, that is, words with the same meaning but different forms are translated. For example,“爱晚亭”, the name was originated from a famous poem written by Du Mu (803-853) in Tang dynasty. But the official translation in the scenic spot was “the Lovely Evening Pavilion”. However, the real meaning of “晚” in the name was not evening but late autumn. Hence some scholars translate it as “the Autumn-Admiring Pavilion” and “the Maple-leaves Admiring Pavilion”.(Chen Jiao, 2013).<br />
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3.Transliteration + Literal Translation<br />
The front contains the proper name for a specific person or place name, and a fixed general name for the name of a scenic spot. Transliteration and literal translation can be used in translation. For example, "南岳庙" (Nanyue Temple), "洞庭湖" (Dongting Lake), "岳麓山"(Yuelu Mountain),"崀山" (Langshan Mountain), "湘江"(Xiangjiang Rive) etc.<br />
<br />
4.Transliteration + Explanation<br />
The advantage of transliteration is that it does not need any explanation, and its disadvantage is that it can not fully arouse people's interest and attention. For foreign tourists, it is difficult to connect the original meaning of the original text with the Chinese pronunciation of the scenic spot. In order to follow the original author's intention and its own pronunciation, we adopt the method of combining the two to make up for the shortcomings. For example,"柳浪闻莺"liu'lang'wen'ying (listening to Orioles Singing in the willows), "鬼见愁"gui'jian'chou (sight that disorders devils). (Xin Xin, 2012) in order to help foreign tourists understand the background knowledge of China's human history, local conditions and customs, some relevant information can be appropriately added to the original text when translating. For example, when introducing "吊脚楼", if we just translate it as Diaojiaolou , it is difficult for tourists to understand the literal translation of it, so it is advisable that supplement the explanation of “suspended wood house built on stilts”. For example, in the introduction of traditional festivals in Zhangjiajie, “六月六” is translated into Liu Yue Liu Festival. In order to help tourists understand the specific connotation of the festival, the translation should be followed by an appropriate explanation: It usually takes place on the sixth day of the lunar six month, when all the members of the family get together to have dinner and hold a rite to pay sacrifice to their ancestors. This supplement can help foreign tourists understand the meaning of these traditional festivals quickly. (Chen Jiao, 2013)<br />
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Meanwhile, cultural analogy is also an effective skill in explanation. Analogy refers to the transformation of unfamiliar cultural information in the source language into similar information in the cultural context of the target language in order to eliminate the cultural strangeness contained in the source language and arouse the sense of similarity for the English speaking tourists. In other words, borrow the similar places of interest, legends and historical stories in English to translate the scenic spot name in Chinese, which can narrow the distance between the two different language for the readers and they can better understand the meaning of the original text. For example, Mountain Hengshan the scenic spot “祝融峰” is said to be the residence of Zhu Rong, the God of Fire. Its translation is "Zhu Rong peak", Zhu Rong, the Chinese Prometheus. (Chen Jiao, 2013) Prometheus, the hero of stealing fire in ancient Roman legend, is a familiar figure for Western tourists. It has great similarity with Zhu Rong, the Chinese God of Fire. When the tourists look at this translated name, they will have a better understanding of the the scenic spot.<br />
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=== Conclusion ===<br />
Under the background of globalization, peace and development have become the theme of the times, and the revise of the traditional translation theory is needed. On the other hand, cultural translation, based on the cultural theory of anthropology, advocates that the connotation of other cultures should be properly conveyed in translation, showing respect and understanding of other cultures; translators should highlight the characteristics of different cultures through translation, so that people from different cultural backgrounds can truly realize the communication and exchange in the cultural sense. Therefore, it is in line with the mainstream of the times to deeply study and understand Bassnett's cultural translation theory, which can help us better carry out translation activities under the background of globalization, so as to promote the exchange and dialogue between the Eastern and Western cultures from a macro perspective. <br />
<br />
As a part of the translation of tourist materials, the translation of scenic spot names should not only convey the basic tourism information, but also show the Chinese culture to foreign tourists. One of the main purposes of tourists coming to China is to understand the Chinese culture. Therefore, translators need to have a keen cross-cultural awareness, make the translation conform to the target language, enhance the readability to the target language readers, and choose the most suitable translation method to convey the historical and cultural connotation contained in the name of scenic spots to the greatest extent, so as to promote the development of China's tourism industry globally and spread China's tourism culture abroad. <br />
<br />
=== Bibliography ===<br />
<br />
*Bassnett Susan. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge，1992: 13.<br />
<br />
* Bassnett Susan. Translation, History and Culture[M]. 上海:上海外语教育出版社，1990: 10-11．<br />
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*黄艳娇.2018.浅谈巴斯奈特文化翻译理论，佳木斯职业学院学报<br />
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*肖付良.2016.16(06),43-45.湖南主要旅游景点公示语翻译现状与对策研究,英语教师.<br />
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*潘虹.2016，跨文化意识对旅游景点名称汉英翻译的影响，艺术文化交流<br />
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*陈娇.2013.从文化角度看湖南旅游景点的翻译，西南农业大学学报（社会科学版）<br />
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*辛欣.2012.论旅游英语中景点名称的翻译，长春教育学院学报<br />
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*陈刚.旅游翻译与涉外导游［M］． 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2004，59．<br />
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*王再玉，蒋柿红. 2012.从跨文化意识角度看旅游景点名称的英译———以衡阳旅游景点名称的英译为例,北京城市学院学报<br />
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*林玉华. 2008. 从文化角度看旅游景点名称的翻译 ［J］．重庆交通大学学报，2008 ( 02) : 105．<br />
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*熊玲. 2013. 对张家界景点名称英译的探析，长春教育学院学报<br />
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*贾文波．应用翻译功能论［M］．北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2004：134－156．<br />
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*湖南文物名胜概览.湖南省文化和旅游厅 http://whhlyt.hunan.gov.cn/whhlyt/wlxx/fwms/201407/t20140717_5385818.html<br />
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==A Contrastive Study on the Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Shengshengman and Zuihuayin from the Perspective of Defamiliarization 祝美梅 student no. 202070080632== <br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
Poetry is what lost in translation as Robert Frost said, for it’s concise words, specific form, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study with poetry translation under the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)<br />
<br />
Poetry is what lost in translation. As Robert Frost said, for its concise words, specific forms, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind as has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study poetry translation according to the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:39, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization, though a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period. (Fang Xiaoyuan, 2011, 13-15)<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization, a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period. (Fang Xiaoyuan, 2011, 13-15)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Key Words'''===<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization Theory; Shengshengman; Zuihuayin; English Versions<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
译诗则诗。诗歌以其凝练的词语，特定的形式，涵盖的独特文化典故和意象，是否可译一直是译界极具争论的话题。本文旨在由俄国形式主义什克洛夫斯基提出的陌生化理论下研究诗歌翻译。陌生化，虽然是文学写作技巧，同样适应于翻译。在文学作品中，作家通过使熟悉的事物陌生化引起读者的兴趣和好奇，延长审美感知长度。勒菲弗尔说，翻译即改写。这一翻译策略尤其适合于诗歌翻译。直译只会是译诗平淡乏味，如同兑水之酒，甚至产生误解。李清照，作为历史上最有名的女词人之一，其“易安体”本就以其化故为新，以俗为雅的特点与“陌生化”有异曲同工之处。《声声慢》、《醉花阴》是她前后截然不同两个时期的代表作。本文试以俄国形式主义者什克洛夫斯基提出的“陌生化”为理论指导，以李清照词《声声慢》、《醉花阴》的多个译本为研究对象，分析对比不同译者的英译，尝试研究在译文中怎样重现文本陌生化和制造译本的陌生化，以期证明陌生化理论对李清照词英译的指导作用。(Ge Yunfeng, 2008, 34-35)<br />
<br />
本文共分为四部分，由引论、正文、结论三部分构成。引论部分主要介绍陌生化理论，优势和劣势，李清照词特点和国内外研究现状。正文分为两个部分，词和意象两个方向并辅以具体实例。结论部分将主要总结陌生化理论在诗歌翻译的应用，本文作者认为用陌生化理论研究翻译文本仍有很大的发掘空间，对诗歌翻译有启迪意义。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
陌生化理论；《声声慢》；《醉花阴》；英译版本<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasury of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.<br />
<br />
The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasure of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’s consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’ consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, and her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.1 Shklovsky’s Definition of Defamiliarization====<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by the Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:"The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.(Zhang Jintong, 1987, 78-79)<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by a Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:"The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.(Zhang Jintong, 1987, 78-79)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Features of Defamiliarization in Translation====<br />
<br />
In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named up two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. <br />
<br />
Alienization, is the similarity among defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.<br />
<br />
Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, it has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)<br />
<br />
In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Alienization is the similarity amid defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, which has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====1.2.1 Advantages of Defamiliarization=====<br />
<br />
To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural-turn proposed by Susan Bassinet, against the culture invasion, this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)<br />
<br />
To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural turn proposed by Susan Bassinet against the culture invasion, and this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====1.2.2 Disadvantages of Defamiliarization=====<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new express or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new expression or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2. A brief Introduction of Li Qingzhao===<br />
<br />
Before analyzing the translation versions of Li Qingzhao’s Ci, a general understanding of the characteristics and aesthetic value of Li’s Ci is very necessary. <br />
<br />
====2.1. Li Qingzhao’s life and her Poem====<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influence on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influences on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---Zuihuayin, is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism. <br />
<br />
Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---''Zuihuayin'', is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2Research on Li’s Poem in Domestic and Abroad====<br />
<br />
A comprehensive knowledge of history and state quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.<br />
<br />
The study of Li Qingzhao’s poem in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. <br />
<br />
A comprehensive knowledge of history and status quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The study of Li Qingzhao’s poems in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3. Defamiliarization on Words Level in Shengshengman and Zuihuayin===<br />
<br />
Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, the word has greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.<br />
<br />
Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, words are of greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.1 Analysis of Translation of Reduplicated Words====<br />
<br />
Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character two or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.<br />
<br />
Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character twice or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Her typical work which applies reduplicated words is Shengshengman. <br />
<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。乍暖还寒时候，最难将息。<br />
<br />
三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急？雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识。<br />
<br />
满地黄花堆积。憔悴损，如今有谁堪摘？守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑？<br />
<br />
梧桐更兼细雨，到黄昏、点点滴滴。这次第，怎一个、愁字了得！”（陈祖美 2003：108）<br />
<br />
This piece of work enjoys the largest number of translation versions from different translators among all her works. The first fourteen characters are: “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”,they precisely describe the loneliness , melancholy and nostalgia of the homeland of the poetess after losing her husband. Six different translation versions collected are as follows:<br />
<br />
1. I seek but seek in vain,<br />
<br />
I search but search again.<br />
<br />
I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
<br />
So lonely, without cheer. (Xu Yuanchong)<br />
<br />
2. So dim, so dark.<br />
<br />
So dense, so dull,<br />
<br />
So damp, so dank, so dead! (Lin Yutang)<br />
<br />
3. Seeking,seeking,<br />
<br />
Chilly and quite,<br />
<br />
Desolate, painful and miserable. (Yang Xianyi）<br />
<br />
4. Searching and searching, seeking and seeking,<br />
<br />
So chill, so clear,<br />
<br />
dreary,<br />
<br />
and dismal,<br />
<br />
and forlorn. (Stephen Owen)<br />
<br />
5. Seeking<br />
<br />
seeking<br />
<br />
Searching<br />
<br />
searching<br />
<br />
over and over<br />
<br />
lonely and forlorn <br />
<br />
Sighing;<br />
<br />
grieving<br />
<br />
sighing<br />
<br />
In the same round (Kwock&McHugh) <br />
<br />
<br />
6. Seek…seek, search....search;<br />
<br />
Lone...lone, cold...cold;<br />
<br />
Sad...sad, pain...pain, moan...moan. (Liu Wuji) <br />
<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heart-broken feeling and her worry about the convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heartbroken feeling and her worry about her convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrases them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem. <br />
<br />
For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrased them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem. --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another example is “点点滴滴”,also from the same verse. Following are translation versions collected:<br />
<br />
1.On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
<br />
As twilight grizzles. (Xu Yuanchong)<br />
<br />
2.In a drizzle so light, dripping-dropping into the oncoming night,<br />
<br />
In the garden wutong trees stand blurred. (Zhu Chunsheng)<br />
<br />
3.On drying leaves of plane trees should there be<br />
<br />
A drizzle pattering, pattering towards the eve! (Liu Guoshan)<br />
<br />
4.Against the tung and plane trees, the wind rises high.<br />
<br />
The drizzle becomes trickles, as eve draws nigh. (Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
5.And the drizzle on the kola nut, keeps on droning: Pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat! (Lin Yutang)<br />
<br />
6.The drizzles falls on the wutong trees, raindrops drip down at dusk. (Yang Xianyi)<br />
<br />
No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu uses drizzles describing the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.<br />
<br />
No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu used drizzles to describe the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Translation of Verbs====<br />
<br />
Unlike English, Chinese poetry is skillfully using verb to vivify the image, often linked with rhetorical devices. Word transformation is mostly common, such as adjective or noun transformed to verb. There existed many instances; the author would like to choose two verbs from the Zuihuayin which would analyzed in this paper.<br />
Taking “帘卷西风”from Zuihuayin as an example:<br />
<br />
“薄雾浓云愁永昼，瑞脑消金兽。佳节又重阳，玉枕纱厨，半夜凉初透。东篱把酒黄昏后，<br />
有暗香盈袖。莫道不消魂，帘卷西风，人比黄花瘦。”<br />
<br />
This verse was written to express Li Qingzhao’s yearning for her husband. It’s the Double Ninth Day---the Chinese festival of the senior and family get-together. The west wind blows, makes people feel chilly and distressed, especially when the poetess was alone. Translation versions are assembled as following:<br />
<br />
1. What with curtains being folded—<br />
by violent blasts from the west (Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
2. The curtain lifted by the western wind (Qiu Xiaolong)<br />
<br />
3. When the west wind rolls up my bamboo curtain (Mao Yumei)<br />
<br />
4. With the door-curtains flapping in the west wind (Gong Jinghao)<br />
<br />
5. Only, when the west wind stir the curtain (Lucy Chow Ho)<br />
<br />
In the original, there is hyperbaton used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.<br />
<br />
In the original, hyperbaton was used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急?”The verb in this sentence used very vividly, how few cups of liquor withstand the wind at the dusk; Li Qingzhao personifies the natural thing, which is widely applied to express defamiliarization. Follows are various translation versions.<br />
<br />
1.By cup on cup of wine so dry oh,<br />
How can I endure at dusk the drift<br />
Of wind so swift? (Xu Yuanchong）<br />
<br />
2.Three cups of thin wine would utterly fail.<br />
To cope with the rising evening gale. (Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
3.How can a few cups of thin wine,<br />
Bring warmth against the chilly winds of sunset? (Lin Yutang)<br />
<br />
4.Three or two cups of light wine,<br />
How can they ward off the strong? (Yang Xianyi)<br />
<br />
Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by poet, which slash the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.<br />
<br />
Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by the poet, which slashed the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Translation of Colloquialism====<br />
<br />
Colloquialism refer to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.<br />
<br />
Colloquialism refers to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised for the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:<br />
<br />
Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised as the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1. Sitting alone at the window, how could I but quicken the pace of darkness <br />
Which won’t thicken? (Xu Yuanchong）<br />
<br />
2. Standing by the window---watching in anguish stark.<br />
Could I bear alone the sight until it is dark? (Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
3. I remain by my window. Why is the day so dark, all alone? (Mao Yumei)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and causal as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and casual as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Another sentence is“这次第，怎一个、愁字了得?”<br />
<br />
1.How, in the word “Miserable,” can one find------<br />
The total effects of all these on the mind! (Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
2.Oh, what can I do with a grief<br />
Beyond belief! (Xu Yuanchong)<br />
<br />
3.Is this the kind of mood and moment, to be expressed by one word “sad”? <br />
(Lin Yutang)<br />
<br />
4.At the time like this, what immense sorrow I must bear! (Yang Xianyi)<br />
<br />
The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different word to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.<br />
<br />
The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different words to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4. Defamiliarization on Image Level====<br />
<br />
Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.<br />
<br />
Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore it can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====4.1 Cultural-Loaded images=====<br />
<br />
This kind of category is the juxtaposition of allusion and complicated sentiment in certain culture.<br />
<br />
1.Translation the image of “雁” in the Shengshengman<br />
<br />
The sentence “雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识.”The translation versions collected as follow:<br />
<br />
1. Myself, into woe, a flight of wild geese has thrown.<br />
<br />
But with them, very familiar I have grown. (Xu Zhongjie) <br />
<br />
2.I recognize the geese flying overhead:<br />
<br />
My old friends,<br />
<br />
Bring not the old memories back! (Lin Yutang)<br />
<br />
3. It breaks my heart, alas,<br />
<br />
To see the wild geese pass,<br />
<br />
For they are my acquaintances of old. (Xu Yuanchong)<br />
<br />
4. Wild geese fly past, while I’am broken-hearted;<br />
<br />
But I recognize they are my old friends. (Yang Xianyi&Gladys Yang) <br />
<br />
5. Overhead,a heart-rending line<br />
<br />
South-bound wild geese at morn<br />
<br />
Yet old acquaintances of mine. (Zhu Chunshen)<br />
<br />
After study some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.<br />
<br />
After studying some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is a straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.<br />
<br />
Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Natural Images====<br />
<br />
Pure scenery depiction means the scene is universe, such as some flower, tree, mountain, stream but usually combined with emotional revelation.<br />
<br />
The image “黄花” usually translated into “yellow flower”, “chrysanthemum”, “yellow chrysanthemum”. Different versions are collected as follow:<br />
<br />
1. As compared with chrysanthemums,<br />
<br />
I look slimmer e’en at my best. (Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
2. I would show a thinner face than yellow flowers. (Xu Yuanchong)<br />
<br />
3. I look thinner than the chrysanthemum. (Mao Yumei)<br />
<br />
4. I find myself thinner than the yellow flowers. (Chu Dagao)<br />
<br />
Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is more blurred, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)<br />
<br />
Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is a more blurred one, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====Conclusion====<br />
<br />
Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of it’s terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)<br />
<br />
Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of its terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulate the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)<br />
<br />
The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulates the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
* Eugene A.Nida. Language and Culture Contexts in Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2001. <br />
<br />
* Gan Wanni.A Defamiliarization Perspective to the Study of Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Ci[D].Southwest Jiaotong University,2012.<br />
<br />
* Peter Newmark.A Textbook of Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2011.<br />
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* Schulte,R.and John Biguenet.Theories of Translation:An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida[C].Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1992.<br />
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* Xu Yuanchong. 300 Tang Poems [M].China Intercontinental Press，2011.<br />
<br />
* Zhan Chongyang. Defamiliarization and Translation:A Case Study of the Chinese Versions of Jamaica Inn [D].Nanjing University，2013.<br />
<br />
*陈琳.论陌生化翻译[J].中国翻译，2010(1).<br />
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* 陈琳.文学翻译审美的陌生化性[D].清华大学学报，2006(06)：21.<br />
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*房孝园,李清照:一言难尽的花与酒——《李清照词两首》个性解读[J].语文教学之友,2011,06:34-35.<br />
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* 葛云峰,季淑凤.中国典籍英译的风格再现，易安词英译个案分析[J].淮北煤炭师范学院外国语学报，2008(5):30.<br />
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*胡银根.文化语境视角下李清照八首词翻译的对比研究[D].湖南工业大学，2012.<br />
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* 刘晰.拥抱差异：诗歌翻译的“陌生化”取向[J].淮南师范学院学报,2013（04）:15.<br />
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*孙国华.鲁迅作品中的陌生化语言现象[J].无锡高等师范学校，2012.<br />
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* 张冰.陌生化诗学：俄国形式主义研究[M].北京师范大学出版社，2000.<br />
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*郑恩岳,李清照《声声慢》词英译研究[J].浙江教育学院学报，2003(05).<br />
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*张金同.“怎一个愁字了得”——读李清照的《醉花阴》和《声声慢》[J].固原师专学报(社会科学版),1987,04:41-46.<br />
<br />
==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan 202070080642 MTI==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br />
<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
摘要:<br />
由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
口译，文化差异，应对策略--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略（格式错误）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
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The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as "global consciousness" and "global values". However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健,2012）<br />
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The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as "global consciousness" and "global values". However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（Jian Fang，Zhang Jian,2012）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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No matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br />
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===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br />
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Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that "the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures." He believes that "the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word." The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能,1993） <br />
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Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that "the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures." He believes that "the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word." The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（Lian Shuneng,1993）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, "For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used." Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation. (Jia Dejiang,1998)<br />
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====Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking====<br />
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Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br />
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Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.(Edward Spir,2006)<br />
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For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.(Jia Dejiang,1998)<br />
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====Cultural barriers caused from values====<br />
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Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br />
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A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br />
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====Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery====<br />
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Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
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For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval".“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word "龙" means something evil in the West, but "auspicious" in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase "望子成龙" should never be translated as “to hope one"'s child can become a dragon"，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br />
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====Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs====<br />
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Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give "New Year's Lucky money" to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but "Chinese New Year" does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. <br />
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Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. “Sleep with father" is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as "go the heaven" and "kick the bucket". It means the same as "go the heaven" and "kick the bucket", but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as "与父亲睡觉", which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng,1993）<br />
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Look at the following example:<br />
If this sentence is understood as<br />
"约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏", it is because the translator failed to understand " eats no fish " and "play the game". After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So "" means "loyalty" and " to eat no fish " means "loyalty" and " to play the game "means "race",The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is "John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright".<br />
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====Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors====<br />
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The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文,2002）<br />
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The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（Zhang Wen,2002）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology. <br />
Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive. (Bai Jingyu,2000)（段落过长）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology. <br />
<br />
Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br />
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Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of "functional equivalence". This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. <br />
<br />
Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of "functional equivalence". This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (Ye Zinan，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. --[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of "accuracy, smoothness and speed" and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as "on-site, present and limited time", the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the "nearest natural equivalence" between English and Chinese, and to try to find the "nearest natural equivalence" from the target language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
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In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the "nearest natural equivalents" between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br />
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====Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation====<br />
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Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
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The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the "nearest natural equivalent" to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions "三个和尚没水吃" into " Everyone‘s business is no one"s business." is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.(Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing,2006)<br />
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However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌" by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang,2006）<br />
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Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
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In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir,2006）<br />
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====Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods====<br />
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The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a "purpose-oriented" approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
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The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
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=====Direct translation method=====<br />
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Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, " Let sleeping dogs lie" is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br />
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=====Substitution Method=====<br />
The substitution method is also called the "reciprocity method". It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom "冰冻三尺非一日之寒" is translated into " Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom "to spend money like water " translated into "挥金如土" is a good example.(Wang Kefei,1997)<br />
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====Intentional translation method=====<br />
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When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
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For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the "U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology," Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that "The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, "天方夜谭" is not translated directly as"TheArabianNights"，but is instead translated as " fiction ". This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word "天方夜谭" has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）（段落过长）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the "U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology," Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that "The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, "天方夜谭" is not translated directly as"TheArabianNights"，but is instead translated as " fiction ". <br />
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This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word "天方夜谭" has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
=====Interpretation=====<br />
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Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language.(Bao Huinan,2001) When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
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1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br />
诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br />
Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br />
<br />
2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br />
三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br />
and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br />
An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br />
<br />
3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br />
解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br />
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4)Special cultural words<br />
<br />
敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br />
the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br />
<br />
=====Simple translation and no translation=====<br />
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Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use "no translation" or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: "我姓张，弓长张。"Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.(Lu Naisheng,1993)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. <br />
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Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.(Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
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熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br />
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杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br />
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张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br />
<br />
Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br />
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Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000.<br />
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Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br />
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Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br />
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Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br />
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Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br />
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--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:59, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the consistent development of the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, translation plays a more and more pivotal role in the world stage. It can not only help Chinese to have a better understanding of foreign cultures and promote the cooperation, but also spread the Chinese cultures to the international world. Translation strategies are the focus of translation works, especially during the process of translating Chinese to English. It’s very necessary to have a thorough study about the translation strategies. While towards different styles of text, different translation strategies should be applied relatively. This thesis focuses on translation strategies of two styles - journalistic style and literary style. <br />
The thesis firstly introduces the background and development of translation strategies. Then it depicts the characteristics and translation principles of journalistic style text and literary style text. In the main part, the thesis combines the characteristics of the two kinds of texts to explore the translation strategies that suits for the two types, including domestication, foreignization, omission and etc. This thesis is expected to make some contributions to the study of translation strategies and the practice of translation.<br />
<br />
===KEY WORDS===<br />
<br />
Translation strategies; text-types; journalistic style; literary style.<br />
<br />
<br />
===中文摘要===<br />
<br />
随着中外文化交流的不断发展，翻译在世界舞台上扮演着越来越重要的角色。它不仅可以帮助中国人更好地了解外国文化，促进合作，而且可以将中国文化传播到世界。翻译策略是翻译工作的重点，特别是在汉译英过程中。对翻译策略进行深入研究是有必要的。在针对不同样式的文本时，应相对地采用不同的翻译策略。本文主要研究两种体裁的翻译策略：新闻体裁和文学体裁。<br />
本文首先介绍翻译策略的背景和发展，然后描述新闻风格文本和文学风格文本的特点和翻译原则。论文的主体部分结合了两种文本的特点，探讨了归化，异化，省译等的翻译策略。本文有望为翻译策略的研究和翻译的实践做出贡献。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
翻译策略; 文本类型; 新闻体裁; 文学体裁.<br />
<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
Translation strategies are critical in translation process. Towards texts in different styles which have different models of texts’ structure and communicative functions, translation strategies are quite variable. There are a great number of scholars both from China and the international world who have devoted themselves to dive into and research the most effective and practical strategies. <br />
<br />
However, there are still lack of thorough researches about translation strategies for different text styles. In this thesis, the first part is about the introduction and analysis of former scholars’ researches and the whole picture of this thesis. Then, the thesis will discuss the background, development, characteristics and functions of different-style texts from the perspective of linguistics. The main part is about the translation strategies of source texts in journalistic style and literary style respectively, such as the domestication, foreignization in literary-style texts and the omission , restruction and generalization in journalistic-style text. In concluding part, the thesis will generalize the main idea and make an objective appreciation about the thesis, as well as point out the drawbacks and advantages. <br />
<br />
===2.Theoretical Framework===<br />
<br />
===2.1 Background and development of Texts’ styles===<br />
<br />
According to the research, there is still no specific definition of distinguishing differences of texts styles. Some scholars claim texts’ styles to be registers, even some equal them to speech events. Qin Xiubai, a famous Chinese language and teaching professor, introduced that there were two main schools of the study of Texts styles’- the Swalesian School represented by John M.S wales and V.K.Bhatia and the Australian School represented by J.R.Martin. John Martin believes that styles of texts means a bunch of social events in which the members have the same communicative goal. While V.K.Bhatia believes that styles of texts are identifiable communicative events that have obvious inner structural features, conventionally happening in specific careers or academic communities. We can tell from the two schools’ views that styles of texts are a kind of communicative events with its special communicative purpose and clear structures. From this point, translators or interpreters can exert theory to analyze texts’ styles and recognize the intentions of writers as well as keep the functional and sense equivalence between the source texts and target texts. J.R.Martin take texts’ styles as a communication-orientated process of social communication with steps. Eggins view texts of styles as a type of activity with steps that orientated on communicative purposes. So that the difference of texts styles is on the level of values in use rather than the contents of discourse, characteristics of forms or other rules. <br />
<br />
Huang Guowen once said that every text plays a communicative role in a specific social and cultural environment, and people belonging to a specific social and cultural background can usually see its communicative purpose. (Huang Guowen,2001) The text is a combination of communicative symbols for the exchange of information between the sender and the recipient. In order to achieve a certain communicative purpose, the sender must choose an appropriate genre and corresponding manifestation to convey the information, and the recipient is expected to respond accordingly. Thus, the function of texts can be realized. Christiane Nord summarized four functions of texts from the perspective of translation. They are referential function, expressive function, appellative function and phatic function. (Nord, 1997) <br />
<br />
===2.2 Main functions of texts=== <br />
<br />
===2.2.1The Referential Function===<br />
The referential function of a text means the reference to or description of objects or phenomena of the world. It is mainly expressed through the denotative value of the lexical items presented in the text and can be analyzed through the nature of the objects. It is orientated toward objects in real or fictitious worlds. There are several functions of referential function: informative function, directive function and didactic function. If the referent is a fact or state of things unknown to the receiver, such as an accident, the text function may consist in informing the readers. If the referent is the description of an object, such as the illustration of using a washing machine, the text function may be directive. If it is a whole field that the receivers are to learn, such as physics, the function may be didactic.<br />
<br />
===2.2.2The Expressive Function===<br />
<br />
The expressive function refers to the sender’s attitude to toward the objects or phenomena. This function is sender-orientated. The expressive function of the text may be subdivided according to what it is expressed. If the sender expresses individual feelings or emotions, such as a public speech, it will be an emotive sub-function. If what is expressed is an evaluation, like comments, the sub-function will be evaluative.<br />
<br />
===2.2.3The Appellative Function===<br />
<br />
The appellative function refers to use of language to make the receiver feel or do something. The appellative function “receiver-orientated. It aims at the receivers’ sensitivity or disposition to act and tries to induce receivers to respond in a particular way. It can be broken into several sub-functions: illustrative function, persuasive function, advertising function and pedagogical function. If we want to illustrate a hypothesis by an example, we appeal to the reader’s previous experience to knowledge, That’s what called illustrative function. If we want to persuade someone to do something or to share a particular viewpoint, we appeal to their sensitivity and their secret desires. That’s what called persuasive function. If we want to let someone by a particular product, we tend to describe those qualities of the product that are presumed to have positive values in receivers’ value system. That’s advertising function. If we wan to educate a person, we may appeal to their susceptibility to ethical and moral principles. That’s pedagogical function.<br />
<br />
===2.3 Main Text - types===<br />
<br />
Katharina Reiss, founder of German translation functionalism, put forward text-typology theory in Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism. She believes that there are four texts, including the context-focused text, the form-focused text, the appeal-focused text and the audio-media text. <br />
Peter Newmark, representative of the British linguistic school of translation theory, based on the study of former linguisticians, he put forward the following six functions of texts - expressive function, informative function, the vocative function, the aesthetic function, the phatic function and the meta-lingual function. A text may has several functions at the same time, but only has one major function. Taking a whole consideration of the two theories, the main texts are the following three, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts. Journalistic-style texts and literary-style texts are mainly connected with the informative and expressive function respectively. <br />
<br />
===2.3.1 The Expressive Texts=== <br />
<br />
Language is a tool for people to communicate with each other. Through language, people can express their thoughts, affection, wills, desires, opinions, attitude, etc. This is the expressive function of language. The core of expressive function is the speaker's thoughts. The speaker uses words to express feelings, regardless of the reaction of others.Typical expressive-function texts include the following three types. The first ones are serious and imaginative literature which contain lyrics, short stories, long novels and plays. The second type is authoritative texts, including a variety of genres, whose authority comes from the status of the author or language skills, such as senior government officials and political party leaders’ speeches, such as declarations, legal regulations, documents as well as literary and academic works written by authority figures etc. The third type is texts that express writers’ ideas directly, without direct readers, like autobiography, private letters, etc. <br />
<br />
===2.3.2 The Informative Texts===<br />
<br />
In interactions, people often have to describe, narrate or explain the situation of relevant things. This involves the information function of language. The core is the external environment, which is the reported insights and theories. The informative text usually has a fixed format, such as textbook, technical reports, newspaper articles, scientific papers, meeting minutes, etc. <br />
<br />
===2.3.3 The Vocative Texts===<br />
<br />
People often use words to evoke others' sympathy or prompt them to take some actions. That shows the imperative function of language. The core of this function is the readers or audiences. The speaker wants readers or audiences to feel and follow the intent of the text and act as expected. Typical vocative texts are notices, advertisements, instructions, requests, appeals, etc.<br />
<br />
===3.Literary Stylistics and Journalistic Stylistics=== <br />
<br />
With the appearance of societal pragmatics, pragmatics and functional grammar, scholars recognized the importance of language functions. They tried to classify the texts in the light of language functions and divided them into two main types. One is literary style, the other is non-literary style. Snell-Hornby classified literary texts as Bible, drama, film, lyric poetry, modern literature, classic works, children literature, literature in 1990 and pastime novel. <br />
<br />
===3.1 Language Characteristics===<br />
<br />
===3.1.1 For literary stylistics===<br />
===Vividness===<br />
In literary works, writers use words or language to vividly describe or portray people, objects, things to reflect the world’s various situations or expose social reality, they will use appropriate techniques to render the atmosphere and create an immersive feeling for readers. For Example, “The bullfrogs trump to usher in the night, and the note of the whip-poor-will is borne on the rippling wind from over the water.” Through the use of verbs such as "trump", "usher" and "is borne", the images of frogs, hawks and wind blowing on the water surface in the evening are vividly depicted. That happens a lot in literary works.<br />
<br />
===Emotional expression===<br />
As we all know, all things and objects are embodiment of writers’ feelings and emotions. In literary creation, whether it is to portray characters or to describe scenery, often inadvertently or intentionally contains or carries the writer’s own emotions. In other words, expressing emotion includes direct expression and indirect expression. The lyricism of this kind of literature can effectively arouse the emotional resonance of readers.<br />
<br />
===Connotation===<br />
Connotation means that writers do not always describe people or things in all-round aspects with every details, but can depict in limited number of words to show or imply infinite meaning or artistic conception, leaving readers with imagination. That will be unforgettable for a long time. For example, “ From my mother’s sleep I fell into the State. And I hunched in its belly till my wet fur froze.” In this two sentences, “Sleep” metaphorically means in the mother’s womb, can also refer to the poet’s lofty ideals and ambitions. The capitalized "State" can refer to both the world and the poet’s motherland - The United States.<br />
<br />
<br />
===3.1.2 For journalistic===<br />
Journalistic-style texts vary a lot from the the literary-style texts. As an unique texts which are shown to billions of audience, the characteristics of news are mainly in following four aspects: Truth, objective, new and political-related.<br />
<br />
===Truthfulness===<br />
First, as the definition indicates news is about facts，which first should be true. “News lays claim to the qualities of truthfulness and accuracy-properties often implied by the term objectivity, a concept used to legitimize the journalistic text while at the same time recognizing the multidimensional and elusive nature of truth. News asks to be accepted as, at the very least, an approximation to truth, and certainly close enough to the truth to be worthy of our trust in its integrity”(McNair, 1998:2)<br />
<br />
===Newness===<br />
If the news isn’t new, it should have been called “olds”. This is more than a joke. News is reported to make a contrast to the convention, strike people by surprise and keep them in suspense. “News is not about somebody bitten by a dog, but about a dog bitten by a man”, “News is just something that can move women to scream: My Gosh!” The two old sayings have been taken as most vivid descriptions of news, featuring its distinctive characteristics of newness.<br />
<br />
===Objectivity===<br />
The objectivity is one of the most important professional concepts of news and has caught great attention in news circle. “The basic content of this principle is the content must be completely true, fair and neutral, not fictitious, and not biased or subjective” (Yang Xiyou 2009, 6)When writing news or reports, media workers shouldn’t put their subjective feelings into the reports. And the use of vocabulary should also be fair and neutral. When international news media, such as BBC and VOA, report about China Diaoyu Islands issue, they generally use Sankaku Islands and Diaoyu Island. When translating these words, the translator should be faithful to the original text and translate these two names. However, due to ideological, political or historical reasons, the use of vocabulary may deviate from the principle of objectivity, such as: in the report of Russia and Japan’s dispute on islands, only the Russian address- “ Kuril Islands” was used, but the Japanese address- “Four Northern Islands” was not used. When translating, the translator should add “Thousand Southern Islands” and “Four Northern”.<br />
<br />
===Political Relevance===<br />
Although news is objective, absolutely objective and fair reports do not exist. The media has never been able to completely get rid of the shackles of political and economic power or ideology. The content of the report tends to obey the interests of the country. The use of political vocabulary in English current affairs news must also faithfully reflect the country’s political standpoint. Regarding to the English translation of the Diaoyu Islands, the Chinese news media translate into “Diaoyu Islands”, while the Japanese news media and some Western news media call it “Senkaku Islands”. From the usage of these words, it is obvious to see the political stance. When translating these political words, translators must be very cautious. In addition to be faithful to the original text, translators or interpreters should also consider our country’s interests.<br />
<br />
===2.3.2 Translation principles=== <br />
Translation is the process of transforming signs or representations into another signs or representations.(Nord, 2001:6) Generally speaking, according to the object of translation, translation can be divided into two kinds: literary translation and non-literary translation. In literary translation the object is only the literary work, such as pot, novel and so on, and it focuses on the expression of contents, emotions and rhetoric of the original. <br />
<br />
===For Literary===<br />
Although literary translation and non-literary translation share basic principles, literary translation which has its unique ways, is rather different from non-literary translation. Translating literary works is not only a process of transforming languages but also a process of recreating because literature belongs to a part of art. This is the most important feature of literary translation and also the basic translation principles. <br />
<br />
===Equivalence-based principle=== <br />
Equivalence-based principle equals to “Dynamic equivalence” proposed by Eugene A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist. This principle points that translators should work hard in different languages and different cultures to find translation equivalents between them, and use appropriate methods to reorganize the form and semantic structure of the original text. Dynamic equivalence includes four aspects: one is lexical equivalence, the other is syntactic equivalence, the third is textual equivalence, the fourth is sense equivalence. In literary translation, sense equivalence is the core. For example, the Chinese sentence “青年小伙子们，有事没事，总想和小芹说句话” can be translated in to “Young men sought every excuse to talk with Xiao Qin”.This shows sense equivalence.<br />
<br />
===Accuracy-based principle===<br />
No matter how beautiful the texts are, the accuracy is always the most important, rather than the forms. Be Faithful to the content of the original text, the translator must fully express the content of the original text without any tampering, distortion, omission or arbitrary deletion. The more accurate the words be chosen, the better the translation texts will be. For example, when translating “ 微风”, we’d better translate it into “breeze” or “gentle breeze” rather than “gentle wind” since the breeze is more accurate.<br />
<br />
===For Journalistic style===<br />
Journalistic-style texts belong to the informative texts according to the above analysis. Translation principles of Journalistic are mainly mainly purposiveness, accuracy and readability. <br />
<br />
===Purpose-based principle===<br />
Purpose" is the basic principle of journalistic-style texts translation, and other principles are based on this principle. For information-based texts, “ translation skopos ”, the German functionalist translation theory, was put forward by Rice, Vermeer, and Nord. Skopos has great significance in guiding of translation. This is because the purpose of information-based translation is very strong, that is, the translation has a clear goal - to provide information. Snell Hornby believes: “More practical the texts is, more clear its function is. The more the translation tends to focus on the target language.” As far as the journalistic text is concerned, the purpose of its translation is conveying the information and communication, allowing readers to easily understand the intention of the speaker. The translation should conform to the audience’s needs, cultural expectations, beliefs and cognitive status as much as possible, and it is meaningful in the communication environment of the target language culture. For example, in news, sometimes vocabulary vacancies are caused by the absence of equivalence in the translation, and it is impossible to use completely equivalent and accurate words to express its connotation during translation. In this case, domestication can be applied. Considering the specific translation purpose, context and characteristics of the target language, if the purpose of translation is to spread foreign cultures, foreignization strategies can be adopted. That’s the purpose-based translation principle.<br />
<br />
===Accuracy-based principle=== <br />
The purpose of informative text is to convey information. Therefore, the translation work of the information text should be accurate, clear and precise. The translator can’t deliberately or unintentionally miss any original author’s information. In journalistic style, the accuracy is critical. A slight difference of words can make huge results. Especially, for those news related with politics and business. A word with different emotional sense can make a complete opposite statement. A small movement of a point can cause millions capital loss. For example, 1.33 million and 13.3 million has the huge difference. This principle is similar to the “faith” proposed by Yan Fu. “Faith” means “faithfulness”. The translation of linguistic-style texts should confirm to accuracy.<br />
<br />
===Readability-based principle===<br />
Generally speaking, the terminology of information-based texts is neutral and has no obvious personal characteristics or regional colors. In news, even though there are more facts that personal emotions and feeling, translators or interpreters can make small adjustment of the speakers to make the report readable. In short, when translating, based on the readers’ language level, various translation methods should be mobilized on the premise of not changing the original intent of the article and report. It may make the content and layout of the article easier to understand, fluent and concise. But be sure to keep the source language texts’ characteristics. <br />
<br />
===4.Translation strategies===<br />
Translation strategies refer to the thoughts, process, methods and procedure during the process of translation. Towards original texts with different texts styles, translation strategies also vary in a large degree. The thesis will discuss from two typical stylistic texts - literary style and journalistic style. According to The Modern Chinese Dictionary, strategies indicate guidelines and means which are deigned on the basis of the situations concerned. While methods are the ways and procedures in solving real problems. However, the two are relative to each other. In simple words strategies are the guidelines of the concrete methods. The concrete methods should be adopted in the direction of their strategies. Based on the above, a conclusion in drawn that translation strategies are the guidelines for realizing a particular translation aim, yet translation methods the concrete ways employed by translators to make the particular translation aim come true.<br />
<br />
===4.1Translation strategies in literary style===<br />
In the book Translation Criticism the Potentials & Limitations, Reiss pointed out that “Translation of literary works would better be called free rendering than translations, especially when the personality of the translator and the force of his artistic temperament result in a TL version standing on its own, indebted to the original as a model and a source of inspiration. (Reiss, 2004:91) This description indicates the characteristics of literary translation. <br />
<br />
===4.1.1 Domestication===<br />
Domestication is firstly coined by L.Venuti in his book The Translator’s Invisibility called “guihua” in Chinese. Domestication is a strategy by which the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the original text is erased in the translation in order to meet its readers’ aesthetic and reception psychology. As Venuti argues the adoption of domesticating strategy is the cultural disparity and imperialism. In the 1980s translation studies underwent “cultural turn”, and since then translation has being studied in the cultural and social contexts. The dominance of transparent discourse in English-language translation was decisively challenged at the turn of the twentieth century.<br />
Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication by his assertion on dynamic equivalence that “A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness <br />
of expression… and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture.” (Nida, 2004:159) He maintains that the function of translation is to communicate and it is important for the reader to understand what is conveyed by the translation, which takes the reader’s response into consideration. He claims that the reader of the target text should have the similar comprehension and appreciation as does the reader of the source text. Domestication tries to avoid cultural dispute and eliminate cultural barriers to achieve successful cross-cultural communication. The domesticating translation is one of naturalness and smoothness, <br />
which is the advantage of domestication. Here are three main methods that can achieve domestication strategy. They are paraphrasing, adaptation and replacement.<br />
<br />
===4.1.1.1 paraphrasing===<br />
<br />
Domestication by the method of paraphrasing is effective in dealing with a simple expression behind which there is a heavy cultural load. We should adapt paraphrasing strategy.<br />
<br />
Example1<br />
<br />
ST: 如囊萤 如映雪 家虽贫 学不辍 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br />
<br />
TT1: Then we have one who put fireflies in a bag, and again another who used the white glare from snow. Although their families were poor, these men studied <br />
unceasingly.<br />
<br />
TT2: One enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag, another read by the light reflected by the snow. Although their families were poor, they never ceased learning. <br />
Annotation: in order to read by their light. <br />
<br />
TT3: Che-yin, when a boy, being poor, read his book by the light of a glow-worm which he confined. And Sun-kang, in winter, read his book by the light reflected from snow. Though their families were poor they studied incessantly. <br />
<br />
The original text is from a classical book in china named Three-Character Classic.“囊萤”and “映雪” are Chinese allusions urging children to work hard at their study. Each of the contracted expressions has a story behind it. By reading T1 and T2, readers cannot understand the allusion to the full and the logic between the expressions of “put fireflies in a bag/enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag”and“used the white glare from snow”and the expressions about the persons’ industry at their studies. T3 paraphrases the sentence and makes logic explicit by introducing the heroes in the allusions and explaining what they used the fireflies/glow-worms for. This is effective in translation.<br />
<br />
===4.1.1.2 Adaptation===<br />
<br />
In order to achieve naturalness of expression, grammar, lexicon and culture. Adaptations are necessary. For terms which identify culturally different objects but with somewhat similar functions, adaptation shows its advantage in translation.<br />
<br />
Example2 <br />
<br />
ST: 老少爷们，从麻木的状态中苏醒过来吧。(Moyan，2003:85)<br />
<br />
TT: Come out of your stupor, my friends. ( Goldblatt, 2004:293)<br />
<br />
Address terms, as an indispensable part of conversations and communications, can reflect the tradition and culture of a nation. In all languages, address terms play an important role in social intercourse. Set in Northeast countryside of China, “ 老少爷们”is a typical address term of China’s northern dialect. And it is usually used by a man, showing some masculinity. It’s an oral expression often addressed to males. Goldblatt translate it as “my friends”, often used in an English speech to strike a chord in listeners and get them united or in favor of the speaker, conspicuously in an adaptation way. <br />
<br />
Example3<br />
<br />
ST: 凡训蒙 须讲究 详训诂 明句读 （Wang Yinglin,1986）<br />
<br />
TT1: In the education of the young, there should be explanation and elucidation, careful teaching of the interpretations of commentators, and due attention to paragraphs and sentences. <br />
<br />
TT2: Whoever teaches boys, ought to discuss and examine deeply (the meaning of the characters); Explain their derivation, mark distinctly the periods and the punctuation. <br />
<br />
TT3: Every one that instructs youth should explain fully what he teaches; should illustrate the present and the past, and distinguish clearly the comma and the period. <br />
There are two kinds of adaptation in the translation of this Chinese line. First, it is the domestication of the Chinese term “句读”. Actually, ancient Chinese classics do not have any punctuation marks and the “句读” refers to the longer or shorter pause in the classics according to the meaning of the text. All three translators domesticate the Chinese term by the concept of punctuation in the English language and render it respectively as “paragraphs and sentences”, “the periods and the punctuation” and “the comma and the period”. Although the three kinds of rendering differ from each other on the level of punctuation, they have much the same function—the target text reader can easily understand in what way “句读” functions in a Chinese text. Thus dynamic equivalence is achieved. The second adaptation is the change of parts of speech—the change from verb to noun. Giles changes the verbs “训”, “讲究” and “训诂” in the Chinese text into nouns “education”, “explanation and elucidation”, “interpretations” and “attention”.<br />
<br />
===4.1.1.3 Replacement===<br />
<br />
Example 4 <br />
<br />
ST:勤有功 戏无益 戒之哉 宜勉力 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br />
<br />
TT: Diligence has its reward; play has no advantages. Oh, be on your guard, and put forth your strength. <br />
<br />
This is an example of domestication on the lexical level. “哉” in Chinese is a particle of exclamatory or of interrogative value. In this line, it functions as an exclamatory particle. It helps to make up the syllable in the Chinese version and express the author’s emotion of instructing the young. Giles translates it into the correspondent English exclamatory particle “Oh” which retains the tone of a similar function as is in the source text. It achieves dynamic equivalence in terms of reader’s response to the rhetoric. <br />
<br />
===4.1.2 Foreignization===<br />
<br />
Foreignization designates the type of translation in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks the target conventions by retaining the foreignness of the original. It functions to preserve the foreignness and value of the foreign language culture in the source text. It takes the readers of the target language culture to a foreign culture, making the readers of the translated text feel the differences and enjoy the alien atmosphere. It is more faithful to the language features of the source text than domestication does, and it keeps the flavor of the original language. Venuti and other scholars who advocate foreignization hold that foreignization enable readers of the translated text to learn about the alien culture of the source language text, which is often the reading aim of the readers who are capable of understanding the alien culture. (Venuti, 1995)<br />
<br />
===4.1.2.1 phonetic compensation===<br />
<br />
Among the three translators, Giles is said to be an excellent English language master who was able to compose English poems. His translation of poems is generally in accordance with the composing and rhyming schemes of English poems, often with good rhythm. (Mu Shixiong, 2004:166) Though Giles is good at translating poems, he does not translate this text into a completely rhythmical one. Instead, he adds pronunciation to every Chinese character in the text to make a phonetic compensation so that the readers can still appreciate the ending rhyme of the original Chinese text. Giles does make an effort to create rhythmical effect whenever it is possible. In literary texts, phonetic compensation is always applied in translation of poem and prose. <br />
<br />
Example5 <br />
<br />
ST:养不教 父之过 教不严 师之惰 <br />
<br />
TT: To feed without teaching is the father’s fault. To teach without severity is the teacher’s laziness. <br />
<br />
Each line of the translation has a rhythmic focus. Respectively they are:“feed”,“without”and“teaching”in the first line; “father” and “fault” in the second line;“teach”,“without”and“severity” in the third line; and “teacher” and “laziness” in the fourth line. In this way, and together with the phonetic compensation, formal equivalence is achieved and by reading the phonetic compensation, target readers can feel the same rhythm of the original text and response the same as the readers of the source text. <br />
<br />
4.1.2.2 Transliteration<br />
<br />
Transliteration is a method that an item is translated according to its pronunciation rather than its meaning. This technique is often applied to translate ecological culture-loaded terms, like names of places, person, rivers, mountains or countries. There are two systems in use for transliteration Chinese characters: the Wade-Giles system of Romanization and the pinyin system of Romanization. For better transference of Chinese culture, the latter system is suggested. For some material culture-loaded terms, such as “仁”, “义”, “君子” and so on, transliteration might be preferable to any other methods. These terms represent the key concept of Confucianism, and any other English equivalent expressions may lead to misunderstanding. Thus, it is the most convenient and effective way to expose target readers in Chinese culture. For some time, the pinyin translation of these terms may be as acceptable and comprehensible as “kongfu” or “mahjong”. Certainly, for the sake of target readers’ understanding, an annotation is always needed to provide the further explanation of the cultural meanings of these terms. <br />
<br />
Example6<br />
<br />
ST: 南容三复“白圭”，孔子以其兄之子妻之。(Liu Dianjue, 46) <br />
<br />
TT1: Nan Jung in reciting the I Song repeated the verse about the sceptre of white jade three times. (In consequence of which) Master Kung gave him his elder brother’s daughter to marry. (Waley, 131)<br />
<br />
TT2: Nan Rong repeated over and over again the lines about the white jade sceptre. Confucius gave him his elder brother’s daughter in marriage. (D.C. Lau, 181)<br />
<br />
4.1.2.3 Amplification<br />
<br />
Amplification refers to add information behind some terms that is familiar to source language readers but unfamiliar to target language readers. By amplification, the connotation can be better conveyed to foreign readers. <br />
<br />
Example 7<br />
<br />
ST:论语者 二十篇 群弟子 记善言 <br />
<br />
TT: The Lun-yu (the book of discourses and dialogues) contains twenty chapters. The disciples (of Confucius) have therein related his excellent sayings. <br />
<br />
In this example, the Chinese text does not mention the ancient Chinese sage Confucius, and the information on whose sayings had been recorded in the book “Lun-yu” is implicit, which can be inferred from the context by native Chinese, once they combine the notion of “论语”with their background knowledge. However, western readers do not have enough knowledge to appreciate the value of the “Lun-yu”if the title was translated without the mention of Confucius. <br />
<br />
<br />
===4.2Translation strategies in journalistic style===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1Amplification===<br />
<br />
Sometimes, the translator needs to add proper words to complete the structure of the target texts, because mews sometimes needs more information to explain the inner meaning. The following examples are offered to illustrate the point. <br />
<br />
Example 8 <br />
<br />
ST: The real James Bond? (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 250) <br />
<br />
TT:谁是真正的邦德? <br />
<br />
There are no subject and predicate in the target text if the translator renders the headline by literal translation. Therefore,“谁是” is added in order to clarify the text. <br />
<br />
Example 9<br />
<br />
ST: Kings rout rockets, 101-74 (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 225) <br />
<br />
TT: 国王队击败火箭队，比分为 101 比 74 <br />
<br />
“比分为”is added in the target text to make the translation complete in sentence structure and meaning. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example 10<br />
ST:Reuters bests and worsts of the world cup (Huang Ruihong, 2004-06-15) <br />
<br />
TT:路透社评出世界最佳和最差球队 <br />
<br />
“评出” is added in the target text. Otherwise, there will be no predicate in the target text. Consequently, the translation will make no sense to the target reader. Translator should transfer new messages accurately and clearly to the target reader. To achieve this goal, amplification is often adopted to supplement necessary words or background information, which effectively avoids misunderstanding on the part of the target reader. <br />
<br />
===4.2.2 Omission===<br />
<br />
Omission refers to the strategy to delete unnecessary words or phrases from the target text. News headlines are featured by its brevity. Redundant words can be omitted either to conform to the norms of the target language or to achieve the effect of succinctness. <br />
<br />
Example11 <br />
ST: You need to sleep less than you think (Zou Shuang, 2005) <br />
TT: 适当少睡有益健康 <br />
As we know, English is a hypotactic language, which pays great attention to overt cohesion. Without the pronoun‘you’, the source text will be ungrammatical. By contrast, Chinese belongs to paratactic language, which attaches importance to covert coherence. When the translator does not render the word‘you’ into“你”, it won’t affect comprehension at all. In addition, the target text is succinct by leaving out the pronoun‘you’. Therefore, omission is adopted in this example. <br />
<br />
Example12 <br />
<br />
ST: Vogue says Queen Elizabeth II among world’s most glamorous (China Daily, 2007-11-07) <br />
<br />
TT:英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜 <br />
<br />
As it is well known to most Chinese readers that the Queen of UK is Elizabeth II (伊莉莎白二世), there is no need to keep it in the target text. Otherwise, the translation will be too long as a headline. The recommended version, thus, becomes 英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜. <br />
<br />
===4.2.3Imitation===<br />
English news are featured by its vivid language, such as play on word, figures of speech, etc. They add special flavor to the text with the aim to attract readers’ eye. Obviously, to reproduce these aesthetic effect enjoys the privilege among the available methods. Throughout the history of translation theory, the idea of imitation has been manifested clearly by Alexander Fraser Tytler when he wrote: the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original in his famous essay on the Principles of Translation. (Munaday, 2001: 26) The following examples may illustrate the above idea.<br />
<br />
Example 13 <br />
<br />
ST:A tale of two hearts (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 199).<br />
<br />
TT:双心记 <br />
<br />
This headline tells a story that a patient has an artificial heart planted in his body. The headline is a parody of the novel A Tale of Two Cities written by Charles Dickens. The target text (双心记) is also a parody of “双城记”.<br />
<br />
Example14 <br />
<br />
ST: Soccer kicks off with violence (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 200) <br />
<br />
TT:足球开踢，拳打脚踢 <br />
<br />
This is a humorous news headline because of the use of pun. The phrase ‘kick off’ refers to the start of a football match, and it also implies that there is a fight in the football field. The meanings of the pun are successfully transferred by the target text with the recommended translation. The translator does a good job in reproducing the humorous sense.<br />
<br />
===4.2.4 Restruction===<br />
The target text should be acceptable and meaningful in a sense that it is coherent with the situation in which it is received. Once translated, the translator revises the order and rearranges all words into a perfect sentence. In doing so, the news is more logical and tuned with the habit of native readers' think and reading. It can be treated as an important technique used in translating news headline from Chinese into English or English to Chinese. <br />
<br />
Example 15 <br />
<br />
ST: A third of Londoners must work from home during Olympics to avoid tube <br />
<br />
TT: 奥运交通压力大 1/3伦敦人须在家上班 (2011-09-27 08:33)<br />
<br />
“A third” occurred in the beginning of the source text, but “奥运会” comes first in the target text. The source text can be translate into “1/3的伦敦人必须在家上班,在奥运会期间避免交通混乱”if there is not any translation strategies used. The translator rearranges the words order to emphasize the special time---Olympics. <br />
<br />
Example16<br />
<br />
ST: Mahfud proposes ‘Special Zoo’ for corrupt officials <br />
<br />
TT: 印尼高官提议建“贪官动物园” (2011-11-30 16:02)<br />
<br />
In order to satirize the corrupt officials, the translator exchanges the order of “special” and “贪官” during the translation process. It can be achieve some good effect to expose the corrupt officials in language sense. <br />
<br />
Example 17<br />
<br />
ST:‘Ready for winter’ campaign launches <br />
<br />
TT: 苏格兰打响“迎冬战役”(2011-10-24 12:06)<br />
<br />
The translator reorders the expression “Ready for winter” and “launches” during the translation process. Besides, the translator adds a subject to this sentence so that it can appeal to the readers’ thinking patterns. In order to make the readers or audiences understand the translated version smoothly and easily, the words or phrases are adjusted to accord with their thinking pattern. Restructuring refers to rearranging the words in logic order to make the translation more potential readers or audiences into the first consideration, making them understand the translated version easily. <br />
<br />
===4.2.5 Adaptation===<br />
Adaptation is a translation method, which refers to use an especially free translation, it relates to selecting, adding, deleting, and constructing cautiously instead of simply translating one word to another word. In order to make the translated version more proper to a certain readers or audiences, adaptation always make some essential changes for a special aim So adaptation is an activity which the news translators absorb the most important content from the source text on the basis of the particular requirement of the readers or audiences, then make some suitable adjustments. When the translators are doing some adaptation, though the form and style of the source text are altered in a way, the main idea of the source text must be kept.Though adaptation is not acted as a main translation method by some traditional translation theorists, adaptation is getting more and more popular and arousing more and more <br />
attention these days. You can see the term adaptation frequently showed in some authoritative journals and newspapers, etc. <br />
<br />
Example 18<br />
<br />
ST: Poor People May Be Quicker to Be Kind <br />
<br />
TT:穷人更有同情心 (2011-12-29 08:56)<br />
<br />
“Quicker”means“更快”, but here it is translated into “更有”, “快” is an adjective, “有”is a verb, they have different characters.“Kind”means“友善的”, it is an adjective, but it is translated into“同情心”, which is a noun. If the translator does not use some translation strategies like adaptation, the target text is unreadable. <br />
<br />
Example 19<br />
<br />
ST: Americans say Asia more important than EU: survey <br />
<br />
TT：多数美国人看好亚洲 (2011-09-16 08:43) <br />
<br />
“Important” is an adjective, and a comparative degree used in the source text. But the source text is translated in a totally different way, for it is translated into a verb “看好”. Adaptation should be used here to make sure the translation aim is achieved. <br />
<br />
Example 20<br />
<br />
ST: Lend your voices to ‘talking bins’ <br />
<br />
TT:“能说会唱垃圾桶”将亮相伦敦。<br />
<br />
If“talking bins” is translated into “会说话的垃圾桶”, it is so ordinary. But the translator adopt the adaptation strategy to translated it into“能说会唱垃圾桶”, it becomes very vivid, and it may leave a deep impression on the readers.<br />
<br />
===5.Conclusion===<br />
The research conducted in this thesis is a fairly thorough study on the translation strategies of literary-style texts and journalistic-style texts. Through detailed discussion, several translation strategies have been analyzed and summarized. This thesis also studies the texts’ functions and main types of texts. The texts functions are referential function, expressive function and appellative function. The texts can be divided into three types- informative, expressive and vocative texts. On the basis of characteristics of different texts, detailed methods are applied. For literary-style texts, there are domestication and foreignization strategies. For journalistic-style texts, there are strategies like omission, restructure,adaption, imitation and amplification. Journalistic texts and literary texts are quite different, so the translation strategies are different. This thesis has a clear analysis about the translation strategies. However, it still owns a lot of drawbacks, such as the structure is too complicated, lack some of the former people’s study fruit. Hoping this thesis can make some contributions to the translation study and exercise process.<br />
===6. References===<br />
[1] McNair, Brain. (1998). The sociology of Journalism. A Hodder Arnold Publication<br />
[2] Munday, Jeremy, 2001, Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications [M], London and New York: Routledge.<br />
[3] Newmark, P. Approaches to Translation ［M］. New York: Prentice Hall, 1981: 39.<br />
[4] Nord, Christiane. Translating as A Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained [M]. Shanghai : Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:6<br />
[5] Reiss, Katharina. Translation Criticism the Potentials & Limitations [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004:91.<br />
[6] Venuti, L. 1995. The Translator’s Invisibility—A History of Translation. London & New York: Routledge.</div>Hu Huifanghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=114581History of Translation Studies 92020-12-18T11:43:06Z<p>Hu Huifang: /* Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
<br />
='''Comparative Studies'''=<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language, under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, takes the relationship beween language and thought as the entry point to make a comparative study of English and Chinese language and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显而易见，语言，文化与思维模式之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，以语言和思维关系为切入口，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. Language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts and thoughts in turn is the mental reflection of the world around us. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. That is to say, without thought, language would be nothing sounds with no meaning or content. But thoughts, though accessible by various means, are best represented in language and can thus best fulfill its obligations to the speakers by such means. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921: 12) At the same time, Language is part of culture. Such as Chinese language is a part of Chinese culture. Each country has its own language in a specific culture. However, their relationship is not just between part and whole. Language is the carrier and the representation of culture, while, as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture. Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, willpower, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properities and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br />
<br />
===2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese===<br />
The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. While in different countries, there exist vast differences in their thinking patterns, then this paper is going to illustrate four groups of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present how these thinking patterns are reflected upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. All of the opposition between Chinese thinking and occidental thinking that I present is just a matter of degree, and we have to view it critically.<br />
<br />
===2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking===<br />
Generally speaking, human thought can be divided into two types: analytical thinking and holistic thinking. To some extent, Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical.<br />
<br />
Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. It regard man, nature and society as an unalienable organic whole. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. Actually, there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. The formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. After accumulated, condensed and sublimated through time, such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking which is good at integrating, drawing up the guidelines and commanding the overall situation. While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analysizing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively<br />
<br />
Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relationships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking. In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis , is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br />
<br />
(1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br />
我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br />
<br />
（2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br />
Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face. (Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br />
<br />
From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one preminent feature is the aboundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br />
<br />
===2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking===<br />
It is well know that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking. As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the oppositt side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1977: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature.<br />
On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conqure nature. Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism adovacates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration eration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974:25) While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br />
<br />
The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br />
一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br />
<br />
A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br />
我突然想出了一个好主意。<br />
<br />
The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br />
<br />
Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br />
<br />
(1) 公交车来了。<br />
There comes the bus.<br />
(2) 我家有五口人。<br />
There are 5 people in my family.<br />
<br />
Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by sb) “为人所骗” (be cheated by sb). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br />
<br />
===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking===<br />
Generally speaking, Chinese people prefer thinking in images and English people prefer thinking in notions. Conspicuously, there are some cultural and historical factors leading to the formation of different thinking patterns. Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration for the concrete thinking of Chinese people. Chinese language is vivid and full of images. As we all know that the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs, which express the meaning through the outer form. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgement and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences. Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M. Young once pointed that an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end，detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness. While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” ( 1946: 15-16)The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br />
<br />
葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br />
欲饮琵琶马上催。<br />
— 王翰《凉州词》<br />
With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br />
Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br />
<br />
无边落木萧萧下，<br />
不尽长江滚滚来。<br />
—杜甫《登高》<br />
The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br />
The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br />
<br />
In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br />
<br />
“To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br />
<br />
“为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br />
是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br />
<br />
There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to gover the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br />
<br />
Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br />
智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br />
<br />
In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br />
<br />
===2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking===<br />
According to Robert Kaplan who analynizes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br />
Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. Later in Compendium of Materia Medica writen by Li Shizheng, it collect and summarize a vast of prescription based on his practical experiences and mothods. And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging. While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotlian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br />
<br />
(1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br />
<br />
足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br />
<br />
There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br />
<br />
(2) 各位来宾:<br />
女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br />
Distinguished Guests,<br />
Ladies and Gentlemen,<br />
Dear Friends,<br />
<br />
在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br />
<br />
With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br />
<br />
Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br />
诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br />
<br />
Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delightment in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br />
<br />
Although the distinction between Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of composition above middle school, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. And also the “general discussion-sub discussion-conclusion model” is only one certain structure for English writing. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines, and we have to critically think about the differences between Chinese and English.<br />
<br />
===3. Conclusion===<br />
The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other. While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, so we can not lump together under one head and blindly follow that the Chinese and Occidental thinking models must be opposite in certain dimension. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts a lot upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people from different nation think about the world and other objects around them, and then better understand why and how they tend to use such kind of ways of expression. Then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br />
<br />
=== Bibliography===<br />
<br />
*Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br />
*Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br />
*Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br />
*Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br />
*Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br />
*Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br />
* Lian Shuneng. 连淑能. (2002) 论中西思维方式【J】 On Chinese and Western modes of thinking. 大连：外语与外语教学. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching.<br />
*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1992) 《汉英对比翻译》【M】 Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese, 南昌: 江西教育出版社, Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press.<br />
*Qian Mu. 钱穆，(1977)《世界局势与中国文化》The World Situation and Chinese Culture【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD.<br />
*Shen Xiaolong. 申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters《学术月刊》 1994 第14期, 74. Academic Monthly, 1994 (14), 74.<br />
*Wang Dehua. 汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36. Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br />
*Zhang Li. 张 黎. (1994) 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】on Chinese Parataxis Grammar. 长春：吉林教育出版社Changchun: Jilin Education Press.<br />
*Zhang Sijie & Zhang Boran. 张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, 中国翻译 Chinese Translation. 2001 (7), 13.<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 英语笔译 202070080578==<br />
（缺了名字title和专业学号）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed functional equivalence, which has an overwhelming significance in the development of translation theory. This theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory.Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between original language and target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target language readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target language readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the central task in translating, which has an important guiding significance for translators.<br />
<br />
In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed the theory of functional equivalence, which has boosted the development of translation theory. The theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory.Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between the original language and the target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the key in translation, exerting great guiding significance for translators. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, translators of China also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators. <br />
<br />
With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, Chinese translators also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences of thse two translation theories will be presented, which will promote the understanding of them.<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence and Yan Fu's faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences between these two theories will be presented, aiming to have a better understanding in translation.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words:=== Functional equivalence; Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance; similarities and differences; Vanity Fair.(标题格式错误，大小写不统一，名利场是书/杂志，需要斜体）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。<br />
<br />
随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===：功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》(标题格式错误）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, we can see that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His “ Functional equivalence” theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reacching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” translation standard, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43).<br />
<br />
Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, it can be seen that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His “ Functional equivalence” theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reacching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles.（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180)<br />
<br />
Despite the different social environment and the imperfect translation standards, it is undeniable that these two are still the most authoritative and vital ones in Chinese and Western translation circles.（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible as well as a translation theorist. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). <br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible, and a translation theorist as well. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In 1964, Nida put forward “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence” in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of “dynamic equivalence” until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression “dynamic equivalence” was superseded by “functional equivalence” in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). <br />
<br />
In 1964, Nida put forward “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence” in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of “dynamic equivalence” until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression “dynamic equivalence” was superseded by “functional equivalence” in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). （双引号没引完）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of a translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). As we all know, it is impossible for a transltion to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translator can cause differences in translation.<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). It is impossible to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translators can cause differences in translation.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level(Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as “The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it”. The maximal level is stated as “The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did”(Nida 1993,118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida,1995,224).<br />
<br />
In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level(Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as “The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it”. The maximal level is stated as “The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did”(Nida 1993,118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. According to Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida,1995,224).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as essential criteria for understanding translations since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898)（Zhang Xi 2014,1):<br />
<br />
Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as the essential criteria for understanding translation since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898)（Zhang Xi 2014,1):--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so(Yan Fu 2009, 202).”<br />
<br />
“Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so(Yan Fu 2009, 202).”--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of the 20th century Chinese translation theory(Zhang Xi 2014, 2). <br />
<br />
Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of Chinese translation theory in the 20th century (Zhang Xi 2014, 2). --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. “Faithfulness” emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. “ Expressiveness” stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. “Elegance” reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics''(Yan Fu 2009, 202):<br />
<br />
According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. “Faithfulness” emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. “ Expressiveness” stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. “Elegance” reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics''(Yan Fu 2009, 202):--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also said, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for the translator. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek elegance.(Yan Fu 2009, 202)”<br />
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“Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also added, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for translators. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek for elegance.(Yan Fu 2009, 202)”--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticisms come from the denial of standard “ elegance”. According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese charcters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons: firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br />
<br />
Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticism comes from the denial of standard “ elegance”. According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese characters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons. Firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. “Elegance” people mentioned now has been modified by later generations, which refers to that the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard “elegance”, the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br />
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Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. "Elegance" now has been modified by later generations, which refers to that the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard “elegance”, the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Theoretial Foundation===<br />
====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====（标题之间需要隔一行）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====Modern Linguistic=====<br />
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Functional equivalence is based on modern linguistic and it has a close relationship with linguistics(Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately(Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process（Zhu Haotong 2006,64). <br />
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Based on modern linguistic, Functional equivalence has a close relationship with linguistics(Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately(Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process（Zhu Haotong 2006,64).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On Nida’s opinion, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure(Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).<br />
<br />
According to Nida, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure(Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====Information Theory=====<br />
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Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information(Nida 1964, 68).<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information(Nida 1964, 68).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and target language belong to different language systems and cultures(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original for the target readers to better understand the translation(Nida 1984, 34).<br />
<br />
Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and the target language belong to different language systems and cultures(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original text for the target readers to better understand the translation(Nida 1984, 34).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
=====Social Semiotics=====<br />
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Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning(Zhu Haotong 2006,65).<br />
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Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning(Zhu Haotong 2006,65).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that it is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and it focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods(Nida 1993, 67). <br />
<br />
In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods(Nida 1993, 67). <br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br />
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=====Chinese Aesthetics=====<br />
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Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty（Guo dingju 2013, 18). It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today.<br />
<br />
Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty（Guo dingju 2013, 18). It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“Faithfulness” means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. “Expressiveness” means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. “Elegance” refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reveal the essence of translation(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters(Guo Dingju 2013, 18).<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness” means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. “Expressiveness” means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. “Elegance” refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reveal the essence of translation(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters(Guo Dingju 2013, 18).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance(Guo Dingju 2013, 19).<br />
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Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance(Guo Dingju 2013, 19).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
=====Literary Criticism=====<br />
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Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods(Guo Dingju 2013, 19). <br />
<br />
Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods(Guo Dingju 2013, 19). <br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is a body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered round the craftmanship of literary works(Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation(Li Jianzhong 2009, 46). <br />
<br />
On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is the body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered around the craftmanship of literary works(Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation(Li Jianzhong 2009, 46). <br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of functions of criticism. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works proper. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism and Lu Xun is its representative. The second type is aimed at an independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism and it serves politics. It works well in the period of political struggels(Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).<br />
<br />
There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of criticism functions. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism, Lu Xun being one of the representative. The second type aims at the independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism serving politics, which works well in the period of political struggels(Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===<br />
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====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====<br />
<br />
=====About ''Vanity Fair''=====<br />
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''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the lives of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition(Guo Dingju 2013, 21).<br />
<br />
''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the stories of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition(Guo Dingju 2013, 21).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again(Thackeray 2006，178).<br />
<br />
At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again(Thackeray 2006，178).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater living in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time written by William Makepeace Thackeray(Guo Dingju 2013, 21). <br />
<br />
This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater living in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time(Guo Dingju 2013, 21). --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at time time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveal the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, are desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, one doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness(Thackeray 2006, 89).<br />
<br />
The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at that time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveals the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, he doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness(Thackeray 2006, 89).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====Yang Bi’s Translation of ''Vanity Fair''=====<br />
<br />
There are many Chinese translation version of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of Vanity Fair was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957. Then it was published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published in 2012 by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br />
<br />
There are many Chinese translation version of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of ''Vanity Fair'' was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957, then re-published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of original text appropriately to Chinese readers and Chinese readers can have a good understanding of western literary works(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br />
<br />
Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of the original text appropriately to Chinese readers, hence having a great response from Chinese readers.(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br />
<br />
Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator. When comparing the English and Chinese version of Vanity Fair, it’s easy for us to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.<br />
<br />
Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator when translating. When comparing the English and Chinese version of ''Vanity Fair'', it’s easy to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====At Lexical Level=====<br />
<br />
In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943，89), those are <br />
<br />
In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943，89), those are --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
(1)entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on; <br />
<br />
(2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on; <br />
<br />
(3)states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on; <br />
<br />
(4)characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on; <br />
<br />
(5)processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on; <br />
<br />
(6)links, such as when, during, below and so on; <br />
<br />
(7)deictics, such as that, there, this and so on(Nida 1986, 20). （格式不统一，需要隔开）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language(Zhang Yanmei 2019,16). <br />
<br />
Exampe 1: <br />
<br />
ST1:...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br />
<br />
TT1:痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)（格式不统一，需要隔开）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In ST1, “Love” and “Beauty” are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words “Love” and “Beauty” to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates “Love” and “Beauty” into “痴情男子“and “美貌佳人”to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate “Love” and “Beauty” into “爱情” and “美人”, the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.<br />
<br />
In ST1, “Love” and “Beauty” are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words “Love” and “Beauty” to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates “Love” and “Beauty” into “痴情男子“and “美貌佳人”to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate “Love” and “Beauty” into “爱情” and “美人”, the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====At Syntactical Level=====<br />
<br />
A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences (Nida, 1946). Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence(Nida 1946, 55). He think there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:<br />
<br />
A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences (Nida, 1946). Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence(Nida 1946, 55). He think there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
(1)subject+predicate+adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;<br />
<br />
(2)subject+predicate+object, such as, John hit Bill;<br />
<br />
(3)subject+predicate+object+object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;<br />
<br />
(4)subject+be+subject complement, such as John is in the restaurant;<br />
<br />
(5)subject+be+attributive, such as, John is kind;<br />
<br />
(6)subject+be+indefinite article+noun, such as, John is a man.<br />
<br />
(7)subject+be+pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend. (符号之间隔开）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences(Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text(Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of Vanity Fair are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation. <br />
<br />
The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences(Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text(Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
<br />
ST2:His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury. (Thackeray2016,75) <br />
<br />
TT2:他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br />
（Yang Bi 2013,76) （符合和文字需要隔开） --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences(Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.<br />
<br />
(1)他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。<br />
<br />
His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.<br />
<br />
(2)他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。<br />
<br />
He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.<br />
<br />
(3)她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。<br />
<br />
She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade. <br />
<br />
(4)她死后，他许下承诺。<br />
<br />
He was hanged after her death.<br />
<br />
(5）他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。<br />
<br />
He would never take another of her sort.<br />
<br />
(6)妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。<br />
<br />
At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.<br />
<br />
(7)他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br />
<br />
He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.（格式不统一，需要隔开）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.<br />
<br />
====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br />
<br />
The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====At Lexical level=====<br />
<br />
Literary words demands that the translator has good comand of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence(Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.<br />
<br />
Literary words demands that the translator has good comand of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence(Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 3:<br />
<br />
ST3: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty?(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br />
<br />
TT3:痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)同上--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words “an image of Love” and “Beauty” to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br />
<br />
If the words “prettier”, “an image of Love” and “Beauty” are translated into “更好看”“爱情形象”“美人” respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, “痴情男子”“美貌佳人”and “赏心悦目” reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br />
<br />
If the words “prettier”, “an image of Love” and “Beauty” are translated into “更好看”“爱情形象”“美人” respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, “痴情男子”“美貌佳人”and “赏心悦目” reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
=====At Sentence Level===== <br />
<br />
English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis(Guo Dingju 2013,40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br />
<br />
Example 4: <br />
<br />
ST4:The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley.(Thackeray 2006, 74)<br />
<br />
TT4:布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)<br />
同上，格式注意修改--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the original sentence, the abstract words “behavior” and “reception” are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into “克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……” without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.<br />
<br />
In the original sentence, the abstract words “behavior” and “reception” are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into “克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……” without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====<br />
<br />
=====The Similarities of Them=====--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)（ Similarities）<br />
<br />
Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.<br />
<br />
One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent(Nida&Taber 1969, 22).<br />
<br />
Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers.The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty(Guo Dingju 2013, 43). Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.<br />
<br />
The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating(Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information(Nida 1969,30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent.<br />
<br />
Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely(Guo Dingju 2013,44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.<br />
<br />
By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====The Differences of Them=====（Differences）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although there are many similarities of them, they have several differences because of different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence,which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of “elegance”. What’s more, the concrete explanation of “faithfulness” is not clear. Whether the target text should only be “faithful” to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as translation standard. <br />
<br />
Although there are many similarities between these two thoeries, there are still some differences because of the different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence,which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of “elegance”. What’s more, the concrete explanation of “faithfulness” is not clear. Whether the target text should only be “faithful” to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as the translation standard. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class(Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of differences of these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translating. <br />
<br />
With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class(Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of the differences between these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translation. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From comparison above, we know that there are some similarities and differences between them. I believe that these two translation theories play an important role in translating and they can guide us better understand different cultures. At the end of this paper, I will discuss the implements and limitations of this study.<br />
<br />
From the comparison above, it is known that there are some similarities and differences between these two thoeries. It is believed that these two translation theories both play an important role in translation, guiding us to better understand different cultures. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Implements====（可以删除）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). <br />
<br />
What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper(Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.<br />
<br />
====Limitations====（可以删除）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene Albert奈达.(1964).''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive博睿学术出版社.<br />
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Nida, Eugene Albert 尤金·阿尔伯特·奈达. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 博睿学术出版社.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida, Eugene Albert奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''《翻译理论与实践》. Leiden: Brill Archive博睿学术出版社.<br />
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Nida, Eugene Albert奈达, and Jan de Waard.(1986) ''From One Language to Another''《从一种语言到另一种语言》. Nashville: Thomas Nelson托马斯·纳尔逊出版社.<br />
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Nida, Eugene Albert奈达.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''《语言、文化与翻译》.Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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Thackeray,William萨克雷.（2006）. ''Vanity Fair''《名利场》.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
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Chen Minjie陈岷婕.(2013).浅谈严复的“信达雅”与奈达的“功能对等”[On Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Nida’s “functional Equivalence”].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(236)94-97.<br />
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Guo Dingju郭丁菊.(2013).功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness Expressiveand Elegance from the Translation of Vanity Fair].Harbin:Northeast Forestry University东北农业大学.<br />
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Li Jianzhong李建中.(2009)中国文学批评史[History of Chinese Literary Criticism].Beijing:Peking University Press北京大学出版社.<br />
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Tan Kai谭凯.(2011)严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness Expressive and Elegance” and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence].青年作家Young Writers(1)43-44.<br />
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Wang Yunxi王运熙,Gu Yisheng顾易生.(2007).中国文学批评史新编[A New History of Chinese Literary Criticism].Shanghai:Shanghai Classics Publishing House上海古籍出版社.<br />
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Yan Fu严复(2009).《天演论》译例言[Preface to Evolution and Ethics].Beijing:The Commercial Press商务印书馆.<br />
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Yang Bi杨必.(2013)《名利场》[Vanity Fair].Beijing:People’s Literature Publishing House人民文学出版社.<br />
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Zhang Yanmei张妍梅.(2019).功能对等理论视角下《名利场》的翻译[A Study on The Translation of Vanity Fair from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory].Lanzhou:Lanzhou Jiaotong University兰州交通大学.<br />
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Zhang Xi张曦.(2014).翻译硕士备考指南[A Guide Book to MTI].Shanghai:Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社.<br />
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Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[A Comparison on :Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House中国学术期刊电子出版社(2)180-181.<br />
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Zhu Haotong 朱浩彤.(2006).奈达“功能对等”理论基础的再思考[Some Thoughts on the Theoretical Bases of Nida’s Functional Equivalence]. Journal of Fujiann Medical University福建医科大学学报(3)62-65.<br />
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（注意格式问题，需要修改）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br />
关键词：生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br />
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==='''Introduction'''===<br />
''The Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. <br />
Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China. As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials.<br />
In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. So, the Chinese-English translation is of great significance. And in recent years, the domestic scholars attach great importance to the translation of political words. Therefore, it has important functions and research values to study on the Chinese-English translation of Government Work Report from the prospective of eco-translatology.<br />
Cheng Zhenqiu(2003）reposed that the translation of political articles should focus on politics. Huang Youyi(2004) proposed The Three Principles of External Publicity Translation. Tong Xiaohua (2014) explores the English translation of the Government Work Report from different perspectives. Wang Gangyi（2014）also pointed out that the former absolute loyalty to the translation of political texts can no longer satisfy the changing society and readers. Linguistics emphasizes the equivalence of texts from different aspects, which is of great guiding significance for texts like the Government Work Report that emphasizes fidelity. Under the guidance of Nida's functional equivalence theory, Zhou Ji studied the economic and political terms in the report at the lexical and textual levels. In 2001, Joan Pinkham (2000:1) published a book and it is The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, in which it explores the Chinglish in political publicity from the angle of lexis and syntax. In her book, she suggested that translators should not only understand the subtle connotations of words and sentences clearly and use more idioms to express the meanings of the source text, but also pay special attention to the tone and short sentences of Chinese, and avoid the use of outdated, rigid terms, slang and colloquialisms. Compared with domestic studies, the number of relevant studies abroad is very small, and there are almost no relevant translation studies. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that foreign countries are more interested in the content of the report, that is, to describe the national policies, culture and social issues. <br />
This thesis focuses on translation of political publicity from the perspective of eco-translatology in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology. <br />
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==='''1.Introduction of Government Work Report'''===<br />
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Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.<br />
===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br />
For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.<br />
====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br />
The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. <br />
====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br />
As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.<br />
====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br />
The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.<br />
===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br />
In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. <br />
Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br />
It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br />
===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br />
In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.<br />
====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br />
Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br />
Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) [1]<br />
“获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) [1]<br />
“增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) [1]'''=====<br />
Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br />
Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )[1]<br />
“在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)[1]<br />
“放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)[1] <br />
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==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br />
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Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br />
===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br />
Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br />
====='''2.1.1 Previous Studies on Eco-translatology '''=====<br />
As a translation theory originated in China, eco-translatology has been gradually improved in the past two decades. In 2001, professor Hu Gengshen laid the foundation for the theory of adaptation and selection of translation. Since then, the first decade has been the period of constructing and expanding the theoretical framework. In the second decade, with the holding of the international symposium on eco-translatology and the practice of the theory of eco-translatology of the professors of various universities, the eco-translatology system has gradually become mature. Liu Yafeng wrote adaptation and selection of translators -- a study on the translation process of external publicity, pointing out that translators should play their role of “selection” and “adaptation” as the center in the translation process of external publicity, so as to realize the harmony and unity of the whole translation ecological environment. For three-dimensional adaptation and selection principles, Zhou Li wrote the multi-dimensional integration principle under the care of the political party and government discourse translation to demonstrate the dimensions of language, culture, and communication in the perspective of the Chinese party guiding significance of discourse translation. It further enlightens the translator for the use of a multi-dimensional integration technique and set up a bridge of communication between the original language and target language.<br />
====='''2.1.2 Application of Eco-translatology '''=====<br />
There are many types of text analysis related to eco-translatology. Specifically, it includes: first, the analysis of various classical translations, such as a dream of red mansions, etc. Scholars have analyzed the reasons for the success of these classic works from the perspective of the overall translation ecological environment and the principle of “three-dimensional” transformation, pointing out that translators can only translate good works if they adapt to the translation ecological environment. These analysis has been the focus of research, and can best prove the feasibility of the theory. Secondly, the text analysis of public signs points out the direction from a new perspective. Thirdly, the text analysis of film title and subtitle. Fourthly, the text analysis of news translation. Scholars have analyzed the phenomenon of news text translation from different perspectives of eco-translatology and provided theoretical guidance.<br />
===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br />
====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br />
The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”[2]. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.[2]<br />
====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br />
Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.<br />
Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.<br />
Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.<br />
In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br />
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==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br />
From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br />
===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br />
The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br />
Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br />
“大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br />
Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br />
In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br />
Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br />
The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br />
===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br />
The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br />
Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br />
It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br />
Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br />
In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br />
Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br />
“筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br />
===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br />
From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br />
Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br />
For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br />
“保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br />
Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br />
In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br />
In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br />
Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br />
First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br />
However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br />
<br />
==='''Bibliography'''===<br />
Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br />
Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br />
Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br />
Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 1999. <br />
Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003 (4): 283-291.<br />
Joan Pinkham. The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br />
程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br />
方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br />
胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br />
胡庚申．生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]．中国翻译,2011 (2) : 5－9．<br />
黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br />
胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br />
刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br />
童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br />
王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br />
王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br />
周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br />
周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br />
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中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br />
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==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603 <span style="color:red">专业 is missing</span>--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 08:38, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling==<br />
<center>欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br />
<br />
Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective(<span style="color:red">perspectives</span>). Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br />
Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors.By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br />
<br />
Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed(<span style="color:red">pointed out</span>) the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors.(<span style="color:red">incorrect structure and obscure sentence meaning</span>) By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br />
<br />
====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br />
Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br />
<br />
Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' (<span style="color:red">that</span>)the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated (<span style="color:red">originated from</span>)his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br />
<br />
===2.Similarities and Differences===<br />
<br />
====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br />
As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br />
<br />
As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic(<span style="color:red">linguistics</span>) was exerted in both of their equivalence theory(<span style="color:red">theories</span>). Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br />
<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br />
Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br />
<br />
Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br />
<br />
=====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br />
The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br />
<br />
The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning(<span style="color:red">meanings</span>) into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br />
<br />
The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence''. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br />
<br />
The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence''. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want(<span style="color:red">wanted</span>) to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br />
Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42). Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence(Catford, 1965: 22). And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br />
<br />
Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42). Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors(<span style="color:red">factor</span>) to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence(Catford, 1965: 22). And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br />
<br />
=====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br />
Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br />
<br />
Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before(<span style="color:red">in front of</span>) its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br />
<br />
Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language.From this we can know that it's difficult to achieve the same meaning at a linguistic level between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br />
<br />
Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language(<span style="color:red">From this we can know that it's difficult to achieve the same meaning at a linguistic level between source language and target language</span>). In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br />
<br />
=====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br />
Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42). These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory ,Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation(Munday, 2008: 43). Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br />
<br />
Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42). These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep(<span style="color:red">These two types actually reflect a shallow to deep tendency of Nida's researches on structure of language</span>). Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory ,Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation(Munday, 2008: 43). Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br />
<br />
<br />
In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.3.Different Research Approach(<span style="color:red">Approaches</span>)=====<br />
To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). In another aspect, Nida held a view that "meaning is universal" and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br />
<br />
By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br />
<br />
By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define(<span style="color:red">defined</span>) by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br />
<br />
===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br />
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====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br />
<br />
=====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br />
In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspective. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics(Tan, 2017: 132). I think Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages. Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect(Nida, 1964: 159). This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators. Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence offers a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language. Thirdly, Also, the equivalence theory described by Nida is concrete and practical for people to understand and adopt for it is oriented by receptors’ response that can be easily examined and analyzed. <br />
<br />
In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspective(<span style="color:red">perspectives</span>). The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics(Tan, 2017: 132). I think Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages. Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect(Nida, 1964: 159). This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators. Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence offers a guidance(<span style="color:red">have offered guidances</span>) to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language. Thirdly, Also, the equivalence theory described by Nida is concrete and practical for people to understand and adopt for it is oriented by receptors’ response that can be easily examined and analyzed. <br />
<br />
<br />
=====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br />
Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully(Munday, 2008: 38). Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory. What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators. <br />
<br />
====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br />
Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved(Caford, 1965:22), he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature way.<br />
<br />
====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br />
Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials(Wang, 2008: 166). Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators. Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinct linguistic and cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language(Catford, 1965: 101). This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete.<br />
<br />
Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials(Wang, 2008: 166). Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators. Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinct linguistic and cultural untranslatability (<span style="color:red">distinguish linguistic from cultural untranslatability </span>)for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language(Catford, 1965: 101). This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete.<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion===<br />
In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27). The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possess many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application.<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27). The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possess(<span style="color:red">possessing</span>) many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br />
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Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br />
<br />
Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br />
<br />
Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br />
<br />
Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br />
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Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br />
<br />
Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br />
<br />
Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science & Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br />
<br />
==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605==<br />
<center>石海瑶 Shi Haiyao </center><br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people's overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'' was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, ''On the Construction of the System of Translatology''. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br />
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<br />
==='''摘要'''=== <br />
一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br />
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<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
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===='''Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br />
<br />
In his book ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'', Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, it should also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.<br />
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Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, the study of human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.<br />
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In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable, knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:21-22)<br />
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From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br />
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[[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]<br />
<br />
===='''Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br />
According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology.<br />
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The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology.<br />
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The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself.<br />
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The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.<br />
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The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. <br />
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The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:197-287).<br />
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From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br />
[[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]<br />
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The translations of the above terms are as following:<br />
<br />
[[File:Shu Yu.jpg]]<br />
<br />
==='''Similarities and Differences'''===<br />
<br />
===='''The Similarities between the Two systems'''====<br />
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====='''Both deem translatology as an independent discipline'''=====<br />
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In 1951, Dong Qiusi published ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper ''Translatology must be established'', which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br />
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From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br />
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It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br />
<br />
====='''Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation'''=====<br />
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In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br />
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For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br />
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Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br />
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====='''Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation'''=====<br />
The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that "all translations must be faithful to the original text". Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as "faithful to the original content ", " faithful to the original form ", " faithful to the original effect ", " faithful to the original function" and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that "comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style" is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br />
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As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br />
Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br />
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<br />
===='''The differences between the Two Translation Systems'''====<br />
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====='''Different structures of translation system'''=====<br />
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From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br />
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Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br />
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====='''Different views on the study of translation history'''=====<br />
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Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br />
<br />
we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br />
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====='''Different views on translation process'''=====<br />
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For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br />
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From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive. <br />
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<br />
==='''My Thoughts on the Two Systems'''===<br />
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===='''My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br />
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====='''Contributions of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br />
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First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word "translatology" is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br />
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Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that "translatology is an independent discipline" is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br />
<br />
Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of "harmony in diversity", which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br />
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====='''Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br />
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As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br />
<br />
Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br />
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Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br />
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====='''My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br />
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The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br />
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<br />
===='''My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br />
<br />
====='''Contributions of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br />
First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br />
In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br />
<br />
====='''Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br />
<br />
However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br />
<br />
Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br />
<br />
Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br />
<br />
====='''My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br />
<br />
Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies. <br />
<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''Refrences'''===<br />
<br />
[1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外国语大学出版社,2000.<br />
<br />
[2]方梦之.当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起 [J]. 外语教学理论与实践，2016（3）：55-63.<br />
<br />
[3]蓝红军. "从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017)." 中国翻译 39.1 (2018): 7-16.<br />
<br />
[4]谭载喜.必须建立翻译学[J].中国翻译,1987b3: 2-7.<br />
<br />
[5]谭载喜.翻译学[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005.<br />
<br />
[6]许钧,穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京:译林出版社,2009.<br />
<br />
[7]易经.试论翻译学体系的构建[D].湖南师范大学,2009.<br />
<br />
==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br />
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===关键词=== <br />
尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of "dynamic equivalence", and Bassnett proposed the concept of "cultural equivalence". Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of "equivalence" or "equivalence" in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br />
<br />
==='''Key Words'''=== <br />
Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek "Bible New Testament" studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society.<br />
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In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is "Toward a Science of Translation" "The Theory and Practice of translation" etc. <br />
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His "dynamic equivalence" translation theory and "reader's response theory" translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br />
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Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of "cultural equivalence" and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br />
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Nida's "dynamic equivalence" and Bassnett's "cultural equivalence" theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the "similarities" and "differences" of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br />
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===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br />
Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. <br />
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But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br />
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Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values embodied in translated texts.<br />
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===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br />
Nida's "dynamic equivalence" translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. <br />
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Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research.<br />
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In the 1950s, since Nida served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Society for several years, Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the actual work of "Bible" translation. Since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the dynamic equivalent translation theory in translation projects organized by the American Bible Society (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br />
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===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br />
As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to "Translation, History and Culure" (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that "Culural lurn" (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br />
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Bassnett believes that the linguistic school of translation faces the following problems: The method of machine translation is an effective method, but it is not suitable for literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett pointed out that the research method of translation should undergo an cultural turn (eulturalturn). She believes that translators must perform translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators must not conduct translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett’s cultural translation view is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, it is rooted in and influenced by the culture of the language.<br />
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===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br />
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===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence" Theory===<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence" is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term "equivalence".<br />
<br />
3.1.1The nature of "equivalence"<br />
“Equivalence" is an important proposition in translation for it <br />
involves some key problems such as nature of translation, translation norms as well as quality and evaluation of translation. As a mathematic term, the word “ equivalence" refers to an absolutely symmetrical and equal relationship, but in many English dictionaries, it gets obscure meanings that things possess similarities or areessentially identical. Then, is the concept“equivalence in translation theories derived from its absolute mathematics reference orborrowed from its indistinct meanings as a word of general linguistices? According to many translation theorists (including Nida), it may mean more of the latter than the former.<br />
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" Equivalence" is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that "loyalty" or "faith", for the concept of "loyalty"or "faith" refers to attitudes of translators while "faithful translation" indicates the quality of translation. But "equivalence" involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The "equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. <br />
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The historic contribution of Nida's" dynamic equivalence" is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s "dynamic equivalence". however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br />
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3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of " dynamic equivalence”<br />
It has been mentioned above that Nida s "dynamic equivalence" theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br />
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3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br />
What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence" is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( 杨柳， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved." (金隄,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence " focuses mainly onthe relative side of " equivalence " rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br />
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As a relative conception, the goal " dynamic equivalence" pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching.<br />
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In sum, those who are against the theory argue that effect of equivalence can never be possible in translation because translation involves at least two different languages, cultures etc.which are rather hard to the non-native, while those who are in favor hold that equivalence can be achieved not only in senses and styles, but in effect as well. Nida has made it very clear that "the response can never be identical' , but "a high degree of equivalenceof response" is required and possible. And for "functional equivalence",Nida elaborates that no translation can be completely equivalent. <br />
<br />
Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, "equivalence" doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida holds that the expression“functional equivalence" is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something " identical" or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness" to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. <br />
<br />
He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity". Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term " equivalence" in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from "identity", and " equivalence"is a relative conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (金隄, 1998:44).<br />
<br />
3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of "Functional Equivalence" in China-A Comment on the Translation of "A Madman's Diary"<br />
Here are three examples to analyze the theory of "functional equivalence" used in the "Madman's Diary" in the translation of "The Call" by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br />
<br />
（1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br />
<br />
“what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers.." (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br />
<br />
If this example is literally translated "赵贵翁", it may be translated as "Zhao Guiweng" in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated "Mr. Zhao" in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The "old-year running book" here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means "old account book". If literally translated as "aged jour-nal", obviously there is no "old ledgers" which is more suitable for the time.<br />
Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br />
<br />
(2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br />
<br />
“Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home." (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br />
<br />
The personal pronoun "陈老五", if translated literally, might be translated as "Chen Laowu". Yang Xianyi translated "Old Chen", which is more authentic. "Chen Lao Wu" may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as "Lao Chen" here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br />
<br />
(3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br />
<br />
“a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop..." ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br />
<br />
"狼子村" is a place noun. If it is simply translated as "The Wolf Child Village", it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of "Cub" in "Wolf Cub Village" of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. "Cub" means "cub" and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br />
<br />
===3.2 Bassnett's "cultural equivalence" theory===<br />
Bassnett believes that the goal of translation should be changed from the text commonly accepted by people to culture, which is the so-called cultural shift. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. Only when people's heart, language and body are coordinated with each other, can people maintain vigor and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must take into account the overall physical condition of the patient. The same is true for translation practice. In the process of translating the target language into the target language, members of parliament must take into account the double standards of language accuracy and cultural adaptability, and must not strip away culture and treat translation in isolation.<br />
<br />
3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br />
Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br />
<br />
Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br />
<br />
3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br />
As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content.<br />
<br />
But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. <br />
Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br />
<br />
3.2.3 "Intelligibility" of the translation<br />
Before the rise of the cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into plain and simple language in order for the translation to be better understood by readers, deleting literary metaphors and associations. In this way, the translation will indeed become easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work has been reduced, and the interest and depth will not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett believes that the "understandability" of the translation cannot be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but should try to maintain the original flavor of the original.<br />
<br />
3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br />
For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br />
<br />
3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br />
<br />
原文:<br />
<br />
“六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br />
<br />
辜译: "Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,"<br />
<br />
韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons." (Waley, 1999:37 )<br />
<br />
"六亲" in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as "the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it "sixnear ons" , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of "six relatives". (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br />
<br />
原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br />
<br />
辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses." ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br />
<br />
韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e.."(Waley,1999:131 )<br />
<br />
Both translators translated "驷马" into "four horses", which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br />
<br />
===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br />
Nida's translation thoughts are mainly influenced by language structuralist translators, which are manifested in his use of the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core similar to Chomsky's deep structure Syntactic analysis is a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation procedures from the perspective of language translation, that is, interlingual translation. However, the essence of Nida's translation thought lies in far more than its language structuralist translation view, but more of him In "translation is science", "translation and communication", "translation must emphasize readers' reflection" and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contribution in translation theory, especially in the translation theory of the Bible, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br />
<br />
But Bassnett's "cultural translation view" focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br />
<br />
===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br />
Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br />
<br />
Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the translation process, form should give way to content. Bassnett also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, the translator can not be restricted by the literary image. It can be seen that the two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of the translation.<br />
<br />
Nida pointed out that the languages and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br />
<br />
[2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br />
<br />
[3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br />
<br />
[4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br />
<br />
[5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br />
<br />
[6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br />
<br />
[7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br />
<br />
[8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br />
<br />
[9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's "Cultural Translation" Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br />
<br />
[10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br />
<br />
[11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br />
<br />
[12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br />
<br />
[13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br />
<br />
--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:34, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory ==<br />
<center> 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br />
<br />
===目的论和严复理论的比较研究===<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. (Dun Guangang 2011, 248) <br />
<br />
In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107）As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br />
<br />
===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br />
<br />
“Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances”. (Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work, to the production of the target text. All these take the purpose as the reference. <br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br />
<br />
The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 255) Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br />
<br />
(1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br />
<br />
The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 257)<br />
<br />
(2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br />
<br />
Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br />
<br />
<br />
(3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br />
<br />
Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br />
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=====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br />
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There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br />
<br />
The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina & Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) <br />
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Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. <br />
<br />
The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose. (Dun Guangang 2011,251) <br />
<br />
These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. (Vermeer, Hans J. 1989,187) From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. (Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br />
<br />
Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 113）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br />
<br />
(1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br />
<br />
The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. <br />
<br />
The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br />
<br />
(2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br />
<br />
Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br />
<br />
The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. (Chen Fukang 2000, 108) Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it, while there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory.<br />
<br />
Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br />
<br />
Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made. (Chen Fukang 2000, 112)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br />
<br />
Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor.(Yan Fu, 1987)<br />
<br />
There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. (Yan Fu, 1987)<br />
<br />
And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br />
<br />
In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br />
<br />
===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br />
<br />
====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br />
<br />
=====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br />
<br />
The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory.<br />
<br />
Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 256)<br />
<br />
In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br />
<br />
This coincides with Yan Fu's "Faithfulness", which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And "Faithfulness" is the premise and foundation of translation. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of "Faithfulness", as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br />
<br />
=====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br />
<br />
The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. <br />
<br />
In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) <br />
<br />
Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br />
<br />
This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. <br />
<br />
At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. (Yan Fu, 1987) Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br />
<br />
=====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br />
<br />
The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. <br />
<br />
The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and "one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation". Translation is "the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br />
<br />
While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br />
<br />
Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. (Dun Guangang 2011. 242) Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. <br />
<br />
Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br />
<br />
But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that "Faithfulness" refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br />
<br />
Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br />
<br />
Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the "faithfulness principle" as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. "Skopos" usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, "the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers". Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br />
<br />
In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br />
<br />
For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)<br />
<br />
So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 257) Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity. (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)<br />
<br />
However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156) This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. <br />
<br />
As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br />
<br />
===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br />
<br />
====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach .(Tan Zaixi 2004, 242) <br />
<br />
In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a "source of information", which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation. ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. <br />
<br />
More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the function of translated work and translators’ subjectivity. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br />
<br />
Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. <br />
<br />
In particular, there are various new interpretations of "Elegance" in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”.(Shen Suru 2001,7)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory. (Pym Anthony, 1996) <br />
<br />
Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. (Dun Guangang 2011, 247) Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable. <br />
<br />
Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced.<br />
<br />
In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br />
<br />
Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord. (1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity''. Kinderhook: St. Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Reiss Katharina & Vermeer Hans J. (1984). Groundwork for a general theory of translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br />
<br />
Pochhacker Franz. (1995). Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, (14): 31-53.<br />
<br />
Pym, Anthony. (1996). Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics.<br />
<br />
Vermeer Hans J. (1982a). Translation als informationsangebot. Lebende sprachen, 27(3)97-101.<br />
<br />
Vermeer Hans J. (1987a). What does it mean to translate. ''Indian journal of applied linguistic'', 13(2):25-33.<br />
<br />
Vermeer Hans J. (1989a). Skopos and Commission in Translational Action. Andrew Chersterman: ''The Translation Studies Reader'', 173-187.<br />
<br />
Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2000). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [A History of Translation Theory in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
Dun Guangang 顿官刚.（2011). ''西方翻译理论文献宣读'' [Selected Readings in Western Translation Theory]. Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press 湖南师范大学出版社.<br />
<br />
He Xiaoling 閤小玲. (2012). 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性 [An Analysis of Translator Subjectivity in the Perspective of Purpose Theory]. Journal of Liuzhou Teachers College ''柳州师专学报''. (4):45-47.<br />
<br />
Liu Qijia 刘期家. (2000). 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹 [On the historical development trajectory of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Journal of Sichuan International Studies University ''四川外语学院学报''. (2):96-101.<br />
<br />
Shen Suru 沈苏儒.(2001). 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈 [The Highest Level of Translation - A Compendium of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [ A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
Yan Fu严复. (1897). ''天演论·译例言'' [Evolution and Ethics· Yiliyan]. News Collection ''国闻汇编''.<br />
<br />
Zhou Mengzhen 周锰珍. (2007). “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较 ['Skopos Theory' and 'Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance': A Comparison of Two Translation Theories in China and the West]. Academic Forum ''学术论坛''. (8):154-158.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian 202020080605==<br />
<br />
<center>纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract=== <br />
<br />
As a representative figure of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help to the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br />
<br />
===Key words=== <br />
<br />
Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要=== <br />
<br />
张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br />
<br />
===关键词=== <br />
<br />
张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and prose have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1)<br />
<br />
In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone has talent in creation”（Luo Xinzhang & Chen Yingnian 2009：413）, and looking through the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so much Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. <br />
<br />
She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, prose and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1)<br />
<br />
Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity, in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as the author or the translator, represents different gender identities. (Ma Yue & Mu Lei 2010: 67)<br />
<br />
===2. Gender and Translation===<br />
<br />
Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminist translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women' s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23)<br />
<br />
During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23)<br />
<br />
As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.<br />
<br />
This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang' s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this chapter breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences different gender identities make to the translation. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 46)<br />
<br />
===3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang' s Self-translation -- ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br />
<br />
As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Hsia, while Fu Lei (whose early pseudonym is Xun Yu) also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun Yu 1994: 121). <br />
<br />
In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''(1921).<br />
<br />
Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor' s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted. She destroys her son' s marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. Besides, her daughter' s marriage is put an end to by her. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)<br />
<br />
Eileen Chang' s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation.<br />
<br />
====3.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br />
<br />
In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Chiang Chi-tse. However, the reality proves to her that Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)<br />
<br />
ST： <br />
（七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！(Eileen Chang 1992: 108)<br />
<br />
TT：<br />
( Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. (Eileen Chang 1971: 163)<br />
<br />
Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Chiang Chi-tse all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Chiang Chi-tse for love. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)<br />
<br />
However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity====<br />
<br />
In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passive and helpless of female characters under a specific era background. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145)<br />
<br />
ST：<br />
娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)<br />
<br />
TT：<br />
Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)<br />
<br />
The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by others. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145)<br />
<br />
In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)<br />
<br />
Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br />
<br />
ST：<br />
长安和长白分了家搬出来住。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)<br />
<br />
TT：<br />
Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)<br />
<br />
The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color. <br />
<br />
Instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)<br />
<br />
====3.3 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes. <br />
<br />
ST：<br />
（去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。(Eileen Chang 1992: 104)<br />
<br />
TT：<br />
（Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. (Eileen Chang 1971: 157)<br />
<br />
The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Chiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)<br />
<br />
Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, and everyone is a survivor of suffering. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)<br />
<br />
<br />
Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts. (Wang Jing 2011: 104)<br />
<br />
===4. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Conventional Translation -- ''The Old Man and the Sea''===<br />
<br />
''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway also won the Nobel Prize of Literature. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br />
<br />
Once the work was published, it attracted a wide attention. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br />
<br />
''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton.<br />
<br />
When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.(Eileen Chang 1979: 5) <br />
<br />
====4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br />
<br />
It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br />
<br />
ST：<br />
“Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” (Hemingway 1985: 39)<br />
<br />
TT：<br />
“再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱? 好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 29)<br />
<br />
Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br />
<br />
====4.2 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br />
<br />
As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. (Wang Jing 2011: 103)<br />
<br />
To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br />
<br />
ST: <br />
It is what a man must do．(Hemingway 1985: 23)<br />
<br />
TT: <br />
男子汉就应该这样。(Hai Guan 1979: 15) <br />
<br />
男子汉就该这么干。(Wu Lao 2009: 21) <br />
<br />
活总是要干的。(Eileen Chang 1979: 16) <br />
<br />
Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br />
<br />
====4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity====<br />
<br />
For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br />
<br />
ST：<br />
“But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”(Hemingway 1985: 96)<br />
<br />
TT：<br />
“但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 81）<br />
<br />
“可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（Hai Guan 1979: 79）<br />
<br />
“不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（Wu Lao 2009: 99）<br />
<br />
Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br />
<br />
Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br />
<br />
Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br />
<br />
===5. Reasons for the Transformation of Gender Identity===<br />
<br />
====5.1 Cultural Context====<br />
<br />
Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua 2017, 121)<br />
<br />
The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity.<br />
<br />
For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words. However, when the text is taken into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)<br />
<br />
For example, the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the differences of context. Therefore, in her translation, Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)<br />
<br />
====5.2 The Gender of the Translator and the Purpose of Translation====<br />
<br />
As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.<br />
<br />
And in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface that the old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)<br />
<br />
Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chang Eileen, trans. (1971). ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. <br />
<br />
Eileen Chang 张爱玲. (1955). 金锁记[M]. [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. [Shanghai Press].<br />
<br />
Ma Ruofei 马若飞. (2007). 张爱玲翻译研究[D]. [Eileen Chang Translation Studies]. 北京语言大学. [Beijing Language and Culture University]. <br />
<br />
Ernest Hemingway. (1985). ''The Old Man and the Sea''[M]. Printed in Great Britain by St Edmundsbury Press, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk.<br />
<br />
Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. [Hong Kong: Hong Kong Today World Press].<br />
<br />
Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 海观译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br />
<br />
Ernest Hemingway. (2009). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 吴劳译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br />
<br />
Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. (2009). 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection'']. 北京: 商务印书馆. [Beijing: The Commercial Press].<br />
<br />
Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. (2010). 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. [Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies]. 解放军外国语学院学报. [Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages]. 66-70.<br />
<br />
Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. (2018). 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J]. [Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 大众文艺. [Popular Literature]. 171-173.<br />
<br />
Meng Lingzi 孟令子. (2016). 从女性主义翻译到性别翻译[J]. [From Feminist Translation to Gender and Translation]. 中国翻译. [Chinese Translators Journal]. 23-31. <br />
<br />
Simon, Sherry. (1996). Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge. <br />
<br />
Wang Jing 王璟. (2011). 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. [Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation]. 中国外语. [Chinese Foreign Language]. 102-106.<br />
<br />
Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. (2015). 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. [''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation'']. 广州:中山大学出版社. [Guangzhou: Sun Yat-sen University Press].<br />
<br />
Xi Peihua 席培华. (2017). 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. [On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. [Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education]. 121-123.<br />
<br />
='''Art of Translation'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works Frontier City has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of Bian Cheng translated by Gladys Yang and Jeffrey C. Kinkley respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Translation ethics, Bian Cheng, Chesterman<br />
<br />
===翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究===<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文拟从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——金介甫和戴乃迭的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼<br />
<br />
===1. Research background===<br />
<br />
Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms. From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the ''cultural turn". With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the ''cultural turn" in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a "cultural mediator" has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br />
<br />
It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym (2001: 129-138) claims in his article: "ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle." It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.<br />
<br />
===2. Literature review===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====<br />
<br />
After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br />
It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of '"translation ethics" in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on "transmitting sense" and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.<br />
<br />
Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating "an ethics of difference". He invents the two words "domestication” and “resistancy" to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of "resistancy" seem more realistic and profound.<br />
<br />
As the initiator of "the return to ethics" in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman’s theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about “how to translate" over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other’s work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (ibid). For Pym, the true loyalty is neither to the source culture nor to the target culture, but to the others inhabiting this space, that is, to other intercultural mediators, to the translating profession as a whole (Chesterman, 1997a). Like Pym’s words, “Translators’ prime loyalty must be to their profession as an intercultural space” (Pym, 1992). <br />
<br />
In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman went on to propose a Hieronymic Oath for translators and interpreters worldwide by publishing a paper "Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath” in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled "the return to Ethics”，edited by Pym, in which 16 scholars presented their own thoughts on translation ethics. In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====<br />
With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose "translation ethics" based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as "a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics". <br />
Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics.<br />
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With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili (2007: 14-18) creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.<br />
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Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article "essay on three levels of translation activities” in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by "willingness", “reality", and "morality", he proposes that "the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level”.<br />
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====2.3. the Translation of Bian Cheng====<br />
The thesis adopts the classic modern novel Frontier City owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as “one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature” (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the “Nobel Literature Prize” in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. <br />
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There are four English version of Biancheng. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled Green Jade and Green Jade translated by Xing Molei( the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girl friend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled The Frontier City contained in The Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen translated by Ching Ti & Robert Payne and published by George Allen & Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Biancheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called “Panda Books” to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included The Border Town and Other Stories translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.<br />
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Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Jeffrey Kinkley and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of translation ethics.<br />
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===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===<br />
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Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.<br />
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Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman’s words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author’s intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text. <br />
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The ethics of service requires the translator to "act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator”, and the translator should be “loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”.<br />
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The ethics of communication sees translation as "an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication" and asks the translator to be "a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding”. <br />
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Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of “descriptive translation studies”. Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like “the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations”. That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.<br />
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The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: "I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator". He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.<br />
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===4. A Comparison of the Two English Versions of Biancheng===<br />
<br />
====4.1 the version of Gladys Yang====<br />
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One of the most distinctive features of Biancheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Gladys Yang has done much jobs in representing the aesthetic prospect and makes her version as impressive as the original to make the target readers able to better enjoy the aesthetic beauty below the superficial scenery, mostly because of her full understanding of the aesthetic style of the original and of high translation proficiency. Here is an example:<br />
<br />
[Example 1]<br />
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[ST1]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶崛” 的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文)<br />
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[TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys)<br />
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This is the beginning paragraph of Biancheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images—“官. 路”,“小山城”，“小溪”，“白色小塔七“单独的人家”,“老人”,“女孩子” and"黄狗”, making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character “一”. In Gladys Yang's version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character "一" in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven "a (an) and one "the” to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates “单独”(的人家)into a “solitary" household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of "alone” and lonely”，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original. <br />
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For Gladys Yang, her English version of Bian Cheng is included in a series of books called "Panda Books" firstly published in Chinese literature, which was initiated by the Chinese government in the 1980s in order to introduce Chinese literature, cultural legacy and China to the world. With the initiator's aim of spreading Chinese culture to the west, the translator needs faithfully transmit the linguistic and cultural information of the original. Also, with China's adoption of the policy of reform and opening-up to the outside at that time, communications between countries have become more and more popular ever since then, and more and more foreigners began to take interest in Chinese culture and were willing to enjoy and accept Chinese culture. What’s more, the advocacy of foreignization translation strategies has increasingly gained popularity in the western translation world ever since 1980's. The dominating English literary system began to take on a new stance and showed more tolerance for foreign cultures. With all these factors taken into consideration, plus her own long-term will to introduce Chinese culture to the world out of her love for it, we may understand why when the conflict appears, she chooses to put the ethics of representation in the first place. That is to say, she is guided by the ethics of service of being "loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”. What’s more, the ethics of communication lays emphasis on communicating with others rather than representing the Other, so when such conflict emerges, that is, the total representing of the Other causes confusion or banier and frustration for target readers to read, Gladys Yang would consider the importance of cross-cultural communication and adopt flexible translation strategies guided by the ethics of communication to decrease linguistic and cultural barriers to achieve mutual understanding based on the sacrifice of total representation of the original.<br />
<br />
==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br />
<br />
==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 202070080597 (<span style="color:red"> 专业</span>)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)==<br />
<center>刘欧 Liu Ou</center><br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to witness the world, meanwhile, an increasing number of foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Culture Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promoting Sino-foreign friendship and enhancing the world's understanding of China.<br />
<br />
With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to witness the world, meanwhile, an increasing number of foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Culture Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promoting (<span style="color:red">promote</span>)Sino-foreign friendship and enhancing (<span style="color:red">enhance</span>)the world's understanding of China.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
English Translation Hunan Scenic Spots Names the View of Culture Translation (<span style="color:red">semicolon should be added.</span>)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
随着改革开放的不断深化，中国与世界的联系日益紧密。大批中国人走出国门开眼看世界的同时，越来越多的外国友人也来中国游览观光。湖南作为旅游资源大省，拥有许多风光迤逦的旅游景点。在欢迎国外游客的同时，旅游景点名翻译也应当准确达意。巴斯奈特的文化翻译观认为，汉语翻译成英语的过程不但是两种不同语言之间的转换，更是两种语言的跨文化交流。采用文化翻译观作为湖南旅游景点的指导思想，有利于增进外国游客在饱览景区美景的同时，了解景区背后的文化内涵。这对于促进中外友谊，增进世界对中国的了解都大有裨益。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
英语翻译 湖南旅游景点 文化翻译观<br />
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==='''Introduction'''===<br />
Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year. (Xin Xin, 2012) Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of Culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardize the translation of scenic spots names is an important opportunity to show the most beautiful side of Hunan culture to foreign tourists. (Xiao Fuliang, 2016)<br />
<br />
Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year. (Xin Xin, 2012) Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of Culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardize the translation of scenic spots names is an important opportunity to show the most beautiful side of Hunan culture to foreign tourists.(<span style="color:red">语法有错误。</span>) --[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)(Xiao Fuliang, 2016)<br />
<br />
The name of tourist attractions refers to the names of natural and cultural landscapes in tourist attractions. Some of these names are engraved on stone tablets, some are engraved on the signboards of scenic spots, and some appear in various publicity materials such as tourist brochures, scenic maps and websites. In order to leave a good impression on tourists and attract them to visit, the names of tourist attractions are usually short, concise, vivid and attractive. (Pan Hong, 2016)<br />
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This paper attempts to analyze whether the English translations of some scenic spots in Hunan Province have achieved the desired effect of publicity from the perspective of cultural translation. At the same time, if there were some improper translation in the English translation of Hunan scenic spots, the author will give his own translation for reference.<br />
<br />
=== The Introduction of the View of Culture Translation ===<br />
Before the emergence of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralism school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory. Jakobson, Catford and Nida, the representatives of the linguistic school, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation. They claim that translation is to replace another language with an equivalent language material; while Les, Nord and Mantari, the representatives of functional school, believe that the focus of translation studies should be on the target text rather than the original text. Their research sources are communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics theory. But whether it is linguistic school, functional school or structuralism school, in their research process, all try to achieve language equivalence more or less from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers hope to find a scientific and effective way to solve the various problems in translation, but the cultural diversity determines the cultural connotation of the text. Therefore, these researchers encounter great difficulties when they encounter the context which is quite different from their own cultural background, and the emergence of cultural translation school is meant to solve such problems.<br />
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After the 1970s and 1980s, with the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination and the diversification of communication modes, the relationship between language and culture has become closer. In the process of information dissemination, differences among language become more and more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diversity of cultural values embodied in the translated text. <br />
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In 1990, Translation, History and Culture, co-edited by Andre Lefevere and Bassnett, was published, marking a cultural turn in the field of translation. The concept of cultural translation emphasizes that translation is not only a bilingual communication, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication; the purpose of translation is to break through language barriers and promote cultural exchange; the essence of translation is to transmit cross-cultural information and reproduce the cultural activities of the original with the target language; the main purpose of translation is cultural transplantation and cultural blending, but cultural transplantation is a process; Language is not the operation form of translation, but the cultural information . (Bassnett Susan, 1992: 13) Bassnett emphasizes that “translation is the communication within and between cultures”. (Bassnett Susan, 1990: 10-11) She believes that translators should carry out translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators should never carry out translation activities in isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's “cultural translation view” is that translation is not a mere language activity. It is rooted in and influenced by the culture in which the language is located. <br />
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==== The Purpose of Translation ====<br />
As for the purpose of translation, Bassnett thinks that the primary purpose of translation is to allow readers from two or more different cultural backgrounds to communicate with each other through the medium of text, and the exchange of information should be placed in the second place of translation purpose. Through effective translation, translators can not only introduce the cultural characteristics of different nationalities to other readers, but also promote the communication between different cultures and promote the comparative study between the two cultures. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br />
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====Translation Methods and Strategies====<br />
As for the translation method, Bassnett thinks that the language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological, the translator should try to use literal translation from the perspective of culture. If the source text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play a relatively free role in translation, make more use of translation skills and pay less attention to the restrictions of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high. As for translation strategy, Bassnett considers that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find out the cultural factors in the original text which are different from those in the target language, and then deeply understand these factors, and try to retain these factors. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and make them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br />
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====Content and Form of Translation ====<br />
As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposed that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br />
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As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposed (<span style="color:red">时态要统一。</span>)(<span style="color:red">efficient can be deleted</span>)that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br />
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====“Intelligibility” of Translation ====<br />
Before the rise of cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated literary language into plain language and deleted literary metaphor and association in order to make the translation better understood by readers. In this way, the translation will become very easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth can not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett thinks that the “intelligibility” of the translation should not be based on the abandonment of the style and artistry of the original text, but should try to keep the original flavor of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br />
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====Evaluation Criteria of Translation ====<br />
As for the evaluation standard of translation, Bassnett thinks that the evaluation standard of translation is not unique. The standard of translating academic articles is different from that of practical and literary articles. When examining and evaluating the standards of translation, we should start from the service object of the translation, and judge whether the translation can meet the needs of the service object. In short, translation should be based on meeting the needs of readers in different cultural contexts, and appropriate translation should be used to meet the needs.(Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br />
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===2.The Existing English Translated Versions of Names of Hunan Scenic Spots===<br />
There are 15 major tourist areas and many tourist spots in Hunan, and there are many historic sites with a long history. Such as Mountain Heng, one of the Five Sacred Mountains in China. Dongting Lake, Shaoshan Mountain, the former residence of Chairman Mao Zedong, Wulingyuan, which shows the characteristics of strangeness, danger, seclusion, beauty and wildness, and Yuelu Academy with a thousand years of history. (Chen Jiao, 2013) In order to publicize and spread the culture of Hunan Province all over the world, we should standardize the English translation of Hunan scenic spots names. Meanwhile, we should translate these scenic spot names understandable from the guiding theory of the View of Culture Translation. <br />
<br />
====Improper English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names====<br />
When tourists enjoy the beautiful scenery, the name of the scenic spot is the first information that leaps into the their sight. In order to attract the attention of tourists, induce the tourists of English speaking countries to have a strong interest in the culture and landscape of the tourist destination, stimulate their desire to buy tourism products and promote the development of tourism, translators should pay attention to the cross-cultural awareness when translating the names of scenic spots, so as to provide accurate information as well as the cultural connotation to the tourists from English speaking countries and those who understand English. <br />
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However, the author finds that there are many improper translations in the English translation of scenic spots nemes in Hunan Province, which brings a lot of inconvenience to tourists from English speaking countries, and also has a negative impact on the publicity of scenic spots. These improper translations mainly exist in the following aspects:<br />
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Firstly, the different versions of translation in the same or different scenic spots.<br />
For example, as one of the four wonders of Mountain Heng, scenic spot “水帘洞” has two translated names, which are translated as “water screen cave” in the official website of Mountain Heng tourism website, while it is translated into “waterfall cave” on the route map. The English translation of “雁峰寺” on Hengyang tourism route map is Yan Feng Si, while on Hengyang tourism website it is “The Goose Mountain Temple”. There are also two different versions of the English translation of the name of the scenic spot “烟雨池”. It was translated as “Yanyuchi” on Hengyang tourism route map, but on Hengyang tourism website, the free translation method is adopted, that is, “Misty Rain Pond”. (Wang Zaiyu, Jiang Shihong, 2012)<br />
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Secondly, the overuse of transliteration.<br />
Huiyan Peak, located on the Bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng, also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and rank the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归 雁 亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.<br />
<br />
Huiyan Peak, located on the Bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng, also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and rank the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. (<span style="color:red">第一句话语法有错误。</span>)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归 雁 亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.<br />
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Of course, transliteration is one of the common translation methods of scenic spot names translation, but if transliteration is used too much that without considering the cultural connotation of the original language, the name of scenic spot will be obscure and foreign tourists will be confused. Standing in front of these Pinyin, foreign tourists can not understand the cultural connotation of the names of scenic spots. So it is difficult for them to realize the historical and cultural stories of these scenic spot according to the transliterated names. Therefore, excessive transliteration will affect the transmission of scenic spot name information, make it difficult for English speaking tourists to understand the rich cultural connotation of scenic spot names, which will reduce the readability of the translations and thus affect the development of China's tourism industry and the spread of culture abroad. Therefore, the translator should carefully consider and choose the appropriate translation method.<br />
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===3. The Strategies of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation ===<br />
Tourism translation is a cross language, cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication activities. Compared with other types of translation, it is more direct, more prominent, more typical and more comprehensive in cross-cultural and cross psychological communication. (Chen Gang, 2004)<br />
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==== Characteristics and Methods of Tourism English Translation ====<br />
According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents, the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.<br />
<br />
According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents(<span style="color:red">前半部分语法有错误</span>)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC), the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.<br />
<br />
==== Characteristics of Tourism English Translation ====<br />
The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br />
<br />
The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes(<span style="color:red">主谓不一致。</span>)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC) style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br />
<br />
==== Methods of English Translation of Scenic Spot Name ==== <br />
In the translation of scenic spot name, in order to let foreign tourists understand Chinese culture and scenic spots, flexible translation methods should be adopted to effectively convey tourism information and Chinese culture. (Jia Wenbo, 2004) The translation of the scenic spot name is of great significance although the names are not contain too much vocabularies. How to use translation methods and skills flexibly by following the translation theory becomes very important. This requires the translators to be faithful to the content and style of the original materials in the process of translation, try to retain the cultural factors in the original text, and at the same time make it easy for the target readers to accept.<br />
Literal translation, free translation, literal translation+transliteration, transliteration+ explanation and cultural analogy are commonly used in scenic spot name translation. Through the study of the translation methods of translating the names of these scenic spots, we can use the translation skills more accurately and ultimately improve the translation ability. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br />
<br />
1. Literal Translation<br />
Literal translation is helpful to convey the information of the source language such as place names, characters and events. (Chen Jiao, 2013) For these particular names or general names of scenic spots, it’s better to adopt the literal translation, namely word for word translation. The allusions of the figures in Nanyue Temple such as “苏武牧羊”（Su Wu Shepherding Sheep）”、“达摩东渡”（Dharm Sailing Eastward）；Fairy tale such as“后羿射日”（Houyi Shooting the Suns）、“盘古开天”（Pangu Creating the Universe）、“精卫填海”（Jingwei Filling the Sea）.<br />
<br />
2. Free Translation<br />
Free translation refers to the translation method to translate the connotative meaning when the literal meaning and connotative meaning of the original text are inconsistent (Niu Xinsheng, 2013). In addition, translation techniques such as domestication and free translation are also discussed. Due to the differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, there are differences in language form and content between the two languages. Therefore, translators need to grasp the differences between the two languages and cultures to ensure that the information of the original text are properly transmitted to the target readers. If the names of some scenic spots contain rich cultural connotations and cannot be translated by literal translation, then the names of such scenic spots are mostly translated by free translation, that is, words with the same meaning but different forms are translated. For example,“爱晚亭”, the name was originated from a famous poem written by Du Mu (803-853) in Tang dynasty. But the official translation in the scenic spot was “the Lovely Evening Pavilion”. However, the real meaning of “晚” in the name was not evening but late autumn. Hence some scholars translate it as “the Autumn-Admiring Pavilion” and “the Maple-leaves Admiring Pavilion”.(Chen Jiao, 2013).<br />
<br />
3.Transliteration + Literal Translation<br />
The front contains the proper name for a specific person or place name, and a fixed general name for the name of a scenic spot. Transliteration and literal translation can be used in translation. For example, "南岳庙" (Nanyue Temple), "洞庭湖" (Dongting Lake), "岳麓山"(Yuelu Mountain),"崀山" (Langshan Mountain), "湘江"(Xiangjiang Rive) etc.<br />
<br />
4.Transliteration + Explanation<br />
The advantage of transliteration is that it does not need any explanation, and its disadvantage is that it can not fully arouse people's interest and attention. For foreign tourists, it is difficult to connect the original meaning of the original text with the Chinese pronunciation of the scenic spot. In order to follow the original author's intention and its own pronunciation, we adopt the method of combining the two to make up for the shortcomings. For example,"柳浪闻莺"liu'lang'wen'ying (listening to Orioles Singing in the willows), "鬼见愁"gui'jian'chou (sight that disorders devils). (Xin Xin, 2012) in order to help foreign tourists understand the background knowledge of China's human history, local conditions and customs, some relevant information can be appropriately added to the original text when translating. For example, when introducing "吊脚楼", if we just translate it as Diaojiaolou , it is difficult for tourists to understand the literal translation of it, so it is advisable that supplement the explanation of “suspended wood house built on stilts”. For example, in the introduction of traditional festivals in Zhangjiajie, “六月六” is translated into Liu Yue Liu Festival. In order to help tourists understand the specific connotation of the festival, the translation should be followed by an appropriate explanation: It usually takes place on the sixth day of the lunar six month, when all the members of the family get together to have dinner and hold a rite to pay sacrifice to their ancestors. This supplement can help foreign tourists understand the meaning of these traditional festivals quickly. (Chen Jiao, 2013)<br />
<br />
Meanwhile, cultural analogy is also an effective skill in explanation. Analogy refers to the transformation of unfamiliar cultural information in the source language into similar information in the cultural context of the target language in order to eliminate the cultural strangeness contained in the source language and arouse the sense of similarity for the English speaking tourists. In other words, borrow the similar places of interest, legends and historical stories in English to translate the scenic spot name in Chinese, which can narrow the distance between the two different language for the readers and they can better understand the meaning of the original text. For example, Mountain Hengshan the scenic spot “祝融峰” is said to be the residence of Zhu Rong, the God of Fire. Its translation is "Zhu Rong peak", Zhu Rong, the Chinese Prometheus. (Chen Jiao, 2013) Prometheus, the hero of stealing fire in ancient Roman legend, is a familiar figure for Western tourists. It has great similarity with Zhu Rong, the Chinese God of Fire. When the tourists look at this translated name, they will have a better understanding of the the scenic spot.<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion ===<br />
Under the background of globalization, peace and development have become the theme of the times, and the revise of the traditional translation theory is needed. On the other hand, cultural translation, based on the cultural theory of anthropology, advocates that the connotation of other cultures should be properly conveyed in translation, showing respect and understanding of other cultures; translators should highlight the characteristics of different cultures through translation, so that people from different cultural backgrounds can truly realize the communication and exchange in the cultural sense. Therefore, it is in line with the mainstream of the times to deeply study and understand Bassnett's cultural translation theory, which can help us better carry out translation activities under the background of globalization, so as to promote the exchange and dialogue between the Eastern and Western cultures from a macro perspective. <br />
<br />
As a part of the translation of tourist materials, the translation of scenic spot names should not only convey the basic tourism information, but also show the Chinese culture to foreign tourists. One of the main purposes of tourists coming to China is to understand the Chinese culture. Therefore, translators need to have a keen cross-cultural awareness, make the translation conform to the target language, enhance the readability to the target language readers, and choose the most suitable translation method to convey the historical and cultural connotation contained in the name of scenic spots to the greatest extent, so as to promote the development of China's tourism industry globally and spread China's tourism culture abroad. <br />
<br />
=== Bibliography ===<br />
<br />
*Bassnett Susan. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge，1992: 13.<br />
<br />
* Bassnett Susan. Translation, History and Culture[M]. 上海:上海外语教育出版社，1990: 10-11．<br />
<br />
*黄艳娇.2018.浅谈巴斯奈特文化翻译理论，佳木斯职业学院学报<br />
<br />
*肖付良.2016.16(06),43-45.湖南主要旅游景点公示语翻译现状与对策研究,英语教师.<br />
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*潘虹.2016，跨文化意识对旅游景点名称汉英翻译的影响，艺术文化交流<br />
<br />
*陈娇.2013.从文化角度看湖南旅游景点的翻译，西南农业大学学报（社会科学版）<br />
<br />
*辛欣.2012.论旅游英语中景点名称的翻译，长春教育学院学报<br />
<br />
*陈刚.旅游翻译与涉外导游［M］． 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2004，59．<br />
<br />
*王再玉，蒋柿红. 2012.从跨文化意识角度看旅游景点名称的英译———以衡阳旅游景点名称的英译为例,北京城市学院学报<br />
<br />
*林玉华. 2008. 从文化角度看旅游景点名称的翻译 ［J］．重庆交通大学学报，2008 ( 02) : 105．<br />
<br />
*熊玲. 2013. 对张家界景点名称英译的探析，长春教育学院学报<br />
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*贾文波．应用翻译功能论［M］．北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2004：134－156．<br />
<br />
*湖南文物名胜概览.湖南省文化和旅游厅 http://whhlyt.hunan.gov.cn/whhlyt/wlxx/fwms/201407/t20140717_5385818.html<br />
<br />
==A Contrastive Study on the Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Shengshengman and Zuihuayin from the Perspective of Defamiliarization 祝美梅 student no. 202070080632== <br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
Poetry is what lost in translation as Robert Frost said, for it’s concise words, specific form, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study with poetry translation under the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)<br />
<br />
Poetry is what lost in translation. As Robert Frost said, for its concise words, specific forms, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind as has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study poetry translation according to the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:39, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization, though a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period. (Fang Xiaoyuan, 2011, 13-15)<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization, a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period. (Fang Xiaoyuan, 2011, 13-15)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Key Words'''===<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization Theory; Shengshengman; Zuihuayin; English Versions<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
译诗则诗。诗歌以其凝练的词语，特定的形式，涵盖的独特文化典故和意象，是否可译一直是译界极具争论的话题。本文旨在由俄国形式主义什克洛夫斯基提出的陌生化理论下研究诗歌翻译。陌生化，虽然是文学写作技巧，同样适应于翻译。在文学作品中，作家通过使熟悉的事物陌生化引起读者的兴趣和好奇，延长审美感知长度。勒菲弗尔说，翻译即改写。这一翻译策略尤其适合于诗歌翻译。直译只会是译诗平淡乏味，如同兑水之酒，甚至产生误解。李清照，作为历史上最有名的女词人之一，其“易安体”本就以其化故为新，以俗为雅的特点与“陌生化”有异曲同工之处。《声声慢》、《醉花阴》是她前后截然不同两个时期的代表作。本文试以俄国形式主义者什克洛夫斯基提出的“陌生化”为理论指导，以李清照词《声声慢》、《醉花阴》的多个译本为研究对象，分析对比不同译者的英译，尝试研究在译文中怎样重现文本陌生化和制造译本的陌生化，以期证明陌生化理论对李清照词英译的指导作用。(Ge Yunfeng, 2008, 34-35)<br />
<br />
本文共分为四部分，由引论、正文、结论三部分构成。引论部分主要介绍陌生化理论，优势和劣势，李清照词特点和国内外研究现状。正文分为两个部分，词和意象两个方向并辅以具体实例。结论部分将主要总结陌生化理论在诗歌翻译的应用，本文作者认为用陌生化理论研究翻译文本仍有很大的发掘空间，对诗歌翻译有启迪意义。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
陌生化理论；《声声慢》；《醉花阴》；英译版本<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasury of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.<br />
<br />
The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasure of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’s consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’ consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, and her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.1 Shklovsky’s Definition of Defamiliarization====<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by the Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:"The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.(Zhang Jintong, 1987, 78-79)<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by a Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:"The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.(Zhang Jintong, 1987, 78-79)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Features of Defamiliarization in Translation====<br />
<br />
In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named up two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. <br />
<br />
Alienization, is the similarity among defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.<br />
<br />
Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, it has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)<br />
<br />
In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Alienization is the similarity amid defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, which has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====1.2.1 Advantages of Defamiliarization=====<br />
<br />
To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural-turn proposed by Susan Bassinet, against the culture invasion, this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)<br />
<br />
To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural turn proposed by Susan Bassinet against the culture invasion, and this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====1.2.2 Disadvantages of Defamiliarization=====<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new express or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new expression or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2. A brief Introduction of Li Qingzhao===<br />
<br />
Before analyzing the translation versions of Li Qingzhao’s Ci, a general understanding of the characteristics and aesthetic value of Li’s Ci is very necessary. <br />
<br />
====2.1. Li Qingzhao’s life and her Poem====<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influence on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influences on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---Zuihuayin, is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism. <br />
<br />
Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---''Zuihuayin'', is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2Research on Li’s Poem in Domestic and Abroad====<br />
<br />
A comprehensive knowledge of history and state quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.<br />
<br />
The study of Li Qingzhao’s poem in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. <br />
<br />
A comprehensive knowledge of history and status quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The study of Li Qingzhao’s poems in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3. Defamiliarization on Words Level in Shengshengman and Zuihuayin===<br />
<br />
Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, the word has greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.<br />
<br />
Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, words are of greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.1 Analysis of Translation of Reduplicated Words====<br />
<br />
Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character two or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.<br />
<br />
Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character twice or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Her typical work which applies reduplicated words is Shengshengman. <br />
<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。乍暖还寒时候，最难将息。<br />
<br />
三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急？雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识。<br />
<br />
满地黄花堆积。憔悴损，如今有谁堪摘？守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑？<br />
<br />
梧桐更兼细雨，到黄昏、点点滴滴。这次第，怎一个、愁字了得！”（陈祖美 2003：108）<br />
<br />
This piece of work enjoys the largest number of translation versions from different translators among all her works. The first fourteen characters are: “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”,they precisely describe the loneliness , melancholy and nostalgia of the homeland of the poetess after losing her husband. Six different translation versions collected are as follows:<br />
<br />
1. I seek but seek in vain,<br />
<br />
I search but search again.<br />
<br />
I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
<br />
So lonely, without cheer. (Xu Yuanchong)<br />
<br />
2. So dim, so dark.<br />
<br />
So dense, so dull,<br />
<br />
So damp, so dank, so dead! (Lin Yutang)<br />
<br />
3. Seeking,seeking,<br />
<br />
Chilly and quite,<br />
<br />
Desolate, painful and miserable. (Yang Xianyi）<br />
<br />
4. Searching and searching, seeking and seeking,<br />
<br />
So chill, so clear,<br />
<br />
dreary,<br />
<br />
and dismal,<br />
<br />
and forlorn. (Stephen Owen)<br />
<br />
5. Seeking<br />
<br />
seeking<br />
<br />
Searching<br />
<br />
searching<br />
<br />
over and over<br />
<br />
lonely and forlorn <br />
<br />
Sighing;<br />
<br />
grieving<br />
<br />
sighing<br />
<br />
In the same round (Kwock&McHugh) <br />
<br />
<br />
6. Seek…seek, search....search;<br />
<br />
Lone...lone, cold...cold;<br />
<br />
Sad...sad, pain...pain, moan...moan. (Liu Wuji) <br />
<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heart-broken feeling and her worry about the convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heartbroken feeling and her worry about her convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrases them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem. <br />
<br />
For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrased them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem. --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another example is “点点滴滴”,also from the same verse. Following are translation versions collected:<br />
<br />
1.On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
<br />
As twilight grizzles. (Xu Yuanchong)<br />
<br />
2.In a drizzle so light, dripping-dropping into the oncoming night,<br />
<br />
In the garden wutong trees stand blurred. (Zhu Chunsheng)<br />
<br />
3.On drying leaves of plane trees should there be<br />
<br />
A drizzle pattering, pattering towards the eve! (Liu Guoshan)<br />
<br />
4.Against the tung and plane trees, the wind rises high.<br />
<br />
The drizzle becomes trickles, as eve draws nigh. (Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
5.And the drizzle on the kola nut, keeps on droning: Pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat! (Lin Yutang)<br />
<br />
6.The drizzles falls on the wutong trees, raindrops drip down at dusk. (Yang Xianyi)<br />
<br />
No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu uses drizzles describing the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.<br />
<br />
No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu used drizzles to describe the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Translation of Verbs====<br />
<br />
Unlike English, Chinese poetry is skillfully using verb to vivify the image, often linked with rhetorical devices. Word transformation is mostly common, such as adjective or noun transformed to verb. There existed many instances; the author would like to choose two verbs from the Zuihuayin which would analyzed in this paper.<br />
Taking “帘卷西风”from Zuihuayin as an example:<br />
<br />
“薄雾浓云愁永昼，瑞脑消金兽。佳节又重阳，玉枕纱厨，半夜凉初透。东篱把酒黄昏后，<br />
有暗香盈袖。莫道不消魂，帘卷西风，人比黄花瘦。”<br />
<br />
This verse was written to express Li Qingzhao’s yearning for her husband. It’s the Double Ninth Day---the Chinese festival of the senior and family get-together. The west wind blows, makes people feel chilly and distressed, especially when the poetess was alone. Translation versions are assembled as following:<br />
<br />
1. What with curtains being folded—<br />
by violent blasts from the west (Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
2. The curtain lifted by the western wind (Qiu Xiaolong)<br />
<br />
3. When the west wind rolls up my bamboo curtain (Mao Yumei)<br />
<br />
4. With the door-curtains flapping in the west wind (Gong Jinghao)<br />
<br />
5. Only, when the west wind stir the curtain (Lucy Chow Ho)<br />
<br />
In the original, there is hyperbaton used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.<br />
<br />
In the original, hyperbaton was used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急?”The verb in this sentence used very vividly, how few cups of liquor withstand the wind at the dusk; Li Qingzhao personifies the natural thing, which is widely applied to express defamiliarization. Follows are various translation versions.<br />
<br />
1.By cup on cup of wine so dry oh,<br />
How can I endure at dusk the drift<br />
Of wind so swift? (Xu Yuanchong）<br />
<br />
2.Three cups of thin wine would utterly fail.<br />
To cope with the rising evening gale. (Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
3.How can a few cups of thin wine,<br />
Bring warmth against the chilly winds of sunset? (Lin Yutang)<br />
<br />
4.Three or two cups of light wine,<br />
How can they ward off the strong? (Yang Xianyi)<br />
<br />
Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by poet, which slash the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.<br />
<br />
Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by the poet, which slashed the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Translation of Colloquialism====<br />
<br />
Colloquialism refer to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.<br />
<br />
Colloquialism refers to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised for the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:<br />
<br />
Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised as the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1. Sitting alone at the window, how could I but quicken the pace of darkness <br />
Which won’t thicken? (Xu Yuanchong）<br />
<br />
2. Standing by the window---watching in anguish stark.<br />
Could I bear alone the sight until it is dark? (Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
3. I remain by my window. Why is the day so dark, all alone? (Mao Yumei)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and causal as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and casual as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Another sentence is“这次第，怎一个、愁字了得?”<br />
<br />
1.How, in the word “Miserable,” can one find------<br />
The total effects of all these on the mind! (Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
2.Oh, what can I do with a grief<br />
Beyond belief! (Xu Yuanchong)<br />
<br />
3.Is this the kind of mood and moment, to be expressed by one word “sad”? <br />
(Lin Yutang)<br />
<br />
4.At the time like this, what immense sorrow I must bear! (Yang Xianyi)<br />
<br />
The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different word to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.<br />
<br />
The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different words to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4. Defamiliarization on Image Level====<br />
<br />
Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.<br />
<br />
Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore it can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====4.1 Cultural-Loaded images=====<br />
<br />
This kind of category is the juxtaposition of allusion and complicated sentiment in certain culture.<br />
<br />
1.Translation the image of “雁” in the Shengshengman<br />
<br />
The sentence “雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识.”The translation versions collected as follow:<br />
<br />
1. Myself, into woe, a flight of wild geese has thrown.<br />
<br />
But with them, very familiar I have grown. (Xu Zhongjie) <br />
<br />
2.I recognize the geese flying overhead:<br />
<br />
My old friends,<br />
<br />
Bring not the old memories back! (Lin Yutang)<br />
<br />
3. It breaks my heart, alas,<br />
<br />
To see the wild geese pass,<br />
<br />
For they are my acquaintances of old. (Xu Yuanchong)<br />
<br />
4. Wild geese fly past, while I’am broken-hearted;<br />
<br />
But I recognize they are my old friends. (Yang Xianyi&Gladys Yang) <br />
<br />
5. Overhead,a heart-rending line<br />
<br />
South-bound wild geese at morn<br />
<br />
Yet old acquaintances of mine. (Zhu Chunshen)<br />
<br />
After study some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.<br />
<br />
After studying some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is a straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.<br />
<br />
Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Natural Images====<br />
<br />
Pure scenery depiction means the scene is universe, such as some flower, tree, mountain, stream but usually combined with emotional revelation.<br />
<br />
The image “黄花” usually translated into “yellow flower”, “chrysanthemum”, “yellow chrysanthemum”. Different versions are collected as follow:<br />
<br />
1. As compared with chrysanthemums,<br />
<br />
I look slimmer e’en at my best. (Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
2. I would show a thinner face than yellow flowers. (Xu Yuanchong)<br />
<br />
3. I look thinner than the chrysanthemum. (Mao Yumei)<br />
<br />
4. I find myself thinner than the yellow flowers. (Chu Dagao)<br />
<br />
Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is more blurred, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)<br />
<br />
Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is a more blurred one, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====Conclusion====<br />
<br />
Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of it’s terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)<br />
<br />
Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of its terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulate the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)<br />
<br />
The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulates the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
* Eugene A.Nida. Language and Culture Contexts in Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2001. <br />
<br />
* Gan Wanni.A Defamiliarization Perspective to the Study of Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Ci[D].Southwest Jiaotong University,2012.<br />
<br />
* Peter Newmark.A Textbook of Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2011.<br />
<br />
* Schulte,R.and John Biguenet.Theories of Translation:An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida[C].Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1992.<br />
<br />
* Xu Yuanchong. 300 Tang Poems [M].China Intercontinental Press，2011.<br />
<br />
* Zhan Chongyang. Defamiliarization and Translation:A Case Study of the Chinese Versions of Jamaica Inn [D].Nanjing University，2013.<br />
<br />
*陈琳.论陌生化翻译[J].中国翻译，2010(1).<br />
<br />
* 陈琳.文学翻译审美的陌生化性[D].清华大学学报，2006(06)：21.<br />
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*房孝园,李清照:一言难尽的花与酒——《李清照词两首》个性解读[J].语文教学之友,2011,06:34-35.<br />
<br />
* 葛云峰,季淑凤.中国典籍英译的风格再现，易安词英译个案分析[J].淮北煤炭师范学院外国语学报，2008(5):30.<br />
<br />
*胡银根.文化语境视角下李清照八首词翻译的对比研究[D].湖南工业大学，2012.<br />
<br />
* 刘晰.拥抱差异：诗歌翻译的“陌生化”取向[J].淮南师范学院学报,2013（04）:15.<br />
<br />
* 李学欣.易安词作中叠词的美感传译[J].作家杂志，2009(12).<br />
<br />
* 李睿婕,张轶前.许渊冲译者主体性在李清照《声声慢》英译本中的体现.[J].河北联合大学学报，2012(6):12.<br />
<br />
*孙国华.鲁迅作品中的陌生化语言现象[J].无锡高等师范学校，2012.<br />
<br />
* 张冰.陌生化诗学：俄国形式主义研究[M].北京师范大学出版社，2000.<br />
<br />
* 朱纯深.宋词英译(2)[J].中国翻译,2002(3):93-94.<br />
<br />
*郑恩岳,李清照《声声慢》词英译研究[J].浙江教育学院学报，2003(05).<br />
<br />
*张金同.“怎一个愁字了得”——读李清照的《醉花阴》和《声声慢》[J].固原师专学报(社会科学版),1987,04:41-46.<br />
<br />
==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan 202070080642 MTI==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br />
<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
摘要:<br />
由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
口译，文化差异，应对策略--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略（格式错误）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as "global consciousness" and "global values". However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健,2012）<br />
<br />
The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as "global consciousness" and "global values". However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（Jian Fang，Zhang Jian,2012）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
No matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br />
<br />
===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br />
<br />
Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that "the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures." He believes that "the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word." The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能,1993） <br />
<br />
Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that "the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures." He believes that "the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word." The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（Lian Shuneng,1993）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, "For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used." Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation. (Jia Dejiang,1998)<br />
<br />
====Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking====<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br />
<br />
Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.(Edward Spir,2006)<br />
<br />
For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.(Jia Dejiang,1998)<br />
<br />
====Cultural barriers caused from values====<br />
<br />
Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br />
<br />
A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br />
<br />
====Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery====<br />
<br />
Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
<br />
For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval".“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word "龙" means something evil in the West, but "auspicious" in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase "望子成龙" should never be translated as “to hope one"'s child can become a dragon"，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br />
<br />
====Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs====<br />
<br />
Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give "New Year's Lucky money" to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but "Chinese New Year" does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. <br />
<br />
Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. “Sleep with father" is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as "go the heaven" and "kick the bucket". It means the same as "go the heaven" and "kick the bucket", but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as "与父亲睡觉", which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng,1993）<br />
<br />
Look at the following example:<br />
If this sentence is understood as<br />
"约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏", it is because the translator failed to understand " eats no fish " and "play the game". After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So "" means "loyalty" and " to eat no fish " means "loyalty" and " to play the game "means "race",The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is "John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright".<br />
<br />
====Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors====<br />
<br />
The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文,2002）<br />
<br />
The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（Zhang Wen,2002）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology. <br />
Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive. (Bai Jingyu,2000)（段落过长）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology. <br />
<br />
Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br />
<br />
Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of "functional equivalence". This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. <br />
<br />
Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of "functional equivalence". This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (Ye Zinan，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. --[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of "accuracy, smoothness and speed" and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as "on-site, present and limited time", the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the "nearest natural equivalence" between English and Chinese, and to try to find the "nearest natural equivalence" from the target language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
<br />
In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the "nearest natural equivalents" between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br />
<br />
====Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation====<br />
<br />
Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
<br />
The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the "nearest natural equivalent" to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions "三个和尚没水吃" into " Everyone‘s business is no one"s business." is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.(Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing,2006)<br />
<br />
However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌" by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang,2006）<br />
<br />
Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
<br />
In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir,2006）<br />
<br />
====Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods====<br />
<br />
The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a "purpose-oriented" approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
<br />
The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
<br />
=====Direct translation method=====<br />
<br />
Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, " Let sleeping dogs lie" is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br />
<br />
=====Substitution Method=====<br />
The substitution method is also called the "reciprocity method". It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom "冰冻三尺非一日之寒" is translated into " Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom "to spend money like water " translated into "挥金如土" is a good example.(Wang Kefei,1997)<br />
<br />
====Intentional translation method=====<br />
<br />
When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
<br />
For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the "U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology," Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that "The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, "天方夜谭" is not translated directly as"TheArabianNights"，but is instead translated as " fiction ". This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word "天方夜谭" has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）（段落过长）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the "U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology," Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that "The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, "天方夜谭" is not translated directly as"TheArabianNights"，but is instead translated as " fiction ". <br />
<br />
This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word "天方夜谭" has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
=====Interpretation=====<br />
<br />
Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language.(Bao Huinan,2001) When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
<br />
1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br />
诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br />
Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br />
<br />
2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br />
三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br />
and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br />
An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br />
<br />
3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br />
解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br />
<br />
4)Special cultural words<br />
<br />
敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br />
the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br />
<br />
=====Simple translation and no translation=====<br />
<br />
Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use "no translation" or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: "我姓张，弓长张。"Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.(Lu Naisheng,1993)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. <br />
<br />
Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.(Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br />
<br />
连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br />
<br />
刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br />
<br />
熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br />
<br />
杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br />
<br />
张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br />
<br />
Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br />
<br />
Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000.<br />
<br />
Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br />
<br />
Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br />
<br />
Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br />
<br />
Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br />
<br />
Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br />
--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:59, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
With the consistent development of the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, translation plays a more and more pivotal role in the world stage. It can not only help Chinese to have a better understanding of foreign cultures and promote the cooperation, but also spread the Chinese cultures to the international world. Translation strategies are the focus of translation works, especially during the process of translating Chinese to English. It’s very necessary to have a thorough study about the translation strategies. While towards different styles of text, different translation strategies should be applied relatively. This thesis focuses on translation strategies of two styles - journalistic style and literary style. <br />
The thesis firstly introduces the background and development of translation strategies. Then it depicts the characteristics and translation principles of journalistic style text and literary style text. In the main part, the thesis combines the characteristics of the two kinds of texts to explore the translation strategies that suits for the two types, including domestication, foreignization, omission and etc. This thesis is expected to make some contributions to the study of translation strategies and the practice of translation.<br />
<br />
===KEY WORDS===<br />
<br />
Translation strategies; text-types; journalistic style; literary style.<br />
<br />
<br />
===中文摘要===<br />
<br />
随着中外文化交流的不断发展，翻译在世界舞台上扮演着越来越重要的角色。它不仅可以帮助中国人更好地了解外国文化，促进合作，而且可以将中国文化传播到世界。翻译策略是翻译工作的重点，特别是在汉译英过程中。对翻译策略进行深入研究是有必要的。在针对不同样式的文本时，应相对地采用不同的翻译策略。本文主要研究两种体裁的翻译策略：新闻体裁和文学体裁。<br />
本文首先介绍翻译策略的背景和发展，然后描述新闻风格文本和文学风格文本的特点和翻译原则。论文的主体部分结合了两种文本的特点，探讨了归化，异化，省译等的翻译策略。本文有望为翻译策略的研究和翻译的实践做出贡献。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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翻译策略; 文本类型; 新闻体裁; 文学体裁.<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
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Translation strategies are critical in translation process. Towards texts in different styles which have different models of texts’ structure and communicative functions, translation strategies are quite variable. There are a great number of scholars both from China and the international world who have devoted themselves to dive into and research the most effective and practical strategies. <br />
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However, there are still lack of thorough researches about translation strategies for different text styles. In this thesis, the first part is about the introduction and analysis of former scholars’ researches and the whole picture of this thesis. Then, the thesis will discuss the background, development, characteristics and functions of different-style texts from the perspective of linguistics. The main part is about the translation strategies of source texts in journalistic style and literary style respectively, such as the domestication, foreignization in literary-style texts and the omission , restruction and generalization in journalistic-style text. In concluding part, the thesis will generalize the main idea and make an objective appreciation about the thesis, as well as point out the drawbacks and advantages. <br />
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===2.Theoretical Framework===<br />
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===2.1 Background and development of Texts’ styles===<br />
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According to the research, there is still no specific definition of distinguishing differences of texts styles. Some scholars claim texts’ styles to be registers, even some equal them to speech events. Qin Xiubai, a famous Chinese language and teaching professor, introduced that there were two main schools of the study of Texts styles’- the Swalesian School represented by John M.S wales and V.K.Bhatia and the Australian School represented by J.R.Martin. John Martin believes that styles of texts means a bunch of social events in which the members have the same communicative goal. While V.K.Bhatia believes that styles of texts are identifiable communicative events that have obvious inner structural features, conventionally happening in specific careers or academic communities. We can tell from the two schools’ views that styles of texts are a kind of communicative events with its special communicative purpose and clear structures. From this point, translators or interpreters can exert theory to analyze texts’ styles and recognize the intentions of writers as well as keep the functional and sense equivalence between the source texts and target texts. J.R.Martin take texts’ styles as a communication-orientated process of social communication with steps. Eggins view texts of styles as a type of activity with steps that orientated on communicative purposes. So that the difference of texts styles is on the level of values in use rather than the contents of discourse, characteristics of forms or other rules. <br />
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Huang Guowen once said that every text plays a communicative role in a specific social and cultural environment, and people belonging to a specific social and cultural background can usually see its communicative purpose. (Huang Guowen,2001) The text is a combination of communicative symbols for the exchange of information between the sender and the recipient. In order to achieve a certain communicative purpose, the sender must choose an appropriate genre and corresponding manifestation to convey the information, and the recipient is expected to respond accordingly. Thus, the function of texts can be realized. Christiane Nord summarized four functions of texts from the perspective of translation. They are referential function, expressive function, appellative function and phatic function. (Nord, 1997) <br />
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===2.2 Main functions of texts=== <br />
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===2.2.1The Referential Function===<br />
The referential function of a text means the reference to or description of objects or phenomena of the world. It is mainly expressed through the denotative value of the lexical items presented in the text and can be analyzed through the nature of the objects. It is orientated toward objects in real or fictitious worlds. There are several functions of referential function: informative function, directive function and didactic function. If the referent is a fact or state of things unknown to the receiver, such as an accident, the text function may consist in informing the readers. If the referent is the description of an object, such as the illustration of using a washing machine, the text function may be directive. If it is a whole field that the receivers are to learn, such as physics, the function may be didactic.<br />
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===2.2.2The Expressive Function===<br />
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The expressive function refers to the sender’s attitude to toward the objects or phenomena. This function is sender-orientated. The expressive function of the text may be subdivided according to what it is expressed. If the sender expresses individual feelings or emotions, such as a public speech, it will be an emotive sub-function. If what is expressed is an evaluation, like comments, the sub-function will be evaluative.<br />
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===2.2.3The Appellative Function===<br />
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The appellative function refers to use of language to make the receiver feel or do something. The appellative function “receiver-orientated. It aims at the receivers’ sensitivity or disposition to act and tries to induce receivers to respond in a particular way. It can be broken into several sub-functions: illustrative function, persuasive function, advertising function and pedagogical function. If we want to illustrate a hypothesis by an example, we appeal to the reader’s previous experience to knowledge, That’s what called illustrative function. If we want to persuade someone to do something or to share a particular viewpoint, we appeal to their sensitivity and their secret desires. That’s what called persuasive function. If we want to let someone by a particular product, we tend to describe those qualities of the product that are presumed to have positive values in receivers’ value system. That’s advertising function. If we wan to educate a person, we may appeal to their susceptibility to ethical and moral principles. That’s pedagogical function.<br />
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===2.3 Main Text - types===<br />
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Katharina Reiss, founder of German translation functionalism, put forward text-typology theory in Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism. She believes that there are four texts, including the context-focused text, the form-focused text, the appeal-focused text and the audio-media text. <br />
Peter Newmark, representative of the British linguistic school of translation theory, based on the study of former linguisticians, he put forward the following six functions of texts - expressive function, informative function, the vocative function, the aesthetic function, the phatic function and the meta-lingual function. A text may has several functions at the same time, but only has one major function. Taking a whole consideration of the two theories, the main texts are the following three, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts. Journalistic-style texts and literary-style texts are mainly connected with the informative and expressive function respectively. <br />
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===2.3.1 The Expressive Texts=== <br />
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Language is a tool for people to communicate with each other. Through language, people can express their thoughts, affection, wills, desires, opinions, attitude, etc. This is the expressive function of language. The core of expressive function is the speaker's thoughts. The speaker uses words to express feelings, regardless of the reaction of others.Typical expressive-function texts include the following three types. The first ones are serious and imaginative literature which contain lyrics, short stories, long novels and plays. The second type is authoritative texts, including a variety of genres, whose authority comes from the status of the author or language skills, such as senior government officials and political party leaders’ speeches, such as declarations, legal regulations, documents as well as literary and academic works written by authority figures etc. The third type is texts that express writers’ ideas directly, without direct readers, like autobiography, private letters, etc. <br />
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===2.3.2 The Informative Texts===<br />
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In interactions, people often have to describe, narrate or explain the situation of relevant things. This involves the information function of language. The core is the external environment, which is the reported insights and theories. The informative text usually has a fixed format, such as textbook, technical reports, newspaper articles, scientific papers, meeting minutes, etc. <br />
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===2.3.3 The Vocative Texts===<br />
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People often use words to evoke others' sympathy or prompt them to take some actions. That shows the imperative function of language. The core of this function is the readers or audiences. The speaker wants readers or audiences to feel and follow the intent of the text and act as expected. Typical vocative texts are notices, advertisements, instructions, requests, appeals, etc.<br />
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===3.Literary Stylistics and Journalistic Stylistics=== <br />
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With the appearance of societal pragmatics, pragmatics and functional grammar, scholars recognized the importance of language functions. They tried to classify the texts in the light of language functions and divided them into two main types. One is literary style, the other is non-literary style. Snell-Hornby classified literary texts as Bible, drama, film, lyric poetry, modern literature, classic works, children literature, literature in 1990 and pastime novel. <br />
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===3.1 Language Characteristics===<br />
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===3.1.1 For literary stylistics===<br />
===Vividness===<br />
In literary works, writers use words or language to vividly describe or portray people, objects, things to reflect the world’s various situations or expose social reality, they will use appropriate techniques to render the atmosphere and create an immersive feeling for readers. For Example, “The bullfrogs trump to usher in the night, and the note of the whip-poor-will is borne on the rippling wind from over the water.” Through the use of verbs such as "trump", "usher" and "is borne", the images of frogs, hawks and wind blowing on the water surface in the evening are vividly depicted. That happens a lot in literary works.<br />
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===Emotional expression===<br />
As we all know, all things and objects are embodiment of writers’ feelings and emotions. In literary creation, whether it is to portray characters or to describe scenery, often inadvertently or intentionally contains or carries the writer’s own emotions. In other words, expressing emotion includes direct expression and indirect expression. The lyricism of this kind of literature can effectively arouse the emotional resonance of readers.<br />
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===Connotation===<br />
Connotation means that writers do not always describe people or things in all-round aspects with every details, but can depict in limited number of words to show or imply infinite meaning or artistic conception, leaving readers with imagination. That will be unforgettable for a long time. For example, “ From my mother’s sleep I fell into the State. And I hunched in its belly till my wet fur froze.” In this two sentences, “Sleep” metaphorically means in the mother’s womb, can also refer to the poet’s lofty ideals and ambitions. The capitalized "State" can refer to both the world and the poet’s motherland - The United States.<br />
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===3.1.2 For journalistic===<br />
Journalistic-style texts vary a lot from the the literary-style texts. As an unique texts which are shown to billions of audience, the characteristics of news are mainly in following four aspects: Truth, objective, new and political-related.<br />
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===Truthfulness===<br />
First, as the definition indicates news is about facts，which first should be true. “News lays claim to the qualities of truthfulness and accuracy-properties often implied by the term objectivity, a concept used to legitimize the journalistic text while at the same time recognizing the multidimensional and elusive nature of truth. News asks to be accepted as, at the very least, an approximation to truth, and certainly close enough to the truth to be worthy of our trust in its integrity”(McNair, 1998:2)<br />
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===Newness===<br />
If the news isn’t new, it should have been called “olds”. This is more than a joke. News is reported to make a contrast to the convention, strike people by surprise and keep them in suspense. “News is not about somebody bitten by a dog, but about a dog bitten by a man”, “News is just something that can move women to scream: My Gosh!” The two old sayings have been taken as most vivid descriptions of news, featuring its distinctive characteristics of newness.<br />
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===Objectivity===<br />
The objectivity is one of the most important professional concepts of news and has caught great attention in news circle. “The basic content of this principle is the content must be completely true, fair and neutral, not fictitious, and not biased or subjective” (Yang Xiyou 2009, 6)When writing news or reports, media workers shouldn’t put their subjective feelings into the reports. And the use of vocabulary should also be fair and neutral. When international news media, such as BBC and VOA, report about China Diaoyu Islands issue, they generally use Sankaku Islands and Diaoyu Island. When translating these words, the translator should be faithful to the original text and translate these two names. However, due to ideological, political or historical reasons, the use of vocabulary may deviate from the principle of objectivity, such as: in the report of Russia and Japan’s dispute on islands, only the Russian address- “ Kuril Islands” was used, but the Japanese address- “Four Northern Islands” was not used. When translating, the translator should add “Thousand Southern Islands” and “Four Northern”.<br />
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===Political Relevance===<br />
Although news is objective, absolutely objective and fair reports do not exist. The media has never been able to completely get rid of the shackles of political and economic power or ideology. The content of the report tends to obey the interests of the country. The use of political vocabulary in English current affairs news must also faithfully reflect the country’s political standpoint. Regarding to the English translation of the Diaoyu Islands, the Chinese news media translate into “Diaoyu Islands”, while the Japanese news media and some Western news media call it “Senkaku Islands”. From the usage of these words, it is obvious to see the political stance. When translating these political words, translators must be very cautious. In addition to be faithful to the original text, translators or interpreters should also consider our country’s interests.<br />
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===2.3.2 Translation principles=== <br />
Translation is the process of transforming signs or representations into another signs or representations.(Nord, 2001:6) Generally speaking, according to the object of translation, translation can be divided into two kinds: literary translation and non-literary translation. In literary translation the object is only the literary work, such as pot, novel and so on, and it focuses on the expression of contents, emotions and rhetoric of the original. <br />
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===For Literary===<br />
Although literary translation and non-literary translation share basic principles, literary translation which has its unique ways, is rather different from non-literary translation. Translating literary works is not only a process of transforming languages but also a process of recreating because literature belongs to a part of art. This is the most important feature of literary translation and also the basic translation principles. <br />
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===Equivalence-based principle=== <br />
Equivalence-based principle equals to “Dynamic equivalence” proposed by Eugene A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist. This principle points that translators should work hard in different languages and different cultures to find translation equivalents between them, and use appropriate methods to reorganize the form and semantic structure of the original text. Dynamic equivalence includes four aspects: one is lexical equivalence, the other is syntactic equivalence, the third is textual equivalence, the fourth is sense equivalence. In literary translation, sense equivalence is the core. For example, the Chinese sentence “青年小伙子们，有事没事，总想和小芹说句话” can be translated in to “Young men sought every excuse to talk with Xiao Qin”.This shows sense equivalence.<br />
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===Accuracy-based principle===<br />
No matter how beautiful the texts are, the accuracy is always the most important, rather than the forms. Be Faithful to the content of the original text, the translator must fully express the content of the original text without any tampering, distortion, omission or arbitrary deletion. The more accurate the words be chosen, the better the translation texts will be. For example, when translating “ 微风”, we’d better translate it into “breeze” or “gentle breeze” rather than “gentle wind” since the breeze is more accurate.<br />
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===For Journalistic style===<br />
Journalistic-style texts belong to the informative texts according to the above analysis. Translation principles of Journalistic are mainly mainly purposiveness, accuracy and readability. <br />
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===Purpose-based principle===<br />
Purpose" is the basic principle of journalistic-style texts translation, and other principles are based on this principle. For information-based texts, “ translation skopos ”, the German functionalist translation theory, was put forward by Rice, Vermeer, and Nord. Skopos has great significance in guiding of translation. This is because the purpose of information-based translation is very strong, that is, the translation has a clear goal - to provide information. Snell Hornby believes: “More practical the texts is, more clear its function is. The more the translation tends to focus on the target language.” As far as the journalistic text is concerned, the purpose of its translation is conveying the information and communication, allowing readers to easily understand the intention of the speaker. The translation should conform to the audience’s needs, cultural expectations, beliefs and cognitive status as much as possible, and it is meaningful in the communication environment of the target language culture. For example, in news, sometimes vocabulary vacancies are caused by the absence of equivalence in the translation, and it is impossible to use completely equivalent and accurate words to express its connotation during translation. In this case, domestication can be applied. Considering the specific translation purpose, context and characteristics of the target language, if the purpose of translation is to spread foreign cultures, foreignization strategies can be adopted. That’s the purpose-based translation principle.<br />
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===Accuracy-based principle=== <br />
The purpose of informative text is to convey information. Therefore, the translation work of the information text should be accurate, clear and precise. The translator can’t deliberately or unintentionally miss any original author’s information. In journalistic style, the accuracy is critical. A slight difference of words can make huge results. Especially, for those news related with politics and business. A word with different emotional sense can make a complete opposite statement. A small movement of a point can cause millions capital loss. For example, 1.33 million and 13.3 million has the huge difference. This principle is similar to the “faith” proposed by Yan Fu. “Faith” means “faithfulness”. The translation of linguistic-style texts should confirm to accuracy.<br />
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===Readability-based principle===<br />
Generally speaking, the terminology of information-based texts is neutral and has no obvious personal characteristics or regional colors. In news, even though there are more facts that personal emotions and feeling, translators or interpreters can make small adjustment of the speakers to make the report readable. In short, when translating, based on the readers’ language level, various translation methods should be mobilized on the premise of not changing the original intent of the article and report. It may make the content and layout of the article easier to understand, fluent and concise. But be sure to keep the source language texts’ characteristics. <br />
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===4.Translation strategies===<br />
Translation strategies refer to the thoughts, process, methods and procedure during the process of translation. Towards original texts with different texts styles, translation strategies also vary in a large degree. The thesis will discuss from two typical stylistic texts - literary style and journalistic style. According to The Modern Chinese Dictionary, strategies indicate guidelines and means which are deigned on the basis of the situations concerned. While methods are the ways and procedures in solving real problems. However, the two are relative to each other. In simple words strategies are the guidelines of the concrete methods. The concrete methods should be adopted in the direction of their strategies. Based on the above, a conclusion in drawn that translation strategies are the guidelines for realizing a particular translation aim, yet translation methods the concrete ways employed by translators to make the particular translation aim come true.<br />
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===4.1Translation strategies in literary style===<br />
In the book Translation Criticism the Potentials & Limitations, Reiss pointed out that “Translation of literary works would better be called free rendering than translations, especially when the personality of the translator and the force of his artistic temperament result in a TL version standing on its own, indebted to the original as a model and a source of inspiration. (Reiss, 2004:91) This description indicates the characteristics of literary translation. <br />
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===4.1.1 Domestication===<br />
Domestication is firstly coined by L.Venuti in his book The Translator’s Invisibility called “guihua” in Chinese. Domestication is a strategy by which the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the original text is erased in the translation in order to meet its readers’ aesthetic and reception psychology. As Venuti argues the adoption of domesticating strategy is the cultural disparity and imperialism. In the 1980s translation studies underwent “cultural turn”, and since then translation has being studied in the cultural and social contexts. The dominance of transparent discourse in English-language translation was decisively challenged at the turn of the twentieth century.<br />
Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication by his assertion on dynamic equivalence that “A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness <br />
of expression… and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture.” (Nida, 2004:159) He maintains that the function of translation is to communicate and it is important for the reader to understand what is conveyed by the translation, which takes the reader’s response into consideration. He claims that the reader of the target text should have the similar comprehension and appreciation as does the reader of the source text. Domestication tries to avoid cultural dispute and eliminate cultural barriers to achieve successful cross-cultural communication. The domesticating translation is one of naturalness and smoothness, <br />
which is the advantage of domestication. Here are three main methods that can achieve domestication strategy. They are paraphrasing, adaptation and replacement.<br />
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===4.1.1.1 paraphrasing===<br />
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Domestication by the method of paraphrasing is effective in dealing with a simple expression behind which there is a heavy cultural load. We should adapt paraphrasing strategy.<br />
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Example1<br />
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ST: 如囊萤 如映雪 家虽贫 学不辍 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br />
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TT1: Then we have one who put fireflies in a bag, and again another who used the white glare from snow. Although their families were poor, these men studied <br />
unceasingly.<br />
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TT2: One enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag, another read by the light reflected by the snow. Although their families were poor, they never ceased learning. <br />
Annotation: in order to read by their light. <br />
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TT3: Che-yin, when a boy, being poor, read his book by the light of a glow-worm which he confined. And Sun-kang, in winter, read his book by the light reflected from snow. Though their families were poor they studied incessantly. <br />
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The original text is from a classical book in china named Three-Character Classic.“囊萤”and “映雪” are Chinese allusions urging children to work hard at their study. Each of the contracted expressions has a story behind it. By reading T1 and T2, readers cannot understand the allusion to the full and the logic between the expressions of “put fireflies in a bag/enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag”and“used the white glare from snow”and the expressions about the persons’ industry at their studies. T3 paraphrases the sentence and makes logic explicit by introducing the heroes in the allusions and explaining what they used the fireflies/glow-worms for. This is effective in translation.<br />
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===4.1.1.2 Adaptation===<br />
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In order to achieve naturalness of expression, grammar, lexicon and culture. Adaptations are necessary. For terms which identify culturally different objects but with somewhat similar functions, adaptation shows its advantage in translation.<br />
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Example2 <br />
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ST: 老少爷们，从麻木的状态中苏醒过来吧。(Moyan，2003:85)<br />
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TT: Come out of your stupor, my friends. ( Goldblatt, 2004:293)<br />
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Address terms, as an indispensable part of conversations and communications, can reflect the tradition and culture of a nation. In all languages, address terms play an important role in social intercourse. Set in Northeast countryside of China, “ 老少爷们”is a typical address term of China’s northern dialect. And it is usually used by a man, showing some masculinity. It’s an oral expression often addressed to males. Goldblatt translate it as “my friends”, often used in an English speech to strike a chord in listeners and get them united or in favor of the speaker, conspicuously in an adaptation way. <br />
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Example3<br />
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ST: 凡训蒙 须讲究 详训诂 明句读 （Wang Yinglin,1986）<br />
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TT1: In the education of the young, there should be explanation and elucidation, careful teaching of the interpretations of commentators, and due attention to paragraphs and sentences. <br />
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TT2: Whoever teaches boys, ought to discuss and examine deeply (the meaning of the characters); Explain their derivation, mark distinctly the periods and the punctuation. <br />
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TT3: Every one that instructs youth should explain fully what he teaches; should illustrate the present and the past, and distinguish clearly the comma and the period. <br />
There are two kinds of adaptation in the translation of this Chinese line. First, it is the domestication of the Chinese term “句读”. Actually, ancient Chinese classics do not have any punctuation marks and the “句读” refers to the longer or shorter pause in the classics according to the meaning of the text. All three translators domesticate the Chinese term by the concept of punctuation in the English language and render it respectively as “paragraphs and sentences”, “the periods and the punctuation” and “the comma and the period”. Although the three kinds of rendering differ from each other on the level of punctuation, they have much the same function—the target text reader can easily understand in what way “句读” functions in a Chinese text. Thus dynamic equivalence is achieved. The second adaptation is the change of parts of speech—the change from verb to noun. Giles changes the verbs “训”, “讲究” and “训诂” in the Chinese text into nouns “education”, “explanation and elucidation”, “interpretations” and “attention”.<br />
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===4.1.1.3 Replacement===<br />
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Example 4 <br />
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ST:勤有功 戏无益 戒之哉 宜勉力 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br />
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TT: Diligence has its reward; play has no advantages. Oh, be on your guard, and put forth your strength. <br />
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This is an example of domestication on the lexical level. “哉” in Chinese is a particle of exclamatory or of interrogative value. In this line, it functions as an exclamatory particle. It helps to make up the syllable in the Chinese version and express the author’s emotion of instructing the young. Giles translates it into the correspondent English exclamatory particle “Oh” which retains the tone of a similar function as is in the source text. It achieves dynamic equivalence in terms of reader’s response to the rhetoric. <br />
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===4.1.2 Foreignization===<br />
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Foreignization designates the type of translation in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks the target conventions by retaining the foreignness of the original. It functions to preserve the foreignness and value of the foreign language culture in the source text. It takes the readers of the target language culture to a foreign culture, making the readers of the translated text feel the differences and enjoy the alien atmosphere. It is more faithful to the language features of the source text than domestication does, and it keeps the flavor of the original language. Venuti and other scholars who advocate foreignization hold that foreignization enable readers of the translated text to learn about the alien culture of the source language text, which is often the reading aim of the readers who are capable of understanding the alien culture. (Venuti, 1995)<br />
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===4.1.2.1 phonetic compensation===<br />
<br />
Among the three translators, Giles is said to be an excellent English language master who was able to compose English poems. His translation of poems is generally in accordance with the composing and rhyming schemes of English poems, often with good rhythm. (Mu Shixiong, 2004:166) Though Giles is good at translating poems, he does not translate this text into a completely rhythmical one. Instead, he adds pronunciation to every Chinese character in the text to make a phonetic compensation so that the readers can still appreciate the ending rhyme of the original Chinese text. Giles does make an effort to create rhythmical effect whenever it is possible. In literary texts, phonetic compensation is always applied in translation of poem and prose. <br />
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Example5 <br />
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ST:养不教 父之过 教不严 师之惰 <br />
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TT: To feed without teaching is the father’s fault. To teach without severity is the teacher’s laziness. <br />
<br />
Each line of the translation has a rhythmic focus. Respectively they are:“feed”,“without”and“teaching”in the first line; “father” and “fault” in the second line;“teach”,“without”and“severity” in the third line; and “teacher” and “laziness” in the fourth line. In this way, and together with the phonetic compensation, formal equivalence is achieved and by reading the phonetic compensation, target readers can feel the same rhythm of the original text and response the same as the readers of the source text. <br />
<br />
4.1.2.2 Transliteration<br />
<br />
Transliteration is a method that an item is translated according to its pronunciation rather than its meaning. This technique is often applied to translate ecological culture-loaded terms, like names of places, person, rivers, mountains or countries. There are two systems in use for transliteration Chinese characters: the Wade-Giles system of Romanization and the pinyin system of Romanization. For better transference of Chinese culture, the latter system is suggested. For some material culture-loaded terms, such as “仁”, “义”, “君子” and so on, transliteration might be preferable to any other methods. These terms represent the key concept of Confucianism, and any other English equivalent expressions may lead to misunderstanding. Thus, it is the most convenient and effective way to expose target readers in Chinese culture. For some time, the pinyin translation of these terms may be as acceptable and comprehensible as “kongfu” or “mahjong”. Certainly, for the sake of target readers’ understanding, an annotation is always needed to provide the further explanation of the cultural meanings of these terms. <br />
<br />
Example6<br />
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ST: 南容三复“白圭”，孔子以其兄之子妻之。(Liu Dianjue, 46) <br />
<br />
TT1: Nan Jung in reciting the I Song repeated the verse about the sceptre of white jade three times. (In consequence of which) Master Kung gave him his elder brother’s daughter to marry. (Waley, 131)<br />
<br />
TT2: Nan Rong repeated over and over again the lines about the white jade sceptre. Confucius gave him his elder brother’s daughter in marriage. (D.C. Lau, 181)<br />
<br />
4.1.2.3 Amplification<br />
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Amplification refers to add information behind some terms that is familiar to source language readers but unfamiliar to target language readers. By amplification, the connotation can be better conveyed to foreign readers. <br />
<br />
Example 7<br />
<br />
ST:论语者 二十篇 群弟子 记善言 <br />
<br />
TT: The Lun-yu (the book of discourses and dialogues) contains twenty chapters. The disciples (of Confucius) have therein related his excellent sayings. <br />
<br />
In this example, the Chinese text does not mention the ancient Chinese sage Confucius, and the information on whose sayings had been recorded in the book “Lun-yu” is implicit, which can be inferred from the context by native Chinese, once they combine the notion of “论语”with their background knowledge. However, western readers do not have enough knowledge to appreciate the value of the “Lun-yu”if the title was translated without the mention of Confucius. <br />
<br />
<br />
===4.2Translation strategies in journalistic style===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1Amplification===<br />
<br />
Sometimes, the translator needs to add proper words to complete the structure of the target texts, because mews sometimes needs more information to explain the inner meaning. The following examples are offered to illustrate the point. <br />
<br />
Example 8 <br />
<br />
ST: The real James Bond? (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 250) <br />
<br />
TT:谁是真正的邦德? <br />
<br />
There are no subject and predicate in the target text if the translator renders the headline by literal translation. Therefore,“谁是” is added in order to clarify the text. <br />
<br />
Example 9<br />
<br />
ST: Kings rout rockets, 101-74 (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 225) <br />
<br />
TT: 国王队击败火箭队，比分为 101 比 74 <br />
<br />
“比分为”is added in the target text to make the translation complete in sentence structure and meaning. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example 10<br />
ST:Reuters bests and worsts of the world cup (Huang Ruihong, 2004-06-15) <br />
<br />
TT:路透社评出世界最佳和最差球队 <br />
<br />
“评出” is added in the target text. Otherwise, there will be no predicate in the target text. Consequently, the translation will make no sense to the target reader. Translator should transfer new messages accurately and clearly to the target reader. To achieve this goal, amplification is often adopted to supplement necessary words or background information, which effectively avoids misunderstanding on the part of the target reader. <br />
<br />
===4.2.2 Omission===<br />
<br />
Omission refers to the strategy to delete unnecessary words or phrases from the target text. News headlines are featured by its brevity. Redundant words can be omitted either to conform to the norms of the target language or to achieve the effect of succinctness. <br />
<br />
Example11 <br />
ST: You need to sleep less than you think (Zou Shuang, 2005) <br />
TT: 适当少睡有益健康 <br />
As we know, English is a hypotactic language, which pays great attention to overt cohesion. Without the pronoun‘you’, the source text will be ungrammatical. By contrast, Chinese belongs to paratactic language, which attaches importance to covert coherence. When the translator does not render the word‘you’ into“你”, it won’t affect comprehension at all. In addition, the target text is succinct by leaving out the pronoun‘you’. Therefore, omission is adopted in this example. <br />
<br />
Example12 <br />
<br />
ST: Vogue says Queen Elizabeth II among world’s most glamorous (China Daily, 2007-11-07) <br />
<br />
TT:英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜 <br />
<br />
As it is well known to most Chinese readers that the Queen of UK is Elizabeth II (伊莉莎白二世), there is no need to keep it in the target text. Otherwise, the translation will be too long as a headline. The recommended version, thus, becomes 英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜. <br />
<br />
===4.2.3Imitation===<br />
English news are featured by its vivid language, such as play on word, figures of speech, etc. They add special flavor to the text with the aim to attract readers’ eye. Obviously, to reproduce these aesthetic effect enjoys the privilege among the available methods. Throughout the history of translation theory, the idea of imitation has been manifested clearly by Alexander Fraser Tytler when he wrote: the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original in his famous essay on the Principles of Translation. (Munaday, 2001: 26) The following examples may illustrate the above idea.<br />
<br />
Example 13 <br />
<br />
ST:A tale of two hearts (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 199).<br />
<br />
TT:双心记 <br />
<br />
This headline tells a story that a patient has an artificial heart planted in his body. The headline is a parody of the novel A Tale of Two Cities written by Charles Dickens. The target text (双心记) is also a parody of “双城记”.<br />
<br />
Example14 <br />
<br />
ST: Soccer kicks off with violence (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 200) <br />
<br />
TT:足球开踢，拳打脚踢 <br />
<br />
This is a humorous news headline because of the use of pun. The phrase ‘kick off’ refers to the start of a football match, and it also implies that there is a fight in the football field. The meanings of the pun are successfully transferred by the target text with the recommended translation. The translator does a good job in reproducing the humorous sense.<br />
<br />
===4.2.4 Restruction===<br />
The target text should be acceptable and meaningful in a sense that it is coherent with the situation in which it is received. Once translated, the translator revises the order and rearranges all words into a perfect sentence. In doing so, the news is more logical and tuned with the habit of native readers' think and reading. It can be treated as an important technique used in translating news headline from Chinese into English or English to Chinese. <br />
<br />
Example 15 <br />
<br />
ST: A third of Londoners must work from home during Olympics to avoid tube <br />
<br />
TT: 奥运交通压力大 1/3伦敦人须在家上班 (2011-09-27 08:33)<br />
<br />
“A third” occurred in the beginning of the source text, but “奥运会” comes first in the target text. The source text can be translate into “1/3的伦敦人必须在家上班,在奥运会期间避免交通混乱”if there is not any translation strategies used. The translator rearranges the words order to emphasize the special time---Olympics. <br />
<br />
Example16<br />
<br />
ST: Mahfud proposes ‘Special Zoo’ for corrupt officials <br />
<br />
TT: 印尼高官提议建“贪官动物园” (2011-11-30 16:02)<br />
<br />
In order to satirize the corrupt officials, the translator exchanges the order of “special” and “贪官” during the translation process. It can be achieve some good effect to expose the corrupt officials in language sense. <br />
<br />
Example 17<br />
<br />
ST:‘Ready for winter’ campaign launches <br />
<br />
TT: 苏格兰打响“迎冬战役”(2011-10-24 12:06)<br />
<br />
The translator reorders the expression “Ready for winter” and “launches” during the translation process. Besides, the translator adds a subject to this sentence so that it can appeal to the readers’ thinking patterns. In order to make the readers or audiences understand the translated version smoothly and easily, the words or phrases are adjusted to accord with their thinking pattern. Restructuring refers to rearranging the words in logic order to make the translation more potential readers or audiences into the first consideration, making them understand the translated version easily. <br />
<br />
===4.2.5 Adaptation===<br />
Adaptation is a translation method, which refers to use an especially free translation, it relates to selecting, adding, deleting, and constructing cautiously instead of simply translating one word to another word. In order to make the translated version more proper to a certain readers or audiences, adaptation always make some essential changes for a special aim So adaptation is an activity which the news translators absorb the most important content from the source text on the basis of the particular requirement of the readers or audiences, then make some suitable adjustments. When the translators are doing some adaptation, though the form and style of the source text are altered in a way, the main idea of the source text must be kept.Though adaptation is not acted as a main translation method by some traditional translation theorists, adaptation is getting more and more popular and arousing more and more <br />
attention these days. You can see the term adaptation frequently showed in some authoritative journals and newspapers, etc. <br />
<br />
Example 18<br />
<br />
ST: Poor People May Be Quicker to Be Kind <br />
<br />
TT:穷人更有同情心 (2011-12-29 08:56)<br />
<br />
“Quicker”means“更快”, but here it is translated into “更有”, “快” is an adjective, “有”is a verb, they have different characters.“Kind”means“友善的”, it is an adjective, but it is translated into“同情心”, which is a noun. If the translator does not use some translation strategies like adaptation, the target text is unreadable. <br />
<br />
Example 19<br />
<br />
ST: Americans say Asia more important than EU: survey <br />
<br />
TT：多数美国人看好亚洲 (2011-09-16 08:43) <br />
<br />
“Important” is an adjective, and a comparative degree used in the source text. But the source text is translated in a totally different way, for it is translated into a verb “看好”. Adaptation should be used here to make sure the translation aim is achieved. <br />
<br />
Example 20<br />
<br />
ST: Lend your voices to ‘talking bins’ <br />
<br />
TT:“能说会唱垃圾桶”将亮相伦敦。<br />
<br />
If“talking bins” is translated into “会说话的垃圾桶”, it is so ordinary. But the translator adopt the adaptation strategy to translated it into“能说会唱垃圾桶”, it becomes very vivid, and it may leave a deep impression on the readers.<br />
<br />
===5.Conclusion===<br />
The research conducted in this thesis is a fairly thorough study on the translation strategies of literary-style texts and journalistic-style texts. Through detailed discussion, several translation strategies have been analyzed and summarized. This thesis also studies the texts’ functions and main types of texts. The texts functions are referential function, expressive function and appellative function. The texts can be divided into three types- informative, expressive and vocative texts. On the basis of characteristics of different texts, detailed methods are applied. For literary-style texts, there are domestication and foreignization strategies. For journalistic-style texts, there are strategies like omission, restructure,adaption, imitation and amplification. Journalistic texts and literary texts are quite different, so the translation strategies are different. This thesis has a clear analysis about the translation strategies. However, it still owns a lot of drawbacks, such as the structure is too complicated, lack some of the former people’s study fruit. Hoping this thesis can make some contributions to the translation study and exercise process.<br />
===6. References===<br />
[1] McNair, Brain. (1998). The sociology of Journalism. A Hodder Arnold Publication<br />
[2] Munday, Jeremy, 2001, Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications [M], London and New York: Routledge.<br />
[3] Newmark, P. Approaches to Translation ［M］. New York: Prentice Hall, 1981: 39.<br />
[4] Nord, Christiane. Translating as A Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained [M]. Shanghai : Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:6<br />
[5] Reiss, Katharina. Translation Criticism the Potentials & Limitations [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004:91.<br />
[6] Venuti, L. 1995. The Translator’s Invisibility—A History of Translation. London & New York: Routledge.</div>Hu Huifanghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=114578History of Translation Studies 92020-12-18T11:40:02Z<p>Hu Huifang: /* Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
<br />
='''Comparative Studies'''=<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language, under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, takes the relationship beween language and thought as the entry point to make a comparative study of English and Chinese language and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显而易见，语言，文化与思维模式之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，以语言和思维关系为切入口，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. Language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts and thoughts in turn is the mental reflection of the world around us. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. That is to say, without thought, language would be nothing sounds with no meaning or content. But thoughts, though accessible by various means, are best represented in language and can thus best fulfill its obligations to the speakers by such means. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921: 12) At the same time, Language is part of culture. Such as Chinese language is a part of Chinese culture. Each country has its own language in a specific culture. However, their relationship is not just between part and whole. Language is the carrier and the representation of culture, while, as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture. Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, willpower, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properities and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br />
<br />
===2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese===<br />
The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. While in different countries, there exist vast differences in their thinking patterns, then this paper is going to illustrate four groups of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present how these thinking patterns are reflected upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. All of the opposition between Chinese thinking and occidental thinking that I present is just a matter of degree, and we have to view it critically.<br />
<br />
===2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking===<br />
Generally speaking, human thought can be divided into two types: analytical thinking and holistic thinking. To some extent, Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical.<br />
<br />
Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. It regard man, nature and society as an unalienable organic whole. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. Actually, there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. The formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. After accumulated, condensed and sublimated through time, such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking which is good at integrating, drawing up the guidelines and commanding the overall situation. While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analysizing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively<br />
<br />
Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relationships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking. In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis , is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br />
<br />
(1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br />
我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br />
<br />
（2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br />
Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face. (Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br />
<br />
From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one preminent feature is the aboundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br />
<br />
===2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking===<br />
It is well know that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking. As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the oppositt side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1977: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature.<br />
On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conqure nature. Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism adovacates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration eration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974:25) While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br />
<br />
The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br />
一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br />
<br />
A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br />
我突然想出了一个好主意。<br />
<br />
The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br />
<br />
Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br />
<br />
(1) 公交车来了。<br />
There comes the bus.<br />
(2) 我家有五口人。<br />
There are 5 people in my family.<br />
<br />
Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by sb) “为人所骗” (be cheated by sb). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br />
<br />
===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking===<br />
Generally speaking, Chinese people prefer thinking in images and English people prefer thinking in notions. Conspicuously, there are some cultural and historical factors leading to the formation of different thinking patterns. Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration for the concrete thinking of Chinese people. Chinese language is vivid and full of images. As we all know that the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs, which express the meaning through the outer form. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgement and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences. Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M. Young once pointed that an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end，detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness. While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” ( 1946: 15-16)The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br />
<br />
葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br />
欲饮琵琶马上催。<br />
— 王翰《凉州词》<br />
With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br />
Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br />
<br />
无边落木萧萧下，<br />
不尽长江滚滚来。<br />
—杜甫《登高》<br />
The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br />
The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br />
<br />
In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br />
<br />
“To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br />
<br />
“为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br />
是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br />
<br />
There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to gover the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br />
<br />
Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br />
智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br />
<br />
In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br />
<br />
===2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking===<br />
According to Robert Kaplan who analynizes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br />
Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. Later in Compendium of Materia Medica writen by Li Shizheng, it collect and summarize a vast of prescription based on his practical experiences and mothods. And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging. While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotlian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br />
<br />
(1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br />
<br />
足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br />
<br />
There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br />
<br />
(2) 各位来宾:<br />
女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br />
Distinguished Guests,<br />
Ladies and Gentlemen,<br />
Dear Friends,<br />
<br />
在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br />
<br />
With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br />
<br />
Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br />
诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br />
<br />
Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delightment in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br />
<br />
Although the distinction between Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of composition above middle school, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. And also the “general discussion-sub discussion-conclusion model” is only one certain structure for English writing. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines, and we have to critically think about the differences between Chinese and English.<br />
<br />
===3. Conclusion===<br />
The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other. While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, so we can not lump together under one head and blindly follow that the Chinese and Occidental thinking models must be opposite in certain dimension. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts a lot upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people from different nation think about the world and other objects around them, and then better understand why and how they tend to use such kind of ways of expression. Then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br />
<br />
=== Bibliography===<br />
<br />
*Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br />
*Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br />
*Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br />
*Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br />
*Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br />
*Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br />
* Lian Shuneng. 连淑能. (2002) 论中西思维方式【J】 On Chinese and Western modes of thinking. 大连：外语与外语教学. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching.<br />
*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1992) 《汉英对比翻译》【M】 Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese, 南昌: 江西教育出版社, Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press.<br />
*Qian Mu. 钱穆，(1977)《世界局势与中国文化》The World Situation and Chinese Culture【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD.<br />
*Shen Xiaolong. 申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters《学术月刊》 1994 第14期, 74. Academic Monthly, 1994 (14), 74.<br />
*Wang Dehua. 汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36. Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br />
*Zhang Li. 张 黎. (1994) 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】on Chinese Parataxis Grammar. 长春：吉林教育出版社Changchun: Jilin Education Press.<br />
*Zhang Sijie & Zhang Boran. 张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, 中国翻译 Chinese Translation. 2001 (7), 13.<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 英语笔译 202070080578==<br />
（缺了名字title和专业学号）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed functional equivalence, which has an overwhelming significance in the development of translation theory. This theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory.Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between original language and target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target language readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target language readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the central task in translating, which has an important guiding significance for translators.<br />
<br />
In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed the theory of functional equivalence, which has boosted the development of translation theory. The theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory.Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between the original language and the target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the key in translation, exerting great guiding significance for translators. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, translators of China also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators. <br />
<br />
With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, Chinese translators also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences of thse two translation theories will be presented, which will promote the understanding of them.<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence and Yan Fu's faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences between these two theories will be presented, aiming to have a better understanding in translation.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words:=== Functional equivalence; Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance; similarities and differences; Vanity Fair.(标题格式错误，大小写不统一，名利场是书/杂志，需要斜体）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。<br />
<br />
随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。<br />
<br />
奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===：功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》(标题格式错误）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, we can see that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His “ Functional equivalence” theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reacching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” translation standard, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43).<br />
<br />
Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, it can be seen that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His “ Functional equivalence” theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reacching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles.（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180)<br />
<br />
Despite the different social environment and the imperfect translation standards, it is undeniable that these two are still the most authoritative and vital ones in Chinese and Western translation circles.（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible as well as a translation theorist. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). <br />
<br />
Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible, and a translation theorist as well. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In 1964, Nida put forward “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence” in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of “dynamic equivalence” until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression “dynamic equivalence” was superseded by “functional equivalence” in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). <br />
<br />
In 1964, Nida put forward “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence” in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of “dynamic equivalence” until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression “dynamic equivalence” was superseded by “functional equivalence” in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). （双引号没引完）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of a translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). As we all know, it is impossible for a transltion to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translator can cause differences in translation.<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). It is impossible to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translators can cause differences in translation.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level(Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as “The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it”. The maximal level is stated as “The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did”(Nida 1993,118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida,1995,224).<br />
<br />
In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level(Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as “The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it”. The maximal level is stated as “The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did”(Nida 1993,118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. According to Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida,1995,224).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as essential criteria for understanding translations since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898)（Zhang Xi 2014,1):<br />
<br />
Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as the essential criteria for understanding translation since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898)（Zhang Xi 2014,1):--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so(Yan Fu 2009, 202).”<br />
<br />
“Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so(Yan Fu 2009, 202).”--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of the 20th century Chinese translation theory(Zhang Xi 2014, 2). <br />
<br />
Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of Chinese translation theory in the 20th century (Zhang Xi 2014, 2). --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. “Faithfulness” emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. “ Expressiveness” stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. “Elegance” reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics''(Yan Fu 2009, 202):<br />
<br />
According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. “Faithfulness” emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. “ Expressiveness” stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. “Elegance” reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics''(Yan Fu 2009, 202):--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also said, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for the translator. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek elegance.(Yan Fu 2009, 202)”<br />
<br />
“Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also added, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for translators. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek for elegance.(Yan Fu 2009, 202)”--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticisms come from the denial of standard “ elegance”. According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese charcters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons: firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br />
<br />
Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticism comes from the denial of standard “ elegance”. According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese characters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons. Firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. “Elegance” people mentioned now has been modified by later generations, which refers to that the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard “elegance”, the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br />
<br />
Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. "Elegance" now has been modified by later generations, which refers to that the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard “elegance”, the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Theoretial Foundation===<br />
====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====（标题之间需要隔一行）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====Modern Linguistic=====<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence is based on modern linguistic and it has a close relationship with linguistics(Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately(Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process（Zhu Haotong 2006,64). <br />
<br />
Based on modern linguistic, Functional equivalence has a close relationship with linguistics(Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately(Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process（Zhu Haotong 2006,64).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On Nida’s opinion, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure(Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).<br />
<br />
According to Nida, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure(Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====Information Theory=====<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information(Nida 1964, 68).<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information(Nida 1964, 68).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and target language belong to different language systems and cultures(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original for the target readers to better understand the translation(Nida 1984, 34).<br />
<br />
Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and the target language belong to different language systems and cultures(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original text for the target readers to better understand the translation(Nida 1984, 34).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
=====Social Semiotics=====<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning(Zhu Haotong 2006,65).<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning(Zhu Haotong 2006,65).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that it is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and it focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods(Nida 1993, 67). <br />
<br />
In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods(Nida 1993, 67). <br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br />
<br />
=====Chinese Aesthetics=====<br />
<br />
Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty（Guo dingju 2013, 18). It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today.<br />
<br />
Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty（Guo dingju 2013, 18). It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness” means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. “Expressiveness” means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. “Elegance” refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reveal the essence of translation(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters(Guo Dingju 2013, 18).<br />
<br />
“Faithfulness” means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. “Expressiveness” means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. “Elegance” refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reveal the essence of translation(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters(Guo Dingju 2013, 18).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance(Guo Dingju 2013, 19).<br />
<br />
Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance(Guo Dingju 2013, 19).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
=====Literary Criticism=====<br />
<br />
Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods(Guo Dingju 2013, 19). <br />
<br />
Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods(Guo Dingju 2013, 19). <br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is a body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered round the craftmanship of literary works(Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation(Li Jianzhong 2009, 46). <br />
<br />
On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is the body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered around the craftmanship of literary works(Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation(Li Jianzhong 2009, 46). <br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of functions of criticism. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works proper. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism and Lu Xun is its representative. The second type is aimed at an independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism and it serves politics. It works well in the period of political struggels(Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).<br />
<br />
There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of criticism functions. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism, Lu Xun being one of the representative. The second type aims at the independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism serving politics, which works well in the period of political struggels(Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===<br />
<br />
====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====<br />
<br />
=====About ''Vanity Fair''=====<br />
<br />
''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the lives of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition(Guo Dingju 2013, 21).<br />
<br />
''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the stories of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition(Guo Dingju 2013, 21).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again(Thackeray 2006，178).<br />
<br />
At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again(Thackeray 2006，178).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater living in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time written by William Makepeace Thackeray(Guo Dingju 2013, 21). <br />
<br />
This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater living in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time(Guo Dingju 2013, 21). --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at time time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveal the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, are desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, one doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness(Thackeray 2006, 89).<br />
<br />
The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at that time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveals the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, he doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness(Thackeray 2006, 89).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====Yang Bi’s Translation of ''Vanity Fair''=====<br />
<br />
There are many Chinese translation version of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of Vanity Fair was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957. Then it was published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published in 2012 by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br />
<br />
There are many Chinese translation version of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of ''Vanity Fair'' was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957, then re-published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of original text appropriately to Chinese readers and Chinese readers can have a good understanding of western literary works(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br />
<br />
Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of the original text appropriately to Chinese readers, hence having a great response from Chinese readers.(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br />
<br />
Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator. When comparing the English and Chinese version of Vanity Fair, it’s easy for us to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.<br />
<br />
Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator when translating. When comparing the English and Chinese version of ''Vanity Fair'', it’s easy to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====At Lexical Level=====<br />
<br />
In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943，89), those are <br />
<br />
In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943，89), those are --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
(1)entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on; <br />
<br />
(2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on; <br />
<br />
(3)states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on; <br />
<br />
(4)characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on; <br />
<br />
(5)processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on; <br />
<br />
(6)links, such as when, during, below and so on; <br />
<br />
(7)deictics, such as that, there, this and so on(Nida 1986, 20). （格式不统一，需要隔开）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language(Zhang Yanmei 2019,16). <br />
<br />
Exampe 1: <br />
<br />
ST1:...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br />
<br />
TT1:痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)（格式不统一，需要隔开）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In ST1, “Love” and “Beauty” are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words “Love” and “Beauty” to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates “Love” and “Beauty” into “痴情男子“and “美貌佳人”to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate “Love” and “Beauty” into “爱情” and “美人”, the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.<br />
<br />
In ST1, “Love” and “Beauty” are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words “Love” and “Beauty” to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates “Love” and “Beauty” into “痴情男子“and “美貌佳人”to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate “Love” and “Beauty” into “爱情” and “美人”, the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====At Syntactical Level=====<br />
<br />
A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences (Nida, 1946). Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence(Nida 1946, 55). He think there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:<br />
<br />
A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences (Nida, 1946). Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence(Nida 1946, 55). He think there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
(1)subject+predicate+adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;<br />
<br />
(2)subject+predicate+object, such as, John hit Bill;<br />
<br />
(3)subject+predicate+object+object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;<br />
<br />
(4)subject+be+subject complement, such as John is in the restaurant;<br />
<br />
(5)subject+be+attributive, such as, John is kind;<br />
<br />
(6)subject+be+indefinite article+noun, such as, John is a man.<br />
<br />
(7)subject+be+pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend. (符号之间隔开）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences(Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text(Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of Vanity Fair are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation. <br />
<br />
The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences(Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text(Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
<br />
ST2:His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury. (Thackeray2016,75) <br />
<br />
TT2:他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br />
（Yang Bi 2013,76) （符合和文字需要隔开） --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences(Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.<br />
<br />
(1)他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。<br />
<br />
His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.<br />
<br />
(2)他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。<br />
<br />
He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.<br />
<br />
(3)她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。<br />
<br />
She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade. <br />
<br />
(4)她死后，他许下承诺。<br />
<br />
He was hanged after her death.<br />
<br />
(5）他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。<br />
<br />
He would never take another of her sort.<br />
<br />
(6)妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。<br />
<br />
At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.<br />
<br />
(7)他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br />
<br />
He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.（格式不统一，需要隔开）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.<br />
<br />
====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br />
<br />
The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====At Lexical level=====<br />
<br />
Literary words demands that the translator has good comand of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence(Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.<br />
<br />
Literary words demands that the translator has good comand of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence(Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 3:<br />
<br />
ST3: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty?(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br />
<br />
TT3:痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)同上--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words “an image of Love” and “Beauty” to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br />
<br />
If the words “prettier”, “an image of Love” and “Beauty” are translated into “更好看”“爱情形象”“美人” respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, “痴情男子”“美貌佳人”and “赏心悦目” reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br />
<br />
If the words “prettier”, “an image of Love” and “Beauty” are translated into “更好看”“爱情形象”“美人” respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, “痴情男子”“美貌佳人”and “赏心悦目” reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
=====At Sentence Level===== <br />
<br />
English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis(Guo Dingju 2013,40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br />
<br />
Example 4: <br />
<br />
ST4:The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley.(Thackeray 2006, 74)<br />
<br />
TT4:布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)<br />
同上，格式注意修改--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the original sentence, the abstract words “behavior” and “reception” are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into “克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……” without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.<br />
<br />
In the original sentence, the abstract words “behavior” and “reception” are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into “克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……” without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====<br />
<br />
=====The Similarities of Them=====--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)（ Similarities）<br />
<br />
Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.<br />
<br />
One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent(Nida&Taber 1969, 22).<br />
<br />
Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers.The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty(Guo Dingju 2013, 43). Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.<br />
<br />
The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating(Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information(Nida 1969,30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent.<br />
<br />
Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely(Guo Dingju 2013,44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.<br />
<br />
By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====The Differences of Them=====（Differences）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although there are many similarities of them, they have several differences because of different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence,which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of “elegance”. What’s more, the concrete explanation of “faithfulness” is not clear. Whether the target text should only be “faithful” to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as translation standard. <br />
<br />
Although there are many similarities between these two thoeries, there are still some differences because of the different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence,which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of “elegance”. What’s more, the concrete explanation of “faithfulness” is not clear. Whether the target text should only be “faithful” to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as the translation standard. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class(Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of differences of these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translating. <br />
<br />
With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class(Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of the differences between these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translation. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From comparison above, we know that there are some similarities and differences between them. I believe that these two translation theories play an important role in translating and they can guide us better understand different cultures. At the end of this paper, I will discuss the implements and limitations of this study.<br />
<br />
From the comparison above, it is known that there are some similarities and differences between these two thoeries. It is believed that these two translation theories both play an important role in translation, guiding us to better understand different cultures. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Implements====（可以删除）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). <br />
<br />
What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper(Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.<br />
<br />
====Limitations====（可以删除）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions. <br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene Albert奈达.(1964).''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive博睿学术出版社.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene Albert 尤金·阿尔伯特·奈达. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 博睿学术出版社.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene Albert奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''《翻译理论与实践》. Leiden: Brill Archive博睿学术出版社.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene Albert奈达, and Jan de Waard.(1986) ''From One Language to Another''《从一种语言到另一种语言》. Nashville: Thomas Nelson托马斯·纳尔逊出版社.<br />
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Nida, Eugene Albert奈达.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''《语言、文化与翻译》.Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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Thackeray,William萨克雷.（2006）. ''Vanity Fair''《名利场》.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press外语教学与研究出版社.<br />
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Chen Minjie陈岷婕.(2013).浅谈严复的“信达雅”与奈达的“功能对等”[On Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Nida’s “functional Equivalence”].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(236)94-97.<br />
<br />
Guo Dingju郭丁菊.(2013).功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness Expressiveand Elegance from the Translation of Vanity Fair].Harbin:Northeast Forestry University东北农业大学.<br />
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Li Jianzhong李建中.(2009)中国文学批评史[History of Chinese Literary Criticism].Beijing:Peking University Press北京大学出版社.<br />
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Tan Kai谭凯.(2011)严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness Expressive and Elegance” and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence].青年作家Young Writers(1)43-44.<br />
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Wang Yunxi王运熙,Gu Yisheng顾易生.(2007).中国文学批评史新编[A New History of Chinese Literary Criticism].Shanghai:Shanghai Classics Publishing House上海古籍出版社.<br />
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Yan Fu严复(2009).《天演论》译例言[Preface to Evolution and Ethics].Beijing:The Commercial Press商务印书馆.<br />
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Yang Bi杨必.(2013)《名利场》[Vanity Fair].Beijing:People’s Literature Publishing House人民文学出版社.<br />
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Zhang Yanmei张妍梅.(2019).功能对等理论视角下《名利场》的翻译[A Study on The Translation of Vanity Fair from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory].Lanzhou:Lanzhou Jiaotong University兰州交通大学.<br />
<br />
Zhang Xi张曦.(2014).翻译硕士备考指南[A Guide Book to MTI].Shanghai:Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社.<br />
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Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[A Comparison on :Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House中国学术期刊电子出版社(2)180-181.<br />
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Zhu Haotong 朱浩彤.(2006).奈达“功能对等”理论基础的再思考[Some Thoughts on the Theoretical Bases of Nida’s Functional Equivalence]. Journal of Fujiann Medical University福建医科大学学报(3)62-65.<br />
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（注意格式问题，需要修改）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br />
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==='''Abstract'''=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br />
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==='''Key words'''=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br />
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==='''摘要'''===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br />
关键词：生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br />
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==='''Introduction'''===<br />
''The Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. <br />
Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China. As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials.<br />
In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. So, the Chinese-English translation is of great significance. And in recent years, the domestic scholars attach great importance to the translation of political words. Therefore, it has important functions and research values to study on the Chinese-English translation of Government Work Report from the prospective of eco-translatology.<br />
Cheng Zhenqiu(2003）reposed that the translation of political articles should focus on politics. Huang Youyi(2004) proposed The Three Principles of External Publicity Translation. Tong Xiaohua (2014) explores the English translation of the Government Work Report from different perspectives. Wang Gangyi（2014）also pointed out that the former absolute loyalty to the translation of political texts can no longer satisfy the changing society and readers. Linguistics emphasizes the equivalence of texts from different aspects, which is of great guiding significance for texts like the Government Work Report that emphasizes fidelity. Under the guidance of Nida's functional equivalence theory, Zhou Ji studied the economic and political terms in the report at the lexical and textual levels. In 2001, Joan Pinkham (2000:1) published a book and it is The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, in which it explores the Chinglish in political publicity from the angle of lexis and syntax. In her book, she suggested that translators should not only understand the subtle connotations of words and sentences clearly and use more idioms to express the meanings of the source text, but also pay special attention to the tone and short sentences of Chinese, and avoid the use of outdated, rigid terms, slang and colloquialisms. Compared with domestic studies, the number of relevant studies abroad is very small, and there are almost no relevant translation studies. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that foreign countries are more interested in the content of the report, that is, to describe the national policies, culture and social issues. <br />
This thesis focuses on translation of political publicity from the perspective of eco-translatology in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology. <br />
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==='''1.Introduction of Government Work Report'''===<br />
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Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.<br />
===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br />
For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.<br />
====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br />
The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. <br />
====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br />
As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.<br />
====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br />
The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.<br />
===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br />
In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. <br />
Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br />
It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br />
===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br />
In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.<br />
====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br />
Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br />
Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) [1]<br />
“获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) [1]<br />
“增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) [1]'''=====<br />
Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br />
Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )[1]<br />
“在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)[1]<br />
“放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)[1] <br />
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==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br />
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Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br />
===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br />
Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br />
====='''2.1.1 Previous Studies on Eco-translatology '''=====<br />
As a translation theory originated in China, eco-translatology has been gradually improved in the past two decades. In 2001, professor Hu Gengshen laid the foundation for the theory of adaptation and selection of translation. Since then, the first decade has been the period of constructing and expanding the theoretical framework. In the second decade, with the holding of the international symposium on eco-translatology and the practice of the theory of eco-translatology of the professors of various universities, the eco-translatology system has gradually become mature. Liu Yafeng wrote adaptation and selection of translators -- a study on the translation process of external publicity, pointing out that translators should play their role of “selection” and “adaptation” as the center in the translation process of external publicity, so as to realize the harmony and unity of the whole translation ecological environment. For three-dimensional adaptation and selection principles, Zhou Li wrote the multi-dimensional integration principle under the care of the political party and government discourse translation to demonstrate the dimensions of language, culture, and communication in the perspective of the Chinese party guiding significance of discourse translation. It further enlightens the translator for the use of a multi-dimensional integration technique and set up a bridge of communication between the original language and target language.<br />
====='''2.1.2 Application of Eco-translatology '''=====<br />
There are many types of text analysis related to eco-translatology. Specifically, it includes: first, the analysis of various classical translations, such as a dream of red mansions, etc. Scholars have analyzed the reasons for the success of these classic works from the perspective of the overall translation ecological environment and the principle of “three-dimensional” transformation, pointing out that translators can only translate good works if they adapt to the translation ecological environment. These analysis has been the focus of research, and can best prove the feasibility of the theory. Secondly, the text analysis of public signs points out the direction from a new perspective. Thirdly, the text analysis of film title and subtitle. Fourthly, the text analysis of news translation. Scholars have analyzed the phenomenon of news text translation from different perspectives of eco-translatology and provided theoretical guidance.<br />
===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br />
====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br />
The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”[2]. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.[2]<br />
====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br />
Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.<br />
Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.<br />
Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.<br />
In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br />
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==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br />
From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br />
===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br />
The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br />
Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br />
“大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br />
Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br />
In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br />
Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br />
The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br />
===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br />
The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br />
Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br />
It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br />
Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br />
In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br />
Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br />
“筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br />
===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br />
From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br />
Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br />
For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br />
“保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br />
Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br />
In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br />
In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
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During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br />
Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br />
First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br />
However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br />
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胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br />
刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br />
童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br />
王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br />
王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br />
周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br />
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中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br />
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==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603 <span style="color:red">专业 is missing</span>--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 08:38, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling==<br />
<center>欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br />
<br />
Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective(<span style="color:red">perspectives</span>). Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br />
Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors.By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br />
<br />
Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed(<span style="color:red">pointed out</span>) the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors.(<span style="color:red">incorrect structure and obscure sentence meaning</span>) By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br />
<br />
====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br />
Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br />
<br />
Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' (<span style="color:red">that</span>)the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated (<span style="color:red">originated from</span>)his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br />
<br />
===2.Similarities and Differences===<br />
<br />
====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br />
As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br />
<br />
As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic(<span style="color:red">linguistics</span>) was exerted in both of their equivalence theory(<span style="color:red">theories</span>). Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br />
<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br />
Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br />
<br />
Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br />
<br />
=====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br />
The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br />
<br />
The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning(<span style="color:red">meanings</span>) into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br />
<br />
The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence''. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br />
<br />
The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence''. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want(<span style="color:red">wanted</span>) to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br />
Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42). Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence(Catford, 1965: 22). And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br />
<br />
Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42). Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors(<span style="color:red">factor</span>) to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence(Catford, 1965: 22). And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br />
<br />
=====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br />
Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br />
<br />
Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before(<span style="color:red">in front of</span>) its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br />
<br />
Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language.From this we can know that it's difficult to achieve the same meaning at a linguistic level between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br />
<br />
Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language(<span style="color:red">From this we can know that it's difficult to achieve the same meaning at a linguistic level between source language and target language</span>). In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br />
<br />
=====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br />
Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42). These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory ,Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation(Munday, 2008: 43). Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br />
<br />
Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42). These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep(<span style="color:red">These two types actually reflect a shallow to deep tendency of Nida's researches on structure of language</span>). Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory ,Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation(Munday, 2008: 43). Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br />
<br />
<br />
In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.3.Different Research Approach(<span style="color:red">Approaches</span>)=====<br />
To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). In another aspect, Nida held a view that "meaning is universal" and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br />
<br />
By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br />
<br />
By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define(<span style="color:red">defined</span>) by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br />
<br />
===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br />
<br />
====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br />
<br />
=====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br />
In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspective. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics(Tan, 2017: 132). I think Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages. Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect(Nida, 1964: 159). This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators. Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence offers a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language. Thirdly, Also, the equivalence theory described by Nida is concrete and practical for people to understand and adopt for it is oriented by receptors’ response that can be easily examined and analyzed. <br />
<br />
In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspective(<span style="color:red">perspectives</span>). The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics(Tan, 2017: 132). I think Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages. Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect(Nida, 1964: 159). This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators. Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence offers a guidance(<span style="color:red">have offered guidances</span>) to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language. Thirdly, Also, the equivalence theory described by Nida is concrete and practical for people to understand and adopt for it is oriented by receptors’ response that can be easily examined and analyzed. <br />
<br />
<br />
=====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br />
Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully(Munday, 2008: 38). Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory. What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators. <br />
<br />
====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br />
Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved(Caford, 1965:22), he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature way.<br />
<br />
====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br />
Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials(Wang, 2008: 166). Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators. Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinct linguistic and cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language(Catford, 1965: 101). This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete.<br />
<br />
Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials(Wang, 2008: 166). Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators. Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinct linguistic and cultural untranslatability (<span style="color:red">distinguish linguistic from cultural untranslatability </span>)for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language(Catford, 1965: 101). This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete.<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion===<br />
In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27). The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possess many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application.<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27). The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possess(<span style="color:red">possessing</span>) many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br />
<br />
Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br />
<br />
Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br />
<br />
Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br />
<br />
Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br />
<br />
Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br />
<br />
Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br />
<br />
Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science & Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br />
<br />
==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605==<br />
<center>石海瑶 Shi Haiyao </center><br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people's overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'' was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, ''On the Construction of the System of Translatology''. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''=== <br />
一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
===='''Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br />
<br />
In his book ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'', Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, it should also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.<br />
<br />
Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, the study of human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.<br />
<br />
In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable, knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:21-22)<br />
<br />
From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br />
<br />
[[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]<br />
<br />
===='''Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br />
According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology.<br />
<br />
The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology.<br />
<br />
The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself.<br />
<br />
The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.<br />
<br />
The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. <br />
<br />
The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:197-287).<br />
<br />
From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br />
[[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]<br />
<br />
The translations of the above terms are as following:<br />
<br />
[[File:Shu Yu.jpg]]<br />
<br />
==='''Similarities and Differences'''===<br />
<br />
===='''The Similarities between the Two systems'''====<br />
<br />
====='''Both deem translatology as an independent discipline'''=====<br />
<br />
In 1951, Dong Qiusi published ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper ''Translatology must be established'', which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br />
<br />
From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br />
<br />
It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br />
<br />
====='''Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation'''=====<br />
<br />
In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br />
<br />
For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br />
<br />
Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br />
<br />
====='''Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation'''=====<br />
The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that "all translations must be faithful to the original text". Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as "faithful to the original content ", " faithful to the original form ", " faithful to the original effect ", " faithful to the original function" and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that "comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style" is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br />
Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br />
<br />
<br />
===='''The differences between the Two Translation Systems'''====<br />
<br />
====='''Different structures of translation system'''=====<br />
<br />
From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br />
<br />
Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br />
<br />
====='''Different views on the study of translation history'''=====<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br />
<br />
we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br />
<br />
====='''Different views on translation process'''=====<br />
<br />
For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br />
<br />
From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive. <br />
<br />
<br />
==='''My Thoughts on the Two Systems'''===<br />
<br />
===='''My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br />
<br />
====='''Contributions of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br />
<br />
First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word "translatology" is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br />
<br />
Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that "translatology is an independent discipline" is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br />
<br />
Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of "harmony in diversity", which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br />
<br />
====='''Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br />
<br />
As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br />
<br />
Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br />
<br />
Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br />
<br />
====='''My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br />
<br />
The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br />
<br />
<br />
===='''My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br />
<br />
====='''Contributions of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br />
First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br />
In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br />
<br />
====='''Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br />
<br />
However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br />
<br />
Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br />
<br />
Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br />
<br />
====='''My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br />
<br />
Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies. <br />
<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''Refrences'''===<br />
<br />
[1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外国语大学出版社,2000.<br />
<br />
[2]方梦之.当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起 [J]. 外语教学理论与实践，2016（3）：55-63.<br />
<br />
[3]蓝红军. "从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017)." 中国翻译 39.1 (2018): 7-16.<br />
<br />
[4]谭载喜.必须建立翻译学[J].中国翻译,1987b3: 2-7.<br />
<br />
[5]谭载喜.翻译学[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005.<br />
<br />
[6]许钧,穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京:译林出版社,2009.<br />
<br />
[7]易经.试论翻译学体系的构建[D].湖南师范大学,2009.<br />
<br />
==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br />
<br />
===关键词=== <br />
尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of "dynamic equivalence", and Bassnett proposed the concept of "cultural equivalence". Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of "equivalence" or "equivalence" in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br />
<br />
==='''Key Words'''=== <br />
Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek "Bible New Testament" studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society.<br />
In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is "Toward a Science of Translation" "The Theory and Practice of translation" etc. <br />
His "dynamic equivalence" translation theory and "reader's response theory" translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br />
Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of "cultural equivalence" and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br />
Nida's "dynamic equivalence" and Bassnett's "cultural equivalence" theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the "similarities" and "differences" of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br />
<br />
===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br />
Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. <br />
But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br />
Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values embodied in translated texts.<br />
<br />
===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br />
Nida's "dynamic equivalence" translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. <br />
Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research.<br />
In the 1950s, since Nida served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Society for several years, Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the actual work of "Bible" translation. Since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the dynamic equivalent translation theory in translation projects organized by the American Bible Society (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br />
<br />
===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br />
As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to "Translation, History and Culure" (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that "Culural lurn" (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br />
<br />
Bassnett believes that the linguistic school of translation faces the following problems: The method of machine translation is an effective method, but it is not suitable for literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett pointed out that the research method of translation should undergo an cultural turn (eulturalturn). She believes that translators must perform translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators must not conduct translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett’s cultural translation view is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, it is rooted in and influenced by the culture of the language.<br />
<br />
===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br />
<br />
===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence" Theory===<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence" is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term "equivalence".<br />
<br />
3.1.1The nature of "equivalence"<br />
“Equivalence" is an important proposition in translation for it <br />
involves some key problems such as nature of translation, translation norms as well as quality and evaluation of translation. As a mathematic term, the word “ equivalence" refers to an absolutely symmetrical and equal relationship, but in many English dictionaries, it gets obscure meanings that things possess similarities or areessentially identical. Then, is the concept“equivalence in translation theories derived from its absolute mathematics reference orborrowed from its indistinct meanings as a word of general linguistices? According to many translation theorists (including Nida), it may mean more of the latter than the former.<br />
" Equivalence" is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that "loyalty" or "faith", for the concept of "loyalty"or "faith" refers to attitudes of translators while "faithful translation" indicates the quality of translation. But "equivalence" involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The "equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. <br />
The historic contribution of Nida's" dynamic equivalence" is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s "dynamic equivalence". however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br />
3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of " dynamic equivalence”<br />
It has been mentioned above that Nida s "dynamic equivalence" theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br />
3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br />
What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence" is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( 杨柳， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved." (金隄,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence " focuses mainly onthe relative side of " equivalence " rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br />
As a relative conception, the goal " dynamic equivalence" pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching.<br />
In sum, those who are against the theory argue that effect of equivalence can never be possible in translation because translation involves at least two different languages, cultures etc.which are rather hard to the non-native, while those who are in favor hold that equivalence can be achieved not only in senses and styles, but in effect as well. Nida has made it very clear that "the response can never be identical' , but "a high degree of equivalenceof response" is required and possible. And for "functional equivalence",Nida elaborates that no translation can be completely equivalent. <br />
Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, "equivalence" doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida holds that the expression“functional equivalence" is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something " identical" or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness" to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. <br />
He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity". Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term " equivalence" in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from "identity", and " equivalence"is a relative conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (金隄, 1998:44).<br />
<br />
3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of "Functional Equivalence" in China-A Comment on the Translation of "A Madman's Diary"<br />
Here are three examples to analyze the theory of "functional equivalence" used in the "Madman's Diary" in the translation of "The Call" by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br />
<br />
（1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br />
<br />
“what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers.." (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br />
<br />
If this example is literally translated "赵贵翁", it may be translated as "Zhao Guiweng" in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated "Mr. Zhao" in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The "old-year running book" here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means "old account book". If literally translated as "aged jour-nal", obviously there is no "old ledgers" which is more suitable for the time.<br />
Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br />
<br />
(2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br />
<br />
“Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home." (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br />
<br />
The personal pronoun "陈老五", if translated literally, might be translated as "Chen Laowu". Yang Xianyi translated "Old Chen", which is more authentic. "Chen Lao Wu" may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as "Lao Chen" here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br />
<br />
(3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br />
<br />
“a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop..." ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br />
<br />
"狼子村" is a place noun. If it is simply translated as "The Wolf Child Village", it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of "Cub" in "Wolf Cub Village" of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. "Cub" means "cub" and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br />
<br />
===3.2 Bassnett's "cultural equivalence" theory===<br />
Bassnett believes that the goal of translation should be changed from the text commonly accepted by people to culture, which is the so-called cultural shift. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. Only when people's heart, language and body are coordinated with each other, can people maintain vigor and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must take into account the overall physical condition of the patient. The same is true for translation practice. In the process of translating the target language into the target language, members of parliament must take into account the double standards of language accuracy and cultural adaptability, and must not strip away culture and treat translation in isolation.<br />
<br />
3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br />
Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br />
Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br />
<br />
3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br />
As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content.<br />
But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. <br />
Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br />
<br />
3.2.3 "Intelligibility" of the translation<br />
Before the rise of the cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into plain and simple language in order for the translation to be better understood by readers, deleting literary metaphors and associations. In this way, the translation will indeed become easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work has been reduced, and the interest and depth will not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett believes that the "understandability" of the translation cannot be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but should try to maintain the original flavor of the original.<br />
<br />
3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br />
For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br />
<br />
3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br />
<br />
原文:<br />
<br />
“六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br />
<br />
辜译: "Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,"<br />
<br />
韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons." (Waley, 1999:37 )<br />
<br />
"六亲" in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as "the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it "sixnear ons" , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of "six relatives". (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br />
<br />
原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br />
<br />
辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses." ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br />
<br />
韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e.."(Waley,1999:131 )<br />
<br />
Both translators translated "驷马" into "four horses", which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br />
<br />
===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br />
Nida's translation thoughts are mainly influenced by language structuralist translators, which are manifested in his use of the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core similar to Chomsky's deep structure Syntactic analysis is a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation procedures from the perspective of language translation, that is, interlingual translation. However, the essence of Nida's translation thought lies in far more than its language structuralist translation view, but more of him In "translation is science", "translation and communication", "translation must emphasize readers' reflection" and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contribution in translation theory, especially in the translation theory of the Bible, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br />
But Bassnett's "cultural translation view" focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br />
<br />
===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br />
Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br />
Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the translation process, form should give way to content. Bassnett also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, the translator can not be restricted by the literary image. It can be seen that the two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of the translation.<br />
Nida pointed out that the languages and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br />
<br />
[2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br />
<br />
[3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br />
<br />
[4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br />
<br />
[5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br />
<br />
[6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br />
<br />
[7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br />
<br />
[8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br />
<br />
[9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's "Cultural Translation" Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br />
<br />
[10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br />
<br />
[11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br />
<br />
[12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br />
<br />
[13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br />
<br />
--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:34, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory ==<br />
<center> 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br />
<br />
===目的论和严复理论的比较研究===<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. (Dun Guangang 2011, 248) <br />
<br />
In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107）As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br />
<br />
===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br />
<br />
“Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances”. (Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work, to the production of the target text. All these take the purpose as the reference. <br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br />
<br />
The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 255) Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br />
<br />
(1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br />
<br />
The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 257)<br />
<br />
(2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br />
<br />
Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br />
<br />
<br />
(3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br />
<br />
Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br />
<br />
There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br />
<br />
The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina & Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) <br />
<br />
Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. <br />
<br />
The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose. (Dun Guangang 2011,251) <br />
<br />
These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. (Vermeer, Hans J. 1989,187) From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. (Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br />
<br />
Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 113）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br />
<br />
(1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br />
<br />
The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. <br />
<br />
The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br />
<br />
(2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br />
<br />
Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br />
<br />
The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. (Chen Fukang 2000, 108) Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it, while there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory.<br />
<br />
Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br />
<br />
Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made. (Chen Fukang 2000, 112)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br />
<br />
Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor.(Yan Fu, 1987)<br />
<br />
There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. (Yan Fu, 1987)<br />
<br />
And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br />
<br />
In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br />
<br />
===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br />
<br />
====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br />
<br />
=====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br />
<br />
The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory.<br />
<br />
Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 256)<br />
<br />
In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br />
<br />
This coincides with Yan Fu's "Faithfulness", which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And "Faithfulness" is the premise and foundation of translation. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of "Faithfulness", as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br />
<br />
=====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br />
<br />
The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. <br />
<br />
In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) <br />
<br />
Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br />
<br />
This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. <br />
<br />
At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. (Yan Fu, 1987) Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br />
<br />
=====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br />
<br />
The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. <br />
<br />
The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and "one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation". Translation is "the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br />
<br />
While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br />
<br />
Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. (Dun Guangang 2011. 242) Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. <br />
<br />
Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br />
<br />
But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that "Faithfulness" refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br />
<br />
Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br />
<br />
Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the "faithfulness principle" as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. "Skopos" usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, "the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers". Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br />
<br />
In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br />
<br />
For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)<br />
<br />
So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 257) Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity. (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)<br />
<br />
However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156) This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. <br />
<br />
As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br />
<br />
===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br />
<br />
====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach .(Tan Zaixi 2004, 242) <br />
<br />
In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a "source of information", which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation. ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. <br />
<br />
More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the function of translated work and translators’ subjectivity. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br />
<br />
Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. <br />
<br />
In particular, there are various new interpretations of "Elegance" in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”.(Shen Suru 2001,7)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory. (Pym Anthony, 1996) <br />
<br />
Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. (Dun Guangang 2011, 247) Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable. <br />
<br />
Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced.<br />
<br />
In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br />
<br />
Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord. (1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity''. Kinderhook: St. Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Reiss Katharina & Vermeer Hans J. (1984). Groundwork for a general theory of translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br />
<br />
Pochhacker Franz. (1995). Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, (14): 31-53.<br />
<br />
Pym, Anthony. (1996). Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics.<br />
<br />
Vermeer Hans J. (1982a). Translation als informationsangebot. Lebende sprachen, 27(3)97-101.<br />
<br />
Vermeer Hans J. (1987a). What does it mean to translate. ''Indian journal of applied linguistic'', 13(2):25-33.<br />
<br />
Vermeer Hans J. (1989a). Skopos and Commission in Translational Action. Andrew Chersterman: ''The Translation Studies Reader'', 173-187.<br />
<br />
Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2000). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [A History of Translation Theory in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
Dun Guangang 顿官刚.（2011). ''西方翻译理论文献宣读'' [Selected Readings in Western Translation Theory]. Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press 湖南师范大学出版社.<br />
<br />
He Xiaoling 閤小玲. (2012). 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性 [An Analysis of Translator Subjectivity in the Perspective of Purpose Theory]. Journal of Liuzhou Teachers College ''柳州师专学报''. (4):45-47.<br />
<br />
Liu Qijia 刘期家. (2000). 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹 [On the historical development trajectory of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Journal of Sichuan International Studies University ''四川外语学院学报''. (2):96-101.<br />
<br />
Shen Suru 沈苏儒.(2001). 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈 [The Highest Level of Translation - A Compendium of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [ A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br />
<br />
Yan Fu严复. (1897). ''天演论·译例言'' [Evolution and Ethics· Yiliyan]. News Collection ''国闻汇编''.<br />
<br />
Zhou Mengzhen 周锰珍. (2007). “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较 ['Skopos Theory' and 'Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance': A Comparison of Two Translation Theories in China and the West]. Academic Forum ''学术论坛''. (8):154-158.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian 202020080605==<br />
<br />
<center>纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract=== <br />
<br />
As a representative figure of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help to the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br />
<br />
===Key words=== <br />
<br />
Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究<br />
<br />
===摘要=== <br />
<br />
张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br />
<br />
===关键词=== <br />
<br />
张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and prose have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1)<br />
<br />
In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone has talent in creation”（Luo Xinzhang & Chen Yingnian 2009：413）, and looking through the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so much Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. <br />
<br />
She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, prose and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1)<br />
<br />
Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity, in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as the author or the translator, represents different gender identities. (Ma Yue & Mu Lei 2010: 67)<br />
<br />
===2. Gender and Translation===<br />
<br />
Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminist translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women' s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23)<br />
<br />
During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23)<br />
<br />
As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.<br />
<br />
This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang' s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this chapter breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences different gender identities make to the translation. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 46)<br />
<br />
===3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang' s Self-translation -- ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br />
<br />
As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Hsia, while Fu Lei (whose early pseudonym is Xun Yu) also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun Yu 1994: 121). <br />
<br />
In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''(1921).<br />
<br />
Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor' s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted. She destroys her son' s marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. Besides, her daughter' s marriage is put an end to by her. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)<br />
<br />
Eileen Chang' s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation.<br />
<br />
====3.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br />
<br />
In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Chiang Chi-tse. However, the reality proves to her that Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)<br />
<br />
ST： <br />
（七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！(Eileen Chang 1992: 108)<br />
<br />
TT：<br />
( Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. (Eileen Chang 1971: 163)<br />
<br />
Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Chiang Chi-tse all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Chiang Chi-tse for love. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)<br />
<br />
However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity====<br />
<br />
In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passive and helpless of female characters under a specific era background. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145)<br />
<br />
ST：<br />
娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)<br />
<br />
TT：<br />
Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)<br />
<br />
The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by others. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145)<br />
<br />
In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)<br />
<br />
Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br />
<br />
ST：<br />
长安和长白分了家搬出来住。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)<br />
<br />
TT：<br />
Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)<br />
<br />
The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color. <br />
<br />
Instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)<br />
<br />
====3.3 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes. <br />
<br />
ST：<br />
（去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。(Eileen Chang 1992: 104)<br />
<br />
TT：<br />
（Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. (Eileen Chang 1971: 157)<br />
<br />
The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Chiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)<br />
<br />
Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, and everyone is a survivor of suffering. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)<br />
<br />
<br />
Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts. (Wang Jing 2011: 104)<br />
<br />
===4. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Conventional Translation -- ''The Old Man and the Sea''===<br />
<br />
''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway also won the Nobel Prize of Literature. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br />
<br />
Once the work was published, it attracted a wide attention. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br />
<br />
''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton.<br />
<br />
When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.(Eileen Chang 1979: 5) <br />
<br />
====4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br />
<br />
It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br />
<br />
ST：<br />
“Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” (Hemingway 1985: 39)<br />
<br />
TT：<br />
“再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱? 好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 29)<br />
<br />
Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br />
<br />
====4.2 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br />
<br />
As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. (Wang Jing 2011: 103)<br />
<br />
To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br />
<br />
ST: <br />
It is what a man must do．(Hemingway 1985: 23)<br />
<br />
TT: <br />
男子汉就应该这样。(Hai Guan 1979: 15) <br />
<br />
男子汉就该这么干。(Wu Lao 2009: 21) <br />
<br />
活总是要干的。(Eileen Chang 1979: 16) <br />
<br />
Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br />
<br />
====4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity====<br />
<br />
For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br />
<br />
ST：<br />
“But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”(Hemingway 1985: 96)<br />
<br />
TT：<br />
“但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 81）<br />
<br />
“可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（Hai Guan 1979: 79）<br />
<br />
“不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（Wu Lao 2009: 99）<br />
<br />
Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br />
<br />
Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br />
<br />
Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br />
<br />
===5. Reasons for the Transformation of Gender Identity===<br />
<br />
====5.1 Cultural Context====<br />
<br />
Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua 2017, 121)<br />
<br />
The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity.<br />
<br />
For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words. However, when the text is taken into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)<br />
<br />
For example, the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the differences of context. Therefore, in her translation, Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)<br />
<br />
====5.2 The Gender of the Translator and the Purpose of Translation====<br />
<br />
As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.<br />
<br />
And in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface that the old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)<br />
<br />
Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Chang Eileen, trans. (1971). ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. <br />
<br />
Eileen Chang 张爱玲. (1955). 金锁记[M]. [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. [Shanghai Press].<br />
<br />
Ma Ruofei 马若飞. (2007). 张爱玲翻译研究[D]. [Eileen Chang Translation Studies]. 北京语言大学. [Beijing Language and Culture University]. <br />
<br />
Ernest Hemingway. (1985). ''The Old Man and the Sea''[M]. Printed in Great Britain by St Edmundsbury Press, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk.<br />
<br />
Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. [Hong Kong: Hong Kong Today World Press].<br />
<br />
Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 海观译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br />
<br />
Ernest Hemingway. (2009). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 吴劳译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br />
<br />
Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. (2009). 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection'']. 北京: 商务印书馆. [Beijing: The Commercial Press].<br />
<br />
Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. (2010). 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. [Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies]. 解放军外国语学院学报. [Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages]. 66-70.<br />
<br />
Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. (2018). 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J]. [Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 大众文艺. [Popular Literature]. 171-173.<br />
<br />
Meng Lingzi 孟令子. (2016). 从女性主义翻译到性别翻译[J]. [From Feminist Translation to Gender and Translation]. 中国翻译. [Chinese Translators Journal]. 23-31. <br />
<br />
Simon, Sherry. (1996). Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge. <br />
<br />
Wang Jing 王璟. (2011). 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. [Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation]. 中国外语. [Chinese Foreign Language]. 102-106.<br />
<br />
Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. (2015). 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. [''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation'']. 广州:中山大学出版社. [Guangzhou: Sun Yat-sen University Press].<br />
<br />
Xi Peihua 席培华. (2017). 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. [On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. [Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education]. 121-123.<br />
<br />
='''Art of Translation'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works Frontier City has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of Bian Cheng translated by Gladys Yang and Jeffrey C. Kinkley respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Translation ethics, Bian Cheng, Chesterman<br />
<br />
===翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究===<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文拟从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——金介甫和戴乃迭的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼<br />
<br />
===1. Research background===<br />
<br />
Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms. From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the ''cultural turn". With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the ''cultural turn" in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a "cultural mediator" has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br />
<br />
It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym (2001: 129-138) claims in his article: "ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle." It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.<br />
<br />
===2. Literature review===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====<br />
<br />
After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br />
It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of '"translation ethics" in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on "transmitting sense" and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.<br />
<br />
Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating "an ethics of difference". He invents the two words "domestication” and “resistancy" to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of "resistancy" seem more realistic and profound.<br />
<br />
As the initiator of "the return to ethics" in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman’s theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about “how to translate" over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other’s work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (ibid). For Pym, the true loyalty is neither to the source culture nor to the target culture, but to the others inhabiting this space, that is, to other intercultural mediators, to the translating profession as a whole (Chesterman, 1997a). Like Pym’s words, “Translators’ prime loyalty must be to their profession as an intercultural space” (Pym, 1992). <br />
<br />
In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman went on to propose a Hieronymic Oath for translators and interpreters worldwide by publishing a paper "Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath” in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled "the return to Ethics”，edited by Pym, in which 16 scholars presented their own thoughts on translation ethics. In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====<br />
With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose "translation ethics" based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as "a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics". <br />
Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics.<br />
<br />
With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili (2007: 14-18) creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.<br />
<br />
Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article "essay on three levels of translation activities” in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by "willingness", “reality", and "morality", he proposes that "the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level”.<br />
<br />
====2.3. the Translation of Bian Cheng====<br />
The thesis adopts the classic modern novel Frontier City owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as “one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature” (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the “Nobel Literature Prize” in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. <br />
<br />
There are four English version of Biancheng. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled Green Jade and Green Jade translated by Xing Molei( the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girl friend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled The Frontier City contained in The Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen translated by Ching Ti & Robert Payne and published by George Allen & Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Biancheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called “Panda Books” to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included The Border Town and Other Stories translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.<br />
<br />
Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Jeffrey Kinkley and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of translation ethics.<br />
<br />
===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===<br />
<br />
Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.<br />
<br />
Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman’s words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author’s intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text. <br />
<br />
The ethics of service requires the translator to "act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator”, and the translator should be “loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”.<br />
<br />
The ethics of communication sees translation as "an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication" and asks the translator to be "a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding”. <br />
<br />
Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of “descriptive translation studies”. Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like “the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations”. That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.<br />
<br />
The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: "I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator". He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.<br />
<br />
===4. A Comparison of the Two English Versions of Biancheng===<br />
<br />
====4.1 the version of Gladys Yang====<br />
<br />
One of the most distinctive features of Biancheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Gladys Yang has done much jobs in representing the aesthetic prospect and makes her version as impressive as the original to make the target readers able to better enjoy the aesthetic beauty below the superficial scenery, mostly because of her full understanding of the aesthetic style of the original and of high translation proficiency. Here is an example:<br />
<br />
[Example 1]<br />
<br />
[ST1]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶崛” 的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文)<br />
<br />
[TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys)<br />
<br />
This is the beginning paragraph of Biancheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images—“官. 路”,“小山城”，“小溪”，“白色小塔七“单独的人家”,“老人”,“女孩子” and"黄狗”, making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character “一”. In Gladys Yang's version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character "一" in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven "a (an) and one "the” to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates “单独”(的人家)into a “solitary" household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of "alone” and lonely”，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original. <br />
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For Gladys Yang, her English version of Bian Cheng is included in a series of books called "Panda Books" firstly published in Chinese literature, which was initiated by the Chinese government in the 1980s in order to introduce Chinese literature, cultural legacy and China to the world. With the initiator's aim of spreading Chinese culture to the west, the translator needs faithfully transmit the linguistic and cultural information of the original. Also, with China's adoption of the policy of reform and opening-up to the outside at that time, communications between countries have become more and more popular ever since then, and more and more foreigners began to take interest in Chinese culture and were willing to enjoy and accept Chinese culture. What’s more, the advocacy of foreignization translation strategies has increasingly gained popularity in the western translation world ever since 1980's. The dominating English literary system began to take on a new stance and showed more tolerance for foreign cultures. With all these factors taken into consideration, plus her own long-term will to introduce Chinese culture to the world out of her love for it, we may understand why when the conflict appears, she chooses to put the ethics of representation in the first place. That is to say, she is guided by the ethics of service of being "loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”. What’s more, the ethics of communication lays emphasis on communicating with others rather than representing the Other, so when such conflict emerges, that is, the total representing of the Other causes confusion or banier and frustration for target readers to read, Gladys Yang would consider the importance of cross-cultural communication and adopt flexible translation strategies guided by the ethics of communication to decrease linguistic and cultural barriers to achieve mutual understanding based on the sacrifice of total representation of the original.<br />
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==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br />
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==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 202070080597 (<span style="color:red"> 专业</span>)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)==<br />
<center>刘欧 Liu Ou</center><br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to witness the world, meanwhile, an increasing number of foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Culture Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promoting Sino-foreign friendship and enhancing the world's understanding of China.<br />
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With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to witness the world, meanwhile, an increasing number of foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Culture Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promoting (<span style="color:red">promote</span>)Sino-foreign friendship and enhancing (<span style="color:red">enhance</span>)the world's understanding of China.<br />
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==='''Key words'''===<br />
English Translation Hunan Scenic Spots Names the View of Culture Translation (<span style="color:red">semicolon should be added.</span>)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
随着改革开放的不断深化，中国与世界的联系日益紧密。大批中国人走出国门开眼看世界的同时，越来越多的外国友人也来中国游览观光。湖南作为旅游资源大省，拥有许多风光迤逦的旅游景点。在欢迎国外游客的同时，旅游景点名翻译也应当准确达意。巴斯奈特的文化翻译观认为，汉语翻译成英语的过程不但是两种不同语言之间的转换，更是两种语言的跨文化交流。采用文化翻译观作为湖南旅游景点的指导思想，有利于增进外国游客在饱览景区美景的同时，了解景区背后的文化内涵。这对于促进中外友谊，增进世界对中国的了解都大有裨益。<br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
英语翻译 湖南旅游景点 文化翻译观<br />
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==='''Introduction'''===<br />
Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year. (Xin Xin, 2012) Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of Culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardize the translation of scenic spots names is an important opportunity to show the most beautiful side of Hunan culture to foreign tourists. (Xiao Fuliang, 2016)<br />
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Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year. (Xin Xin, 2012) Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of Culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardize the translation of scenic spots names is an important opportunity to show the most beautiful side of Hunan culture to foreign tourists.(<span style="color:red">语法有错误。</span>) --[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)(Xiao Fuliang, 2016)<br />
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The name of tourist attractions refers to the names of natural and cultural landscapes in tourist attractions. Some of these names are engraved on stone tablets, some are engraved on the signboards of scenic spots, and some appear in various publicity materials such as tourist brochures, scenic maps and websites. In order to leave a good impression on tourists and attract them to visit, the names of tourist attractions are usually short, concise, vivid and attractive. (Pan Hong, 2016)<br />
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This paper attempts to analyze whether the English translations of some scenic spots in Hunan Province have achieved the desired effect of publicity from the perspective of cultural translation. At the same time, if there were some improper translation in the English translation of Hunan scenic spots, the author will give his own translation for reference.<br />
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=== The Introduction of the View of Culture Translation ===<br />
Before the emergence of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralism school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory. Jakobson, Catford and Nida, the representatives of the linguistic school, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation. They claim that translation is to replace another language with an equivalent language material; while Les, Nord and Mantari, the representatives of functional school, believe that the focus of translation studies should be on the target text rather than the original text. Their research sources are communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics theory. But whether it is linguistic school, functional school or structuralism school, in their research process, all try to achieve language equivalence more or less from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers hope to find a scientific and effective way to solve the various problems in translation, but the cultural diversity determines the cultural connotation of the text. Therefore, these researchers encounter great difficulties when they encounter the context which is quite different from their own cultural background, and the emergence of cultural translation school is meant to solve such problems.<br />
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After the 1970s and 1980s, with the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination and the diversification of communication modes, the relationship between language and culture has become closer. In the process of information dissemination, differences among language become more and more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diversity of cultural values embodied in the translated text. <br />
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In 1990, Translation, History and Culture, co-edited by Andre Lefevere and Bassnett, was published, marking a cultural turn in the field of translation. The concept of cultural translation emphasizes that translation is not only a bilingual communication, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication; the purpose of translation is to break through language barriers and promote cultural exchange; the essence of translation is to transmit cross-cultural information and reproduce the cultural activities of the original with the target language; the main purpose of translation is cultural transplantation and cultural blending, but cultural transplantation is a process; Language is not the operation form of translation, but the cultural information . (Bassnett Susan, 1992: 13) Bassnett emphasizes that “translation is the communication within and between cultures”. (Bassnett Susan, 1990: 10-11) She believes that translators should carry out translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators should never carry out translation activities in isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's “cultural translation view” is that translation is not a mere language activity. It is rooted in and influenced by the culture in which the language is located. <br />
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==== The Purpose of Translation ====<br />
As for the purpose of translation, Bassnett thinks that the primary purpose of translation is to allow readers from two or more different cultural backgrounds to communicate with each other through the medium of text, and the exchange of information should be placed in the second place of translation purpose. Through effective translation, translators can not only introduce the cultural characteristics of different nationalities to other readers, but also promote the communication between different cultures and promote the comparative study between the two cultures. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br />
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====Translation Methods and Strategies====<br />
As for the translation method, Bassnett thinks that the language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological, the translator should try to use literal translation from the perspective of culture. If the source text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play a relatively free role in translation, make more use of translation skills and pay less attention to the restrictions of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high. As for translation strategy, Bassnett considers that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find out the cultural factors in the original text which are different from those in the target language, and then deeply understand these factors, and try to retain these factors. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and make them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br />
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====Content and Form of Translation ====<br />
As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposed that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br />
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As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposed (<span style="color:red">时态要统一。</span>)(<span style="color:red">efficient can be deleted</span>)that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br />
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====“Intelligibility” of Translation ====<br />
Before the rise of cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated literary language into plain language and deleted literary metaphor and association in order to make the translation better understood by readers. In this way, the translation will become very easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth can not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett thinks that the “intelligibility” of the translation should not be based on the abandonment of the style and artistry of the original text, but should try to keep the original flavor of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br />
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====Evaluation Criteria of Translation ====<br />
As for the evaluation standard of translation, Bassnett thinks that the evaluation standard of translation is not unique. The standard of translating academic articles is different from that of practical and literary articles. When examining and evaluating the standards of translation, we should start from the service object of the translation, and judge whether the translation can meet the needs of the service object. In short, translation should be based on meeting the needs of readers in different cultural contexts, and appropriate translation should be used to meet the needs.(Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br />
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===2.The Existing English Translated Versions of Names of Hunan Scenic Spots===<br />
There are 15 major tourist areas and many tourist spots in Hunan, and there are many historic sites with a long history. Such as Mountain Heng, one of the Five Sacred Mountains in China. Dongting Lake, Shaoshan Mountain, the former residence of Chairman Mao Zedong, Wulingyuan, which shows the characteristics of strangeness, danger, seclusion, beauty and wildness, and Yuelu Academy with a thousand years of history. (Chen Jiao, 2013) In order to publicize and spread the culture of Hunan Province all over the world, we should standardize the English translation of Hunan scenic spots names. Meanwhile, we should translate these scenic spot names understandable from the guiding theory of the View of Culture Translation. <br />
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====Improper English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names====<br />
When tourists enjoy the beautiful scenery, the name of the scenic spot is the first information that leaps into the their sight. In order to attract the attention of tourists, induce the tourists of English speaking countries to have a strong interest in the culture and landscape of the tourist destination, stimulate their desire to buy tourism products and promote the development of tourism, translators should pay attention to the cross-cultural awareness when translating the names of scenic spots, so as to provide accurate information as well as the cultural connotation to the tourists from English speaking countries and those who understand English. <br />
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However, the author finds that there are many improper translations in the English translation of scenic spots nemes in Hunan Province, which brings a lot of inconvenience to tourists from English speaking countries, and also has a negative impact on the publicity of scenic spots. These improper translations mainly exist in the following aspects:<br />
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Firstly, the different versions of translation in the same or different scenic spots.<br />
For example, as one of the four wonders of Mountain Heng, scenic spot “水帘洞” has two translated names, which are translated as “water screen cave” in the official website of Mountain Heng tourism website, while it is translated into “waterfall cave” on the route map. The English translation of “雁峰寺” on Hengyang tourism route map is Yan Feng Si, while on Hengyang tourism website it is “The Goose Mountain Temple”. There are also two different versions of the English translation of the name of the scenic spot “烟雨池”. It was translated as “Yanyuchi” on Hengyang tourism route map, but on Hengyang tourism website, the free translation method is adopted, that is, “Misty Rain Pond”. (Wang Zaiyu, Jiang Shihong, 2012)<br />
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Secondly, the overuse of transliteration.<br />
Huiyan Peak, located on the Bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng, also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and rank the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归 雁 亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.<br />
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Huiyan Peak, located on the Bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng, also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and rank the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. (<span style="color:red">第一句话语法有错误。</span>)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归 雁 亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.<br />
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Of course, transliteration is one of the common translation methods of scenic spot names translation, but if transliteration is used too much that without considering the cultural connotation of the original language, the name of scenic spot will be obscure and foreign tourists will be confused. Standing in front of these Pinyin, foreign tourists can not understand the cultural connotation of the names of scenic spots. So it is difficult for them to realize the historical and cultural stories of these scenic spot according to the transliterated names. Therefore, excessive transliteration will affect the transmission of scenic spot name information, make it difficult for English speaking tourists to understand the rich cultural connotation of scenic spot names, which will reduce the readability of the translations and thus affect the development of China's tourism industry and the spread of culture abroad. Therefore, the translator should carefully consider and choose the appropriate translation method.<br />
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===3. The Strategies of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation ===<br />
Tourism translation is a cross language, cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication activities. Compared with other types of translation, it is more direct, more prominent, more typical and more comprehensive in cross-cultural and cross psychological communication. (Chen Gang, 2004)<br />
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==== Characteristics and Methods of Tourism English Translation ====<br />
According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents, the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.<br />
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According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents(<span style="color:red">前半部分语法有错误</span>)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC), the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.<br />
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==== Characteristics of Tourism English Translation ====<br />
The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br />
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The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes(<span style="color:red">主谓不一致。</span>)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC) style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br />
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==== Methods of English Translation of Scenic Spot Name ==== <br />
In the translation of scenic spot name, in order to let foreign tourists understand Chinese culture and scenic spots, flexible translation methods should be adopted to effectively convey tourism information and Chinese culture. (Jia Wenbo, 2004) The translation of the scenic spot name is of great significance although the names are not contain too much vocabularies. How to use translation methods and skills flexibly by following the translation theory becomes very important. This requires the translators to be faithful to the content and style of the original materials in the process of translation, try to retain the cultural factors in the original text, and at the same time make it easy for the target readers to accept.<br />
Literal translation, free translation, literal translation+transliteration, transliteration+ explanation and cultural analogy are commonly used in scenic spot name translation. Through the study of the translation methods of translating the names of these scenic spots, we can use the translation skills more accurately and ultimately improve the translation ability. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br />
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1. Literal Translation<br />
Literal translation is helpful to convey the information of the source language such as place names, characters and events. (Chen Jiao, 2013) For these particular names or general names of scenic spots, it’s better to adopt the literal translation, namely word for word translation. The allusions of the figures in Nanyue Temple such as “苏武牧羊”（Su Wu Shepherding Sheep）”、“达摩东渡”（Dharm Sailing Eastward）；Fairy tale such as“后羿射日”（Houyi Shooting the Suns）、“盘古开天”（Pangu Creating the Universe）、“精卫填海”（Jingwei Filling the Sea）.<br />
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2. Free Translation<br />
Free translation refers to the translation method to translate the connotative meaning when the literal meaning and connotative meaning of the original text are inconsistent (Niu Xinsheng, 2013). In addition, translation techniques such as domestication and free translation are also discussed. Due to the differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, there are differences in language form and content between the two languages. Therefore, translators need to grasp the differences between the two languages and cultures to ensure that the information of the original text are properly transmitted to the target readers. If the names of some scenic spots contain rich cultural connotations and cannot be translated by literal translation, then the names of such scenic spots are mostly translated by free translation, that is, words with the same meaning but different forms are translated. For example,“爱晚亭”, the name was originated from a famous poem written by Du Mu (803-853) in Tang dynasty. But the official translation in the scenic spot was “the Lovely Evening Pavilion”. However, the real meaning of “晚” in the name was not evening but late autumn. Hence some scholars translate it as “the Autumn-Admiring Pavilion” and “the Maple-leaves Admiring Pavilion”.(Chen Jiao, 2013).<br />
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3.Transliteration + Literal Translation<br />
The front contains the proper name for a specific person or place name, and a fixed general name for the name of a scenic spot. Transliteration and literal translation can be used in translation. For example, "南岳庙" (Nanyue Temple), "洞庭湖" (Dongting Lake), "岳麓山"(Yuelu Mountain),"崀山" (Langshan Mountain), "湘江"(Xiangjiang Rive) etc.<br />
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4.Transliteration + Explanation<br />
The advantage of transliteration is that it does not need any explanation, and its disadvantage is that it can not fully arouse people's interest and attention. For foreign tourists, it is difficult to connect the original meaning of the original text with the Chinese pronunciation of the scenic spot. In order to follow the original author's intention and its own pronunciation, we adopt the method of combining the two to make up for the shortcomings. For example,"柳浪闻莺"liu'lang'wen'ying (listening to Orioles Singing in the willows), "鬼见愁"gui'jian'chou (sight that disorders devils). (Xin Xin, 2012) in order to help foreign tourists understand the background knowledge of China's human history, local conditions and customs, some relevant information can be appropriately added to the original text when translating. For example, when introducing "吊脚楼", if we just translate it as Diaojiaolou , it is difficult for tourists to understand the literal translation of it, so it is advisable that supplement the explanation of “suspended wood house built on stilts”. For example, in the introduction of traditional festivals in Zhangjiajie, “六月六” is translated into Liu Yue Liu Festival. In order to help tourists understand the specific connotation of the festival, the translation should be followed by an appropriate explanation: It usually takes place on the sixth day of the lunar six month, when all the members of the family get together to have dinner and hold a rite to pay sacrifice to their ancestors. This supplement can help foreign tourists understand the meaning of these traditional festivals quickly. (Chen Jiao, 2013)<br />
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Meanwhile, cultural analogy is also an effective skill in explanation. Analogy refers to the transformation of unfamiliar cultural information in the source language into similar information in the cultural context of the target language in order to eliminate the cultural strangeness contained in the source language and arouse the sense of similarity for the English speaking tourists. In other words, borrow the similar places of interest, legends and historical stories in English to translate the scenic spot name in Chinese, which can narrow the distance between the two different language for the readers and they can better understand the meaning of the original text. For example, Mountain Hengshan the scenic spot “祝融峰” is said to be the residence of Zhu Rong, the God of Fire. Its translation is "Zhu Rong peak", Zhu Rong, the Chinese Prometheus. (Chen Jiao, 2013) Prometheus, the hero of stealing fire in ancient Roman legend, is a familiar figure for Western tourists. It has great similarity with Zhu Rong, the Chinese God of Fire. When the tourists look at this translated name, they will have a better understanding of the the scenic spot.<br />
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=== Conclusion ===<br />
Under the background of globalization, peace and development have become the theme of the times, and the revise of the traditional translation theory is needed. On the other hand, cultural translation, based on the cultural theory of anthropology, advocates that the connotation of other cultures should be properly conveyed in translation, showing respect and understanding of other cultures; translators should highlight the characteristics of different cultures through translation, so that people from different cultural backgrounds can truly realize the communication and exchange in the cultural sense. Therefore, it is in line with the mainstream of the times to deeply study and understand Bassnett's cultural translation theory, which can help us better carry out translation activities under the background of globalization, so as to promote the exchange and dialogue between the Eastern and Western cultures from a macro perspective. <br />
<br />
As a part of the translation of tourist materials, the translation of scenic spot names should not only convey the basic tourism information, but also show the Chinese culture to foreign tourists. One of the main purposes of tourists coming to China is to understand the Chinese culture. Therefore, translators need to have a keen cross-cultural awareness, make the translation conform to the target language, enhance the readability to the target language readers, and choose the most suitable translation method to convey the historical and cultural connotation contained in the name of scenic spots to the greatest extent, so as to promote the development of China's tourism industry globally and spread China's tourism culture abroad. <br />
<br />
=== Bibliography ===<br />
<br />
*Bassnett Susan. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge，1992: 13.<br />
<br />
* Bassnett Susan. Translation, History and Culture[M]. 上海:上海外语教育出版社，1990: 10-11．<br />
<br />
*黄艳娇.2018.浅谈巴斯奈特文化翻译理论，佳木斯职业学院学报<br />
<br />
*肖付良.2016.16(06),43-45.湖南主要旅游景点公示语翻译现状与对策研究,英语教师.<br />
<br />
*潘虹.2016，跨文化意识对旅游景点名称汉英翻译的影响，艺术文化交流<br />
<br />
*陈娇.2013.从文化角度看湖南旅游景点的翻译，西南农业大学学报（社会科学版）<br />
<br />
*辛欣.2012.论旅游英语中景点名称的翻译，长春教育学院学报<br />
<br />
*陈刚.旅游翻译与涉外导游［M］． 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2004，59．<br />
<br />
*王再玉，蒋柿红. 2012.从跨文化意识角度看旅游景点名称的英译———以衡阳旅游景点名称的英译为例,北京城市学院学报<br />
<br />
*林玉华. 2008. 从文化角度看旅游景点名称的翻译 ［J］．重庆交通大学学报，2008 ( 02) : 105．<br />
<br />
*熊玲. 2013. 对张家界景点名称英译的探析，长春教育学院学报<br />
<br />
*贾文波．应用翻译功能论［M］．北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2004：134－156．<br />
<br />
*湖南文物名胜概览.湖南省文化和旅游厅 http://whhlyt.hunan.gov.cn/whhlyt/wlxx/fwms/201407/t20140717_5385818.html<br />
<br />
==A Contrastive Study on the Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Shengshengman and Zuihuayin from the Perspective of Defamiliarization 祝美梅 student no. 202070080632== <br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
Poetry is what lost in translation as Robert Frost said, for it’s concise words, specific form, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study with poetry translation under the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)<br />
<br />
Poetry is what lost in translation. As Robert Frost said, for its concise words, specific forms, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind as has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study poetry translation according to the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:39, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization, though a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period. (Fang Xiaoyuan, 2011, 13-15)<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization, a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period. (Fang Xiaoyuan, 2011, 13-15)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Key Words'''===<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization Theory; Shengshengman; Zuihuayin; English Versions<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
译诗则诗。诗歌以其凝练的词语，特定的形式，涵盖的独特文化典故和意象，是否可译一直是译界极具争论的话题。本文旨在由俄国形式主义什克洛夫斯基提出的陌生化理论下研究诗歌翻译。陌生化，虽然是文学写作技巧，同样适应于翻译。在文学作品中，作家通过使熟悉的事物陌生化引起读者的兴趣和好奇，延长审美感知长度。勒菲弗尔说，翻译即改写。这一翻译策略尤其适合于诗歌翻译。直译只会是译诗平淡乏味，如同兑水之酒，甚至产生误解。李清照，作为历史上最有名的女词人之一，其“易安体”本就以其化故为新，以俗为雅的特点与“陌生化”有异曲同工之处。《声声慢》、《醉花阴》是她前后截然不同两个时期的代表作。本文试以俄国形式主义者什克洛夫斯基提出的“陌生化”为理论指导，以李清照词《声声慢》、《醉花阴》的多个译本为研究对象，分析对比不同译者的英译，尝试研究在译文中怎样重现文本陌生化和制造译本的陌生化，以期证明陌生化理论对李清照词英译的指导作用。(Ge Yunfeng, 2008, 34-35)<br />
<br />
本文共分为四部分，由引论、正文、结论三部分构成。引论部分主要介绍陌生化理论，优势和劣势，李清照词特点和国内外研究现状。正文分为两个部分，词和意象两个方向并辅以具体实例。结论部分将主要总结陌生化理论在诗歌翻译的应用，本文作者认为用陌生化理论研究翻译文本仍有很大的发掘空间，对诗歌翻译有启迪意义。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
陌生化理论；《声声慢》；《醉花阴》；英译版本<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasury of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.<br />
<br />
The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasure of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’s consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’ consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, and her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.1 Shklovsky’s Definition of Defamiliarization====<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by the Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:"The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.(Zhang Jintong, 1987, 78-79)<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by a Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:"The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.(Zhang Jintong, 1987, 78-79)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Features of Defamiliarization in Translation====<br />
<br />
In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named up two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. <br />
<br />
Alienization, is the similarity among defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.<br />
<br />
Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, it has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)<br />
<br />
In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Alienization is the similarity amid defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, which has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====1.2.1 Advantages of Defamiliarization=====<br />
<br />
To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural-turn proposed by Susan Bassinet, against the culture invasion, this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)<br />
<br />
To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural turn proposed by Susan Bassinet against the culture invasion, and this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====1.2.2 Disadvantages of Defamiliarization=====<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new express or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)<br />
<br />
Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new expression or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2. A brief Introduction of Li Qingzhao===<br />
<br />
Before analyzing the translation versions of Li Qingzhao’s Ci, a general understanding of the characteristics and aesthetic value of Li’s Ci is very necessary. <br />
<br />
====2.1. Li Qingzhao’s life and her Poem====<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influence on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influences on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---Zuihuayin, is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism. <br />
<br />
Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---''Zuihuayin'', is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2Research on Li’s Poem in Domestic and Abroad====<br />
<br />
A comprehensive knowledge of history and state quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.<br />
<br />
The study of Li Qingzhao’s poem in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. <br />
<br />
A comprehensive knowledge of history and status quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The study of Li Qingzhao’s poems in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3. Defamiliarization on Words Level in Shengshengman and Zuihuayin===<br />
<br />
Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, the word has greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.<br />
<br />
Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, words are of greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.1 Analysis of Translation of Reduplicated Words====<br />
<br />
Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character two or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.<br />
<br />
Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character twice or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Her typical work which applies reduplicated words is Shengshengman. <br />
<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。乍暖还寒时候，最难将息。<br />
<br />
三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急？雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识。<br />
<br />
满地黄花堆积。憔悴损，如今有谁堪摘？守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑？<br />
<br />
梧桐更兼细雨，到黄昏、点点滴滴。这次第，怎一个、愁字了得！”（陈祖美 2003：108）<br />
<br />
This piece of work enjoys the largest number of translation versions from different translators among all her works. The first fourteen characters are: “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”,they precisely describe the loneliness , melancholy and nostalgia of the homeland of the poetess after losing her husband. Six different translation versions collected are as follows:<br />
<br />
1. I seek but seek in vain,<br />
<br />
I search but search again.<br />
<br />
I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
<br />
So lonely, without cheer. (Xu Yuanchong)<br />
<br />
2. So dim, so dark.<br />
<br />
So dense, so dull,<br />
<br />
So damp, so dank, so dead! (Lin Yutang)<br />
<br />
3. Seeking,seeking,<br />
<br />
Chilly and quite,<br />
<br />
Desolate, painful and miserable. (Yang Xianyi）<br />
<br />
4. Searching and searching, seeking and seeking,<br />
<br />
So chill, so clear,<br />
<br />
dreary,<br />
<br />
and dismal,<br />
<br />
and forlorn. (Stephen Owen)<br />
<br />
5. Seeking<br />
<br />
seeking<br />
<br />
Searching<br />
<br />
searching<br />
<br />
over and over<br />
<br />
lonely and forlorn <br />
<br />
Sighing;<br />
<br />
grieving<br />
<br />
sighing<br />
<br />
In the same round (Kwock&McHugh) <br />
<br />
<br />
6. Seek…seek, search....search;<br />
<br />
Lone...lone, cold...cold;<br />
<br />
Sad...sad, pain...pain, moan...moan. (Liu Wuji) <br />
<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heart-broken feeling and her worry about the convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.<br />
<br />
Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heartbroken feeling and her worry about her convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrases them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem. <br />
<br />
For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrased them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem. --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another example is “点点滴滴”,also from the same verse. Following are translation versions collected:<br />
<br />
1.On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
<br />
As twilight grizzles. (Xu Yuanchong)<br />
<br />
2.In a drizzle so light, dripping-dropping into the oncoming night,<br />
<br />
In the garden wutong trees stand blurred. (Zhu Chunsheng)<br />
<br />
3.On drying leaves of plane trees should there be<br />
<br />
A drizzle pattering, pattering towards the eve! (Liu Guoshan)<br />
<br />
4.Against the tung and plane trees, the wind rises high.<br />
<br />
The drizzle becomes trickles, as eve draws nigh. (Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
5.And the drizzle on the kola nut, keeps on droning: Pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat! (Lin Yutang)<br />
<br />
6.The drizzles falls on the wutong trees, raindrops drip down at dusk. (Yang Xianyi)<br />
<br />
No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu uses drizzles describing the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.<br />
<br />
No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu used drizzles to describe the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Translation of Verbs====<br />
<br />
Unlike English, Chinese poetry is skillfully using verb to vivify the image, often linked with rhetorical devices. Word transformation is mostly common, such as adjective or noun transformed to verb. There existed many instances; the author would like to choose two verbs from the Zuihuayin which would analyzed in this paper.<br />
Taking “帘卷西风”from Zuihuayin as an example:<br />
<br />
“薄雾浓云愁永昼，瑞脑消金兽。佳节又重阳，玉枕纱厨，半夜凉初透。东篱把酒黄昏后，<br />
有暗香盈袖。莫道不消魂，帘卷西风，人比黄花瘦。”<br />
<br />
This verse was written to express Li Qingzhao’s yearning for her husband. It’s the Double Ninth Day---the Chinese festival of the senior and family get-together. The west wind blows, makes people feel chilly and distressed, especially when the poetess was alone. Translation versions are assembled as following:<br />
<br />
1. What with curtains being folded—<br />
by violent blasts from the west (Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
2. The curtain lifted by the western wind (Qiu Xiaolong)<br />
<br />
3. When the west wind rolls up my bamboo curtain (Mao Yumei)<br />
<br />
4. With the door-curtains flapping in the west wind (Gong Jinghao)<br />
<br />
5. Only, when the west wind stir the curtain (Lucy Chow Ho)<br />
<br />
In the original, there is hyperbaton used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.<br />
<br />
In the original, hyperbaton was used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急?”The verb in this sentence used very vividly, how few cups of liquor withstand the wind at the dusk; Li Qingzhao personifies the natural thing, which is widely applied to express defamiliarization. Follows are various translation versions.<br />
<br />
1.By cup on cup of wine so dry oh,<br />
How can I endure at dusk the drift<br />
Of wind so swift? (Xu Yuanchong）<br />
<br />
2.Three cups of thin wine would utterly fail.<br />
To cope with the rising evening gale. (Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
3.How can a few cups of thin wine,<br />
Bring warmth against the chilly winds of sunset? (Lin Yutang)<br />
<br />
4.Three or two cups of light wine,<br />
How can they ward off the strong? (Yang Xianyi)<br />
<br />
Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by poet, which slash the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.<br />
<br />
Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by the poet, which slashed the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Translation of Colloquialism====<br />
<br />
Colloquialism refer to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.<br />
<br />
Colloquialism refers to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised for the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:<br />
<br />
Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised as the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1. Sitting alone at the window, how could I but quicken the pace of darkness <br />
Which won’t thicken? (Xu Yuanchong）<br />
<br />
2. Standing by the window---watching in anguish stark.<br />
Could I bear alone the sight until it is dark? (Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
3. I remain by my window. Why is the day so dark, all alone? (Mao Yumei)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and causal as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and casual as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Another sentence is“这次第，怎一个、愁字了得?”<br />
<br />
1.How, in the word “Miserable,” can one find------<br />
The total effects of all these on the mind! (Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
2.Oh, what can I do with a grief<br />
Beyond belief! (Xu Yuanchong)<br />
<br />
3.Is this the kind of mood and moment, to be expressed by one word “sad”? <br />
(Lin Yutang)<br />
<br />
4.At the time like this, what immense sorrow I must bear! (Yang Xianyi)<br />
<br />
The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different word to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.<br />
<br />
The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different words to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4. Defamiliarization on Image Level====<br />
<br />
Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.<br />
<br />
Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore it can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====4.1 Cultural-Loaded images=====<br />
<br />
This kind of category is the juxtaposition of allusion and complicated sentiment in certain culture.<br />
<br />
1.Translation the image of “雁” in the Shengshengman<br />
<br />
The sentence “雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识.”The translation versions collected as follow:<br />
<br />
1. Myself, into woe, a flight of wild geese has thrown.<br />
<br />
But with them, very familiar I have grown. (Xu Zhongjie) <br />
<br />
2.I recognize the geese flying overhead:<br />
<br />
My old friends,<br />
<br />
Bring not the old memories back! (Lin Yutang)<br />
<br />
3. It breaks my heart, alas,<br />
<br />
To see the wild geese pass,<br />
<br />
For they are my acquaintances of old. (Xu Yuanchong)<br />
<br />
4. Wild geese fly past, while I’am broken-hearted;<br />
<br />
But I recognize they are my old friends. (Yang Xianyi&Gladys Yang) <br />
<br />
5. Overhead,a heart-rending line<br />
<br />
South-bound wild geese at morn<br />
<br />
Yet old acquaintances of mine. (Zhu Chunshen)<br />
<br />
After study some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.<br />
<br />
After studying some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is a straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.<br />
<br />
Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Natural Images====<br />
<br />
Pure scenery depiction means the scene is universe, such as some flower, tree, mountain, stream but usually combined with emotional revelation.<br />
<br />
The image “黄花” usually translated into “yellow flower”, “chrysanthemum”, “yellow chrysanthemum”. Different versions are collected as follow:<br />
<br />
1. As compared with chrysanthemums,<br />
<br />
I look slimmer e’en at my best. (Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
2. I would show a thinner face than yellow flowers. (Xu Yuanchong)<br />
<br />
3. I look thinner than the chrysanthemum. (Mao Yumei)<br />
<br />
4. I find myself thinner than the yellow flowers. (Chu Dagao)<br />
<br />
Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is more blurred, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)<br />
<br />
Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is a more blurred one, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====Conclusion====<br />
<br />
Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of it’s terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)<br />
<br />
Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of its terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulate the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)<br />
<br />
The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulates the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
* Eugene A.Nida. Language and Culture Contexts in Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2001. <br />
<br />
* Gan Wanni.A Defamiliarization Perspective to the Study of Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Ci[D].Southwest Jiaotong University,2012.<br />
<br />
* Peter Newmark.A Textbook of Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2011.<br />
<br />
* Schulte,R.and John Biguenet.Theories of Translation:An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida[C].Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1992.<br />
<br />
* Xu Yuanchong. 300 Tang Poems [M].China Intercontinental Press，2011.<br />
<br />
* Zhan Chongyang. Defamiliarization and Translation:A Case Study of the Chinese Versions of Jamaica Inn [D].Nanjing University，2013.<br />
<br />
*陈琳.论陌生化翻译[J].中国翻译，2010(1).<br />
<br />
* 陈琳.文学翻译审美的陌生化性[D].清华大学学报，2006(06)：21.<br />
<br />
*房孝园,李清照:一言难尽的花与酒——《李清照词两首》个性解读[J].语文教学之友,2011,06:34-35.<br />
<br />
* 葛云峰,季淑凤.中国典籍英译的风格再现，易安词英译个案分析[J].淮北煤炭师范学院外国语学报，2008(5):30.<br />
<br />
*胡银根.文化语境视角下李清照八首词翻译的对比研究[D].湖南工业大学，2012.<br />
<br />
* 刘晰.拥抱差异：诗歌翻译的“陌生化”取向[J].淮南师范学院学报,2013（04）:15.<br />
<br />
* 李学欣.易安词作中叠词的美感传译[J].作家杂志，2009(12).<br />
<br />
* 李睿婕,张轶前.许渊冲译者主体性在李清照《声声慢》英译本中的体现.[J].河北联合大学学报，2012(6):12.<br />
<br />
*孙国华.鲁迅作品中的陌生化语言现象[J].无锡高等师范学校，2012.<br />
<br />
* 张冰.陌生化诗学：俄国形式主义研究[M].北京师范大学出版社，2000.<br />
<br />
* 朱纯深.宋词英译(2)[J].中国翻译,2002(3):93-94.<br />
<br />
*郑恩岳,李清照《声声慢》词英译研究[J].浙江教育学院学报，2003(05).<br />
<br />
*张金同.“怎一个愁字了得”——读李清照的《醉花阴》和《声声慢》[J].固原师专学报(社会科学版),1987,04:41-46.<br />
<br />
==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan 202070080642 MTI==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br />
<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
摘要:<br />
由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
口译，文化差异，应对策略--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略（格式错误）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as "global consciousness" and "global values". However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健,2012）<br />
<br />
The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as "global consciousness" and "global values". However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（Jian Fang，Zhang Jian,2012）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
No matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br />
<br />
===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br />
<br />
Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that "the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures." He believes that "the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word." The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能,1993） <br />
<br />
Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that "the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures." He believes that "the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word." The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（Lian Shuneng,1993）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, "For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used." Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation. (Jia Dejiang,1998)<br />
<br />
====Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking====<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br />
<br />
Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.(Edward Spir,2006)<br />
<br />
For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.(Jia Dejiang,1998)<br />
<br />
====Cultural barriers caused from values====<br />
<br />
Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br />
<br />
A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br />
<br />
====Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery====<br />
<br />
Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
<br />
For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval".“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word "龙" means something evil in the West, but "auspicious" in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase "望子成龙" should never be translated as “to hope one"'s child can become a dragon"，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br />
<br />
====Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs====<br />
<br />
Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give "New Year's Lucky money" to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but "Chinese New Year" does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. <br />
<br />
Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. “Sleep with father" is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as "go the heaven" and "kick the bucket". It means the same as "go the heaven" and "kick the bucket", but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as "与父亲睡觉", which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng,1993）<br />
<br />
Look at the following example:<br />
If this sentence is understood as<br />
"约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏", it is because the translator failed to understand " eats no fish " and "play the game". After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So "" means "loyalty" and " to eat no fish " means "loyalty" and " to play the game "means "race",The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is "John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright".<br />
<br />
====Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors====<br />
<br />
The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文,2002）<br />
<br />
The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（Zhang Wen,2002）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology. <br />
Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive. (Bai Jingyu,2000)（段落过长）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology. <br />
<br />
Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br />
<br />
Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of "functional equivalence". This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. <br />
<br />
Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of "functional equivalence". This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (Ye Zinan，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. --[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of "accuracy, smoothness and speed" and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as "on-site, present and limited time", the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the "nearest natural equivalence" between English and Chinese, and to try to find the "nearest natural equivalence" from the target language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
<br />
In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the "nearest natural equivalents" between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br />
<br />
====Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation====<br />
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Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
<br />
The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the "nearest natural equivalent" to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions "三个和尚没水吃" into " Everyone‘s business is no one"s business." is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.(Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing,2006)<br />
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However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌" by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang,2006）<br />
<br />
Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
<br />
In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir,2006）<br />
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====Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods====<br />
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The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a "purpose-oriented" approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
<br />
The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
<br />
=====Direct translation method=====<br />
<br />
Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, " Let sleeping dogs lie" is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br />
<br />
=====Substitution Method=====<br />
The substitution method is also called the "reciprocity method". It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom "冰冻三尺非一日之寒" is translated into " Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom "to spend money like water " translated into "挥金如土" is a good example.(Wang Kefei,1997)<br />
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====Intentional translation method=====<br />
<br />
When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
<br />
For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the "U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology," Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that "The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, "天方夜谭" is not translated directly as"TheArabianNights"，but is instead translated as " fiction ". This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word "天方夜谭" has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）（段落过长）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the "U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology," Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that "The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, "天方夜谭" is not translated directly as"TheArabianNights"，but is instead translated as " fiction ". <br />
<br />
This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word "天方夜谭" has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
=====Interpretation=====<br />
<br />
Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language.(Bao Huinan,2001) When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
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1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br />
诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br />
Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br />
<br />
2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br />
三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br />
and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br />
An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br />
<br />
3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br />
解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br />
<br />
4)Special cultural words<br />
<br />
敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br />
the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br />
<br />
=====Simple translation and no translation=====<br />
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Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use "no translation" or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: "我姓张，弓长张。"Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.(Lu Naisheng,1993)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. <br />
<br />
Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.(Bai Jingyu,2000)<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
<br />
简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br />
<br />
连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br />
<br />
刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br />
<br />
熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br />
<br />
杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br />
<br />
张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br />
<br />
Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br />
<br />
Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000.<br />
<br />
Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br />
<br />
Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br />
<br />
Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br />
<br />
Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br />
<br />
Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br />
--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:59, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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With the consistent development of the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, translation plays a more and more pivotal role in the world stage. It can not only help Chinese to have a better understanding of foreign cultures and promote the cooperation, but also spread the Chinese cultures to the international world. Translation strategies are the focus of translation works, especially during the process of translating Chinese to English. It’s very necessary to have a thorough study about the translation strategies. While towards different styles of text, different translation strategies should be applied relatively. This thesis focuses on translation strategies of two styles - journalistic style and literary style. <br />
The thesis firstly introduces the background and development of translation strategies. Then it depicts the characteristics and translation principles of journalistic style text and literary style text. In the main part, the thesis combines the characteristics of the two kinds of texts to explore the translation strategies that suits for the two types, including domestication, foreignization, omission and etc. This thesis is expected to make some contributions to the study of translation strategies and the practice of translation.<br />
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===KEY WORDS===<br />
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Translation strategies; text-types; journalistic style; literary style.<br />
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===中文摘要===<br />
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随着中外文化交流的不断发展，翻译在世界舞台上扮演着越来越重要的角色。它不仅可以帮助中国人更好地了解外国文化，促进合作，而且可以将中国文化传播到世界。翻译策略是翻译工作的重点，特别是在汉译英过程中。对翻译策略进行深入研究是有必要的。在针对不同样式的文本时，应相对地采用不同的翻译策略。本文主要研究两种体裁的翻译策略：新闻体裁和文学体裁。<br />
本文首先介绍翻译策略的背景和发展，然后描述新闻风格文本和文学风格文本的特点和翻译原则。论文的主体部分结合了两种文本的特点，探讨了归化，异化，省译等的翻译策略。本文有望为翻译策略的研究和翻译的实践做出贡献。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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翻译策略; 文本类型; 新闻体裁; 文学体裁.<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
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Translation strategies are critical in translation process. Towards texts in different styles which have different models of texts’ structure and communicative functions, translation strategies are quite variable. There are a great number of scholars both from China and the international world who have devoted themselves to dive into and research the most effective and practical strategies. <br />
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However, there are still lack of thorough researches about translation strategies for different text styles. In this thesis, the first part is about the introduction and analysis of former scholars’ researches and the whole picture of this thesis. Then, the thesis will discuss the background, development, characteristics and functions of different-style texts from the perspective of linguistics. The main part is about the translation strategies of source texts in journalistic style and literary style respectively, such as the domestication, foreignization in literary-style texts and the omission , restruction and generalization in journalistic-style text. In concluding part, the thesis will generalize the main idea and make an objective appreciation about the thesis, as well as point out the drawbacks and advantages. <br />
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===2.Theoretical Framework===<br />
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===2.1 Background and development of Texts’ styles===<br />
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According to the research, there is still no specific definition of distinguishing differences of texts styles. Some scholars claim texts’ styles to be registers, even some equal them to speech events. Qin Xiubai, a famous Chinese language and teaching professor, introduced that there were two main schools of the study of Texts styles’- the Swalesian School represented by John M.S wales and V.K.Bhatia and the Australian School represented by J.R.Martin. John Martin believes that styles of texts means a bunch of social events in which the members have the same communicative goal. While V.K.Bhatia believes that styles of texts are identifiable communicative events that have obvious inner structural features, conventionally happening in specific careers or academic communities. We can tell from the two schools’ views that styles of texts are a kind of communicative events with its special communicative purpose and clear structures. From this point, translators or interpreters can exert theory to analyze texts’ styles and recognize the intentions of writers as well as keep the functional and sense equivalence between the source texts and target texts. J.R.Martin take texts’ styles as a communication-orientated process of social communication with steps. Eggins view texts of styles as a type of activity with steps that orientated on communicative purposes. So that the difference of texts styles is on the level of values in use rather than the contents of discourse, characteristics of forms or other rules. <br />
<br />
Huang Guowen once said that every text plays a communicative role in a specific social and cultural environment, and people belonging to a specific social and cultural background can usually see its communicative purpose. (Huang Guowen,2001) The text is a combination of communicative symbols for the exchange of information between the sender and the recipient. In order to achieve a certain communicative purpose, the sender must choose an appropriate genre and corresponding manifestation to convey the information, and the recipient is expected to respond accordingly. Thus, the function of texts can be realized. Christiane Nord summarized four functions of texts from the perspective of translation. They are referential function, expressive function, appellative function and phatic function. (Nord, 1997) <br />
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===2.2 Main functions of texts=== <br />
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===2.2.1The Referential Function===<br />
The referential function of a text means the reference to or description of objects or phenomena of the world. It is mainly expressed through the denotative value of the lexical items presented in the text and can be analyzed through the nature of the objects. It is orientated toward objects in real or fictitious worlds. There are several functions of referential function: informative function, directive function and didactic function. If the referent is a fact or state of things unknown to the receiver, such as an accident, the text function may consist in informing the readers. If the referent is the description of an object, such as the illustration of using a washing machine, the text function may be directive. If it is a whole field that the receivers are to learn, such as physics, the function may be didactic.<br />
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===2.2.2The Expressive Function===<br />
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The expressive function refers to the sender’s attitude to toward the objects or phenomena. This function is sender-orientated. The expressive function of the text may be subdivided according to what it is expressed. If the sender expresses individual feelings or emotions, such as a public speech, it will be an emotive sub-function. If what is expressed is an evaluation, like comments, the sub-function will be evaluative.<br />
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===2.2.3The Appellative Function===<br />
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The appellative function refers to use of language to make the receiver feel or do something. The appellative function “receiver-orientated. It aims at the receivers’ sensitivity or disposition to act and tries to induce receivers to respond in a particular way. It can be broken into several sub-functions: illustrative function, persuasive function, advertising function and pedagogical function. If we want to illustrate a hypothesis by an example, we appeal to the reader’s previous experience to knowledge, That’s what called illustrative function. If we want to persuade someone to do something or to share a particular viewpoint, we appeal to their sensitivity and their secret desires. That’s what called persuasive function. If we want to let someone by a particular product, we tend to describe those qualities of the product that are presumed to have positive values in receivers’ value system. That’s advertising function. If we wan to educate a person, we may appeal to their susceptibility to ethical and moral principles. That’s pedagogical function.<br />
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===2.3 Main Text - types===<br />
<br />
Katharina Reiss, founder of German translation functionalism, put forward text-typology theory in Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism. She believes that there are four texts, including the context-focused text, the form-focused text, the appeal-focused text and the audio-media text. <br />
Peter Newmark, representative of the British linguistic school of translation theory, based on the study of former linguisticians, he put forward the following six functions of texts - expressive function, informative function, the vocative function, the aesthetic function, the phatic function and the meta-lingual function. A text may has several functions at the same time, but only has one major function. Taking a whole consideration of the two theories, the main texts are the following three, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts. Journalistic-style texts and literary-style texts are mainly connected with the informative and expressive function respectively. <br />
<br />
===2.3.1 The Expressive Texts=== <br />
<br />
Language is a tool for people to communicate with each other. Through language, people can express their thoughts, affection, wills, desires, opinions, attitude, etc. This is the expressive function of language. The core of expressive function is the speaker's thoughts. The speaker uses words to express feelings, regardless of the reaction of others.Typical expressive-function texts include the following three types. The first ones are serious and imaginative literature which contain lyrics, short stories, long novels and plays. The second type is authoritative texts, including a variety of genres, whose authority comes from the status of the author or language skills, such as senior government officials and political party leaders’ speeches, such as declarations, legal regulations, documents as well as literary and academic works written by authority figures etc. The third type is texts that express writers’ ideas directly, without direct readers, like autobiography, private letters, etc. <br />
<br />
===2.3.2 The Informative Texts===<br />
<br />
In interactions, people often have to describe, narrate or explain the situation of relevant things. This involves the information function of language. The core is the external environment, which is the reported insights and theories. The informative text usually has a fixed format, such as textbook, technical reports, newspaper articles, scientific papers, meeting minutes, etc. <br />
<br />
===2.3.3 The Vocative Texts===<br />
<br />
People often use words to evoke others' sympathy or prompt them to take some actions. That shows the imperative function of language. The core of this function is the readers or audiences. The speaker wants readers or audiences to feel and follow the intent of the text and act as expected. Typical vocative texts are notices, advertisements, instructions, requests, appeals, etc.<br />
<br />
===3.Literary Stylistics and Journalistic Stylistics=== <br />
<br />
With the appearance of societal pragmatics, pragmatics and functional grammar, scholars recognized the importance of language functions. They tried to classify the texts in the light of language functions and divided them into two main types. One is literary style, the other is non-literary style. Snell-Hornby classified literary texts as Bible, drama, film, lyric poetry, modern literature, classic works, children literature, literature in 1990 and pastime novel. <br />
<br />
===3.1 Language Characteristics===<br />
<br />
===3.1.1 For literary stylistics===<br />
===Vividness===<br />
In literary works, writers use words or language to vividly describe or portray people, objects, things to reflect the world’s various situations or expose social reality, they will use appropriate techniques to render the atmosphere and create an immersive feeling for readers. For Example, “The bullfrogs trump to usher in the night, and the note of the whip-poor-will is borne on the rippling wind from over the water.” Through the use of verbs such as "trump", "usher" and "is borne", the images of frogs, hawks and wind blowing on the water surface in the evening are vividly depicted. That happens a lot in literary works.<br />
<br />
===Emotional expression===<br />
As we all know, all things and objects are embodiment of writers’ feelings and emotions. In literary creation, whether it is to portray characters or to describe scenery, often inadvertently or intentionally contains or carries the writer’s own emotions. In other words, expressing emotion includes direct expression and indirect expression. The lyricism of this kind of literature can effectively arouse the emotional resonance of readers.<br />
<br />
===Connotation===<br />
Connotation means that writers do not always describe people or things in all-round aspects with every details, but can depict in limited number of words to show or imply infinite meaning or artistic conception, leaving readers with imagination. That will be unforgettable for a long time. For example, “ From my mother’s sleep I fell into the State. And I hunched in its belly till my wet fur froze.” In this two sentences, “Sleep” metaphorically means in the mother’s womb, can also refer to the poet’s lofty ideals and ambitions. The capitalized "State" can refer to both the world and the poet’s motherland - The United States.<br />
<br />
<br />
===3.1.2 For journalistic===<br />
Journalistic-style texts vary a lot from the the literary-style texts. As an unique texts which are shown to billions of audience, the characteristics of news are mainly in following four aspects: Truth, objective, new and political-related.<br />
<br />
===Truthfulness===<br />
First, as the definition indicates news is about facts，which first should be true. “News lays claim to the qualities of truthfulness and accuracy-properties often implied by the term objectivity, a concept used to legitimize the journalistic text while at the same time recognizing the multidimensional and elusive nature of truth. News asks to be accepted as, at the very least, an approximation to truth, and certainly close enough to the truth to be worthy of our trust in its integrity”(McNair, 1998:2)<br />
<br />
===Newness===<br />
If the news isn’t new, it should have been called “olds”. This is more than a joke. News is reported to make a contrast to the convention, strike people by surprise and keep them in suspense. “News is not about somebody bitten by a dog, but about a dog bitten by a man”, “News is just something that can move women to scream: My Gosh!” The two old sayings have been taken as most vivid descriptions of news, featuring its distinctive characteristics of newness.<br />
<br />
===Objectivity===<br />
The objectivity is one of the most important professional concepts of news and has caught great attention in news circle. “The basic content of this principle is the content must be completely true, fair and neutral, not fictitious, and not biased or subjective” (Yang Xiyou 2009, 6)When writing news or reports, media workers shouldn’t put their subjective feelings into the reports. And the use of vocabulary should also be fair and neutral. When international news media, such as BBC and VOA, report about China Diaoyu Islands issue, they generally use Sankaku Islands and Diaoyu Island. When translating these words, the translator should be faithful to the original text and translate these two names. However, due to ideological, political or historical reasons, the use of vocabulary may deviate from the principle of objectivity, such as: in the report of Russia and Japan’s dispute on islands, only the Russian address- “ Kuril Islands” was used, but the Japanese address- “Four Northern Islands” was not used. When translating, the translator should add “Thousand Southern Islands” and “Four Northern”.<br />
<br />
===Political Relevance===<br />
Although news is objective, absolutely objective and fair reports do not exist. The media has never been able to completely get rid of the shackles of political and economic power or ideology. The content of the report tends to obey the interests of the country. The use of political vocabulary in English current affairs news must also faithfully reflect the country’s political standpoint. Regarding to the English translation of the Diaoyu Islands, the Chinese news media translate into “Diaoyu Islands”, while the Japanese news media and some Western news media call it “Senkaku Islands”. From the usage of these words, it is obvious to see the political stance. When translating these political words, translators must be very cautious. In addition to be faithful to the original text, translators or interpreters should also consider our country’s interests.<br />
<br />
===2.3.2 Translation principles=== <br />
Translation is the process of transforming signs or representations into another signs or representations.(Nord, 2001:6) Generally speaking, according to the object of translation, translation can be divided into two kinds: literary translation and non-literary translation. In literary translation the object is only the literary work, such as pot, novel and so on, and it focuses on the expression of contents, emotions and rhetoric of the original. <br />
<br />
===For Literary===<br />
Although literary translation and non-literary translation share basic principles, literary translation which has its unique ways, is rather different from non-literary translation. Translating literary works is not only a process of transforming languages but also a process of recreating because literature belongs to a part of art. This is the most important feature of literary translation and also the basic translation principles. <br />
<br />
===Equivalence-based principle=== <br />
Equivalence-based principle equals to “Dynamic equivalence” proposed by Eugene A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist. This principle points that translators should work hard in different languages and different cultures to find translation equivalents between them, and use appropriate methods to reorganize the form and semantic structure of the original text. Dynamic equivalence includes four aspects: one is lexical equivalence, the other is syntactic equivalence, the third is textual equivalence, the fourth is sense equivalence. In literary translation, sense equivalence is the core. For example, the Chinese sentence “青年小伙子们，有事没事，总想和小芹说句话” can be translated in to “Young men sought every excuse to talk with Xiao Qin”.This shows sense equivalence.<br />
<br />
===Accuracy-based principle===<br />
No matter how beautiful the texts are, the accuracy is always the most important, rather than the forms. Be Faithful to the content of the original text, the translator must fully express the content of the original text without any tampering, distortion, omission or arbitrary deletion. The more accurate the words be chosen, the better the translation texts will be. For example, when translating “ 微风”, we’d better translate it into “breeze” or “gentle breeze” rather than “gentle wind” since the breeze is more accurate.<br />
<br />
===For Journalistic style===<br />
Journalistic-style texts belong to the informative texts according to the above analysis. Translation principles of Journalistic are mainly mainly purposiveness, accuracy and readability. <br />
<br />
===Purpose-based principle===<br />
Purpose" is the basic principle of journalistic-style texts translation, and other principles are based on this principle. For information-based texts, “ translation skopos ”, the German functionalist translation theory, was put forward by Rice, Vermeer, and Nord. Skopos has great significance in guiding of translation. This is because the purpose of information-based translation is very strong, that is, the translation has a clear goal - to provide information. Snell Hornby believes: “More practical the texts is, more clear its function is. The more the translation tends to focus on the target language.” As far as the journalistic text is concerned, the purpose of its translation is conveying the information and communication, allowing readers to easily understand the intention of the speaker. The translation should conform to the audience’s needs, cultural expectations, beliefs and cognitive status as much as possible, and it is meaningful in the communication environment of the target language culture. For example, in news, sometimes vocabulary vacancies are caused by the absence of equivalence in the translation, and it is impossible to use completely equivalent and accurate words to express its connotation during translation. In this case, domestication can be applied. Considering the specific translation purpose, context and characteristics of the target language, if the purpose of translation is to spread foreign cultures, foreignization strategies can be adopted. That’s the purpose-based translation principle.<br />
<br />
===Accuracy-based principle=== <br />
The purpose of informative text is to convey information. Therefore, the translation work of the information text should be accurate, clear and precise. The translator can’t deliberately or unintentionally miss any original author’s information. In journalistic style, the accuracy is critical. A slight difference of words can make huge results. Especially, for those news related with politics and business. A word with different emotional sense can make a complete opposite statement. A small movement of a point can cause millions capital loss. For example, 1.33 million and 13.3 million has the huge difference. This principle is similar to the “faith” proposed by Yan Fu. “Faith” means “faithfulness”. The translation of linguistic-style texts should confirm to accuracy.<br />
<br />
===Readability-based principle===<br />
Generally speaking, the terminology of information-based texts is neutral and has no obvious personal characteristics or regional colors. In news, even though there are more facts that personal emotions and feeling, translators or interpreters can make small adjustment of the speakers to make the report readable. In short, when translating, based on the readers’ language level, various translation methods should be mobilized on the premise of not changing the original intent of the article and report. It may make the content and layout of the article easier to understand, fluent and concise. But be sure to keep the source language texts’ characteristics. <br />
<br />
===4.Translation strategies===<br />
Translation strategies refer to the thoughts, process, methods and procedure during the process of translation. Towards original texts with different texts styles, translation strategies also vary in a large degree. The thesis will discuss from two typical stylistic texts - literary style and journalistic style. According to The Modern Chinese Dictionary, strategies indicate guidelines and means which are deigned on the basis of the situations concerned. While methods are the ways and procedures in solving real problems. However, the two are relative to each other. In simple words strategies are the guidelines of the concrete methods. The concrete methods should be adopted in the direction of their strategies. Based on the above, a conclusion in drawn that translation strategies are the guidelines for realizing a particular translation aim, yet translation methods the concrete ways employed by translators to make the particular translation aim come true.<br />
<br />
===4.1Translation strategies in literary style===<br />
In the book Translation Criticism the Potentials & Limitations, Reiss pointed out that “Translation of literary works would better be called free rendering than translations, especially when the personality of the translator and the force of his artistic temperament result in a TL version standing on its own, indebted to the original as a model and a source of inspiration. (Reiss, 2004:91) This description indicates the characteristics of literary translation. <br />
<br />
===4.1.1 Domestication===<br />
Domestication is firstly coined by L.Venuti in his book The Translator’s Invisibility called “guihua” in Chinese. Domestication is a strategy by which the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the original text is erased in the translation in order to meet its readers’ aesthetic and reception psychology. As Venuti argues the adoption of domesticating strategy is the cultural disparity and imperialism. In the 1980s translation studies underwent “cultural turn”, and since then translation has being studied in the cultural and social contexts. The dominance of transparent discourse in English-language translation was decisively challenged at the turn of the twentieth century.<br />
Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication by his assertion on dynamic equivalence that “A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness <br />
of expression… and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture.” (Nida, 2004:159) He maintains that the function of translation is to communicate and it is important for the reader to understand what is conveyed by the translation, which takes the reader’s response into consideration. He claims that the reader of the target text should have the similar comprehension and appreciation as does the reader of the source text. Domestication tries to avoid cultural dispute and eliminate cultural barriers to achieve successful cross-cultural communication. The domesticating translation is one of naturalness and smoothness, <br />
which is the advantage of domestication. Here are three main methods that can achieve domestication strategy. They are paraphrasing, adaptation and replacement.<br />
<br />
===4.1.1.1 paraphrasing===<br />
<br />
Domestication by the method of paraphrasing is effective in dealing with a simple expression behind which there is a heavy cultural load. We should adapt paraphrasing strategy.<br />
<br />
Example1<br />
<br />
ST: 如囊萤 如映雪 家虽贫 学不辍 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br />
<br />
TT1: Then we have one who put fireflies in a bag, and again another who used the white glare from snow. Although their families were poor, these men studied <br />
unceasingly.<br />
<br />
TT2: One enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag, another read by the light reflected by the snow. Although their families were poor, they never ceased learning. <br />
Annotation: in order to read by their light. <br />
<br />
TT3: Che-yin, when a boy, being poor, read his book by the light of a glow-worm which he confined. And Sun-kang, in winter, read his book by the light reflected from snow. Though their families were poor they studied incessantly. <br />
<br />
The original text is from a classical book in china named Three-Character Classic.“囊萤”and “映雪” are Chinese allusions urging children to work hard at their study. Each of the contracted expressions has a story behind it. By reading T1 and T2, readers cannot understand the allusion to the full and the logic between the expressions of “put fireflies in a bag/enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag”and“used the white glare from snow”and the expressions about the persons’ industry at their studies. T3 paraphrases the sentence and makes logic explicit by introducing the heroes in the allusions and explaining what they used the fireflies/glow-worms for. This is effective in translation.<br />
<br />
===4.1.1.2 Adaptation===<br />
<br />
In order to achieve naturalness of expression, grammar, lexicon and culture. Adaptations are necessary. For terms which identify culturally different objects but with somewhat similar functions, adaptation shows its advantage in translation.<br />
<br />
Example2 <br />
<br />
ST: 老少爷们，从麻木的状态中苏醒过来吧。(Moyan，2003:85)<br />
<br />
TT: Come out of your stupor, my friends. ( Goldblatt, 2004:293)<br />
<br />
Address terms, as an indispensable part of conversations and communications, can reflect the tradition and culture of a nation. In all languages, address terms play an important role in social intercourse. Set in Northeast countryside of China, “ 老少爷们”is a typical address term of China’s northern dialect. And it is usually used by a man, showing some masculinity. It’s an oral expression often addressed to males. Goldblatt translate it as “my friends”, often used in an English speech to strike a chord in listeners and get them united or in favor of the speaker, conspicuously in an adaptation way. <br />
<br />
Example3<br />
<br />
ST: 凡训蒙 须讲究 详训诂 明句读 （Wang Yinglin,1986）<br />
<br />
TT1: In the education of the young, there should be explanation and elucidation, careful teaching of the interpretations of commentators, and due attention to paragraphs and sentences. <br />
<br />
TT2: Whoever teaches boys, ought to discuss and examine deeply (the meaning of the characters); Explain their derivation, mark distinctly the periods and the punctuation. <br />
<br />
TT3: Every one that instructs youth should explain fully what he teaches; should illustrate the present and the past, and distinguish clearly the comma and the period. <br />
There are two kinds of adaptation in the translation of this Chinese line. First, it is the domestication of the Chinese term “句读”. Actually, ancient Chinese classics do not have any punctuation marks and the “句读” refers to the longer or shorter pause in the classics according to the meaning of the text. All three translators domesticate the Chinese term by the concept of punctuation in the English language and render it respectively as “paragraphs and sentences”, “the periods and the punctuation” and “the comma and the period”. Although the three kinds of rendering differ from each other on the level of punctuation, they have much the same function—the target text reader can easily understand in what way “句读” functions in a Chinese text. Thus dynamic equivalence is achieved. The second adaptation is the change of parts of speech—the change from verb to noun. Giles changes the verbs “训”, “讲究” and “训诂” in the Chinese text into nouns “education”, “explanation and elucidation”, “interpretations” and “attention”.<br />
<br />
===4.1.1.3 Replacement===<br />
<br />
Example 4 <br />
<br />
ST:勤有功 戏无益 戒之哉 宜勉力 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br />
<br />
TT: Diligence has its reward; play has no advantages. Oh, be on your guard, and put forth your strength. <br />
<br />
This is an example of domestication on the lexical level. “哉” in Chinese is a particle of exclamatory or of interrogative value. In this line, it functions as an exclamatory particle. It helps to make up the syllable in the Chinese version and express the author’s emotion of instructing the young. Giles translates it into the correspondent English exclamatory particle “Oh” which retains the tone of a similar function as is in the source text. It achieves dynamic equivalence in terms of reader’s response to the rhetoric. <br />
<br />
===4.1.2 Foreignization===<br />
<br />
Foreignization designates the type of translation in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks the target conventions by retaining the foreignness of the original. It functions to preserve the foreignness and value of the foreign language culture in the source text. It takes the readers of the target language culture to a foreign culture, making the readers of the translated text feel the differences and enjoy the alien atmosphere. It is more faithful to the language features of the source text than domestication does, and it keeps the flavor of the original language. Venuti and other scholars who advocate foreignization hold that foreignization enable readers of the translated text to learn about the alien culture of the source language text, which is often the reading aim of the readers who are capable of understanding the alien culture. (Venuti, 1995)<br />
<br />
===4.1.2.1 phonetic compensation===<br />
<br />
Among the three translators, Giles is said to be an excellent English language master who was able to compose English poems. His translation of poems is generally in accordance with the composing and rhyming schemes of English poems, often with good rhythm. (Mu Shixiong, 2004:166) Though Giles is good at translating poems, he does not translate this text into a completely rhythmical one. Instead, he adds pronunciation to every Chinese character in the text to make a phonetic compensation so that the readers can still appreciate the ending rhyme of the original Chinese text. Giles does make an effort to create rhythmical effect whenever it is possible. In literary texts, phonetic compensation is always applied in translation of poem and prose. <br />
<br />
Example5 <br />
<br />
ST:养不教 父之过 教不严 师之惰 <br />
<br />
TT: To feed without teaching is the father’s fault. To teach without severity is the teacher’s laziness. <br />
<br />
Each line of the translation has a rhythmic focus. Respectively they are:“feed”,“without”and“teaching”in the first line; “father” and “fault” in the second line;“teach”,“without”and“severity” in the third line; and “teacher” and “laziness” in the fourth line. In this way, and together with the phonetic compensation, formal equivalence is achieved and by reading the phonetic compensation, target readers can feel the same rhythm of the original text and response the same as the readers of the source text. <br />
<br />
4.1.2.2 Transliteration<br />
<br />
Transliteration is a method that an item is translated according to its pronunciation rather than its meaning. This technique is often applied to translate ecological culture-loaded terms, like names of places, person, rivers, mountains or countries. There are two systems in use for transliteration Chinese characters: the Wade-Giles system of Romanization and the pinyin system of Romanization. For better transference of Chinese culture, the latter system is suggested. For some material culture-loaded terms, such as “仁”, “义”, “君子” and so on, transliteration might be preferable to any other methods. These terms represent the key concept of Confucianism, and any other English equivalent expressions may lead to misunderstanding. Thus, it is the most convenient and effective way to expose target readers in Chinese culture. For some time, the pinyin translation of these terms may be as acceptable and comprehensible as “kongfu” or “mahjong”. Certainly, for the sake of target readers’ understanding, an annotation is always needed to provide the further explanation of the cultural meanings of these terms. <br />
<br />
Example6<br />
<br />
ST: 南容三复“白圭”，孔子以其兄之子妻之。(Liu Dianjue, 46) <br />
<br />
TT1: Nan Jung in reciting the I Song repeated the verse about the sceptre of white jade three times. (In consequence of which) Master Kung gave him his elder brother’s daughter to marry. (Waley, 131)<br />
<br />
TT2: Nan Rong repeated over and over again the lines about the white jade sceptre. Confucius gave him his elder brother’s daughter in marriage. (D.C. Lau, 181)<br />
<br />
4.1.2.3 Amplification<br />
<br />
Amplification refers to add information behind some terms that is familiar to source language readers but unfamiliar to target language readers. By amplification, the connotation can be better conveyed to foreign readers. <br />
<br />
Example 7<br />
<br />
ST:论语者 二十篇 群弟子 记善言 <br />
<br />
TT: The Lun-yu (the book of discourses and dialogues) contains twenty chapters. The disciples (of Confucius) have therein related his excellent sayings. <br />
<br />
In this example, the Chinese text does not mention the ancient Chinese sage Confucius, and the information on whose sayings had been recorded in the book “Lun-yu” is implicit, which can be inferred from the context by native Chinese, once they combine the notion of “论语”with their background knowledge. However, western readers do not have enough knowledge to appreciate the value of the “Lun-yu”if the title was translated without the mention of Confucius. <br />
<br />
<br />
===4.2Translation strategies in journalistic style===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1Amplification===<br />
<br />
Sometimes, the translator needs to add proper words to complete the structure of the target texts, because mews sometimes needs more information to explain the inner meaning. The following examples are offered to illustrate the point. <br />
<br />
Example 8 <br />
<br />
ST: The real James Bond? (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 250) <br />
<br />
TT:谁是真正的邦德? <br />
<br />
There are no subject and predicate in the target text if the translator renders the headline by literal translation. Therefore,“谁是” is added in order to clarify the text. <br />
<br />
Example 9<br />
<br />
ST: Kings rout rockets, 101-74 (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 225) <br />
<br />
TT: 国王队击败火箭队，比分为 101 比 74 <br />
<br />
“比分为”is added in the target text to make the translation complete in sentence structure and meaning. <br />
<br />
<br />
Example 10<br />
ST:Reuters bests and worsts of the world cup (Huang Ruihong, 2004-06-15) <br />
<br />
TT:路透社评出世界最佳和最差球队 <br />
<br />
“评出” is added in the target text. Otherwise, there will be no predicate in the target text. Consequently, the translation will make no sense to the target reader. Translator should transfer new messages accurately and clearly to the target reader. To achieve this goal, amplification is often adopted to supplement necessary words or background information, which effectively avoids misunderstanding on the part of the target reader. <br />
<br />
===4.2.2 Omission===<br />
<br />
Omission refers to the strategy to delete unnecessary words or phrases from the target text. News headlines are featured by its brevity. Redundant words can be omitted either to conform to the norms of the target language or to achieve the effect of succinctness. <br />
<br />
Example11 <br />
ST: You need to sleep less than you think (Zou Shuang, 2005) <br />
TT: 适当少睡有益健康 <br />
As we know, English is a hypotactic language, which pays great attention to overt cohesion. Without the pronoun‘you’, the source text will be ungrammatical. By contrast, Chinese belongs to paratactic language, which attaches importance to covert coherence. When the translator does not render the word‘you’ into“你”, it won’t affect comprehension at all. In addition, the target text is succinct by leaving out the pronoun‘you’. Therefore, omission is adopted in this example. <br />
<br />
Example12 <br />
<br />
ST: Vogue says Queen Elizabeth II among world’s most glamorous (China Daily, 2007-11-07) <br />
<br />
TT:英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜 <br />
<br />
As it is well known to most Chinese readers that the Queen of UK is Elizabeth II (伊莉莎白二世), there is no need to keep it in the target text. Otherwise, the translation will be too long as a headline. The recommended version, thus, becomes 英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜. <br />
<br />
===4.2.3Imitation===<br />
English news are featured by its vivid language, such as play on word, figures of speech, etc. They add special flavor to the text with the aim to attract readers’ eye. Obviously, to reproduce these aesthetic effect enjoys the privilege among the available methods. Throughout the history of translation theory, the idea of imitation has been manifested clearly by Alexander Fraser Tytler when he wrote: the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original in his famous essay on the Principles of Translation. (Munaday, 2001: 26) The following examples may illustrate the above idea.<br />
<br />
Example 13 <br />
<br />
ST:A tale of two hearts (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 199).<br />
<br />
TT:双心记 <br />
<br />
This headline tells a story that a patient has an artificial heart planted in his body. The headline is a parody of the novel A Tale of Two Cities written by Charles Dickens. The target text (双心记) is also a parody of “双城记”.<br />
<br />
Example14 <br />
<br />
ST: Soccer kicks off with violence (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 200) <br />
<br />
TT:足球开踢，拳打脚踢 <br />
<br />
This is a humorous news headline because of the use of pun. The phrase ‘kick off’ refers to the start of a football match, and it also implies that there is a fight in the football field. The meanings of the pun are successfully transferred by the target text with the recommended translation. The translator does a good job in reproducing the humorous sense.<br />
<br />
===4.2.4 Restruction===<br />
The target text should be acceptable and meaningful in a sense that it is coherent with the situation in which it is received. Once translated, the translator revises the order and rearranges all words into a perfect sentence. In doing so, the news is more logical and tuned with the habit of native readers' think and reading. It can be treated as an important technique used in translating news headline from Chinese into English or English to Chinese. <br />
<br />
Example 15 <br />
<br />
ST: A third of Londoners must work from home during Olympics to avoid tube <br />
<br />
TT: 奥运交通压力大 1/3伦敦人须在家上班 (2011-09-27 08:33)<br />
<br />
“A third” occurred in the beginning of the source text, but “奥运会” comes first in the target text. The source text can be translate into “1/3的伦敦人必须在家上班,在奥运会期间避免交通混乱”if there is not any translation strategies used. The translator rearranges the words order to emphasize the special time---Olympics. <br />
<br />
Example16<br />
<br />
ST: Mahfud proposes ‘Special Zoo’ for corrupt officials <br />
<br />
TT: 印尼高官提议建“贪官动物园” (2011-11-30 16:02)<br />
<br />
In order to satirize the corrupt officials, the translator exchanges the order of “special” and “贪官” during the translation process. It can be achieve some good effect to expose the corrupt officials in language sense. <br />
<br />
Example 17<br />
<br />
ST:‘Ready for winter’ campaign launches <br />
<br />
TT: 苏格兰打响“迎冬战役”(2011-10-24 12:06)<br />
<br />
The translator reorders the expression “Ready for winter” and “launches” during the translation process. Besides, the translator adds a subject to this sentence so that it can appeal to the readers’ thinking patterns. In order to make the readers or audiences understand the translated version smoothly and easily, the words or phrases are adjusted to accord with their thinking pattern. Restructuring refers to rearranging the words in logic order to make the translation more potential readers or audiences into the first consideration, making them understand the translated version easily. <br />
<br />
===4.2.5 Adaptation===<br />
Adaptation is a translation method, which refers to use an especially free translation, it relates to selecting, adding, deleting, and constructing cautiously instead of simply translating one word to another word. In order to make the translated version more proper to a certain readers or audiences, adaptation always make some essential changes for a special aim So adaptation is an activity which the news translators absorb the most important content from the source text on the basis of the particular requirement of the readers or audiences, then make some suitable adjustments. When the translators are doing some adaptation, though the form and style of the source text are altered in a way, the main idea of the source text must be kept.Though adaptation is not acted as a main translation method by some traditional translation theorists, adaptation is getting more and more popular and arousing more and more <br />
attention these days. You can see the term adaptation frequently showed in some authoritative journals and newspapers, etc. <br />
<br />
Example 18<br />
<br />
ST: Poor People May Be Quicker to Be Kind <br />
<br />
TT:穷人更有同情心 (2011-12-29 08:56)<br />
<br />
“Quicker”means“更快”, but here it is translated into “更有”, “快” is an adjective, “有”is a verb, they have different characters.“Kind”means“友善的”, it is an adjective, but it is translated into“同情心”, which is a noun. If the translator does not use some translation strategies like adaptation, the target text is unreadable. <br />
<br />
Example 19<br />
<br />
ST: Americans say Asia more important than EU: survey <br />
<br />
TT：多数美国人看好亚洲 (2011-09-16 08:43) <br />
<br />
“Important” is an adjective, and a comparative degree used in the source text. But the source text is translated in a totally different way, for it is translated into a verb “看好”. Adaptation should be used here to make sure the translation aim is achieved. <br />
<br />
Example 20<br />
<br />
ST: Lend your voices to ‘talking bins’ <br />
<br />
TT:“能说会唱垃圾桶”将亮相伦敦。<br />
<br />
If“talking bins” is translated into “会说话的垃圾桶”, it is so ordinary. But the translator adopt the adaptation strategy to translated it into“能说会唱垃圾桶”, it becomes very vivid, and it may leave a deep impression on the readers.<br />
<br />
===5.Conclusion===<br />
The research conducted in this thesis is a fairly thorough study on the translation strategies of literary-style texts and journalistic-style texts. Through detailed discussion, several translation strategies have been analyzed and summarized. This thesis also studies the texts’ functions and main types of texts. The texts functions are referential function, expressive function and appellative function. The texts can be divided into three types- informative, expressive and vocative texts. On the basis of characteristics of different texts, detailed methods are applied. For literary-style texts, there are domestication and foreignization strategies. For journalistic-style texts, there are strategies like omission, restructure,adaption, imitation and amplification. Journalistic texts and literary texts are quite different, so the translation strategies are different. This thesis has a clear analysis about the translation strategies. However, it still owns a lot of drawbacks, such as the structure is too complicated, lack some of the former people’s study fruit. Hoping this thesis can make some contributions to the translation study and exercise process.<br />
===6. References===<br />
[1] McNair, Brain. (1998). The sociology of Journalism. A Hodder Arnold Publication<br />
[2] Munday, Jeremy, 2001, Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications [M], London and New York: Routledge.<br />
[3] Newmark, P. Approaches to Translation ［M］. New York: Prentice Hall, 1981: 39.<br />
[4] Nord, Christiane. Translating as A Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained [M]. Shanghai : Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:6<br />
[5] Reiss, Katharina. Translation Criticism the Potentials & Limitations [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004:91.<br />
[6] Venuti, L. 1995. The Translator’s Invisibility—A History of Translation. London & New York: Routledge.</div>Hu Huifanghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201221_trans&diff=11455820201221 trans2020-12-18T11:23:12Z<p>Hu Huifang: /* Hu Huifang 胡慧芳 */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
The idea that tones discerned in verbal art will reflect the mood of the relationship between the people and the state makes frequent appearances through Chinese literary philosophy, and it frequently enters the world of modern politics, as work on the modern Chinese folklore movement will attest (Hung). <br />
<br />
Another more recent sample is the expression “setting the tone” [定調子] describes the degree of condemnation in a Cultural Revolution era Big Character poster. This modern example displays a relatively cynical view of the function of tone; the power to set tone is in the hands of the accuser, but its strength reflects the crime of the victim.In the world of literature and arts policy, “New Tone” 新基調 became the standard Chinese socialist line against precisely such works as our “provincial leader” above castigated as “pei pei pei-ing”.<br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
The term “tone” (particularly as diao) has acquired negative connotations over the past two of decades, at least in part because of its role in politicoliterary battles. Even editors sympathetic to “new tone” values distance themselves from the term (Yang, Zhu). In a parallel strategy, contemporary zawen are written in covert form, more like “East Station,” than like “Pei pei pei!”?, which so revealingly displays the mechanics of the declamatory modal trope. In contrast to the late 1980's, contemporary zawen have in recent years receded to hide in other types of writing. This strategy is a familiar one in the context of zawen history; the necessity to hide only increases the effect the “involuntarily” discordant tone, which is held to be, biting and kicking, reflecting the truth.<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
When zawen were first fashioned as a modern genre, it was the involuntary expression of responsive emotions that were explicitly invoked as zawen's purpose. When Hu Shih published the first major newspaper column devoted to the serial publication of zawen in 1918, the “Record of Spontaneous Feeling,” the introductory essay was entitled “什麼話,” literally “What speech.” This title also provides a demonstration of a modal trope on the level of syntax. In this original title there was no punctuation, as “shenme” already indicates the question “what” in the standard form, before European punctuation was imported as a regular feature of written vernacular Chinese.<br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
Beyond the interrogative function, however, “hua,” [“speech” or “talk”] has the declamatory effect of objectifying speech, and holding it up for dramatic examination. For an idiomatic English translation I would offer “What!?” including both exclamation and question mark. The contents of essay describe the purpose of zawen as a venue for explosive emotional responses, linked to the other, “regular” items printed in newspapers everyday. This ordinary newspaper fare “gives people goose flesh [disgusts them] makes them sigh, or elicits a cold smile or an outright laugh” (Hu Shih, Shen Bao 1918). Zawen were thus launched in the early modern Chinese newspaper as the nearly physical expression of these feelings or moods in the form of literary essays. <br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
Hu Shih's formulation emphasizes zawen's role as a response to “life itself.” Like most poetry, but unlike most fiction and drama, zawen is itself a first person voice, not a representation of voices. Yet unlike poetry, which may need to be at least imagined to be read out loud, repeated and savored for full effect, zawen's ideal is to appear for a fleeting moment on the back page of a newspaper, to be received with the accompaniment of an enigmatic laugh, sigh or snort from the reader, and then thrown away quickly, before anyone can “find their seat and sit in it,” or take offence. <br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
Generic categories are not the only aspect that zawen tend to mix; they characteristically contain sudden shifts in tone, style and voice, moving from a snippet of stray “overheard” conversation to an elegant, classical allusion. Echoing Hu Shih's 1918 idea of zawen as a “response” to the articles on other pages of the newspaper, the zawen, still characteristically the back page of most newspapers, nearly always contains a “foil” in the form of a direct quote from the author has read or heard. In addition to creating a microcosmic social dialogue, this split between two voices, the writer's and that of the “foil” also allows for dizzying clashes of style and voice that enclose unlikely combinations of syntax and grammar, as well as ideas, a single text. <br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
Tone in an essay is an ironic figure of speech; how can you channel that which is carried in sound through the ink of print? In this paper I have tried to illustrate the trope of tone through the “sonorous” work, particularly that of ShaoYanxiang, an official poet who in retirement is better known for the essays in which he collapses poetry into polemic, his zawen. The distinct and beleaguered social and cultural space for zawen in contemporary China reveals the mechanics, ideology and significance of tone in Chinese writing. Even more than other literary genres, zawen depends upon something within the earthy noise of moody, mulish voices to carry its messages.<br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
While readers love to hate their morally and politically provocative zawen-of-the-moment, writers string zawen across stretches of time and publishing organs to construct heavily intertextualized conversations. Eventually they even preserve zawen, long after the dizzying minutia of allusions, jokes and digs are forgotten, often compiling a career's worth of them into small print runs of volumes that they give away to friends and admirers as discursive portraits of themselves. Lu Xun's genre of the “dagger and spear” is thus not only a sly political weapon, but also a complex sculpture of the culturally shaped self, chiseled by the cantankerous tones of contentious social dialogue.<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
'''Appendix: Translations of two primary texts: “'Pei Pei Pei!'? ” and “East Station”'''<br />
<br />
'''“Pei Pei Pei! ”?'''<br />
<br />
A friend from outside literary circles asked me to find him some “pei pei pei!” essays to read, and I had to stare at him blankly with nothing to say. He then explained that he had read in a newspaper that a certain provincial leader had announced at a banquet that there must not be “pei pei pei – ing” all over the place, and so clearly there must be pei pei pei-ing all over the place.<br />
Have I gotten so insensitive? Out of self-abrogation, and also out of curiosity, I rushed to seek it out.And so it was, what had been said was “there must not be pei pei pei -ing all over the place, it must not always be the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal that is used to write about the party, the nation and the people, dispersing a gray mood that makes people pessimistic and disappointed.” It is like this all over the place, and not in just in one particular place, things are always this way, and not just at a certain time, you can see how widespread and serious the problem is.<br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
A long time ago in the liberated areas, it was advocated that the entire party should publish newspapers. After the establishment of the nation, when everything was “operated on a large scale with the entire people” I did not pay attention to whether or not it was advocated that all the people should publish the newspapers. But getting all people to read the newspapers is the goal of all those who follow the newspaper profession. In that way, newspapers are not merely published for leading institutions and leaders to read, but rather at the same time (actually this should be primary) for the masses to read. They are published for all the people -- among the people there are illiterates and partially literate, but through listening to the newspapers being read, the broadcasters and televisions have accepted the responsibility of getting the newspaper read, and this segment of the masses also figures as indirect readers of the newspapers.<br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
The readers have the greatest right of criticizing the newspapers, and I wonder how many readers have discovered this phenomenon of there being “pei pei pei -ing” all over the place. <br />
<br />
I am one of these readers, subscribing on my own to several “large” newspapers (newspaper publications have not been classified as large or small, but I follow convention here) there are in addition a few newspapers that people send to me; as to “small” newspapers, I have not the leisure nor the money to buy the papers in the Beijing area, not to mention nearby Tianjin and Hebei. Even so, just taking the 10 to 20 different newspapers I often look over, including the cultural newspapers, I have not discovered these “always using the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal to write about the party, the nation and the people” sorts of “pei pei pei” pieces. <br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
I could only hand back to my friend a blank report. But naturally my not having seen them does not mean they do not exist. What one person can see is limited. I hope that the extra sensitive speaker on this matter can openly point them out, or even offer examples of eight or ten articles, or even hold up just three to five articles as models of this kind of work, so as to allow us to be enlightened and improve our discriminating ability in seeing which essays are those called “pei pei pei,” perhaps at the same time clearing up a related matter by analogy, that of understanding what kind of essays constitute “ba ba ba” as well.<br />
<br />
我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。 但是当然，我没有看到它们并不意味着它们不存在。 一个人只能看到有限的内容。 我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 13:32, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。 但是当然，我没看到它们不等于它们不存在。 一个人能看到内容有限。 我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:40, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
我只能向朋友交回一份空白报告。当然，我没有见过他们并不代表他们不存在。一个人所能看到的是有限的。我希望在这个问题上特别敏感的发言者能公开指出它们，甚至举出八篇、十篇的文章示例，或者只举出三五篇作为这类作品的范本，让我们提高我们的辨别能力，为我们区分哪些文章是那些所谓的 "呸呸呸"的文章是提供启发，或许同时也能通过类比澄清相关的问题，就是让人明白构成 "叭叭叭"的文章是什么样的。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:44, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
This suggestion is sincere, not just the usual politeness. In order for literary arts, newspaper publications and literary publications to develop better social effects and to help unite the ways of our times with the people's hearts, newspaper editors, newspaper readers, and those in charge of this occupation should all be able to directly express their own views, and upon making mistakes should help each correct and make up for them, nobody needs to be polite about this.<br />
<br />
这个建议很真诚，不仅仅是平时的礼貌。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效果，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该能够直接表达自己的观点，在犯错误时，他们应该相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，没有人需要对此保持礼貌。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这个建议是真诚的，而不是出于寻常的客套。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效应，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该要能直接表达观点，在犯错误时，他们应相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，不必维持客套。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这一建议是真诚的，而不是出于礼貌的客套话。为了使文艺、报刊、文学作品发挥更好的社会价值，将时代特性与人民内心相连，报社编辑和读者，以及该领域的负责人应该直截了当地表达自己的观点。在犯错误时，各方应互相帮助，纠正和弥补错误，在这一过程中无需礼貌的客套话。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
After reading this speaker's comments, there is another matter that mystifies me. According to what was said, “from the next (meaning this and next) two years of discipline and rectification, there will be more new challenges and problems, and literary publications should be of assistance in stabilizing the people's minds, increasing faith, and not demoralizing the people's will.” In reading all these newspapers, this is the first time I have seen this “stabilize the peoples mind” proposition. If there is a need to stabilize the people's hearts, it must proceed from the assumption that the peoples hearts are not stable. As for the reason why people's minds are not stable, it comes back to the “discipline and rectification and the new challenges and problems” of these two years.<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
I am confused again. These “challenges and problems” that so vex people, do they result from the “discipline and rectification” or is it because of these “challenges and problems” that the need arises to “discipline and rectify”? If the more you “discipline and rectify” the more you provoke “many new challenges and problems” in people's minds, then why do all this “discipline and rectifying”? Moreover, I do not understand what “discipline and rectification” refers to nor what the “new challenges and problems” are, and I cannot figure out what “stabilize people minds” means very precisely, nor can I see what concrete request is being made. This is my request for instruction.<br />
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
The Literature Journal column “Literature and the People's Lives” has been asking for a manuscript from me many times, but I have never been able to take up the assignment. As I write to this point, I suddenly thought that this piece should be called “Literature and the Peoples' Minds”? But that is a big topic, something that a thousand characters can not manage to capture. 1989.2.21.<br />
Shao Yanxiang 1993 in 自己的酒 [My Own Wine] pages 181-183, 群眾出版社<br />
<br />
'''East Station'''<br />
<br />
Thirty years ago in Beijing, if you mentioned “East Station,” everybody would know that referred to the Beijing East Station that lies to the outer east side Front City Gate. Today this unremarkable construction, built in a half-westernized architectural style and sandwiched between the tall buildings of this noisy and busy city, supports a little sign that reads “Railway Workers Club.” It is already an “ancient artifact,” long gone are the prosperous and glorious days of old. <br />
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
This train station was once a symbol of bustling urgency, day and night swallowing and spewing out the many different hues of travelers who come to and leave the old capitol. Outsiders that have been to Beijing may not have wandered on Fragrant Mountain or not even have visited the Imperial Museum, but none would not remember this railway station. <br />
<br />
This train station, like any other place in Beijng, has experienced everything, cycles of prosperity and demise passing before its watch. It has greeted both the voluntary and the involuntary travelers to Beijing, and also the powerful it welcomed, as well as those it did not welcome. It sent off the happy people on their first [train] voyages, and also the broken hearted people who were departing; how many of them left this place never to come back?<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
When 20-year-old Shen Congwen arrived in Beijing after his roundabout journey from Phoenix in Hunan Province, he may have walked out of the station and stood for a while at the square in front of it. He would have seen, because in those years there was still a space in front, first the uniformly arranged buildings, and the colorfully carved gate of Zhengyang tower. His senses would have been struck with awe at the deep and solemn beauty. Did he think of the way Kang (youwei) and Liang (qiqiao) were in the depths of an inescapable trap when they embarked their train to flee, in the midst of their hurry without even the time to look back upon the winged palace roofs of their beloved capitol? <br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
That year in July the canons sounded at Lugou Bridge. When the railroad was restored between Beiping and Tianjin, the first trainload was the “four thousand refugee reds fleeing to Tianjin,” that was how the Tianjin newspaper put it. When those travelers entered East Station, they took their first step on the road of flight; were there any among them that that could predict that long after their own “fortuitous rescue,” in 1958 there would be another group making their unseemly departure from the Beijing station, submitting their fates to the unpredictable road?<br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
Recently I looked through Liu Meng's “Reminiscences on a Rainy Day” in which he writes of the rainy day April of 1958, when [he along with] a group was sent to the great northern wilderness. The platform in the rainy day, the locomotive in the rainy day; he deliberately reminisced calmly, saying it was like this memory had also been washed clean by the rainy rain. At that time Liu Meng had been young, but traveling along with him were many people who had fallen into this hardship in their old age, certainly each of them had their own earlier “at that time.”<br />
<br />
Head hanging, walking upon the rain-wet road; this is someone who has far to travel. Every window is weeping; this is someone reminiscing in the rain.<br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
And in March of 1949, when Guo Moruo and his democrats gathered together and arrived in Beijing, they were received with grand ceremonious welcome; the tears they wept were of joy. At the time he composed a poem “How much of the people's blood was spilled for this honor. Thinking of it, the tears fall, and happy laughter is unable to articulate in sound.” -- I don't know why, but this poem was not collected in any of his later collections.<br />
<br />
The platform of Beijing East Station, from the end of the last century to the middle of this century, has been a stage of constantly revolving action, no matter whether the security forces patrolling the edges of the stage were armed police of the North Coast Warlords, or the Japanese Army Police, or the Nationalist soldiers, police, M.P.’s or special agents, or the “People's Traffic Police.”<br />
<br />
而在1949年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们受到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。 当时郭沫若作了一首诗："为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。 想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用声音来表达。" --不知道为什么，这首诗在他后来的作品集里都没有收录。<br />
<br />
北京东站的站台，从上世纪末到本世纪中，不管在舞台边缘巡逻的保安部队是北洋军阀的武警还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或特务，还是 "人民交通警察"，它一直是一个不断变幻的舞台。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1943年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们收到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。当时郭沫若作了一首诗：“为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用言语来表达。”--我不知道为什么，但是这首诗在他后来的作品里都没有收录。<br />
<br />
从上世纪末到本世纪中，北京东站的站台已然成为一个不断轮回的舞台，在那里有边界巡逻的保安部队不论是武装的北洋军阀还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或者是特务，还是“人民交通警察。”<br />
<br />
==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
But because nearly everybody “performed” there in one way or another, at least having passed across that stage, everything about it was forgotten. Literary works pass through it with a single stroke, only the ending of the novel “Golden Powder Dynasty” provided a scene for it. This leftover architectural structure does not even rate a “district preservation unit” marker. This is because there are too many ancient traces in Beijing, how could an object merely one hundred years of age be considered antique? <br />
<br />
Today will also become history. And every inch of Beijing earth will provide proof of its history. <br />
<br />
1989. 9. 13 <br />
<br />
Please don't cut or change this date. The new railway station began operation in 1959, and this fits in parallel with “more that thirty years ago” at the beginning of the essay.<br />
<br />
但是因为几乎所有人不管怎样都在那“表演过”，最起码从那个舞台上经过，于关于它的一切全部都被遗忘。文学作品在这个舞台上浮光一掠，只有小说《金粉世家》的结局算作是上演了一幕。遗留的建筑结构都没有被评为“保护区”的标志。这是因为在北京像这样的古老残留建筑有很多，才拥有一百多年历史又怎么能被算作是古老建筑呢？<br />
<br />
今天也依然会成为历史。北京的每一寸土地都可以为此证明。<br />
<br />
1989.9.13<br />
<br />
请不要删除或改变这个日子。 这个新的火车站于1959年开始工作，同时，也是这部散文的开始之言“三十年之前”。<br />
<br />
但因为几乎每个人都在那里或多或少地 "表演 "过，至少是经过了那个舞台，关于它的一切都被遗忘了。 文学作品一气呵成地经过它，只有小说《金粉王朝》的结局为它提供了一个场景。 这座遗留下来的建筑结构，连 "区级保护单位 "的标志都评不上。 这是因为北京的古迹太多，仅仅百年的物件怎么能算作古董呢？ <br />
<br />
今天也将成为历史。 而北京大地的每一寸土地都将为其历史提供证明。 <br />
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1989. 9. 13 <br />
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请不要删减或更改这个日期。 新火车站于1959年开始运营，这与文章开头的 "三十多年前 "相吻合。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
'''Nostalgia without Memory: Reading Zhang Wei’s Essays <br />
In the Context of Fable of September''' <br />
<br />
Jie Lu<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
In this paper I will discuss what can be called agrarian nostalgia in Zhang Wei's essays collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey, published in 1995 as a part of Resisting Compromise Book Series. I will examine his nostalgia as a critical and moral stance in the literary context of his highly claimed novel The Fable of September. In the novel, history is mythologized, essentialized, and therefore erased to embody an agrarian being associated with land. If land in Zhang's novel represents an idealized existence, then in his essays, it becomes both a social and literary metaphor to symbolize moral purity and literary elitism. It is posed as a means to achieve individual, social and literary salvation, and an absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture in the age of commercialization.<br />
<br />
'''没有记忆的怀恋：阅读张炜的散文集<br />
以九月寓言为背景'''<br />
<br />
吕杰<br />
<br />
'''摘要'''<br />
<br />
在本文中，我将讨论张炜的散文中可以被称为农业乡愁的东西，这些散文收录在他的《焦急而愤懑的归途》中，该书于1995年出版，是《抗妥协书系》的一部分。我将在他备受称道的小说《九月寓言》的文学语境中，考察他作为一种批判和道德立场的乡愁。在小说中，历史被神话化、本质化，从而被抹杀，体现出一种与土地相关的农业存在。如果说土地在张的小说中代表了一种理想化的存在，那么在他的文章中，土地就成为一种社会和文学的隐喻，象征着道德的纯洁和文学的精英。它被摆在了实现个人、社会和文学救赎的手段上，也是商业化时代批判社会现实和大众文化的绝对标准。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
Nostalgia as an indication of fundamental condition of human estrangement or alienation has been exacerbated by the speeds and scopes of modernization and globalization in contemporary China. This nostalgic sentiment is intensely experienced by intellectual elites who wish to maintain their traditional role as society's moral guardians or as society's conscience, and by literary writers who wish to sustain the distinction between pure and popular literature. It is exactly this moral absolutism and literary elitism that have been undermined by cultural and socioeconomic changes. What nostalgia in Zhang's writings reveals is not so much a resistance to modernization process as incapability of deep understanding the complexity of Chinese modernity.<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
At the turn of the twenty-first century in China, with modernization and globalization gaining full momentum, it is interesting to find many writers turning their gaze backward to the past rather than singing the praises of this new global age. Among writers such as Liang Xiaosheng, Zhang Chengzhi, and Zhang Wei, nostalgia has become their dominant literary mode, through which to both critique commercialism and globalism and express the authors’ moral and literary ideals. In this paper I wish to focus on the moral and literary implications of nostalgia in Zhang Wei’s essays, as collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey (youfen de guitu), published in 1995 as a part of the Resisting Compromise Book Series (dikang touxiang shuxi). [* Jie Lu is an Assistant Professor of Chinese at the University of the Pacific. The author is grateful to Martin Woesler, the organizer of the conference on The Modern Chinese Literary Essays (August, 2000, Germany) where this paper was presented, and Michelle DiBello for her insightful comments and careful editing of the whole text. <br />
Resisting Compromise Book Series (Dikang touxiang shuxi) includes collections of essays by Zhang Chengzhi, Zhang Wei, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Li Ri, and Shi Tiesheng respectively. ]<br />
<br />
在二十一世纪之交的中国，随着现代化和全球化的全面推进，许多作家将目光转向过去，而不是歌颂这个新的全球化时代，这是一个有趣的现象。在梁晓声、张承志、张炜等作家中，怀旧已成为他们的主流文学模式，通过它既批判商业主义，又批判全球化，表达作家的道德理想和文学理想。本文旨在探讨张炜散文中怀旧的道德和文学意蕴，这是1995年出版的《反抗妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）的一部分。（陆洁是太平洋大学中文系助理教授。本文作者感谢2000年8月在德国举行的中国现代文学随笔会议的组织者马丁·韦斯勒和米歇尔·迪贝洛对全文的深刻评论和精心编辑。《抗争妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）收录了张承志、张炜、韩少功、余秋雨、李日、史铁生的散文集。）--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
Instead of putting Zhang’s writings in the larger context of contemporary intellectual debates over radicalism (radical intellectual/cultural discourse) and (new) conservatism (anti-radical),[ Regarding the major theoretical discourses in contemporary intellectual debates in China, see Xu Ben’s “Contesting Memory for Intellectual Self-Positing: The 1990s’ New Cultural Conservatism in China” in Modern Chinese Literature and Culture, Vol.11 (Spring, 1999) 157-193; Jianhua Chen’s “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, Vol. 9 113-129; Intellectuals’ Positions (Zhishi fenzi lichang) in three volumes, edited by Li Shitao, published by Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000. ] I will examine it in the literary context of his highly acclaimed novel Fable of September published in 1992. <br />
Fable of September represents history in a way that mythologizes, essentializes, and therefore erases it in the name of an idealized agrarian existence. Indeed, the idea of “the land” (tudi) is a transcending and all-encompassing concept in Zhang Wei writings, representing an idealized pure state uncontaminated by industrialization and modernization. In his essays, the land is transformed into a social and literary metaphor that symbolizes moral purity and literary elitism against what the author perceives as the contemporary backdrop of general moral decadence and literary chaos. This ideal is posed as a means to achieve nothing less than social, moral and literary salvation, raised as a kind of absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture.<br />
<br />
而不是将张的作品在当代知识争论激进主义的大背景(激进知识/文化话语)和(新)保守主义(anti-radical),(关于当代知识辩论的主要理论话语在中国,看到徐本的“争夺记忆知识Self-Positing: 1990年代在中国的新的文化保守主义”在中国现代文学和文化,Vol.11(春天,1999)157 - 193;陈建华“叙事论争的本土与全球:90年代末中国的自由主义与新左派”，载于《亚太传播》第9卷113-129;李世涛主编《知识分子的地位》三卷，《时代文艺社》2000年出版。我将从他1992年出版的广受赞誉的小说《九月寓言》的文学背景来探讨这个问题。<br />
《九月寓言》以一种神话化、本质化的方式展现了历史，并因此以理想化的农业存在的名义抹去了历史。实际上，“土”在张维的著述中是一个超越的、包罗万象的概念，代表着一种理想化的、未受工业化和现代化污染的纯净状态。在他的文章中，这片土地被转化为一种社会和文学隐喻，象征着道德纯洁和文学精英主义，而不是作者所认为的普遍道德颓废和文学混乱的当代背景。这一理想被认为是实现社会、道德和文学救赎的一种手段，被提升为一种批判社会现实和大众文化的绝对标准。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 11:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
My argument, however, is that Zhang’s reification of “land” as a transcendental metaphor in his essays only betrays the author’s lack of any profound historically informed understanding of the complexity of Chinese modernity. He simply refuses to accept social and cultural dilemmas and contradictions as permanent fixtures of the intellectual and cultural landscape. At the same time, Zhang’s outright criticism of consumerism and globalism suggests an underlying ambivalence about modernization. As China’s post-socialist social reality grows more complex and demanding, with more diversified and unstructured cultural formation, any clear-cut moral solution to social evils based on pre-modern social relationship and norms (positing the utopian vision of a transcendental realm) can no longer be effective. Nor is it sufficient to solve the sense of cultural crisis brought on by the progression of both modernization and globalization.<br />
<br />
然而，在我看来，张炜在他的散文中把“土地”具化为一个先验的隐喻，这只能暴露出作者对中国现代化的复杂程度缺乏深刻的认识。他只是拒绝接受社会和文化困境和矛盾作为知识和文化领域的永久固定装置。与此同时，张炜对消费主义和全球主义的直接批判表明了他对现代化的矛盾心理。随着中国后社会主义的社会现实变得越来越复杂和越来越严苛，文化形态也越来越多样化和无组织化，任何明确的道德解决方案，不管是基于前现代社会关系和规范(设想一个先验领域的乌托邦愿景)还是针对社会罪恶，都不再有效。也不足以解决现代化和全球化进程带来的文化危机。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 06:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
The contemporary Chinese intellectual and cultural scene is a complex one, with major conflicting trends – one toward the commercialization of knowledge/literature and another in strong resistance to the very same. A new diversity of voices can be heard in intellectual debates at the more abstract conceptual level, and a number of Chinese writers have also joined the scene – whether consciously or unconsciously -- with their own distinct literary voices. The Resisting Compromise Book Series in fact embodies these writers’ own effort of resistance to commercialism and globalism, which they perceive as corrosive forces in their culture and society.<br />
<br />
当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，其主要冲突趋势有两种，一种是知识/文化的商业化，另一种是对该商业化的强烈抵制。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子的辩论中，可以听见各种不同的新声音，许多中国作家也加入了这一环境中——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:51, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，主要的冲突趋势——一种是走向知识/文学商业化的趋势和另一种对知识/文学商业化的强烈抵制趋势。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子辩论中，可以听到新的多元化的声音，许多中国作家也加入了这个舞台——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列丛书实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
<br />
As the series’ editor-in-chief states in the preface, the work is devoted to those contemporary “literary heroes” (Xiao 1995, II), that is, certain literary idealists such as Zhang Wei, Zhang Chenzhi, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Shi Tiesheng, and Li Rui. These literary heroes are recognized for daring to stand up and raise the banner of “literature of resistance” (Xiao 1995, II), attacking the literary degeneration and moral decay of the times.<br />
<br />
正如丛书主编在序言中所说，这部作品是专门写给那些当代 "文学英雄 "的（萧 1995，二），即某些文学理想主义者，如张炜、张震之、韩少功、余秋雨、史铁生、李锐等。他们之所以被认可，是因为他们敢于站出来，高举 "反抗文学 "的大旗（萧 1995，二），抨击当代的文学堕落和道德沦丧。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
In publishing the Resisting Comprises series, its creators were responding to a growing domination of the literary arena by a so-called “Hooligan Movement.” According to the editor, literary hooliganism, as it were, is essentially a “language game” -- represented first and foremost by the irreverent writer Wang Shuo – with its various forms of “literary trash” including “literature of sexual promiscuity” (xingluan), “literature of leisure” (xianshi), “hack literature” (bangxian) and “sneezing literature” (penti) (Xiao 1995, II).<br />
<br />
在出版《反抗》系列时，它的创作者是在回应所谓的流氓运动对文学领域日益增长的统治。编者认为，文学流氓，实质上是一种 “语言游戏”——首先以不敬的作家王朔为代表——其形式多样的 “文学垃圾 ”包括 “性乱文学”、“闲适文学”、“黑客文学”和 “喷嚏文学”（萧1995，二）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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通过出版《反抗》系列，创作者回应了所谓的“流氓运动”对文学领域日益增长的统治。编者认为，文学流氓主义的实质是一种 “语言游戏”——首先以不敬的作家王朔为代表，他有形式多样的 “文学垃圾 ”，包括 “性乱文学”、“闲适文学”、“黑客文学”和 “喷嚏文学”（萧 1995，二）。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
But there are several larger social and literary issues that this project essentially addresses, namely: the loss of literary/cultural/social dominance by the intellectual elite to mass/commercial culture; the commercialization of knowledge/literature; erosion of the “humanist spirit;” abandonment of ultimate human concerns; desertion of idealism, enlightenment and such modernist projects. In the face of such upheaval, the editor describes the contemporary cultural/literary scene in China as dark and degenerate. The age is “cursed,” “tragic,” an age of “betrayal” and “surrender” (Xiao 1995, IV). And the targets of the literary/moral resistance are postmodernism, commercialism, and mass culture.<br />
<br />
但本质上，这个计划旨在设法解决几个更重要的社会和文学问题，即文学、文化、社会的主导地位由知识精英转移到大众及商业文化;知识文学的商业化;对“人文精神”的侵蚀;对人类终极关怀的抛弃;对理想主义、启蒙主义和诸如此类的现代主义计划的放弃。面对这样的剧变，编者将中国当代文坛描述为黑暗和堕落的。这个时代是“被诅咒的”、“悲剧性的”，是一个“背叛”和“投降”的时代(肖，1995，IV)。文学和道德反抗的对象是后现代主义、商业主义和大众文化。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但本质上，这个计划旨在设法解决几个更重要的社会和文学问题，即文学、文化、社会的主导地位由知识精英转移到大众及商业文化;知识文学的商业化;对“人文精神”的侵蚀;对人类终极关怀的抛弃;对理想主义、启蒙主义和诸如此类的现代主义计划的放弃。面对这样的剧变，编者将中国当代文坛描述为黑暗又堕落的时期。这个时代是“被诅咒的”、“悲剧性的”，是一个“背叛”和“投降”的时代(肖，1995，IV)。文学和道德反抗的对象是后现代主义、商业主义和大众文化。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:31, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
Zhang Wei is primarily known as a novelist. His major novels include Ancient Boat, Fable of September, My Countryside, Clan, and novelle include Meditation in Autumn, Anger in Autumn, and Vineyard. [ Ancient Boat (Guchuan), Fable of September (Jiuyu yuyan), My Countryside (Wode tianyuan), Clan (Jiazu), Meditation in Autumn (Qiutian de sisuo), Anger in Autumn (Qiutian de fennu), and Vineyard (Putaoyuan) are all included in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected Writings of Zhang Wei) (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe, 1997).] He has also published many collections of essays. His writings collected in Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey include essays, talks, and interviews. These essays do not express this uncompromising stance in such a strong voice and straightforward manner. Instead, Zhang poses a literary persona of moral integrity as a kind of self-representation. He appears as an idealized individual, embodying in every way pure moral qualities of both a human being and artist/writer. This idealized individual is a fighter, fighting a lonely and heroic battle against fashionable trends and any and all forms of evil (Xiao 1995, 6).[ Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey includes both Zhang Wei’s essays as well as critical articles by various critics. In this paper I will use Xiao Xialin, the editor of this collection as the reference to provide in-text citations to essays by both Zhang Wei and other critics. ]<br />
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
As a generous humanitarian, he loves and helps all good people. As a socially committed artist, he takes upon himself a great responsibility to all humanity. And as a serious writer, he self-consciously pursues high literature. He is also represented as an honest laborer, making a living through hard labor and sweat. As part of this self-representation, Zhang criticizes those who succumbed to moral and artistic degradation, such as those writers who choose to “enter the commercial world” (xiahai), or cater to popular low-brow tastes by writing “trash literature.”<br />
<br />
作为一个慷慨的人道主义者，他热爱并帮助所有善良的人。作为一名致力于社会事业的艺术家，他主动承担起对人类的重大责任。作为一个严肃的作家，他自觉地追求高雅文学。他也被描绘成一个务实的劳动者，辛勤劳作、挥洒汗水维持生活。作为自我表现的一部分，张批评了那些屈从于道德和艺术堕落的人，比如那些选择“走进商业世界”(夏海)的作家，或者为了迎合大众低级趣味而写“垃圾文学”的作家。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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作为一个慷慨的人道主义者，他热爱并帮助所有善良的人。作为一名致力于社会事业的艺术家，他主动承担起对人类的重大责任。作为一个严肃的作家，他自觉地追求高雅文学。他也是务实的劳动者的代表，他辛勤劳作挥洒汗水来维持生活。作为自我表现的一部分，张批评了那些屈从于道德和艺术堕落的人，比如那些选择“走进商业世界”(夏海)的作家，或者为了迎合大众低级趣味而写“垃圾文学”的作家。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
He points out in his essay “Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey” several “lacks” in many contemporary writers. First, many of today’s writers lack “self-reflexivity” (which really refers more to moral “self-reflection” or “self-consciousness” rather than intellectual self-reflexivity). They lack “conservatism,” an ability to hold to a certain kind of spirit, in which he also sees as a lack of real avant-guard spirit. They lack “intolerance,” meaning they are overly tolerant of vices and decadent practices, and rarely engage in serious, genuine, and frank criticism and debate. Finally, they lack “stable emotions” -- the definition of which is rather ambiguous.<br />
<br />
张炜在散文《忧愤的归途》中指出了当代很多作家存在的一些“缺憾”。首先，如今的很多作家缺乏“自我反思”(实际上更多地是指道德上的“自我反思”或“自我意识”，而非理智上的自我反思)。其次他们缺乏“守旧精神”，即坚持某种精神的能力，于此张炜还看到当代作家前卫精神的缺失。他们也还不够“偏执”，过度容忍恶习和堕落的行为，很少进行严肃、真诚和坦率的批评和辩论。最后，他们缺乏“稳定的情绪”——尽管这种情绪的定义相当模糊。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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他在《焦急愤懑的回家之旅》一文中指出了许多当代作家的“不足”。首先，当今许多作家缺乏“自我反省性”（这实际上更多指的是道德上的“自我反省”或“自我意识”，而不是智力上的自我反省）。他们缺乏“保守精神”，这是一种坚持某种精神的能力；并且他认为作家缺乏真正的前卫精神。他们不能够坚持自我，这意味着他们对恶习和腐朽行径过于宽容，很少进行严肃、真诚和坦率的批评和辩论。最后，他们缺乏“稳定的情绪”——尽管他对于稳定这一定义相当模糊。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
Zhang’s self-representation, then, is also a form of self-legitimization. It endows him with legitimacy through a kind of literary aura and the staking out of high moral ground. From this privileged stance, he proceeds to interpret, represent, articulate, define and judge the essence, meaning and criteria of literature, society, and human life. Throughout his essays, including interviews, talks, and lectures, we find Zhang, like a self-styled guru, constantly giving advice to college students, young writers, and literature fans on what to read, how to write, and how to live. This advice is based exclusively on a clear distinction between high and popular literature, and on his unabashed criticism of mass culture (represented by television). <br />
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
In a broader sense, we can see his self-representation as an essential reaffirmation of the traditional role that Chinese intellectuals played in society. The claim to an authoritative voice is fundamental to maintaining the privileged position of the intellectual elite within a structure of knowledge and power. Zhang’s self-representation, then, is nothing less than an attempt to reestablish the intellectual elite’s role in literature and society based on a clear distinction between high and popular literature. This power struggle for cultural dominance and hegemony in the ongoing reformation of intellectual/cultural discourse largely defines China’s socio-cultural condition in the wake of socialism. <br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
Perhaps the most important part of Zhang’s essays is his use and development of the concept of “land” (tudi), which strongly conveys his self-representation as a simple yet serious “rural intellectual” (xiangcun zhishi fenzi). In his well-known essay “Immersion in the Wild Field” (rongru yiedi), the land in fact functions as a transcending metaphor. As a signifier of nature – wild fields, mountains, bushes, green crops, the ocean -- the land symbolizes all that is morally good in social and cultural realms as well as in individual’s life. The land represents a mother figure, where one can always find comfort, wisdom and inspiration. As an eternal backdrop, the land embodies eternity itself. It serves as an aesthetic standard through which the author defines the social and aesthetic functions of “pure literature,” and criticizes various aspects of cultural reality.<br />
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在张炜的文章中，最重要的部分可能是他对 "土地 "概念的使用和发展，这强烈地表达了他作为一个朴素而严肃的 "农村知识分子 "的自我形象。在他的名篇《融入野地》中，土地实际上是一个超越性的隐喻。作为自然的象征--野地、山川、灌木、绿色的庄稼、海洋--土地象征着社会、文化领域和个人生活中所有道德上的美好事物。土地代表着母亲的形象，在那里人们总能找到安慰、智慧和灵感。作为一个永恒的背景，土地体现了永恒本身。它作为一种审美标准，作者通过它来界定 "纯文学 "的社会功能和审美功能，对文化现实的各个方面进行批判。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 08:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
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==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
Zhang associates popular literature and TV culture with low class and uneducated tastes, and criticizes current literary Chinese criticism for being overly influenced by foreign literary jargons. His concept of the land is even a moral criterion through which he criticizes many aspects of contemporary modern society -- from commercialization in which money is the source of all evils, to globalization marked by domination of transnational corporations and bad influence of some foreign literature, as well as modernization represented by cellular phones, cars, and high technology.<br />
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张将通俗文学与电视文化这种低级的和未受过教育的品味联系在一起，并批评当前中国文学评论过度受到了外国文学术语的影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准。通过这种道德标准，他批判了现当代社会的各个方面——从金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 12:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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张将通俗文学与低级、无文化品位的影视文化联系在一起，并批评当代中国文学批评过度受外国文学术语影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准，他运用这种道德标准批判了现当代社会的方方面面——从商金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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张将大众文学和电视文化与低级趣味和没有文化的品味联系在一起，并批评当前中国的文学批评过于受外国文学术语的影响。他的领域观念甚至是一种道德标准，通过这种标准，他批评了现当代社会的许多方面——从以金钱为万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司的支配和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
But most of all, Zhang’s concept of land symbolizes an ideal based on ages old dichotomy between city and countryside. At the beginning of the essay, he tells us: “[The] city is a willfully and recklessly modified wild field, and I will eventually leave it” (Xiao 1995, 19). Later he claims that a real artist should be “a worshiper of land” (Xiao 1995, 60). To Zhang, the spirit of “land” should be the spirit of the age (Xiao 1995, 241). Seen in the context of his criticism of modernization, it is evident that this dichotomy is built around the moral distrust of the city – a psychological complex that traces back to Chinese agrarian tradition and Mao’s revolutionary heritage. At the same time, it reveals a profound nostalgia for a pre-modern rural existence.<br />
但最重要的是，张先生对于土地的概念象征着一种古老的城乡对立的观念。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。"[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离开它"（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 "土地的崇拜者"（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，"土地 "的精神应该是时代的精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是基于对城市道德不信任而建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，它也透露出对现代社会以前农村生活的深刻怀念。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:07, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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但最重要的是，张先生的土地概念象征着一种基于古老的城乡对立的理想。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。"[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离它而去"（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 "土地的崇拜者"（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，"土地 "精神就是时代精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是围绕着对城市的道德不信任建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，也透露出对先前农村生活的的深刻怀念。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
The Land, then, points to an ideal transcendent realm, closed to contamination by the modern world. But represented only in highly literary, allusive, emotive language and nature images and analogies, the idea of the Land only comes across as very abstract and unreal. The author himself asks: “What exactly is the wild field? Where does it exist? Does it really contain my innocent world I imagine?” (Xiao 1995, 30). Indeed, as an all-encompassing and pervasive metaphor, The Land is never once in his essays clearly and objectively defined. Whether expressed as a personification of the mother figure, an embodiment of eternal being, or as a constellation of various ideal qualities and values, Zhang’s “land” lacks the substantial tour-de-force as a moral and social metaphor. But if we are to discover an ontological anchoring for this concept, it can only be found, I would argue, in his well-known novel Fable of September. <br />
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
In reading this novel, I will focus on the dialectic between its strikingly postmodernist form -- which he criticizes and whose influences he constantly denies --and its pre-modern content (in terms of the primitive agrarian existence represented and the mode of storytelling used). I find nothing to criticize in Zhang’s use of magic realism and certain postmodernist techniques to recapture the so-called original world of pre-modern existence. I do find a glaring contradiction, however, in the author’s repeated denial of any positive influence of postmodernism. This, together with his unqualified valorization of “The Land” as a metonymy of a primitive utopia, only betray not so much his literary hypocrisy as his limited ability to understand modernity, postmodernism and even history itself.<br />
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阅读此书时，我将重点关注后现代主义形式——虽然他一直予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的现代以前的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这是我觉得矛盾点所在。这一矛盾点，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦这一行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在读这本书的过程中，我将重点关注后现代主义的形式——虽然他一直对其予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这就是矛盾所在。这一矛盾之处，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦的行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
In contrast to his essays, which tend to be didactic, long-winded, condescending, and full of literary clichés, Zhang’s novel ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating and imaginative piece of writing. It is best situated in the genre of fictional history -- not a fictionalized account of real historical figures and events, but a pure fiction, written in a historical mode. Other examples of this way of, say, tracing the fictional history of a person, a family, or a village, include Su Tong’s Maple Tree Village series, or Ge Fei’s fictional biography, ''Marginality.'' Given its fragmented, incoherent story and sophisticated narrative plot, it is a challenge to give the novel a concise, accurate description.<br />
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与说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、充满文学陈词滥调的散文不同，张炜的小说《九月寓言》是一篇引人入胜、富于想象力的作品。这是一篇典型的虚构历史类型的文学作品——不是对真实历史人物和事件的虚构叙述，而是以历史的模式写成的纯粹虚构的作品。运用这种方法的其他例子，如追溯一个人、一个家庭或一个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树村”系列和格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。考虑到小说中支离破碎、不连贯的故事和复杂的叙事情节，给这部小说一个简洁、准确的描述是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:08, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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与他那些倾向于说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、陈词滥调的散文不同，《九月寓言》这部小说引人入胜。这是一篇典型的虚构历史文学作品——不对真实的历史人物和事件进行虚构叙述，而是一篇以历史的模式写成的虚构作品。这种手法同样运用于追溯某个人、某个家庭或某个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树”系列作品与格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。由于这部小说故事叙述支离破碎、叙事情节复杂，因此简洁准确地描述它着实是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
In general, the novel depicts a “historical” picture in which a small pre-modern, self-contained village is obliterated by industrialization. But what the novel really focuses on, instead of village’s fall itself, are certain memorable events and people that are part of the last 30-40 years of its existence (though the exact length of time remains questionable and unclear). <br />
The novel is divided into seven parts, each focusing on stories of a single character or family. These stories are mutually connected, and at the same time intermingled with myths, legends, anecdotes and magical or strange occurrences, which in turn map out a sort of “history” of the village. <br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
Ironically, however, history is not quite the right term here to describe the village’s temporal contour, for what stand out as the central features in the life of the village are “land”/food (more specifically sweet potatoes), the tradition of staying with the village, and a certain mode of storytelling used in the village to recall past suffering. As quintessential indexes in the village’s existence, these features mark not a temporal movement but an eternal being. Centered on these three essentials, life in the village is hard, simple, unchanging, and close to the archetypal. The only way for the young to use up their abundant and restless energy is to run and play in the wild fields at night, and the married to beat their wives and do “cupping” (''ba huoguan'').<br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
Thus what Zhang Wei aims to represent in this novel is a pure, simple, close-to-primitive life, uncontaminated by modern civilization. But he is also representing a sense of eternal being, long lost as it may be in our modern age. <br />
The novel is undoubtedly imaginative and fascinating. My sense of fascination as a reader, however, is derived largely from its mode of literary representation than from what is actually depicted in Zhang’s fictional world. Part reality, part myth, part legend, the story is at once mythical and real. It is a synthesis of straightforwardness and artifice, primitivism and mannerism, thematic simplicity and formal sophistication. In other words, in order to represent a pre-modern agrarian existence – Zhang’s utopian vision of pure being – he relies on quite sophisticated modernist/postmodernist literary devices. <br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
Perhaps the most striking feature of the novel, as many critics have noted, is its formal manipulation of temporality, or to be more specific, the narrative negation of temporality. It is almost impossible for the reader to discern the actual timeline of the village’s history. Even the time span running from the 1930s to 1970s and temporal progression within the narrated world (which can only be pieced together after repeated readings), are unreliable, full of unexplainable loopholes. [ For the full discussion on the novel’s temporal scheme, see Chen Sihe’s “Huanyuan minjian: tan Zhang Wei ''Jiuyue Yuyan''”(Returning to the people: on Zhang Wei’s ''Fable of September'') collected in Youfen de guitu (Indignant Homeward Journey) 260-267.] <br />
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This unusual narrative stance achieves a number of thematic effects. First, it cuts the village off from the larger movement of history. The novel mentions no political movements, significant historical events, or chronology of dates other than “September.” <br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
The only other temporal indicators are rainy seasons, or periods of winter when the snow is as sharp as strong acid, or autumn when the field is abundant with sweet potatoes and beans. These seasonal markers indicate changes more in nature than in the human world where chronological dates mark time. These markers of nature serve to draw the story further away from a real historical framework and closer to the pre-modern agrarian mode of existence, as if human life was “timed” by nature itself. Furthermore, this kind of temporal negation also foregrounds eternity in the land itself. Wherever any historical hint or political implication may crop up in the story, it is immediately dissolved into one of many village legends. <br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
For instance, “recalling past suffering” (yiku), an important collective activity of the village, is transformed from a political discourse used during the Cultural Revolution into a form of storytelling for binding the village community together, and for producing oral history and creating legends. In essence, history is erased from the village’s background all together. <br />
The novel’s detachment from historical background also means a metaphysical negation of historical paradigm of interpretation and signification, characterized by such notions as causality, progress and teleology. This allows the author to have a larger space for interaction of diverse configurations. As critic Chen Sihe points out, Zhang’s village exists in three forms: in reality, in legend/myth, and in oral storytelling (Xiao 1995, 265).<br />
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如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变为凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。从本质上说，历史被从村庄的背景中抹去了。<br />
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小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄存在三种形式:现实中的，传说/神话中的，口头讲故事的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变成为了凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。本质上，人们将历史完全从村庄的背景中抹去了。<br />
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小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定了解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄以三种形式存在着:现实中的，传说和神话中的，口头故事中的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
However, the absence of a clear-cut time framework only blurs and transgresses the ontological boundaries among reality, myths, legends, the magic and storytelling. The novel abounds with magical, mythical, and supernatural figures and events: Niugan’s body was air-dried for a period of time before his actual death. A man named Jinyou can squeeze milk from his breasts. Another man’s eyeball jumps out and changes into a frog, disappearing into grass. The mother of Longran does not die after drinking pesticide; instead, her hairs have become darker, and skin softer. Very much like in Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s ''One Hundred Years of Solitude'', these magical events are presented in a realistic mode on the same ontological level as other “real” events.<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
In other words, the magic is approached through the everyday. And the transgression of ontological levels of representation thus further negates historical temporality. <br />
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The absence of historical time in the novel also negates historical interpretation. Instead, myths and legends assume the function of historical explanation. The origin of the small village is explained in a myth about a group of vagrants who, exhausted after a long journey, stopped, and settled on a piece of land that could provide them with food. The story of the monkey spirit with the ability to carry things becomes a mythic explanation of social stratification and exploitation, a further departure from historical and positive discourses. <br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
These myths and legends are presented as part of the village’s everyday reality. Thus different ontological levels within the text – reality and myth/legend/oral storytelling/magical events -- in which the village exists collapse into one. It is a world in which past and present become all-at-once. In other words, the past is the present, the myth is reality, and vice versa. The timeless place is like a sentence without tense. And herein lies the author’s profound sense of nostalgia for a fundamental, archetypal existence in its complete nakedness, beyond modern historical and rational configurations. <br />
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As Nan Fan points out, though the temporal span of the novel is not long, its content is massive, filled as it is with various stories (Xiao 1995, 253).<br />
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这些神话和传说是作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现的。因此，文本中不同的本体论层面—现实和神话/传说/口头故事/神奇事件—村庄存在于其中，合二为一。这是一个过去和现在都成为一体的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。而作者对一种完全赤裸裸的、超越现代历史和理性配置的根本性、原型性存在的深刻怀念感就在于此。<br />
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正如南帆所指出的，虽然小说的时间跨度不长，但其内容却是庞大的，充满了各种故事（萧1995，253）。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 13:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这些神话和传说作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现出来。因此，文本中不同的本体论层次——现实和神话/传说/口头讲故事/魔法事件——村落的存在瓦解为一个整体。这是一个过去和现在同时成为一切的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。在这里，作者对一种基本的、原型的、完全赤裸的、超越现代历史和理性结构的存在有着深刻的怀旧之情。<br />
南帆指出，小说的时间跨度虽然不长，但内容却很宏大，充满了各种各样的故事(肖1995,253)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
If the macro-structure of the novel is characterized by narrative strategies of postmodernist fragmentation and transgression, then at the micro-structure of individual stories the pre-modern form of Benjaminian storytelling becomes the dominant mode of narrative. “Recalling past suffering” is in fact in the typical mode of storytelling. The narrative tells us that in those long and cold winter nights when rain turned into snow, when there were nothing else to do for the rural folks, all villagers of the Small Village would gather together to listen to Jinxiang, one of the principal storytellers in the village, to recall past suffering. Here Jinxiang functions in the role that Water Benjamin describes: the giver of stories, of counsel, the link to a mythic but necessary past.<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
Through storytelling, the storyteller’s personal experiences mixed with the mythic and magic become the collective experiences of the village, binding the village together, and providing it not only with a sense of community but also a sense of identity. Interestingly, the villagers prefer only the storytellers in their own village to tell of past. Thus, in relating his own experience and that reported by others, the storyteller in turns makes it the experience of those who are listening to his tale (Benjamin 1968, 87). In a way, Jinxiang perfectly embodies Benjaminian storyteller as the one who, in his storytelling, also gives counsels to the listeners -- the young in this context -- to value the happiness of the present and therefore stay with the tradition.<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
Jinxiang’s story telling demonstrates the power of the oral, in that his performance has potential for moving beyond rational control. He tells stories spontaneously and with great emotion, often with tears and slobbers and shouts at each stop. His dynamic orality controls the whole atmosphere of the meeting and carries the listeners to multiple emotional climaxes. Thus in the highly emotionally charged atmosphere of telling and listening marked by crying and shouting, the teller and listeners identify completely with one another. As a storyteller “in his living immediacy” (Benjamin 1968, 83), Jinxiang is thus an integrate part of the pre-modern rural existence based on its closely-knit community, the shareable experiences, and a fund of stories and lore.<br />
<br />
金祥的讲故事展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他讲故事时自然而然，感情充沛，每到一站，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他的动态口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 "活生生的即时性 "的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是前现代农村生活的一个组成部分，其基础是其紧密联系的社区、可分享的经验以及故事和传说的基金。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
金祥的故事讲述展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他很自然地讲述故事，感情充沛，一停下来，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他那充满活力的口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 "活生生的即时性 "的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是现代以前农村生活的一个组成部分，以前的农村整个乡村紧密联系、人们互相交流经历，还流传着大量的传说和故事。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
And this pre-modern rural existence can only be narrated and made sense of through the mode of storytelling, for the specific sense of historicity and experience of reality as mixed with myth, legend, the magical transgress normal parameters of our modern and rational paradigm of representation. <br />
<br />
Thus the synthesis of the pre-modern, marked by both its existence and the mode of storytelling, and postmodernist mannerism with its sophisticated narrative strategies also points to an irony, in that this natural, pre-modern world can only be re-presented in very stylized devices. Here Zhang Wei encounters a similar paradox as the famous Taoist icon, Zhuang Zi. In spite of his distrust of language, Zhuang Zi could only envision the ineffable Way through language.<br />
<br />
而这种前现代的乡村只有通过故事的方式才能被叙述和理解，因为与神话、传说、魔幻混杂在一起的特定的历史感和现实体验，超过了我们现代和理性表述模式的正常感受。 <br />
<br />
因此，前现代的存在和故事模式，以这两者为标志的前现代与后现代主义方式主义以其复杂的叙事策略综合，也偏向了讽刺，即这个自然的、前现代的世界只能用非常风格化的手段来重新呈现。在这里，张炜遇到了与著名道教代表人物庄子类似的悖论。庄子尽管怀疑语言，但他只能通过语言来设想不可言说的道。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
In other words, it was through language, given humanity’s permanent separation and alienation from nature, that Zhuang Zi could imagine the existence of something beyond. Zhang Wei’s pre-modern being is by no means ineffable. Yet, its “otherness” and its alterity vis a vis the modern world can only be perceived in our modern world, and represented through sophisticated devices of modernism/postmodernism. The absolute irony that the primitive or the pre-modern cannot be envisioned and represented except in our modern cultural condition in fact exists in the very center of this utopian text, though unrealized by the author himself as he repeatedly criticizes postmodernism and denies its inevitable influence. <br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
So the natural or the pre-modern state of being as eulogized by the author is no longer the first order of naturalness, but the second order, for it is only through an elaborate narrative architecture that such primitivism and naturalness can be re-enacted. To put it in another way, in resurrecting the primitive in our postmodernist age, the author in fact brings out, though unconsciously, a fundamental truth about primitivism. The natural, organic and a-temporal world of agrarian existence represented by the Small Village is not, in fact, a utopia from which we have fallen. Rather, it derives its meaning only through its opposition to a temporal world of modern civilization. Only in contrast to this temporal world can the primordial, the timeless take on meaning as negation of historical time. <br />
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
Thus the ideal of a timeless, primordial rural past beyond modern civilization is only an ideal created in our modern times.<br />
<br />
In my discussion of modernist/postmodernist literary devices, I do not mean to label and categorize Zhang’s text as a modernist/postmodernist. Nevertheless, as seen in the above analysis, his formal strategies do share some strong features of postmodernism, or to be specific, magical realism. These features include boundary transgression, fusion and coexistence of different ontological worlds, and atemporal narrative structure. There is no doubt that Zhang Wei has succeeded in creating a world, a state of being beyond the reach of modern civilization. But his “world,” in the final analysis, can only be represented through modernist/postmodernist techniques. <br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
It is evident that the creation of this archetypal village embodies the author’s profound nostalgia for the pre-modern past and his utopian search for an ideal state of being. And this timeless place represents the author’s attempt to re-orient geographical and cultural nostalgia in China’s contemporary times from commercially stimulated nostalgia to the rural past as the fundamental Chinese root. Yet the lack of direct temporal and spatial references in the presentation of the Small Village makes his nostalgia closer to imagination, or to what David Wang called, imaginary nostalgia (1993, 107). In other words, his nostalgic representation of the Small Village is devoid of actual memory. This is particularly demonstrated in his deliberately designed a-temporal narrative structure, his foregounding of myth, legends and those magical events. <br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
Moreover, as the title indicates, the whole novel is intended by the author as a fable, rather than a history, even though it is written in a historical mode. The village’s mythic origin, its lack of sense of time, and its sudden and catastrophic ending all point to the negation of historical progression. The elaborate narrative structure betrays the imaginative and fantastic construction of this mythic past. Thus Zhang Wei’s Small Village is less a historical object of nostalgia than a topographical/textual locus where imagination and utopian discourse intermingle. In other words, as a literary construction, this phantom village comes less from the actual yearning for what has been lost than from the desire for what has never been there (Wang 1993, 130). <br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
The striking incongruity indicates the nature of nostalgia as both a textural stance as well as a structure of feeling. <br />
<br />
Nevertheless, the incongruity between formal sophistication and primitive existence is a very hallmark of literary and cultural production in our postmodernist China. In discussing the Fifth Generation Films, Rey Chow points out that primitivism is often associated with modernism/postmodernism. The “primitive passion,” according to Chow’s definition, emerges at “a moment of cultural crisis.” It is an invented fact, fabrication of a sense of the primordial, rural rootedness that occurs in the post-construction (1995, 22-23). Chow’s theory of primitive passion is based on her study of new Chinese cinema.<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
However it does shed light on our discussion of Zhang’s profound nostalgia for the rural past at the age of globalization, and on the ironic rupture between postmodernist sophistication and the pre-modern/primordial world presented in his novel. Read in intertextual relation with his essays, it is more than clear that Zhang’s re-imagining of the primordial Chinese rural past is meant to correct what he perceives as the diseased modernity and to rejuvenate Chinese culture. As a response to the cultural crisis in our globalized age, Zhang Wei has chosen the past to measure the present. <br />
<br />
The nostalgic return in Zhang Wei’s writings is in fact a kind of self-exile. Zhang Wei actually spent five years in a rustic country house (soon to be torn down) near his hometown to write this novel. <br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
There he was literally cut off from the outside world, expecting that this exile away from modern cities would get him spiritually closer to the land and nature so as to feel anew the vitality of the Chinese people, and rediscover the historical/rural root of Chinese culture. As agreed by all critics, this novel’s representation of the primordial past succeeds in bringing out a native naiveté and simplicity, a sense of gushing life force and animal virility -- the ideal form of being. However, in de-historicizing the past in order to re-imagine the golden age of the rural innocence and plenitude of meaning, the author had no alternatives but to simply let narrative play out its historical inevitability.<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
The pre-modern agrarian existence embodied by the Small Village is ultimately destroyed by modern industrialization. History then, though negated and erased by the narrative form of the novel, reasserts itself at the end. This leaves us not with a story about the slow decline of this pre-modern agrarian existence, but of its catastrophic fall. The structure of the village’s existence was in no way able to change and transform itself. This is demonstrated by the villagers’ strong resistance to outside influences represented by coal mining industry. As a result, rather than gradual transformation, the village is suddenly destroyed by industrial machine power.<br />
<br />
最终，现代工业化抹杀了小村庄所展现出的前现代农业文化。那时的历史虽因小说的叙事形式而遭否定和抹去，但在结尾时又重新跃然纸上。它为我们展现的并不是前现代农业文化缓慢地销声匿迹，而是其灾难性的衰落。这个村庄的存在结构决定了它无法自变，村民强烈抵制受到来自外界煤矿业的影响就是一个很好的证明。结果，这个村庄并没有逐步转型，而是突然摧毁于工业机器的动力。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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小村庄所体现的前现代农业生存最终被现代工业化所摧毁。那么，历史虽然被小说的叙事形式所否定和抹杀，但却在结尾处重新出现。这给我们留下的不是这个前现代农业缓慢衰落的故事，而是它灾难性的崩溃。村庄的生存结构是无论如何无法自变的，这表现在村民对以采煤业为代表的外界影响的强烈抵制。结果，这个村子不是逐步转型，而是突然被工业机器力量所摧毁。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
The moral dilemma Zhang faces in re-enacting of the Chinese rural past is similar to those encountered by root-seeking writers: the quest for the essence of “Chineseness” also leads to the discovery of unpleasant aspects in its society and cultural tradition. This moral dilemma is also reflected in the novel’s narrative form. While magical events serve to deconstruct the realist paradigm of historical representation, they at the same time also create a picture of rural life as something exotic. As David Wang points out, the object of nostalgia is also easily associated with the exotic (1993, 109). <br />
<br />
So if we have found some substance in Zhang’s novel to support his transcendent, yet empty metaphor of “land,” this “substance” remains less than compelling and appealing. <br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
A primitivistic village life can be little more than that: it is basic and instinctual, centering on food and sex. The meaning of land is closely related to food; indeed the reason the villagers stick to this land is because it can produce rich food enough to preserve their community. The carnivalesque scenes describing the village young romping in the wild fields at night, while highly acclaimed by many Chinese critics, do not, to my mind, represent an infinite solitude or a simple form of joy as much as the poverty of these lives in an extremely closed and impoverished world. This strikes an even more pathetic chord when knowing that this form of exercise will soon be transformed into wife beating and cupping when these young people grow into adulthood.<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
The extremely stable pattern of the village’s social customs, mindset, and traditions is incapable of absorbing new things, or initiating any transformation. So the static and cyclical form of existence is simply erased by the outside forces of industrialization. In a broader sense, the history of the Small Village, or rather, its fate can be seen as an allegory for Chinese traditional society which was also forced into fundamental change from the outside. Thus the Small Village reflects the broader historical impotence and lack of cultural flexibility in traditional rural China. Many critics, including the author himself, argue that the idea of Land is meant to represent a certain spirit. Nevertheless, unless located somewhere, this spirit can only remain an empty structure.<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
Nevertheless, it is precisely this structural emptiness that enables Zhang Wei to fill in many meanings throughout his essays. <br />
<br />
''Fable of September'', as well as Zhang’s essays, embody his search for truth and a moral ground based not on the rationally constructed modern world of scientific knowledge and market economy represented by urban centers, but on the simplicity of rural life. This search is rooted in the author’s disenchantment with certain aspects of modern civilization. To Zhang Wei, “Modern industrial civilization represents a form of beauty; yet this form is prone to hurt another more fundamental, more eternal beauty. Idealists all hope that these two forms of beauty can exist in harmony, without much conflict.<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
But of course, this hope is only a dream” (Xiao 1995, 193). This distrust of modern civilization also reflects in him what Raymond Williams called “rural-intellectual radicalism” (1973, 36). Indeed, as a rural intellectual (as many critics have labeled him), Zhang demonstrates many aspects of rural-intellectual mentality: hostile to modern capitalism, opposed to commercialism, and attached to country ways and feelings (Williams 1973, 36). Without doubt, ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating novel and has uttered our deepest longings and profoundest nostalgia for a pre-modern simplicity of existence free of modern-day ills like alienation and corruption.<br />
<br />
<br />
......当然，这份希望只是幻梦一场”（萧夏林 1995,193）。张炜的作品也体现了对现代文明的不信任，雷蒙德·威廉姆斯称之为“乡村知识分子激进主义”(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。确实，张炜作为一名乡村知识分子（许多批评家如此标榜他），在作品中展现了乡村知识分子的多个心理面貌：对现代资本主义的敌意，对商业主义的反抗，对乡村风情的依恋(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。毋庸置疑，《九月寓言》是一部引人入胜的小说，它表达出了现代人对过去的那种简单生活浓浓的渴望和怀旧之情，那个时候不像现代社会这样，存在人与人之间的疏离和腐败。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但当然，这种希望只是一个梦想“（萧夏林 1995，193）。 这种对现代文明的不信任也反映了雷蒙德·威廉姆斯所谓的“农村-知识分子激进主义”（威廉姆斯 1973，36）。 事实上，作为一名农村知识分子（正如许多评论家给他贴上的标签），张炜展示了农村知识分子心态的多个方面：敌视现代资本主义，反对商业主义，对乡村风情的依恋(威廉姆斯 1973，36)。 毫无疑问，《九月寓言》是一部引人入胜的小说，它表达出了现代人对过去的那种简单生活深切的渴望与怀念，那个时候不像现代社会这样，存在人与人之间的疏离和腐败。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 11:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
Nevertheless, Zhang’s use of the central concept of “land” (referring to an idealized being) as the basis for his critique of modern civilization – decrying moral decay, consumerism, dominance of popular literature and commercialization of knowledge – and his rural intellectual mentality this concept reveals betray the author’s simple-minded, essentialist, and absolutist approach to the complexity of an ever changing social and cultural reality. The reification of land in his essays lacks a broad and deep historical perspective on Chinese modernity. Commercialism and its culture have by all means contributed to the general moral decay and erosion of basic humanistic values in society, and global cultural effects lead to profounder cultural crisis.<br />
<br />
然而，张使用“土地”的中心概念（指理想化的存在）作为他批判现代文明的基础-谴责道德沦丧、消费主义、大众文学的主导地位和知识的商业化-以及他的知识分子心态-这一概念揭示了作者对不断变化的社会和文化现实的复杂性的朴素、本质主义和绝对主义的态度。 在他的散文中，土地的再化缺乏对中国现代性的广泛而深刻的历史视角。 商业主义及其文化通过各种手段促成了社会基本人文价值的普遍道德沦丧和侵蚀，全球文化效应导致了严重的文化危机。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，张把“土地”（指理想化的存在）的中心概念作为他批评现代文明的基础——谴责道德沦丧，消费主义盛行，流行文学盛行，知识商业化——这一概念揭示了他作为农村知识分子的心态，思想单纯，本质主义，以及对不断变化的社会和文化现实的复杂性采用绝对主义方法。他散文中土地的物化缺乏对中国现代性采用广阔而深刻的历史视角。商业主义和它的文化无疑导致了道德上的沦丧，也侵蚀了社会中基本的人文价值，全球文化效应导致了更深层次的文化危机。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
However, the absolute rejection of consumerism, globalism, and postmodernism fails to recognize their power and inevitability in restructuring contemporary Chinese society. The problems created by these developments have already moved the issue of solution beyond a discourse on morality. China’s ever more complex and changing social and cultural reality requires a more sophisticated and mature understanding. And finally, I would suggest that in today’s post-Cold War age in which socialism-capitalism antithesis has lost its relevance and meaning, the intellectual paradigm of confrontation must be replaced by one of negotiation. Nostalgia may always be pulling at us, and we may always be willing to indulge in a trip to the imagined past with stories like ''Fable of September.'' But as a critical stance, it does not equip us to effectively address the complex process of cultural reformation happening in contemporary Chinese and the world.<br />
<br />
Works Cited（不用翻）<br />
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Chow, Rey, Primitive Passions, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995)<br />
<br />
Benjamin, Walter, Illuminations, (New York: Schocken Books, 1968) <br />
<br />
Widmer, Ellen, and Wang, David Der-Wei, ed., From May Fourth to June Fourth, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993)<br />
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Williams, Raymond, The Country and the City (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973)<br />
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Xiao Xialin, Youfen de guitu (Anxious and indignant homeward journey) (Beijing: Huayi chubanshe, 1995)<br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi 1991, History of the Soul (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.<br />
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Zhang Chengzhi 1994a, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994)<br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi 1994b, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?”, in Wenhui Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) (August 7, 1994) <br />
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Zhang Chengzhi 1999a, Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999)<br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi 1999b, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” in Zhang 1999a<br />
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Zhang Chengzhi 1999c, “Zaizhi xiansheng,” in Zhang 1999a 100-105<br />
<br />
Zhang Wei, Jiuyue yuyan (Fable of September), in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected works of Zhang Wei). Vol. 2 (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubenshe, 1992)<br />
<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
'''Deciphering the Populist Gadfly: Cultural Polemic around Zhang Chengzhi's "Religious Sublime"''' <br />
<br />
''Xinmin Liu<br />
<br />
''<br />
'''Abstract<br />
'''<br />
<br />
Since mid-1990s the Chinese Sanwen has witnessed an upsurge by way of frantic polemics over social and cultural issues in journals, newspaper fueillton, book series and forums. In this "war of words," no writer has been as prolific, as provocative and as problematic as Zhang Chengzhi. <br />
<br />
Zhang's essays feature a scathing critique of Chinese intellectuals' lack of spiritual faith, their surrender to global consumerism and the postmodern. Driven by a populist zeal, Zhang extols Chinese muslims' devotion to their religious faith, defiance of material affluence and bond to their harsh yet unsullied habitat. His populist approach to religious transcendence in opposition to what he perceives as today's intellectual disenchantment is ambiguous and ambivalent. <br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
It wavers between subaltern politics and religious fundamentalism. It falls short of the prospect of constructing a ethnic pluralism that protects cultural differences without yielding to cultural positions that claim unique access to truth.<br />
<br />
In a polyglot age in which all has to be contested and negotiated anew, boundary- violating is the rule rather than the exception. Before the last millennium closed out, the Chinese essay thrived in an upsurge of cultural polemics, but in terms of aesthetic and ontological norms, the essayists could ill afford to stay within secure and clear-cut boundaries for long, because they often found themselves bombarded and displaced by a plethora of slippery issues, wacky themes and “roguish dilettantes.”<br />
<br />
它在次要政治和宗教原教旨主义之间摇摆。它没有建立一种可以保护文化差异而又不屈服于声称通过独特途径获得真理的文化立场的民族多元主义前景。<br />
<br />
在一个必须重新竞争和协商的多语言时代，违反边界是规则而不是例外。在上个千禧年结束之前，中国散文在文化争论中兴起。但就美学和本体论规范而言，由于经常被众多滑溜的问题，古怪的主题和“肮脏的弱势分子”轰炸而流离失所，散文家们无法长期在安全和明确的边界内停留。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 11:51, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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它在低级政治和宗教原教旨主义之间摇摆不定。它未能构建一个保护文化差异，并不屈服于声称有独特途径了解真相的文化立场的民族多元化的前景。<br />
<br />
在一个多语言的时代，一切都必须重新竞争和谈判，打破边界是规则而不是例外。在上一个千禧年结束前，中国散文在文化论战的热潮中蓬勃发展，但就美学和本体论规范而言，散文家们无法长期呆在安全和明确的界限内，因为他们常发现自己被一大堆难以捉摸的问题、古怪的主题和“无赖的业余爱好者。”驱逐出去--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:45, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
With battle lines frequently redrawn and growing ever so fuzzy, this round of cultural polemics took on the characteristics of a wild slugfest, no-holds-barred wrestling and elusive shadow boxing. But true to its essaying (or, alternatively, assaying) role, the essay form rose to the challenge with the right mix of mercurial, discordant and yet self-assured mettle. Thus, it proved most capable of lending expression to chaos, fracture and trivia of the postmodern world. One need not search far to bring this point home: the essay has lately swamped the public media with its newfangled offshoots: in addition to the common literary and political essays appeared the licai (personal financing) essay, the xiuxian (leisure/recreation) essay, the photo essay, the cyber essay and so forth. But it is with the cultural polemics of the 1990s that the readers witnessed the essay form in most amazing novelty, deftness and verve. <br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
One way to make sense of what essay form enabled the writers to achieve amid the “wars of words” (pizhan) is to take it to task by way of its intrinsic bond with cultural dialogics, i.e. to see how approaches of writing essays lead to the laying of grounds for a dialogic relationship that intersects even the most incendiary issues and dissimilar views of this discursive maze. To that end, we will focus on Zhang Chengzhi’s essays published after mid-1990s to see why a radical intellectual figure like Zhang, considered an intractable loose cannon by most, often contests and mediates, by virtue of his border-violating politics, what the cultural mainstream considers to be polemical and divisive. At once belletristic and carnivalesque, Zhang Chengzhi’s essays stood out with striking clarity and urgency, if also with unnerving uproar. <br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
Extolled by some as the author whose one book single-handedly redeemed Chinese writing of the entire twentieth century, Zhang was riding high on the tailwind of his enormously popular Xinling shi (History of the Soul, 1992) and seemed to have returned to the public forum with his discursive buoyancy revived and his sense of the “sacred” mission renewed. At first glance, this does not seem the same Zhang Chengzhi who was overwhelmed by the spiritual loftiness he had ascended to upon completing ''Xinling shi'' and pleaded to his readers in all earnest, “there will no longer be this “me” from now on. Please banish me from your memory. … I have even taken myself by surprise that with this book I could bring myself to such a screeching halt.”[ Zhang Chengzhi, ''History of the Soul'' (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.] But did Zhang ever quit the public forum and banish his voice from the on-going dialogue with his readers afterwards? <br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
And did he accidentally join the ranks of those escapist intellectuals who self-righteously beat a retreat in the face of social repression and identity dislocation of the early 1990s? <br />
<br />
Indeed, at the height of his unexpected fame in 1992,[ Zhang Chengzhi made repeated statements in his essays written around this time that he had voluntarily terminated his career as a professional writer out of his desire to be embraced by the Muslim community and out of his disgust for what writers and intellectuals in general had failed to do in the face of rampant consumerist values.] Zhang did not hesitate to declare that his career as a professional writer had come to an end, and that he would retreat to the Muslim communities in the barren loess in Northwest China to begin his new life. While it is true that he verbally renounced his faith in and severed his tie with the mainstream intelligentsia, reality has proved otherwise: he could neither disinherit the dialogic potential of his earlier essays the same way as he allegedly cast off his ''Han'' Chinese upbringing, nor disown the intellectual milieu of his growth as though it were those business cards he symbolically tore up in disgust.[ This symbolic act is given an elaborate defense in one of his “position-statement” essays, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” published in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999).] <br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
Zhang cannot give up the act of writing through which he once defied the false sanctity of official histories and celebrated the purity and incorruptibility of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims,[ A sect Chinese Muslims who are often considered the inheritor of mystical Sufis of the religion of Islam.] and to which he owed the stage for exhibiting his extraordinary discursive power as well as his reinvented ethnic identity. While still pursuing his spiritual pilgrimage as a lone warrior, he could hardly remain an intellectual recluse in an imagined sanctuary. Although his views often turned hard-edged due to his combative and self-aggrandizing tone, we need not necessarily be put off by his ill-advised posturing, which is far more rhetorical than substantive. Rather we are urged to see beyond his argumentative mode and detect that ineluctable draw of cultural dialogics that lured him to charge right back to the frontline of the discursive war zones. <br />
<br />
Zhang’s essays published since mid-1990s prove most intriguing and forceful when they give vent to his critical views that deliberately blur the boundary between personal commitment with public conscience.<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
Seldom a believer of easy cultural synthesis, Zhang thrives in getting caught in the crossfire of public debates and wreaking havoc for the intellectual mainstream whose social legitimacy has fed off a complicitous liaison with the official and the ideological center. In a sense, what constituted the identity of his previous self, i.e., the “I” who nimbly narrated a hidden history of a suppressed people in ''History of the Soul'', was a persona already poised on the borders between public outcry and personal misgiving, between official histories and popular memoirs, between discourses of cultural criticism and identity politics. Akin to the self/other-conscious tone of Martin Buber’s ''I and Thou'', Zhang’s resort to “You” side by side with “I” as his discursive partner not only denotes the presence of a dialogic partner cued up by intersubjectivity, but interjects a critical awareness to set off the “unanimous intellectual escapism.”[ Here I am quoting the phrase from Dai Jinhua’s journal article “Hidden Narratives: The Politics of Mass Culture in the 1990s.” Her view is critically assessed by Chen Jianhua in his “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” carried in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, vol. 9, Nos. 1 & 2, 113-29. ] <br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
Initially a survival tactic to avert political repression in post-1989 China, this latter movement gained popular currency in the early 1990s as some intellectuals and professionals who used to pursue political activism now withdrew into enclosed fields of specialist researches where they could claim professional excellence as their new moral high grounds and practice professional elitism as a testimony to their personal spiritual faith. These so-called “New Scholars” valorized scholarly research as “not just a matter of knowledge or profession, but more fundamentally, a form of life choice and value inquiry.”[ Chen Pingyuan, “Thoughts on Research of Scholarship History,” Xueren I, 2-6. ] Alongside this process of self-authorization, they also sported a sweeping disdain toward mass culture or other nonprofessional cultures. Was this a covert strategy of resisting moral degeneration, or a “club-spirit” rally of collective escapism in the guise of professional disinterest? <br />
<br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
Zhang’s answer rebukes the latter. Long before the first public debate over such issues took place, his own self-authorization in writing ''History of the Soul'' brought the “impartial” search for historical truth under critical scrutiny. Positing his ethnic unconscious as the testing site, Zhang launched an assault on the falsely fixed standards in writing ''Hui'' histories whose authority had been complicitous with the chauvinistic State ideology. He berated the methodological status quo in Chinese Muslim scholars’ historiography for tailoring local and ethnic memories to cater to the legitimacy of its hegemonic control. In the same vein, he called into question the validity of collecting and editing historical documents according to empiricist standards, chastising its total submission to a positivist view of historical development in the name of scholarly objectivity.<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
He specifically targeted the renowned Hui historian Yang Huaizhong whose investigation of ''munafeles'', ''Hui'' collaborators with ''Manchu'' and ''Han'' rulers, had, in Zhang’s view, internalized the reigning codes of power-knowledge alliance. Despite of his fine appraisal and extensive research, Zhang reproves Yang’s aloof stand:<br />
<br />
On the one hand, you try to reflect critically yourself and your tradition, on the other, you want to bring to light the suppression and violation committed against the human soul. How can the kind of subject you’re studying still be the same historiography? <br />
If Yang had yet to shake off the false sense of ethnic anonymity, Zhang does not make it any easier for himself when faced with the historical injustice inflicted upon the ''Huis''.<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
At the Jinji Bao, a historical site of many quelled ''Hui'' uprisings in 19th century, he could hardly help chiding himself for not “avenging the historical wrongs” as a professional historian. He confesses in a 1996 essay entitled “Odes to Waves”: <br />
<br />
It so happened that I have the fortune of being a full-fledged academic historian, yet I examined every single detail (of official records) critically but could not offer any rebuttal. It so happened that I was born of ''Hui'' parentage, yet I attempted to skirt around it but could not escape this historical site---the wintry mist shrouding Jinji Bao pounded me wave after wave, pressing me to make a pledge, to declare a ''nietie'', to make good the pledge of being dedicated to the people I took rather casually years ago. <br />
<br />
Yang Huizhong, also known as Yang Mohammed Usiar, is a well-known Hui historian who has done crucial research on 18th Century Jahriyya Muslim uprisings. Zhang’s critical comments appear in T''he Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness'' (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
This is not an occasional outburst of emotions for the sake of letting off his own guilt. This is sincere self-reproach to prod himself into keeping his ethnic memory and affective empathy from being worn thin by his years of academic studies, field work and research. Unlike the New Scholars’ chase of “disinterest” and neutrality, Zhang opts valiantly for the direction of racial and social activism: to knock down posts erected by “objective” histories, penetrate the walls of political and religious phobias and uncover the buried truths of ethnic repression and violence. One might query Zhang’s view of historical scholarship as emotive and skewed, thus running the risk of demeaning historiography into personal misgivings.<br />
<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
But in the era of cultural pluralism and ethnic identities, it is precisely the affective and personal that keep our ethnic awareness alive and urge us not to take boundaries of power and knowledge for granted. <br />
<br />
No doubt, Zhang enters the debate of “the ultimate concern” of the mid-1990s, but he does so on his terms. He puts forward an ethnographical approach consisted of a person’s affective propensities (''qinggan''), ethnic lineage (''xuetong'') and a “prefigured destiny” (''qianding''). These are interlocked and reciprocal in variety of ways to enmesh a person in a nexus of cultural dialogics. He then probes the illusion of professionalism in the form of an “originary question” (''yuanchu zhiwen'').<br />
<br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
He asks: “How do you account for your being in the face of your own soul when there is nothing scientific or ideological to fend you from this ultimate accountability?” To him what accounts for his ultimate humanist concern is his ''Hui'' ethnicity. Ethnicity, according to Michael Fischer, “ … is something dynamic, often unsuccessfully repressed or avoided. It can be potent even when not consciously taught; … something that institutionalized teaching easily makes chauvinistic, sterile, and superficial.” It is thus the “id-like” sentient and psychological that lay the ground for one’s ethnic/cultural conditioning and in turn bring it to bear upon one’s historical awareness. <br />
<br />
A sinicized Islamic term for “taking a devotional vow.” It is also known as Juyi in Chinese.<br />
Zhang 1999a, 37.<br />
Zhang Chengzhi, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125. <br />
Michael Fischer, ‘Ethnicity and the post-modern arts of memory,” in James Clifford and George Marcus, eds., Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986) 195. （文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
Being ethnically predisposed as an “other” likewise makes Zhang acutely watchful of the State’s covert practice of ethnocentrism in the name of social progress and scientific rationality. Drawing on his renewed ethnic ethos, Zhang has no qualms in issuing a call to all historians: “… disinherit the whole positivist baggage of the conventional historiography, and seek out the complex intuitive faculty of your individual soul.” <br />
<br />
What about his image of a lone moral crusader? A great deal of ruckus has been raised over Zhang’s arguably obsessive stress on the “purity” and “truthfulness” of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims; he is disparaged by some critics as “the most self-pleased” man in China today,” due precisely to his tireless and unsuspecting adoration of the close-knit and reclusive ''Jahriyya'' community.<br />
<br />
作为一个 "他者 "的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。 借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。"... 摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱" "寻找你个人灵魂的复杂直觉能力" 。<br />
<br />
他的一个孤独的道德十字军形象呢？ 张先生对''贾里雅''穆斯林的 "纯洁性 "和 "真实性 "可以说是执着地强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国 "最自得其乐 "的人，"这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、不怀好意地崇拜着封闭而隐居的''贾里雅''群体。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
作为一个“他者”的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。“……摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱”，“寻找你个人灵魂的直觉能力。”<br />
<br />
那么关于他的一个孤独的十字军形象呢？张先生对贾里雅穆斯林的“纯洁性”和“真实性”可以说是不断地进行强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国“最自得其乐 的人，”而这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、毫无戒心地崇拜着紧密而又隐居的贾里雅群体。”--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:08, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
Does this not make him one of those solitary seekers of moral perfection in a morally promiscuous age? Zhang’s admonishing axioms seem to answer in a seamless fit to Wang Xiaoming’s definition of a self-oriented search for ethical righteousness. As an alternative to the intellectuals’ direct involvement in politics of the 1980s, Wang emphasized the personal quality of ultimate concern and argued: “(1) you can only search for the ultimate value from your personal experience; (2) what you find is your own interpretation of what the ultimate value is, not the ultimate value itself.” Zhang seems to share the solitary seekers’ new sense of priorities in favoring a self-motivated quest for absent moral virtues, albeit transcendental and visionary. <br />
<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
But one facet of his writings forcefully rejects that equation: he has all along kept up public-minded criticism of social ills and moral depravities as a free-lance social/cultural critic. What the seekers of personal integrity and sublimation failed to hang onto Zhang has carried on with infinitely sharper insight and fiercer zeal.<br />
<br />
Zhang detects and detests the anxiety of these individuals to rise above the laity of social meanings and responsibilities as a way to avoid being an accomplice to ideological repression. And indeed his most scathing exposé has so far been reserved for the mainstream intellectuals rather than the money-grabbing ''New Riches'' or the consumerist mass. <br />
<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
<br />
When readers’ feedback to his ''History of the Soul'' heated up into a media squabble in 1994, Zhang burst onto the scene again with another of his tirades “Poets, why aren’t you indignant?” The essay is brimmed with scorn for the public for its total surrender to consumerism and their frantic drive for worldly pleasures; yet it is the intellectual mainstay who bear the brunt of his verbal onslaught. Zhang accused them of “selling out to monetary gains and worldly repute,” the news media of “swarming up like bees after the ‘big shots’ for petty favors and leftovers, and the cultural critics of “becoming painfully silent on any honest, principled, to-the-point criticism.” <br />
<br />
Zhang 1994a, 125.<br />
Zhang Yuanshan, “Zhang Chengzhi---the Most Self-Pleased Writer” at Xin yu si dianzi wenku (www.xys.org), listed under Zhang Yuanshan.<br />
Zhang Rulun et al, “The Humanist Spirit: whether and How Is It Possible?---Reflections on the Humanist Spirit, I” in Dushu 3: 3-13.<br />
For a fine critique of this shift of intellectual paradigm, see also Xu Ben. Disenchanted Democracy: Chinese Cultural Criticism after 1989 (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1999) 49-56. （文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
For a time, Zhang’s readers felt jabbed by his barbed comments on the gaping “void” of spiritual faith and rampant cynicism, philistinism and moral incompetence among the intellectuals. They were also exacerbated by his unmatched tribute to the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims who remained unperturbed by the hustle and bustle of economic boom elsewhere in China. All this led the public to conclude that Zhang’s posturing was cashing in on the polarization of the Haves and the Have-nots of China’s new social strata, and that with his accolades for “the poor men’s religion” he intended to push for the image of a “Me-alone Spirituality.”<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy. <br />
<br />
Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.<br />
<br />
这种严重的误解竟然成为王朔等人诋毁他而提出抗议的主要理由，指责他依靠日本和海外出版的刊物事业一心一意地发大财，却还虚伪地反过来教训国内知识分子玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。 <br />
<br />
这一切都离不开此等事实：即张先生虽然对贫困穆斯林僵化贫瘠的生活环境感到十分亲切，但他并不一定像某些批评家所标榜的那样，会对物质享受和社会发展持有偏见态度。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy. <br />
<br />
<br />
这种严重的错误认识，成了像王朔这样的诋毁者提出抗议的主要理由，他们指责他依靠在日本和海外的出版物一心只想着致富，同时又虚伪地反过来告诫国内知识分子，说他们玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。<br />
<br />
Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.<br />
<br />
事实并非如此：尽管张先生对贫困穆斯林的僵硬贫瘠的生活环境感到熟悉亲切，但他并不一定像一些批评家所说的那样，对物质享受或社会发展抱有偏见。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 16:09, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
Rather, he is adamant with the intellectuals’ frailties in the face of social malfunction and injustice as a result of harried economic policies, and he is outspoken about what little critical awareness the educated class can foster against the blindly raging “market forces” and the new alliances of wealth and power. In 1999, Zhang wrote a sequel “Again to the Honorable Teacher” to his 1991 tribute to Lu Xun, in which he firmly declares that he will not back down from his previous judgment on Lu Xun’s misfortune---why Lu Xun chose not to leave us a legacy of great volumes of scholarly or professional worth.<br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi and Zhang Wei initiated a heated round of ''bizhan'' (pen-combats) in the Literary Supplement of ''Wenhui'' Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) over the issue of mass consumption and culture with many writers who are more sympathetic with the marketized economy and consumerist culture. This essay by Zhang---“Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” is featured as the leading editorial on August 7, 1994. <br />
Zhang Chengzhi, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” in ''Wenhui'' Bao (Shanghai) (August 7, 1994).<br />
For further detail of this dispute, read Geremie Barmé, ''In the Red: On Contemporary Chinese Culture'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999) 304-309. （文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
相反，他坚持知识分子在面对经济政策所导致的社会失灵和不公正时的脆弱性，并直言不讳地说，受过教育的阶层在对抗盲目肆虐的“市场力量”和新的财富和权力联盟方面，能够培养出什么样的批判意识。1999年，张艺谋为纪念1991年的鲁迅写了一部续集《再次献给这位可敬的老师》，在这本书里，他坚定地宣称，他不会放弃先前对鲁迅不幸的判断——为什么鲁迅选择不给我们留下大量学术或专业价值的遗产。张承志、张炜在《文汇报》文艺副刊（上海文汇报）上，与许多对市场化经济和消费主义文化比较同情的作家，就大众消费与文化问题展开了一轮激烈的笔战。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 02:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
相反，他坚持知识分子在面对经济政策所导致的社会失灵和不公正时的脆弱性，并直言不讳地说，受过教育的阶层在对抗盲目肆虐的“市场力量”和新的财富和权力联盟方面，能够培养出什么样的批判意识。1999年，张艺谋为纪念1991年的鲁迅写了一部续集《再次献给这位可敬的老师》，在这本书里，他坚定地宣称，他不会放弃先前对鲁迅不幸的判断——为什么鲁迅选择不给我们留下大量学术或专业价值的遗产。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
In fact, Zhang now argues, in less sarcastic yet firmer terms, why Lu Xun’s solitary yet relentless social and cultural crusades are gaining rather losing currency in 1990s’ China. He writes:<br />
<br />
The populace in this nation have little power or scarce hope. But they are quick to discover: when they suffer and despair under the heavy burden of tyrannical rule of the bureaucratic few, “the intellectual class” turn out to be, after politicians and money, another cruel oppressor. The broad masses want nothing more than being fed and clothed. But they need the intellectuals to keep up the basic and constant criticism of the social elite and the powerful. Otherwise, their plight would be unthinkable. <br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
We, as readers of Lu Xun’s ''zawen'', are surely struck by the familiar wording, the similar tone, and the unyielding views that have implausibly found their way back into Zhang’s essays over half a century later. We are also surprised at how candid and unaffected he is when making such social commentary from a position comparable to the Great Lu Xun. <br />
<br />
One is tempted to ask: is Zhang grandstanding? I think not. However, the causes for leaping to charges against his feisty offensive are worth looking into: they are, ironically, spawned off the same binary frame of mind that has been consistently used by the CCP ideologues to denounce the inroads made by “liberal bourgeois values;” yet such a frame of mind is also replicated by many of Zhang’s critics at home and overseas.<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
Odd bedfellows resting on the same cultural logic, they argue that criticism of the intellectuals’ dislocation and impotence in current China is motivated by the either/or option. One is either directed by a regressive Party-led agenda to exert the authority of socialist ideological legacy while intimating their message amidst the consumerist ambience. Or he/she is motivated by a dissenting political force to jump-start a new round of political subversion while laying itself open to patronage of the West (mainly America)-centered global order. Zhang’s detractors from both these stances see eye-to-eye on his role in today’s cultural politics, following the either/or mode of straightjacket thinking.<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
But I believe he is neither a firebrand of old egalitarian idealism nor an extremist with religious fundamentalist zeal. His self-styled apologist persona is neither a haughty custodian of monolithic values, nor a self-righteous model of narcissistic purity and perfection, nor a slick po-mo master showcasing newly imported goods. His is more of a lone outlaw in a “mobile warfare” in the Gramchian sense: preying on the unjust and corrupt elite, yet forever keeping the society at large at bay. <br />
<br />
Take the case of Zhang’s attitude towards “the people.” Pervasive social and cultural changes triggered by State-endorsed market economy had been set in place in China by mid-1990s which had led to seismic dislocation and reordering across the entire social spectrum.<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
The result is that familiar notions such as “the people” had been stripped of their usual ideological moorings, whereas the newly emerged social grouping was yet to be reckoned with. While the recent cultural warfare has struck a bitter discord between the Liberals and the New Leftists over the definition of the masses (''dazhong''), Zhang has been relentlessly lucid and unambiguous who they are---those of the disadvantaged and the impoverished in China today. He is evidently critical of the Liberals who are eager for China to partake of a global economic order and evolve into a liberal society with a rising middle class as the nucleus of its civic values, but tend to lose sight of how this class of well-off Chinese (most notably the New Riches) can emerge without tipping economic and social imbalances towards those at the lower rungs of the social ladder.<br />
<br />
其结果是，人们熟悉的概念，如“人民”，已被剥夺了他们通常的意识形态根基，而新出现的社会群体还有待考虑。虽然最近的文化战争在自由主义者和新左派对“大众”的定义上产生了激烈的分歧，但张却毫不含糊地明确了他们是谁——当今中国的弱势群体和贫困群体。他显然是重要的自由主义者,他们迫切希望中国参与全球经济秩序和发展成一个自由与崛起的中产阶级社会作为其公民价值观的核心,但往往忽视这类富裕的中国人(尤其是新兴富人群体)的出现，而不引爆经济和社会失衡以及影响刚刚起步的社会主义事业。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
其结果是，"人民 "等熟悉的概念已被剥去了惯常的意识形态寄托，而新出现的社会群体却还没有被重视起来。 当最近的文化战在自由派和新左派之间就大众（''大中''）的定义发生激烈的争执时，张先生却毫不留情地明确了他们是谁--当今中国的弱势群体和贫困者。 他显然对自由派提出了批评，他们渴望中国参与全球经济秩序，并发展成为一个以中产阶级为公民价值核心的自由社会，但却往往忽视了这个富裕的中国阶层（最主要的是新富阶层）如何能够在不使经济和社会失衡向社会底层倾斜的情况下出现。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:39, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
For that matter, he is also adamant with the Po-Mo culturalists whose extreme ''kowtowing'' to the market culture and its mass consumers is, by way of an odd twist, turned into propelling forces for the predominantly ''Han'' Chinese to regain a very ethnocentric mode of self-empowering in a renewed East-West confrontation.<br />
<br />
Although Zhang’s view on “the people” is in close proximity to those of the New Leftists, he does not convey them as if they were their carbon copies. Instead he distills the critical efficacy of their combat with the deceptive “mass culture” and implants it in his border-violating strategy as a mobile yet vital critiquing position.<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
Contrary to what he sometimes claims---to jettison the culpable intellectuals in the name of “religious” purity, Zhang has always felt the urge to recharge the power of the intellectual self as expository but not dispossessing, diagnostic but not agnostic, and independent but not self-insulating. The key to his border-crossing self is a dialogic interplay among multiple viable postures of the self while never allowing the self to be tied to a single rigid form of it. It is by negotiating between these individual stances of conviction that Zhang aims to create a vigilant and constructive ambience to see to the redress of social injustice. While revisiting Lu Xun in “Again to the Honorable Teacher,” he avidly called on Chinese intellectuals to embark on a solitary but enduring quest for the interests of the people at the lower rungs of the society.<br />
<br />
For further readings on this dispute, read Li Shitao, ed. Zhishi fengzi lichang: ziyou zhiyi zhizheng yu zhongguo xixiangjie de fenghua (The Position of Chinese Intellectuals: The divided intellectual circle over the issue of Liberalism) (Changchun: Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000).（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
与他有时声称的那样——以“宗教”纯洁的名义抛弃应受谴责的知识分子，张先生总有一种冲动，那就是，要把知识分子自我的力量重新注入，做到说教而不是剥夺，诊断而不是不可知论，独立但不自我隔离。他跨越边界的自我的关键是在自我的多种可行姿势之间的对话互动，而不允许自我被束缚在单一的僵硬形式上。正是通过这些个人信念立场之间的协商，张先生旨在创造一种警惕和建设性的氛围，以期纠正社会不公。他在《重温恩师》一书中重温鲁迅时，热切地呼吁中国的知识分子开始一种孤独而持久的追求社会下层人民的利益的道路。<br />
<br />
关于这一争议的进一步解读，请阅读李世涛主编《知识分子立场:自由主义之争与中国思想界的分化》（中国知识分子的立场：自由主义问题上的分裂的知识界）(Changchun: Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000)。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
To engage in a dialogue with these masses, he observes, is for the intellectuals “to forever keep a watchful custody of such people against the socially established and the powerful.” And the masses will discover Zhang’s polemical writings, much as they did Lu Xun’s Zawen in 1930s, “there is always someone like Lu Xun who is cussing his heart, all alone in his crusade.” <br />
<br />
'''Discussion of this chapter: The ''xiaopin wen'' between ''xianshi sanwen'' and ''zawen'''''<br />
<br />
''King-Fai Tam''<br />
<br />
I would first of all like to commend the contributors of this chapter for their original, well researched and well articulated papers which represent a diversity of angles of approaching the study of essays, while sharing an interest in the polemical nature of the genre. <br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi, “Zaizhi xiansheng” in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Changsha: Hunan chubanshe, 1999) 100-105.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
他发现，与这些民众的对话是为了让知识分子”对反社会和反权利人群永远保持警惕”。而且这些民众会发现张的议论文，就像他们在1930年代对鲁迅《杂文》所做的一样，“总有人像鲁迅一样，独自一人在呕心沥血地讨伐。”<br />
<br />
'''本章讨论：实现散文和杂文中的小品文'''<br />
<br />
''谭景辉''<br />
<br />
首先，我想向为本章提供原始资料作出贡献的人表示感谢，经深度探索且表达清楚的论文可以在分享对散文体裁辩论本质的兴趣时，从多个角度来呈现散文研究现状。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 02:28, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
Together, they constitute an eye-opener for me, given my interest in ''xiaopin'' wen and other similar works with a lyrical bent that shy away from discursiveness and argumentation. If the ''xiaopin'' wen writers have anything to say about politics and society, it is often with a bemused tone; and the most that one can expect from them is a lamentation of some unjust social phenomenon, accompanied perhaps by an expression of outrage and an ineffectual cry for change. In that sense, ''xiaopin'' wen can be said to have rejected one the basic tenets of the essay as a process of experimentation, questioning, reflection, and, indeed, essaying. Too often, it gestures superficially to the analysis of an issue, only to come down heavily on an emotional response at the end.<br />
<br />
鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，''xiaopin''wen可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 13:21, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界，让我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品产生了兴趣，。 如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，“小品”文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:47, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，小品文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，''小品''文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
Yet, the four contributions to this chapter point out that there is a bigger world in the study of essays beyond ''xiaopin'' wen. The essay can, as Mary Scoggin argues, be cantankerous, recalling the image of a spear and a dagger, where one piece of ''zawen'' is more likely to elicit an equally cantankerous response than to put an issue to rest. With good reasons, we describe such exchanges as ''pizhan'' (battling with the pen). The essay is also a site where the essayist can consciously sculpt an image of himself, as Lu Jie and Liu Xinmin show in the cases of Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi.<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
Moreover, while one single piece of essay is indeed different from a treatise in that its brevity makes it ill-equipped to address an issue in great depth, essayists such as Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi can resort to voluminous output, exhaustively exploring different shades of a question in one essay after another to build up a coherent position. Wang Ban furthermore approaches the essay as a sensibility, or a structuring device, with which a writer tells and retells a story, puts forward a proposition and modifies or denies it. As such, it replaces the novel as the form that best captures the consumerist ethos of urban China in the 1990s.<br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
Yet, if a literary genre can take up so many shapes and forms, are we still justified to consider these shapes and forms as a uniform entity, to be analyzed and studies with the same methodology ? In my study of the essay, I have often been confronted with this question. In the New England Association of Asian Studies conference in October last year I raised a similar query in response to the presentations of Alexandra Wagner, Martin Woesler and Xinmin Liu: in what way can we consider works as diverse as those of Feng Zhi, Qu Qiubai, and a group of other writers that we discussed that day as essays? Now, in light of the four papers of this chapter, I would like to ask the same question again. <br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
I will take the clue from Wang Ban when he considers the “polemic pole” for the essay, i.e., that which the essay stands against, and see whether we can understand what essay is but finding out what it is not. At different historical junctures and in different cultural contexts, the essay has served as the voice of the opposition and the marginal. Wang Ban has already alluded to Adorno’s “The Essay as Form” to underscore the institutional system of philosophy, the discourse of scientific positivism, and its attendant socio-cultural conditions of reification, to which the essay stands in opposition. Likewise, one can find a late twentieth-century parallel where the articulation of feminism and decolonization often takes the form of the essay.<br />
<br />
我将从王班思考文章的“论战极点”，即文章所反对的东西，来寻找线索，看看我们能否理解文章是什么，但找出它不是什么。在不同的历史节点和文化语境中，散文充当了反对派和边缘者的声音。王班已经提到阿多诺的“文章形式”来强调哲学的制度体系、科学实证主义的话语以及与其相伴随的物化的社会文化条件，而阿多诺的“文章形式”是与之对立的。同样，我们可以找到二十世纪后期的一个平行，女权主义和非殖民化的表述经常以文章的形式出现。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
我将从王班提出的文章的“论战极点”，即文章所反对的东西入手，看我们能否理解文章而不是发现它的局限。在不同的历史节点和文化语境中，散文充当了反对派和边缘者的声音。王班已经提到阿多诺的“文章形式”来强调哲学的制度体系、科学实证主义的话语以及与其相伴随的物化的社会文化条件，而阿多诺的“文章形式”是与之对立的。同样，我们可以找到二十世纪后期的一个平行，女权主义和非殖民化的表述经常以文章的形式出现。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:59, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
Yet, in the Chinese context, even if we narrow it down to the last two decades of the twentieth century, it is not entirely clear what the polemic pole of the essay is. Wang Ban believes that the polemical pole to contemporary Chinese essays to be identified as the Enlightenment and Marxist paradigm of teleological history and its literary counterpart: the novel of “revolutionary realism.” For the zawen she is examining, Mary Scoggin suggests that ''zawen'' spits in the face of a “discourse of beauty” that serves to mute criticism in ''the'' name of social and rhetorical graciousness, an attitude that essentially forbids ''zawen'' writers to say anything if they cannot think of something nice to say.<br />
<br />
然而，在中国的环境之下，即使我们把范围缩小到20世纪最后20年，也不能完全弄清楚散文的极点是什么。王班认为，当代中国散文的论极要确定为启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学的对应物："革命现实主义 "的小说。玛丽-斯科金在研究杂文以后认为，杂文对所谓“美的篇章”十分唾弃，以直白、朴实的语言来噎住批评，而这种态度实质上是禁止“杂文”作家在想不出好话时再说什么。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
Zhang Chengzhi, Xinmin’s subject, has made it abundantly clear that his essays are manifestations of a historical method that deconstructs Han chauvinism even as he has little by way of counter evidence to go by. Like Wang Ban, Lu Jie also pits the essay against the novel, but for a different reason, and with findings intriguingly different from that of Wang Ban. Wang Ban attributes the “metafictional” signs in Wang Anyi’s ''Shushu di gushi'' to the intrusion of the essayist sensibilities. In other words, it is her essayist touch that accounts for the tentativeness of her narrative. On the other hand, Lu Jie succeeds in showing that Zhang Wei the novelist is much more tentative and equivocal than Zhang Wei the essayist.<br />
《新民》的主体，张承志已经非常清楚地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。和王班一样，卢杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，他的发现与王班的截然不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格造成了她的叙述的不确定性。另一方面，卢杰成功地展示了小说家张伟比散文家张伟更加犹豫不决和模棱两可。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:49, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
张承志是《新民》的主人公，他非常直白地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。如同王班，陆杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，并且他的发现与王班的完全不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格导致她的叙述带有不确定性。另一方面，陆杰成功地展示了一个事实——小说家张伟，比散文家张伟，更加犹豫不决，更加模棱两可。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
Even if one were to maintain that ''Jiuyue yuyan'', like ''Shushu di gushi'', is informed by the essayist sensibilities, one still has to consider why Zhang Wei’s essays are more categorical, and hence more simplistic and reductionist, in their assertion than the novel, whose meaning requires considerable teasing out. What is one to make of this discrepancy between Wang Anyi and Zhang Wei? What does it say about the two writers? And what do they have to say, if anything, about the essay and the novel?<br />
<br />
即使有人坚持认为《九月寓言》和《叔叔的故事》一样，都是受散文家的情感影响的，但我们还是要思考为什么张炜的散文在论断上比小说更直截了当，也因此更为简单明了，而他的小说的意义却需要相当多的梳理推敲。怎么去理解王安忆和张炜之间的这种差异呢？对于这两位作家有什么看法呢？他们对这篇文章和小说有什么要说的吗？<br />
<br />
In various ways, our contributors also look into the self-image the essayists construct for themselves as they participate in the cultural polemics at the end of the century.<br />
<br />
在本世纪末的文化论战中，我们的撰稿人也从不同的角度审视了散文家为自己建构的自我形象。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
Gone, apparently, is the supercilious pose of the ''xianshi'' essayist who, to paraphrase Lu Xun’s famous translation of Kuriyagawa Hakuson, “sits in a rocking chair by the stove in winter or puts on a bathrobe in summer to drink tea and chat casually with one’s good friends about things that do not give one a headache.” Rather, as our contributors succeed in pointing out, headache is precisely what our essayists aim to provide. Even though they also affect varying degrees of reclusivity or compromise, they always come back later to the polemic fray with renewed vigor. I have in mind such instances as Zhang Wei’s repeated claim to find a monastery in the mountains where he will study all by himself for a year even as he goes around giving advice to his readers on how best to resist the corrupting influences of mass culture. <br />
<br />
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
Similarly, the ''zawen'' writer distance themselves from the overtly declamatory tone with the sole purpose of making their gripes more readily stomachable, and their voices more readily heard. Zhang Chengzhi’s temporary withdrawal into religious isolation is another example, for, after a brief period of reclusivity, he enters once again the public sphere with deeper conviction and a broader agenda. In light of Wang Ban’s discussion, Wang Anyi’s case is perhaps less clear-cut than the rest. To be sure, she seems to have adapted rather well to the new consumerist society that commodifies literature; yet, it is clear that there is a serious intent in her deployment of the essayist sensibilities. <br />
<br />
==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
In fact, to the extent that ''Shushu di gushi'' has challenged the master-narrative with which the life’s progress of a rehabilitated rightist is often told, I would argue that the essayist sensibilities, far from being irrelevant to history, can be put to historical use. The works of Zhang Wei, Zhang Chengzhi and Shao Yanxiang can perhaps supply us with a footnote to the historical relevance of the essay.<br />
<br />
'''The 20th Century Chinese Essay - Characteristics, Actors, and Trends'''<br />
<br />
''Martin Woesler''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
In the first part of my paper, which deals with the characteristics of the essay, I will start with a definition of the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form: “Essay”, in Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文, is a genre term for shorter, self-contained nonfictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question using a subjective I-perspective.<br />
<br />
其实，在某种程度上，《叔叔的故事》挑战了万能叙事模式，这种模式通常讲的是改造后的右翼分子生活得到了改善。在我看来，散文家的敏感性绝不是与历史无关的，它可以用在历史上。张伟、张成志、邵延翔等人的作品或许可以为这篇文章的历史关联性提供一个注脚。<br />
<br />
'''20世纪中国论文--特点、角色及其趋势'''<br />
<br />
''Martin Woesler''<br />
<br />
'''摘要'''<br />
<br />
本文第一部分论述散文的特点，首先，我将散文定义为一种自由形式的非虚构性主观表征。"Essay"，中文为''散文''，指较短的、自成一体的非虚构性文体，其作者试图用主观的“我”的视角来表达个人对某一对象或问题的体验。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 02:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
I will introduce the hypothesis that the Chinese and the Western essays belong to the same international genre and try to prove it by showing cross-cultural similarities both in form and content. However, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay, which I will name.<br />
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In the second part, I try to narrate the beginnings of the rediscovery of the essay in the early 1980s. Not before 1995 did international scholarship start to use common philological methods to explore single essayists or the essays of groups and to write a history of the Chinese essay. Then I will show the topical development of political and apolitical essays.<br />
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In the third part, I will ask, who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century? <br />
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==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
I will introduce Lu Xun, with his sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. Analysis reveals that he still remains the most-read essayist, not because of his ''zawen'', but because of his reminiscences and lyrical essays. Using the examples of the most often reprinted essays, “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b), “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924), “Wild Vegetables of my Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925), “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974) and “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b), I will show that moving essays form the top tier of the genre. I will also try to stimulate further analytic works by giving hints for examples of promising intertextual and intersubjective comparison.<br />
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==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
In the fourth section, I will name contemporary trends in essay writing. After the Cultural<br />
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Revolution essays came from the perspective of an authentic eye. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism demanded a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tried to give a personal orientation, as essayists pleaded for moral virtues. Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s were written with a kind of new subjectivism, targeted away from contemporary contradictions but appealing to the feelings of the audience by creating either a positive or a negative world. <br />
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The fast-paced nature of current Chinese society demands diverting and short texts. There is also increasing consciousness of individuality, for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem which is mediated by its metrical and formal demands.<br />
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在第四部分，我将列举当代散文写作的趋势。在文革之后，散文变得写实。尤其是在20世纪80年代和90年代，个人主义对个人消费的满足进行反思；像散文家呼吁美德一般，他们也尝试提供人生导向。其它20世纪80年代和90年代的散文以新主观主义写作，不再聚焦当代矛盾，而是创造出一个或是积极或是消极的世界来和读者产生共鸣。<br />
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当今中国社会快节奏的本质需要有趣且简短文本。人们对个性也越来越关注，而散文就是最直观的个人表达形式，诗歌与之相比还受到了格律和形式的限制。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 00:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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第四部分，我将阐述当代散文写作的趋势。文革后，散文开始写实。从20世纪80年代开始，尤其是在90年代，个人主义对个人消费需求的满足进行批判性的反思；正如散文家呼吁美德一般，他们也尝试提供人生导向。八九十年代的其他散文则以新的主观主义作为写作目标，不再聚焦当代矛盾，而是通过营造一个积极或消极的世界和读者产生共鸣。<br />
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当今中国社会快节奏的特点要求文字有趣而简短。人们的个性意识也在不断增强，而散文是最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比要求以格律和形式为中介的诗歌更加直接。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
In China we see a renewed interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s and 30s. We become conscious of the banality of daily life when it is being used as a literary topic, as in the essay, which most commonly treats the genre of everyday life. The de-ideologization of Chinese society led to a rediscovery of the apolitical essays, dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished; the only political relic is patriotism, for example expressed in the monograph published in 1996, ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see ''China can say no''!).<br />
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在中国，我们能看到如同二十世纪二十年代至二十世纪三十年代，通过论文这一媒介，人们又有了兴趣讨论社会政治问题。当日常生活被用作文学主题时，我们就会意识到其平庸，就像在散文中一样，散文通常是针对日常生活的体裁。中国社会的去意识形态化，导致了民国时期，特别是1923 - 1928年的非政治性散文的重新发现。20世纪90年代，80年代政治批评的散文式文化消失了;唯一的政治遗迹是爱国主义，例如1996年发表的专著《中国可以说不!》-冷战后政治和情感的可能性”(见《中国可以说不》!)''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see ''China can say no''!).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:35, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
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'''1. CHARACTERISTICS<br />
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1.1 Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''<br />
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Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with ''xiaoshuo'' (fiction), sanwen (here in the broader meaning non-fictional prose)), lyrics ''shige'' (lyrics) and ''xiqu'' (drama). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term “''wu yunwen''” which corresponds to the term “epic” in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground. In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet.<br />
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1. 特征<br />
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1.1将本文定义为一种非虚构的主观自由表现形式<br />
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与国际文学类似，中国文学的基本细分一般是三类：史诗（小说、散文（这里指广义的非虚构散文））、诗歌和戏剧）。虽然没有纯正的史诗形式，但小说和散文常常被合称为中文的“无韵文”对应西方的“史诗”一词。从性质上看，这几种类型可以大致区分为以下几种。在史诗中，过去的事件被重述，一个宽广的、充实的故事占据了重要位置。在歌词中，鼓励读者去感受诗人当前的感觉，往往是告白式的感受。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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'''1. 特征<br />
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1.1 将散文定义为一种非虚构的主观自由表现形式'''<br />
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和国际文学一样，中国文学一般细分为三类：即史诗（包括小说、散文（这里指广义的非虚构散文））、诗歌和戏剧。小说和散文虽然没有纯正的史诗形式，但人们通常把他们合称为“无韵文”，这里中文的“无韵文”对应西方的“史诗”一词。这三种类型从本质上来说大致可以通过以下方式来区分：在史诗中，过去的事件被重述，一个广阔充实的故事主导了前景。在诗歌中，鼓励读者去感受诗人当时告白式的感觉。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 12:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.<br />
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“Essay,” Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文 , is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Free-dom in form and content is essential for the essay.<br />
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该剧直接在独白或对话中唤起了一个独立的情节，并以此减轻了读者/观众的创造性想象力。 这篇散文作为史诗体裁的文章是一种自由形式的超脱的非虚构主观表现形式。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“Essay”的中文即散文，主要是较短的、自成体系的非虚构散文的流派，作者试图从主观角度调解对象或问题的个人经验。 这样，从不同方面进行了关联性的尝试，而不是作为日常使用的文本，而是通过艺术或教育上要求苛刻的语言手段进行了尝试，但仍以可访问的形式进行。 散文内容完全由散文家掌握，并且可以在更大的范围内了解主旨，甚至可以幽默地对其进行介绍。 形式和内容的自由对散文来说至关重要。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, subcategoring the essay in too many small entities, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.<br />
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Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems.<br />
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不同的观点在国际类型的文章：体裁主要是文学的分工，通过文学的学术专门思考，为了能够更容易地比较类似的文本。另一方面，在太多的小实体中对这篇文章进行了归类，在解释学的发现中质疑了这种划分的意义。人们还必须意识到文学本身不断变化的性质和科学观点的相对性，这仍然是一个及时的问题，即使它在国际上被接受。<br />
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地域差异对文章的重要性似乎不如对短篇小说、小说等已有的体裁那么大，而对诗歌的重要性则要小得多。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.<br />
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In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. <br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay. Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay). <br />
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The choice of the term “''sanwen''” instead of “''suibi''” (familiar essay) or “''xiaopin wen''” (short literary piece) is of course arbitrary, but it corresponds to the present usage. In about 200 essay collections and histories between 1949 and 1996 known to the author, ''sanwen'' turned out to be the common expression, ''xiaopin'' was used only in one out of 25 essay titles of the PR China, in one out of 14 Taiwanese, and one out of ten Hong Kong publications.（文献无需翻译）<br />
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这是中国现代散文属于国际散文文体的第二个暗示。尽管写“短故事”的"短篇小说"的翻译被普遍接受，但两者之间的联系却不如西方散文和中国散文紧密。这一定义是我从5000多篇现代中国论文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对这篇论文的特殊理解。<br />
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当然，用“散文”代替“随笔”或“小品文”是随意的，但它符合现在的用法。在1949年至1996年作者所知的约200本杂文集和历史中,“散文”更为常见,而只有1/25的中国文章标题、1/14的台湾出版物，以及1/10的香港出版物使用“小品文”。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这是中国现代散文属于国际散文文体的第二个表现。尽管大众普遍接受“短故事”和"短篇小说"的翻译，但两者之间的联系却不如西方散文和中国散文紧密。这一定义是我从5000多篇现代中国论文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对这篇论文的特殊理解。<br />
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当然，用“散文”代替“随笔”或“小品文”是随意的，但它符合现在的用法。在1949年至1996年作者所知的约200本杂文集和历史中,“散文”更为常见,而只有1/25的中国文章标题、1/14的台湾出版物，以及1/10的香港出版物使用“小品文”。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it “Chinese”? In the occidental essay the ''form'' seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework. This can be shown with Cheng Ming-Lee, who subcategorises the “unfinished diary” or the “unfinished letter”. Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Cheng Ming-Lee: “essay in diary form” and “essay in letter form,” see Cheng Ming-Lee), they are accepted as essays.<br />
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周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中文杂文还具有地方特色。 中文杂文如何在文化上定义，是什么让其更加“中国化”？ “形式”在西方杂文里，比在中文散文中，更为一个重要的区分标准。 在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。 程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。 只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中国散文还具有地方特色。从文化上来看，如何定义中国散文，是什么让其更加“中国化”？与中国散文相比，“形式”在西方散文中似乎是更为重要的区分标准。 在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。 程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。 只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
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This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén''“non-rhythmic prose,” which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning “short literary essay pieces”.<br />
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Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.<br />
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这种对中国论文的倾向性更广泛的理解可以直接追溯到“sanwen（散文）”一词的中文含义：“wúyùnwén（无韵文）”，“非韵律散文”，它最初是指所有非虚构的散文。 在这种更广泛的含义上，它还包括个人或日常使用的文本。 但是，我只用狭义的“散文”来处理“sanwen”。<br />
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进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内涵，并表现出重复性和俗语性等风格特征。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
在中国，这种对散文更广泛理解的趋势，可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文里所具有的内涵:“无韵文”“非韵律散文”，最初指的是所有非虚构的散文。在这个更广泛的意义上，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但我说的“散文”只是狭义的“短篇小片段”。进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、用语等文体特征。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
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'''1.2 I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.'''<br />
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Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay. <br />
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In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).<br />
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'''1.2我将介绍发现散文的开端'''<br />
从1979年开始，虽然散文写作增多，但却在十年之后才首次产生对这一现象的理论思考。又过了十年，国际汉学界才开始意识到散文现象。 <br />
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20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和收集散文的方式对散文文学进行重大的反思，这些反思首先集中在鲁迅等个别作家的散文作品上。另外，90年代的两次散文会议也没有显示出国际学术研究的动向。1995年以后，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（关于梁漱溟[梁锡华] 库宾1995年，关于王蒙 沃斯勒1995年，关于刘再复 曼斯伯格1995年[未发表]）或群体散文家的散文（ 关于新月派 "瓦格纳 1996年）。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 07:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
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Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998). For the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, see Lau/Goldblatt, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996, see Denton).<br />
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Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones. In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th.<br />
直到90年代后半期，才开始用西方语言学的手段研究中国散文（吴莫汀 1998）。散文第一次作为与小说、诗歌同等的文体被收入西方文学选集（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》1995，见劳/葛浩文 《中国现代文学思潮》1996，见丹东）。<br />
中国台湾和西方对散文的重视存在着地区差异。在美国，人们往往按照西方人的口味来选择散文，完全不知名的作家和知名作家一样，都会得到同样多的篇幅。在台湾，鲁迅被雪藏了很久，而如今，在我所进行的关于90年代发行量最多的中国散文家排行榜中，鲁迅排行第16位。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 15:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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直到90年代后半期，才开始用西方语言学的手段研究中国散文的历史（Woesler 1998）。散文第一次作为与小说、诗歌同等的文体被收入西方文学选集（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》1995，见劳/葛浩文，《中国现代文学思潮》1996，见丹东）。<br />
中国台湾和西方对散文的重视存在着地区差异。在美国，散文往往按照西方人的口味被人们选择，完全不知名的作家和知名作家一样，都会得到同样多的篇幅。在台湾，鲁迅被雪藏了很久，而如今，在我所进行的关于90年代发行量最多的中国散文家排行榜调查中，鲁迅排在第16位。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 03:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
<br />
If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode, 50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br />
<br />
Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation. Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai [announced]) or already published (Pollard 1999, Woesler 2000). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. Most of the contributors to the collection in hand met in 2000 on a first international conference on the essay.<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
<br />
In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.<br />
<br />
'''1.3 20th Century Development and Hindrances'''<br />
<br />
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.<br />
<br />
==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
<br />
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. (Yu Guangzhong's essay “The Wolves are Coming” shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting, see Yu Guangzhong 1977.) The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educatio-nal claim with the exception of essays which claim to be “art pourt l'art”.<br />
<br />
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda.<br />
<br />
而在20世纪80年代，政治问题在关于最佳社会制度的讨论（也在一般文学和电影中）中复兴。到了20世纪90年代，散文家们重新定义了自己的角色，首先是与大众的消费取向相对应。（余光中的散文《狼来了》表明，意识形态的视角不仅仅破坏了大陆的散文创作，见余光中1977年）。这篇散文似乎是中国唯一一个保持其教育主张的体裁，除了那些号称“艺术的散文”。<br />
我提到了缺乏西方语言的翻译。其中一个原因可能是一些学者的印象，认为许多中国散文只是宣传。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
划词翻译<br />
20 世纪 80 年代，在讨论社会的最佳制度时，政治问题又出现了复苏，(也包括在一般的文学和电影中) 在 20 世纪 90 年代变成了纯粹的非政治性和更具哲学性的-道德主题，在那里，散文家定义了他们的角色，首先是要与大众的消费取向相对应。余光忠的“狼来了”一文表明，意识形态的视角不仅损害了中国大陆的文学创作，参见余光中 1977 年的作品) 似乎是中国唯一保留其教育主张的体裁，但主张“艺术是艺术”的论文除外。<br />
<br />
我提到缺乏西方语言的翻译。其中一个原因可能是一些学者的印象，许多中国的文章只是宣传。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
<br />
This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.<br />
<br />
在20世纪40年代甚至50年代，这可能是真的，但如今，正如绝大多数出版物所证明的那样，情况已经改变了。这需要更仔细的观察:自1949年以来,在政治上积极的文学一直在政府的鼓励下,导致了统计上的悖论:在20世纪90年代的散文家中，大多数人不是持肯定态度的作者而是持批判态度的散文家，他们的文章是非政治的、有时甚至带有挑衅特征，以此来反对为政治服务的秩序。在20世纪90年代，中华人民共和国二三十年代的文本仍然和当代中国的文本一样被重印。显然，我们可以得出这样的结论:20世纪50年代的政治肯定随笔只存在于特殊的政治随笔集中，在21世纪初，当代著名作家的作品和中国读者的阅读都将不复存在。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
In restrictive regimes, where freedom of speech is not guaranteed, people still have different political ideas. To speak out directly is unhealthy, so in these countries people use art to express their differences. The most direct way of expressing political ideas in art is literature. To trick the censors, one must find indirect ways of expression. In an exhibition of ''Tendency Quarterly'', 16 banned Chinese magazines were displayed. Most of the magazines choose the poem as their favorite form to express political thoughts. After having been banned, some magazines went abroad and now are published in exile. The internet has added a number of underground magazines, which are available also inside mainland China. In the last years of the 20th century, one can find an increase of essays in these magazines. This might be a hint, that the authors dare to speak out more directly.<br />
<br />
在限制体制下，言论自由得不到保障，人们仍然有不同的政治观点。直接说出来是不健康的，所以在这些国家，人们用艺术来表达他们的差异。艺术中表达政治思想最直接的方式是文学。要骗过审查者，人们必须找到间接的表达方式。在“趋势季刊”展览中，展出了16本被禁的中文杂志。大多数杂志选择诗作为他们最喜欢的表达政治思想的形式。在被禁之后，一些杂志社搬到了国外，现在以流亡的方式出版。互联网增加了地下杂志数量，这些杂志也可以在中国大陆境内阅读。在20世纪的最后几年里，人们可以在这些杂志上发现散文数量越来越多了。这可能是一个暗示，暗示作者敢于更直接地表达出来。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
<br />
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing (“On Dreams,” see Zhu Ziqing 1928c) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (''My Own Garden'' 1923, “The Fly” 1924, “Reading on the Toilet” 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.<br />
<br />
==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
<br />
'''2. Actors: Lu Xun, Zhu Ziqing, Ba Jin, Wang Zengqi, Yu Guangzhong'''<br />
<br />
Who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century?<br />
<br />
Here is not the place to recount the struggle, which many of the today well-known heroes of the May-Fourth Movement had to establish their literary values and narrative. Unlike today, at that time the authors were also editors and publishers of magazines and therefore had a strong position in the cultural field.<br />
<br />
One thinks first of Lu Xun, who invented a sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. In his own, broad understanding of ''zawen'', it could contain poems, short stories, drama etc. From a genial writer of short stories, he turned to ''zawen'' for the rest of his life, leaving behind a legacy of more than 700 essays.<br />
<br />
'''2、参与成员：鲁迅、朱自清、巴金、汪曾祺、余光中'''<br />
<br />
20世纪中国散文的主要参与者是谁？<br />
<br />
这里不是叙述谁于争雄的地方，而当今许多著名的五四英雄人物必须确立自己的文学价值观和叙事方式。与现在不同的是，当时的作者同时也是杂志的编辑和出版商，因此在文化领域有着很强的地位。<br />
<br />
人们首先想到的是鲁迅，他发明了一种尖锐的、具有争议性的日常政治用的亚体裁，即''杂文''。在他自己对''杂文''的广泛理解中，它可以包含诗歌、短篇小说、戏剧等。他从一名亲切的短篇小说作家转向了一名撰写''杂文''的作家，留下了700多篇文章。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''2. 参与者：鲁迅、朱自清、巴金、汪曾祺、余光中'''<br />
<br />
20世纪中国散文的主要人物有哪些?<br />
<br />
这里不会讲述这场斗争，当今许多著名的五四运动英雄不得不建立他们的文学价值和叙事。与当今不同的是，当时，作者同时也是杂志的编辑和出版人，因此在文化领域有很高的地位。<br />
<br />
人们首先想到的是鲁迅，他为日常政治生活创造了一个尖锐的、争论不休的亚文体——''杂文''。在他广义理解中，''杂文''包括诗歌、短篇小说、戏剧等。他从一个和善的短篇小说作家，转向成为《杂文》作家，终其一生，留下700多篇散文。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
<br />
During his lifetime, with his sharp attacks, he was the most known essayist. But these essays were of daily-political interest only and are seldom read today. Analysis reveals now that he stills stays the most often read essayist until the end of the 20th century. Not his ''zawen'', but the following reminiscences and lyrical essays remain until the end of the century in the top-ten list of essays: “Autumn Night” (Lu Xun 1925b), a lyrical essay from ''Wild Grass'', in “Mr. Fujino” (Lu Xun 1926c), Lu Xun remembers his Japanese teacher, in “The Kite” (Lu Xun 1925a) he remembers how he hurted his younger brother's feelings once, and “From Hundred Plant Garden to Three Flavour Study” (Lu Xun 1926b), which recounts his childhood experience also with classical literature. <br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
<br />
The other most often printed essays are from Republican or modern times: The first is “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b). With his whole work, this author ranks shortly behind Lu Xun. From this and other essays one can derive the criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China: In “The Back View,” filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), also written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader. In “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924) the author describes a beautiful landscape and makes ancient customs alive again. Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in “Wild Vegetables of My Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925).<br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong is represented in this list with the nostalgic “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974). In Ba Jin's most often reprinted essay “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) he remembers his wife. <br />
<br />
Works of authors who decided to serve an ideology are far less often reprinted than the eight authors found to be leading: Mao Dun and Guo Moruo (rank 15) are mentioned in the average as seldom as Lu Xun in Taiwan and Yang Shuo (ranks 30) appears only half as often.<br />
<br />
Therefore one can state, that unpolitical, moving essays form the top.<br />
<br />
For a list of the 36 most often (re)printed essayists, and the top 59 essays please see the mentioned monograph (Woesler 1998b).<br />
<br />
余光中因其怀旧散文《听听那冷雨》（余光中 1974）而榜上有名。在巴金最常被转载的散文《怀念肖珊》(巴金 1979b）中，他追忆了他的妻子。<br />
<br />
决定为某种意识形态服务的作家的作品被转载的次数远远少于处于领先地位的八位作家：茅盾和郭沫若（排名15位）在台湾被提及的平均数与鲁迅一样少，而杨朔（排名30）的出现频率仅为一半。<br />
<br />
因此，我们可以说，非政治性的、感人的文章占据了榜首。<br />
<br />
有关36个最常（重新）印刷的散文家和排名前59位的散文家的列表，请参见所提到的专着（Woesler 1998b）。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 03:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
<br />
The huge number of essays and essayists offer many possibilities for intertextual and intersubjective comparison, out of which only some thoughts can be indicated here due to lack of space. They might stimulate further analytic works. Lu Xun, Zhou Zuoren and Zhu Ziqing wrote about the same occasion, the massacre on March 18, 1926 quite differently. Zhu Ziqing attacks the government directly and promises it a soon collapse (“Report of the Government’s Great Massacre,” Zhu Ziqing [1926]). Lu Xun described the massacre in an unctuous chant instead (“Jinian Liu Hezhen jun” Lu Xun 1926a), and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his essay “Different Ways to Die” (Zhou Zuoren 1926).<br />
<br />
Different ways of coming into terms with the 'Cultural Revolution' we can see in the essays of Ba Jin, Bing Xin, and Wang Meng: Ba Jin enlucidated unsparingly to the extend of self-accusation (Ba Jin 1979a).<br />
<br />
大量的散文和散文家为互文性和主体间性的比较提供了许多可能性，但由于篇幅有限，这里只能表达一些想法。它们可能激发进一步的分析工作。鲁迅、周作人、朱自清对同一事件——1926年3月18日的大屠杀——的描写则截然不同。朱自清直接攻击了政府，并断定它很快就会崩溃(朱自清《政府大屠杀报告》[1926])。鲁迅用虚情假意的歌谣(《纪年刘和真君》鲁迅1926a)描述了这次大屠杀，而周作人则在他的散文《不同的死法》(周作人1926)中诙谐而辛辣地描写了这次大屠杀。<br />
<br />
从巴金、冰心、王孟等人的文章中，我们可以看到巴金对“文化大革命”的几种不同的看法:巴金的狂热达到了自我谴责的程度(巴金1979a)。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
大量的散文和散文家为互文性以及主体间性的对比提供了多种可能性。但由于篇幅有限，这里只能展示一部分想法。它们或许能够激发进一步的分析作业。鲁迅、周作人和朱自清都描写过同一场景，1926年3月18日的大屠杀，但是描绘的手法不尽相同。朱自清正面攻击政府，并断定它不久就会垮台（《执政府大屠杀记》朱自清 1926）。而鲁迅用谄媚的诗歌描述了这次大屠杀（《几年刘和珍君》 鲁迅 1926a)，周作人在他的散文《不同的死法》以幽默而苦涩的手法描写了这次大屠杀。<br />
<br />
从巴金、冰心、王蒙的散文中，我们可以看到，巴金对“文化大革命”有着不同的理解方式：巴金不遗余力地自我谴责（巴金1979a）。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
大量的散文和散文家为互文性和主体间性的比较提供了许多可能性，但由于篇幅有限，这里只能表达一些想法。它们可能激发进一步的分析工作。鲁迅、周作人、朱自清对同一事件——1926年3月18日的大屠杀——的描写则截然不同。朱自清直接攻击了政府，并断定它很快就会崩溃。而鲁迅用谄媚的诗歌描述了这次大屠杀（《纪念刘和珍君》 鲁迅 1926a)，周作人在他的散文《不同的死法》以幽默而苦涩的手法描写了这次大屠杀。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
从巴金、冰心、王蒙的散文中，我们可以看到，巴金对“文化大革命”有着不同的理解方式：在自我批评方面，巴金对自己毫不手软。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
<br />
Wang Meng dealed with it humorously (Wang Meng 1980), Bing Xin tried to pretend continuity by naming her works after the 'Cultural Revolution' with the same titles as before: The successful collections ''Letter to the Children'' (Bing Xin 1931), and ''Letter to the Children, vol. 2'' containing texts since 1958, were followed by ''Letter to the Children, vol. 3 ''with texts since 1978. In her “Autobiographical Notes” (Bing Xin 1982) she simply skips the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br />
<br />
A trip in early August 1923 (Mei/Wu, 46) with Yu Pingbo to the Qinhuai river, which Zhu knew from an earlier visit (Chen Xiaoquan, 68), inspired both to write in the same year at the age of about 24 and 26 an essay with the title “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing dated 10/11, 1923, Yu Pingbo dated 8/22, 1923, jointly published in ''Eastern Miscellany''), an English translation by Hu Shiguang can be found in ''Chinese Literature'' 1 (Spring 1988) Yu 162-172, and Zhu 173-182 resp. Zhu Ziqing and Yu Pingbo continue here a tradition of Chinese poets, writing poems on a common experienced journey to compete with each other. I found, that Zhu Ziqing's essays is more persuading.<br />
<br />
王萌幽默地处理了这一问题（王萌1980），冰心试图通过在"文化大革命"后用与以前相同的标题命名自己的作品来假装连续性：成功收藏了《给儿童的信》（冰心1931） ）和“给孩子的信，第一卷， 2”（包含自1958年以来的文字），其次是“给孩子的信”（第一卷）,3”自1978年以来一直使用文字。在她的“自传笔记”（Bing Xin 1982）中，她只是跳过了“文化大革命”。<br />
<br />
朱元培在1923年8月上旬（梅/吴，46岁）与秦淮河的一次旅行（陈小泉，68岁）认识了秦淮河，这激发了双方在同年24岁左右写诗的初衷。 26一篇题为“在秦淮河上泼桨和灯笼光”的文章（朱自清1923年10月11日，于平波1923年8月22日，在《东方杂记》上共同出版），英文翻译胡世光的著作可以在《中国文学》 1（1988年春季）中找到Yu 162-172和Zhu 173-182。朱自清和余平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在经历了共同竞争的共同经历中创作了诗歌。我发现朱自清的论文更具说服力。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
王蒙幽默地处理了这一问题（王蒙1980），冰心试图以'文革'后的作品命名，标题与以前相同，以假装连续性。成功的作品集《给孩子们的信》（冰心1931年）和《给孩子们的信，第二卷》收录了1958年以来的文字，随后又出版了《给孩子们的信，第三卷》，收录了1978年以来的文字。在她的《自述》（冰心1982）中，她干脆跳过了'文革'。<br />
<br />
1923年8月上旬（梅/武，46）与俞平伯到秦淮河游玩，朱自清早年曾到过秦淮河（陈孝全，68），激发了两人的灵感，两人在同年分别约24岁和26岁时写了一篇题为《秦淮河上的溅桨和灯火》的文章（朱自清10/11。1923年，俞平伯日期为1923年8月22日，合刊于''东方杂记''），胡世光的英译本见''中国文学''1（1988年春）俞162-172，朱173-182 resp。朱自清和俞平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在共同经历的历程中写诗，互相竞争。我发现，朱自清的文章更有说服力。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
<br />
Wang Meng, Jia Pingwa and others wrote essays entitled “Falling leaves” (Jia Pingwa 1981, Wang Meng 1989) on the transitoriness of life in the allegory of falling leafs. It is interesting and surprising to discover the similarity between a, the differences between the description and interpretation of the falling leaves and b, the differences between the different authors' self-understanding and philosophy. One may compare essays entitled “On dreams” with 58 years difference in their origin (Zhu Ziqing 1928c, Bing Xin 1986). Moreover it is interesting to compare conceptions of essayism as we can see in Lu Xun's theory of “emerging” and “blossoming” and Zhou Zuoren's theory of the synthesis of the gongan school and the English essay.<br />
<br />
王蒙、贾平凹等人共同撰写了《落叶集》(贾平凹1981、王蒙1989)，论述落叶寓言中生命的短暂。对落叶的描述与解读之间存在的差异以及不同作家的自我理解与人生哲学的差异，这两者之间竟然发现有相似之处，实在令人惊喜。人们可以将《论梦》这篇散文与有58年历史的渊源差异作比较（朱自清1928c，冰心1986）。此外，比较鲁迅的“兴”与“花”与周作人的“公安派”与“英语散文”的综合理论中的散文主义概念，是很有意思的。--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
<br />
'''3.Trends<br />
<br />
3.1 The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''<br />
<br />
What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.<br />
<br />
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a wilfully “corrected” truth.<br />
3.潮流与趋势<br />
“中国当代散文写作的现状如何?”<br />
它的地位应该与后现代主义元素、后殖民主义思维、解构主义等最近的分类方法、视角和术语恰当地联系起来。<br />
“文革”后散文增多，因为原因有两点：1.散文比其他文体更真实地表达个人经历的能力 2.它对历史真理的内在诉求。<br />
但散文并不是客观真实的保证:它同时具有主观性，作者有意识地对自己的形象进行调整。<br />
这就会导致所报道的真相只能是主观的，防止有人故意“篡改”真相。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
<br />
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (“Serene” Wang Meng 1992, “First make your own things in a good way” Wang Meng 1994). These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
<br />
Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive (“Shanxi Opera,” Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world (“The Nightmare,” Si Yu 1995).<br />
<br />
'''3.2 The essay as the genre of the giddy-paced nature of society, individuality, socio-political discussions, de-ideologization, everyday's profaneity and banality'''<br />
<br />
From the essay, we can see contemporary ''trends of literature'', which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:<br />
<br />
-The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall, xiii);<br />
<br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
<br />
-The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br />
<br />
-A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br />
<br />
-The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.<br />
<br />
-The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. For example Ba Jin complains in “Remembering Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) about the death of his wife in the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br />
<br />
- 散文是个性意识增强的最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接；<br />
- 通过散文重新唤起人们对讨论社会政治问题的兴趣，如20世纪20年代或30年代。<br />
- 因成为文学话题，日常生活的平庸性变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活文体——散文。<br />
- 中国社会的去意识形态化。今天，不是政府要求的肯定性文本，而是非政治性的散文在最前面，大多可以追溯到共和党时代，特别是1923年至1928年。这一观察结果得到上述统计分析结果的支持。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治散文是批评散文。例如巴金在《追忆萧山》（巴金1979）中控诉妻子在“文化大革命”中去世。<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
<br />
-Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain. This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: “readers”). <br />
<br />
-In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in-dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see China can say no!).<br />
<br />
The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art. Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Feidu, Jia Pingwa 1993; ''Ying'er'', Gu Cheng 1993) and ''New Borderlessness'' since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.<br />
<br />
20世纪90年代，80年代受到政治批评的散文文化已经消失，唯一留下的政治产物是爱国主义。例如，1996年出版的专著《中国可以说不——冷战后时代的政治与情感抉择》（见于《中国可以说不》）。<br />
<br />
从后现代主义小说的角度来看，我们找不到后现代散文的原因就是散文具有直接性。散文作为一种文体，是沟通作者和读者的桥梁，而不是一种艺术对象。通常艺术对象指企图引起不同的解读，或依靠独一无二的形式或内容，甚至引用前现代主义的特点使其成为一种独特的艺术对象。另外，1993年出版的小说《废都》（贾平凹 1993年）、《英儿》（顾城 1993年）以及1995年出版的《新无界》，作者在这些作品中日常语言的使用趋势在散文写作中也未得到体现。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
<br />
-Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being “The Small Dog Baodi” (Ba Jin 1981), in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before (“In Memoriam of Xiao Shan II,” Ba Jin 1984b). Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of “Rain in Kunming” (Wang Zengqi [1984]) as well as for “Shanxi Opera” (Jia Pingwa 1984). <br />
<br />
1 Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.<br />
<br />
2 Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay “The Nightmare” (Si Yu 1995), where the author appears as a deconstructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
-The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing ''fictional truth'' through the metaphor of his dog Baodi (Schwarcz 1996).<br />
<br />
'''20th Century Chinese Essay - A Survey of the Genre and New Insights Into the Essayists Ba Jin, Zhou Zuoren, Zhu Ziqing'''<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler<br />
<br />
The narrative established by literary histories and anthologies has drawn a distorted picture of 20th century Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was almost ignored. In my paper I will demonstrate, how the picture of three authors change, if we take into consideration also some of their esayistic work. Here I choose the example of the critical political essay. The essay tells us more about an author than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions.<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
<br />
In 1927, when the writers were threatened by a massacre among leftists by the National People's Party in Shanghai, a whole generation of writers found a common base in communist ideology, formally expressed in 1930 in the foundation of the "League of Left-Wing Writers". <br />
<br />
Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to the changing political climate, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products. This struggle of finding a position in a politicized environment is best documented in the essay --- "a genre of self-reflection". Moreover, by its very nature, the essay overcomes boundaries of form and content. Therefore there are more essays than there is fiction free from political thoughts. Some essayists even went a step further, deconstructed the master narrative of leftist ideology, like the three writers I will talk about today.<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
<br />
'''Zhou Zuoren'''<br />
<br />
The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that a sophisticated May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a national "traitor". Zhou's writings were officially considered bad literature, a total elimination of his texts was only prevented, because of the fame of his brother, who became a state author posthumously through the valuing of Mao Zedong. Actually the reception of his essays reaches a new climax now, in the essay collections of the 1990s, his essays rank 3rd, as I was able to proof with a survey of 5000 essays. That makes clear that his political engagement had no effect on the brilliance of his literary works.<br />
<br />
周作人<br />
<br />
中华人民共和国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个卓越的五四天才“退化”，后来成为民族“叛徒”。 周的著作被官方认为是不良文学，由于他兄弟的名声，而他的兄弟因高度评价毛泽东死后成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。 实际上，现在他的论文的接受度达到了一个新的高潮，在1990年代的论文集中，他的论文排名第三，正如我通过对5000篇论文的调查所证明的那样。 这清楚地表明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
周作人<br />
<br />
民国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个老练的五四天才 "堕落 "了，后来成了民族 "汉奸"。周作人的文章被官方认为是劣质文学，彻底消灭他的文字只是因为他兄弟的名气，他通过重视毛泽东而成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。其实现在对他的散文的接受达到了一个新的高潮，在90年代的散文集中，他的散文排在第三位，这是我对5000篇散文的调查所能证明的。这说明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
<br />
The official assessment of the People's Republic is that Zhou's work experienced a caesura in 1938 due to his "degeneration" and opposition against the patriotic campaign. Zhou kept trying to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday out of the subjective experience of his private space his whole life, only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge he showed that it was again possible to write about a candy seller for which he had been critizised as "paralyzing" . But there was indeed a caesura, namely the change in style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xiánshì'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment). But this change is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest by the Guomindang (1945). Therefore not the Japanese suppressors should be made responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots. <br />
<br />
3 C. T. Hsia. [Note: Some of the annotations are in German and are translated into English during the editiorial work for the forthcoming edition.]<br />
<br />
4 ("Mai tang 卖糖" 1924).<br />
<br />
5 (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943).<br />
<br />
人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 "堕落 "和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验中审美出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 "麻痹"。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东取缔（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:35, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 "堕落 "和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验审美中剥离出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 "麻痹"。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东接力（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
<br />
So the first correction of the narrative is, that his literature was ''not'' effected by socio-political circumstances in quality, but in contents. And there is a second master narrative on Zhou Zuoren, which says that he was an apolitical author. Actually, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance . In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" , literature should make the society more humane.<br />
<br />
The second example, where a reading of some of his essays lets us rediscover the author is Ba Jin: He is known for his practical essays with anarchistic and communist background in the 1930s and 40s, for his opportunistic self-criticism, self-censorship and the accusation of a writers' collegue during the cultural revolution. After the 'Cultural Revolution' he seemed to emerge as a righteous character , when he claimed to have done all this under pressure. He then devoted his essays to the working up of the trauma of the 'Cultural Revolution', for example in the self-accusing essay series ''Random Thoughts''. <br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
<br />
Since they were seldom reprinted, two of Ba Jin’s critical essays "''Independent Thoughts''" and "''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''", dating 1956 and 1962 were overlooked. With them, Ba Jin turns out to be a lifelong independant writer. The two essays were criticised. He had to deny their contents and later they were censored. Even nowadays, these texts are not easy to find in anthologies and dictionaries in the P.R.C. and Taiwan.<br />
<br />
"''Independant Thoughts''" dated 1956, propagates the freedom of the individual and of thoughts. This essay was written in the '100-Flower-Movement', when criticism was induced officially. Ba Jin corresponded only to the 'mainstream', although his criticism was unusually sharp. Much more distinctly directed against the 'mainstream' was the second text, which I want to introduce shortly.<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
<br />
"''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''", a speech at the second Shanghai congress of writers and artists in early 1962, has later been censored at seven striking places. In it, Ba Jin judges very hard about himself and his collegues: At different campaigns against literary works they would have followed the political demands opportunistically and therefore were traitors. The second target of Ba Jin's criticism were the censors and critics, who would posess more power than the writers and that without legitimation. Ba Jin interpreted Mao's Yan'an speeches on art and literature in the way, that writers should themselves take over responsibility.<br />
<br />
'''"The Small Dog Baodi" as a metaphorical discourse on Ba Jin's personal grief'''<br />
<br />
Although Ba Jin is regarded together with Bing Xin as one of the representatives of Republican literature, the more important part of his essayistic work seems to lie after 1949 . Publishing from Hong Kong since 1979, he has spoken out loudly in opposition and in trying to help ease the trauma associated with the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
<br />
One of this essays is the story-like "''Small Dog Baodi''". Written in 1980, the author remembers his dog, which he had received two decades ago from a Swedish person and which he loved after a while. When the 'Red Gards' raged, the dog was in danger. Ba Jin describes in detail the fate of the animal and his own resignation, when he learned that he could not protect the dog. In order to save him from a torturous death, he finally submitted the dog in 1966 for medical experiments. Revisiting his garden after the 'Cultural Revolution', he remembers painfully how his wife had played here with the dog. I would like to show six points of interpretation:<br />
<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
1, The dog is a metaphor. In the beginning Ba Jin seems to report the fate of a dog with relevance only to his owner. But soon it becomes clear that Ba Jin actually mediates to the reader the cruelty of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The reader wonders, "if they did ''this'' with an ''innocent'' dog, what did they do with ''men'', whom they considered ''guilty''?" Ba Jin analogizes himself with the dog, when he sees himself liying on the dissection table. Even Baodi's death is useful, he serves science - could a man be more altruistic?<br />
<br />
狗是一个隐喻。在故事的开头，巴金看似在说狗的命运只和主人有关。但很快我们就明白了，巴金实际上是在向读者传达“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗都能这样做，那么他们对那些他们认为“有罪”的“人”又做会怎样做呢?”当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他把自己比作狗。就连鲍迪的死也是有用的，他是为科学服务的，一个人还能更无私吗?--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
狗是个比喻。 一开始，巴金似乎在说狗的命运只跟主人有关。但是很快我们就知道了，巴金实际上是在向读者介表述“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗“都能如此”，对那些视为“有罪”的“人”又会怎样呢？” 当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他将自己比作狗。就连鲍迪都死得其所，服务了科学---一个人还能更无私吗？--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
<br />
6 (Zhou 1929:180-181).<br />
<br />
7 (Zhou 1923).<br />
<br />
8 (The Family in 1951)<br />
<br />
9 (1982 Yi pian xuwen).<br />
<br />
10 (Suixianglu) The essays of the 1980s are more autobiographical, and deal with literature and questions for society nowadays. Due to the very nature of the essay, we can look through his "Random Thoughts" into the soul of Ba Jin..<br />
<br />
11 (Random Thoughts 1978-86, see Ba Jin 1988).<br />
<br />
2, Ba Jin expresses the pain of the loss of his wife through the dog. Not before the very end of the essay, Ba Jin mentions his wife in painful remembrance, who became ill and died during those ten years. In the essay "''In Memoriam Xiāo Shān''", which appeared earlier in the collection, he had confessed severe feelings of guilt regarding her death, what haunted him into his dreams. He claimed, that they had withhold her medical treatment because of him. <br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
<br />
3, The essay is an accusation of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The not-mentioning of the 'Cultural Revolution' as the reason for his wife's death makes the pain the more accusatory, especially in front of the comparable unimportant doglife. His terrifying awareness is the powerlessness - he was not able to protect his dog nor his wife. Ba Jin actually wants to illustrate the powerlessness of the individual in front of collective cruelty.<br />
<br />
本文是对'文革'的控诉。 没有提到“文化大革命”是其妻子去世的原因，这就更让人痛心疾首，尤其是在相对不重要的狗命面前。他可怕的意识是那种无力感-他没有能力保护他的狗和他的妻子。巴金其实是想说明个人在集体的残酷面前的无能为力。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这篇文章是对“文化大革命”的控诉。没有提及“文化大革命”是他妻子死亡的原因，使这种疼痛更具控诉性，尤其是在相对无关紧要的狗的性命面前。他意识到无能为力是多么可怕——他既不能保护他的狗，也不能保护他的妻子。巴金其实是想展示在集体的残酷面前个体的无能为力。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:29, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
<br />
4, The significance of this way to deal with the 'Cultural Revolution'. If one compares the mentioned essay with others of the year 1979, it lied within the common trend of criticizing the 'Cultural Revolution'. But there were also authors like Bing Xin denied the 'Cultural Revolution' - soon after its end, she used similar titles for her books than before - in order to pretend continuity. Wang Meng worked up the 'Cultural Revolution' in a humoristic way - ''Ba Jin'''s essays stand out of these, because of their relentlessness and confessing character.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
<br />
5, The use of rhetorical means. Ba Jin pretends to be a simple documentarist "I expect from literature [...] that it tells the truth.". In fact he is known for his direct and accusing truth, sometimes his literary style is critizised as too direct and too less artful (a reproach from Hong Kong students). In "''The Small Dog Baodi''" he is using literary means to create emotion in his readers. He uses composition and rhetoric means like animation. The dog Baodi allegorically shows the injustice and inhumanity of the 'Cultural Revolution'. Here, Ba Jin turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in ''allegoric'' instead of in descriptive truth as before . He is longing for a ''fictional truth'', instead of the ''truth of being'' in the sense of Thomas Aquinas. The fictional realism Wang Der-wei sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proofs helpful for the understanding of this piece.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
<br />
6, Ba Jin's personal grief is much more persuading in the metaphor of the dog than in his direct accusing essays. As Vera Schwarcz (1996) points out<br />
<br />
"To speak too much of grief is to blunt its edge. It might even make us deaf to the cry that sparked discourse about suffering in the first place. A cold, calculating intelligence cannot grasp the rough contours of grief. [...] To preserve the significance of personal suffering in public life we need a more indirect approach; one that accepts and, indeed, nourishes AMBIGUITY. This, in the words of Cynthia Ozick, is the discrete province of METAPHOR, "the reciprocal agent, the universalizing force that makes it possible to envision the stranger's heart." [...]<br />
She also mentions that "[...] absence of talk -- or, rather modest use of ''metaphorical discourse'' -- serve us better in the presence of massive grief."<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
<br />
To sum up, Ba Jin turns out not to be the self-censorer, who tried to make his literature fit into the communist ideology. Instead he was a lifelong fighter for the freedom of speech and the independancy of literature from politics, who spoke out whenever he had the opportunity without endangering himself. He also no longer appears as the "uneducated" writer of simple truth, as he leads us to believe. Yet he has achieved a high rhethoric of ''fictional truth'' and is able to transmit his personal grief even more persuadingly in a ''metaphorical discourse'' throught the metaphor of the dog Baodi.<br />
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综上所述，巴金原来并不是一个自我审查者，试图使自己的文学符合共产主义意识形态。相反，他一生都在为言论自由和文学独立于政治而奋斗，只要有机会，他就会大声疾呼，但不会危及自身。他也不再像他引导我们相信的那样，以“不谙世事”的作家形象出现。巴金对虚构事实的修辞手法已经十分高超，能够通过狗宝弟的隐喻，以隐喻性的话语，更有说服力地传递他个人的悲伤。--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 06:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu</div>Hu Huifanghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201214_trans&diff=10901920201214 trans2020-12-09T03:57:32Z<p>Hu Huifang: /* Hu Huifang 胡慧芳 */</p>
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<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
In fact, reportage research and composition along with organizing and performing in roving theatrical troupes became one of the principal modes of ”internship” for young writers in the socialist educational system as it emerged in Yan’an.<br />
<br />
Yang Shuo, Liu Baiyu, and Qin Mu were all in their twenties at this time, so they had limited literary experience before the 1940s. Thus for Liu and Yang, the Yan’an years helped define for them what literature is supposed to be from process to product. Qin Mu, however, never went to Yan’an; he spent the entire war in Guangdong, Guangxi and Guizhou. Thus though he had experience with some of these procedures of production in progressive circles in those areas, Qin Mu was not saturated in this kind of cultural environment.<br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
Once socialism or communism took the position of power (as in Yan’an during the war against Japan and then throughout the PRC after 1949) critical prose writing (whether essays or reportage) as it had been practiced during wartime became much more dubious from the point of view of cultural officials, and nonfiction needed to become a vehicle of literary celebration of public, historical achievements.[ See for example Yang Shuo, ”Qian jin, gangtie de dajun” (March Forth, Great Army of Steel, 1949), Zhonghua sanwen zhencang ben, Yang Shuo juan (Beijing: Renmin wenxue chubanshe, 1998) 25-33; ”Pingchang de ren” (An ordinary man, 1951) 25-33; ”Pingchang de ren” (An ordinary man, 1951), Yang Shuo juan 13-17, ”Gebi tan shang de chuntian” (Springtime on the Gobi, 1953), Yang Shuo juan 29-33. ] This is precisely the familiar dilemma of Ding Ling, coming into Yan’an society well trained as a keen critic of her environment. It was an awkward transition, except for those who came into the socialist educational cultural system while still relatively young. To them the business of literature was that of constructing an unprecedented new vision.<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
'''Writers’ changing roles changed literary prose'''<br />
<br />
Each of the three authors I am discussing here was born between 1913 and 1919, only a few short years after the fall of the Qing dynasty and the establishment of the Republic of China. They were all in their late teens and early twenties at the outbreak of the war against Japan. Being roughly the same age, they shared the same historical and cultural atmosphere, but being in different locations, engaged in the war in different capacities, their transition into the aesthetics of incongruous lyricism took different paths and thus embodied different tensions. <br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
Yang Shuo[ 1913-1968, orig. Yang Shujin(?), of Penglai County in Shandong.] is probably the most ”standard” of the three from the point of view of the Communist Party in that he went to Yan’an early (winter 1937) and worked under the direction of the party’s cultural apparatus for the duration of the war there, in the northwest, and in Guangzhou. Like the reportage writer Huang Gang, he was of the right age for this Yan’an-based period to be his principal formative and educational experience, deeply conditioning his approach and attitude toward writing in the 1950s and 1960s. That being said, Yang Shuo was more concerned with issues of literary quality and symbolic meaning than others writing under the direction of the CP, and this concern colored even his most famous works with puzzling tones of ambivalence and reservation.<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
Liu Baiyu[ 1916-?, orig. Liu Yuzan, of Beijing. See Niu Yunqing, Liu Baiyu pingzhuan (Chongqing: Chongqing chubanshe, 1995).] arrived in Yan’an relatively early too, and was quickly immersed in its literary activism. Only weeks after his arrival, and though Liu was only 22 at the time, Mao Zedong personally assigned him to lead a five-person escort for the American marine observer Evans Carson to visit the guerilla areas in Northern China (one of a variety of types of ”cultural worker” assignments in the communist base areas). Despite this promising start and occasional contact with Mao, Liu published works that incurred the wrath of some critics and officials, became a target in the Yan’an zhengfeng campaign after Mao’s Talks, and underwent a process of mutual and self-criticism at the Central Party School. <br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
Though the result of this painful process was apparently ”successful” (Liu went on to hold important cultural administrative positions in the PRC), it also alienated him from certain elements in the literary community and led him to take an aggressively authoritarian role as the Party secretary of the Writers’ Assocation during the Anti-Rightist Campaign in 1957 and 58. This alienation is occasionally revealed in his sanwen works from that point on.<br />
<br />
Qin Mu[ 1919-199?, orig. Lin Juefu, b. Singapore, of Chenghai County in Guangdong. See Huang Zhuocai, Weng Guangyu and Ai Zhiping, Qin Mu pingzhuan (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1989).] is one more step removed because he did not share the Yan’an experience with Yang and Liu. Though he was active in the literary resistance during the war against Japan, and though his biographers insist that he originally planned to go to Yan’an as early as 1938, he never went there (Huang, Weng and Ai, 1989, 26-27). <br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
Because he did belong to the age cohort and had the same basic inclinations, he did come into contact with the same organizations (the Communist Party, Wenxie) that the others did, and indeed could even have met Yang Shuo in Canton when Yang was sent there on assignment in 1938. He also engaged in similar types of literary intervention, organizing and performing traveling anti-Japanese theater in the countryside, accompanying troops in the field as a writer, and publishing anti-Japanese and anti-KMT/US zawen in Rear or KMT area newspapers. But his experience during the war was not a community experience: Qin at first alone and later with his wife underwent the trials and tribulations of a writer at wartime as an individual, making his own decisions and contacting organizations only when the opportunity presented itself and he wished to do so.<br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
Thus there is an especially independent streak about him that made relations between him and the Writer’s Association after 1949 somewhat strained. He was attacked in the 1957 zhengfeng movement, and it was not until 1962 that he joined the Communist Party.<br />
<br />
Thus each of these writers exhibited different tensions as they approached writing after 1949, and particularly during and after the Hundred Flowers Campaign. All of them, however, adopted sanwen as a vehicle to express themselves, and while these essays at time seem on the surface to be pat or fulsome propaganda, they continue to be colored by these at times very personal tensions that often make the essays more compelling reading in spite of themselves.<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
'''Procedures and interests of socialist essays'''<br />
<br />
The sanwen of the late 1950s and early 1960s, because of a variety of different such personal and larger cultural tensions, manifest various kinds of ”incongruous lyricism.” All three of these writers had their essays included in textbooks for junior high school and high school during the 1960s and 70s. But these canonic texts represented only the completion of a gradual process of adjustment and must be viewed alongside earlier, less well-known efforts by these authors as well as their works in other genres, particularly fiction.<br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
'''Friction with leftist aesthetics'''<br />
<br />
In the late 1950s and early 1960s the term sanwen was more frequently associated with ”lyricism” (shuqing) and opposed to ”expository” (shuoli) prose essays. In practice, this is indicated by long descriptive passages, the frequent use of direct address to the reader in the second person as well as rhetorically loaded interrogative, imperative and expressive particles. At particularly rhapsodic moments, socialist sanwen texts take on a fu-like rhetoric, syntactic parallelism and a piling up of listed concrete objects and rich varieties of adverbs and adjectives. One is attempted to associate this attempt at of verbal profusion with certain Republican period stylists like Zhu Ziqing and Yu Pingbo, but the socialist version is much more extravagant both in verbiage and emotional exhibitionism. <br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
On the level of imagery, a general fascination with images of light, fire and torches left over from the war period[ Particularly evident in Liu Baiyu’s reportage works from the late 1940s.] remains but in part gives way to a new interest in flower imagery in the 1950s.[ Qin Mu’s essays and some of Yang Shuo’s are filled with varieties of flowers and plants, enjoyed in themselves and as symbols of other things. ] Finally a strategy common to all three writers is to conceive of a vista or an experience as a living landscape painting, emphasizing a magnitude of vision and the accompanying emotional exhilaration. In some cases, these highly visual essays are accompanied with illustrations uncannily consistent with the texts’ visualization of the landscape. <br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
'''Yang Shuo'''<br />
<br />
Yang Shuo’s 1959 essay ”The Highest Peak of Taishan”[ Taishan jiding, wr. 1959, from Haishi. Yang, 125-129.] features this kind of overt reference to landscape painting. The text simply narrates the author’s ascent of the famous Shandong mountain, but the narrative structure of the climb is interwoven with a figurative structure consisting of three elements. The first is the traditional landscape painting motif: ”All the way from the foothills, looking closely at the mountain landscape, I felt like what was before me was not the lord of the Five Famous Mountains, but more like a green and blue landscape painting of astounding size,” (Yang, 125) an idea he develops as a conceit with figurative descriptive language. Second, Yang writes ”after a while, I began to feel that I was not only looking at a landscape painting, but randomly flipping through a historical manuscript.” (Yang, 126)<br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
This in reference to the calligraphy of famous visitors to the mountain carved into its sides and the legends and stories about them. The third and last layer of figuration is the sense that the author is not climbing a mountain, but climbing into the sky.<br />
<br />
The touristy desire to see the sunrise from Taishan’s peak introduced at the essay’s outset and which teases the reader occasionally throughout the text is deftly frustrated in the rhetorical pursuit of what to the author is a higher aim: the recontainment of a Taishan travelogue into the extolling of the historical achievements of socialism. Once he has passed through the Southern Gate of Heaven, the author sees the Shandong landscape spread out at his feet, but what he notices are the grand commune wheat fields (amber waves of grain) as opposed to patchwork agricultural quilt of yore, and smoky plumes in the distance are not scattered homes but factories.<br />
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
Though the weather had been clear at night near the peak when the party went to bed early in order to get up in time for the sunrise, fog and rain overnight linger to create an overcast sky at dawn. But author’s socialist/communist landscape epiphany of the previous evening eclipses the banal tourist wish for a beautiful sunrise – he has seen ”another kind of” (metaphysical) sunrise, that of the Chinese people/nation on the horizon.<br />
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In his essay about Kunming’s camellias,[ ”Chahua fu” (Ode to the Camellia) written 1961, from Dongfeng di yi zhi. Yang 134-37.] Yang Shuo opens with a discussion with an artist friend about what kind of painting would show the face of the ”motherland” (zuguo). He then turns to his trip to Kunming after returning from travels abroad. <br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
Especially as a ”northerner” he is struck by the beauty of the red camellia flowers around the city and in Huating Temple, where he is escorted by Jin Zhiwen, the landscaper. His attention is drawn to one variety called ”Child’s Face” tongmian. As is almost invariably the case in Yang Shuo essays, the subject he has chosen becomes an opportunity for the author to contemplate the symbolic resonances of its characteristics – in this case the camellia’s sensitivity to proper care, environment and natural enemies, but also the fact that great trees centuries old have been carefully cultivated with hundreds and even thousands of blossoms. A detailed description of the gardener himself provides the author with the key to the signified:<br />
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
I fervently gazed at his hands, hands covered with mud-stained calluses. Then I looked at his face, the wrinkles at the corners of his eyes were cut deep, and it was not necessary to ask about his background: I could guess that he was a middle aged man who had been through a lot. If he waled away from you and into the crowd, he would vanish immediately and it would be very hard to find him again – he was just that kind of very ordinary laborer. But it is just this kind of person, month after month, year after year, exerting mind and body, cultivating flowers and plants with all his effort, beautifying our lives. This is how beauty is created. (Yang, 136)<br />
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==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
When author observes a group of schoolchildren who have come to see the camellias, the bond is cemented and the ”paint the face of the nation” riddle is solved – paint the Child Face Camelia.<br />
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What is incongruous in Yang Shuo’s lyricism, in many other examples in addition to these, is that no matter how transparent the symbolism and fervent the message of his essay, there is almost always slight ambivalence introduced by negative elements at the fringes: why does the glorification of socialist progress in ”Taishan’s Highest Peak” have to come at the expense of the famous sunrise? What has Jin Zhiren ”been through” that has deepened his wrinkles, and why should that pain be related to the creation of beauty?<br />
<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
'''Liu Baiyu'''<br />
<br />
Liu Baiyu’s transition toward sanwen in the PRC came from the direction of reportage literature. Liu had established some reputation as a novelist on the literary scene through key connections he had made with Ba Jin, Zhang Tianyi, Ye Yiqun and other major figures in the 1930s. But by 1949 it was his reportage collections, including Around the Northeast, The Light Shines Down on Shenyang, Cutting across the Central Plains, and The Torches Glow Red in the Yangtse River that were some of the best known works by a communist writer during the civil war in the late 1940s. <br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
The late 1950s text ”Lamplight” revisits the experience of the battlefield in a much more peaceful China. ”Lamplight” has a forceful, shrill rhetoric in its development of the image of glowing light through a number of different contexts, from war to socialist economic construction without losing the sense of militant struggle that informed the image of light for Liu from the beginning. [ ”Denghuo” (Lamplight), Liu Baiyu, Hong manao ji (Red agate) (Beijing: Wenhua yishu chubanshe, 1983) 5-11. ] Evidently Liu, though he holds influential positions in the literary establishment of the time, feels alienated by certain elements on the literary scene, particularly in regard to the stigmatization of the experience of the battlefield:<br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
. . . nowadays some people treat the subject of war, regardless of right or wrong, regardless of green red black or white always make it look bloody, dark and horrible! They call this ”through the soldier’s eyes,” ”foxhole realism” Hai! This makes those of us who have strapped puttees on our calves and have had the smell of gunpowder about the shoulders want to laugh our heads off. What can you do? There are brave soldiers who fight for what’s right; there are counter-revolutionary murderers; and there are cowardly traitors. Since there are different kinds of soldiers, there have to be different soldier points of view, and there must be different kinds of ”foxhole reality.” Perhaps there are those who would criticize me: how did I get from lamplight to this argument about war, aren’t I getting way off track? Actually, no. The lamplight I am talking about may be a small matter, but it really is a reality of life at war. Getting back to the subject, on the chill wilderness of the Songhua river, trudging through winter snows, wading through summer rapids, from lamplight I was able to understand a certain kind of warmth. (Liu, 7-8)<br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
"The Brilliance of Spring,"[ ”Qingchun de shanguang,” written 1959, in Hong manao ji, 23-33.] a lengthy, fu-like essay extolling ten years of socialism in China, manifests many of the distinguishing characteristics of Liu’s post-1949 sanwen. Though written in the wake of the Anti-Rightist Campaign, it casts no shadow on the essay and though there is flower imagery, significantly, it does not emphasize diversity (as in ”hundred flowers”). At about 6,000 characters, it is also much longer than most of Yang Shuo’s essays, which are usually about half that long, particularly those most revered and anthologized. ”The Brilliance of Spring” does not start out with a clearly-defined topic; the occasion or motivation of its composition did not become obvious to me until near the end.<br />
==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
The visualization with which the text begins juxtaposes a dawn construction scene complete with a handsome, rugged construction worker in Tian’anmen square with author’s memories of other occasions when he was ”right here, in this spot!” including most significantly, a vision of a Japanese tank rolling up from Qianmen, its treads gouging scars in the ground. Liu also includes memories of the entry of the People’s Liberation Army into Beijing, and the ceremony at which Mao Zedong officially established the People’s Republic, but the author moves from one impression-layer to the next vaguely and ambiguously, punctuated with the refrain ”Here! It was right here!” <br />
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
Liu makes a conspicuous gesture away from the scene of Tian’anmen to other significant spaces including oilfields in the Western deserts, a poignant scene of a mother sending her son off to the Korean war, Anshan the ”city of steel,” a humble Party meeting among lumberjacks taking place in a shack deep in the forest far from Beijing, and other sites of significant material and spiritual progress in the PRC. As the essay progresses, a new motif is picked up from the contemporary Tian’anmen scene and repeated with increasing frequency: the ”radiant red face and brilliant eyes” of the young socialist citizens whose verbal pictures Liu paints. There is much hyperbole and the extraordinary breadth of subject matter, convering ten years of socialist achievement packaged in spatial-visual tableaux, like a memorial display case or monument, which was the usual strategy of essays and reportage about the Korean War.<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
Despite the desire to come into close contact with the masses through genuine experiences, it was more common for writers to come into contact with workers, peasants and soldiers through the organizational activities and connections of the Communist Party. In Liu Baiyu’s essays from the 1950s and 60s, you can feel the author incongruously straining to make the most of his experience (straining to maximize its feeling of authenticity) and the characters he describes.[ ”Xie zai taiyang chu sheng de shihou” (Written as the Sun Begins to Rise), Hong manao ji 34-52 [written 1959?]. ] On the level of subject matter, since the (model) workers etc. he writes about are models and leaders, already part of the (embodiments of the) local Communist Party administrative apparatus, they too are straining to give the correct impression, put the right spin on their experiences and ideas, to behave in the way expected of them.<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
'''Qin Mu'''<br />
<br />
Qin Mu’s case might be distinguishable from the others by virtue of the fact that he established himself as a satirical (zawen) columnist during the civil war, and of course satire in general had to go after 1949.[ Interestingly, Qin Mu continued to write zawen in the 1950s and beyond, publishing a very popular collection in 1960 entitled Yihai shibei (Gathering Shells by the Sea of Art). By then Qin’s zawen were not combative, but expository in nature, reflections on principles of artistic creation, so in a way Qin had redefined the zawen genre for himself. The sanwen collection Hua cheng was published at roughly the same time as Yihai shibei and was distinguished by the author himself as ”more lyrical” than the ”expository” pieces in Yihai shibei. Comparing the essays therein with those of Hua cheng, one is struck by formal differences (the Yihai shibei pieces are much shorter than those in Hua cheng) and by the almost complete lack of figurative or descriptive language in Yihai shibei. However difficult it might be for us to define the differences between zawen and sanwen now, it seems clear that Qin Mu had a clear idea in his own literary practice.] Fortunately he had been accustomed to making fun of Americans and the Guomindang which continued to be safe and politically correct targets in the 1950s, but he had to find positive things to write about as well, and considering his background and the ambiguity of his relationship with the Communist Party, this must have been a difficult transition for him, more difficult than it was for those who were already linked up with the party for years in Yan’an and other base areas.<br />
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
In his 1960 essay ”Earth,” (Tudi), Qin Mu makes a figurative connection between earth how handfuls of earth can serve as symbols of wealth, power, sovereignty, political positions. Part of the visualization involves (like Liu Baiyu) aerial views. As war with its arial reconnaisance and bombing transformed the concept of China’s space into a contiguous whole rather than a network of locales, the wider availability of air travel in the 1950s added a visual dimension to this contiguity that reinforces the connection between earth, China’s physical expance, the map of China, and the concept of nation:<br />
<br />
秦牧在他1960年发表的论文《地球》（土地）中，将地球上的少数几个人如何象征着财富，权力，主权，政治地位作为形象的联系。 可视化的一部分涉及（如刘白玉）鸟瞰图。 随着战争的轰炸和轰炸将中国空间的概念转变为一个连续的整体，而不是一个地点网络，1950年代更广泛的航空旅行为这种连续性增加了视觉上的意义，从而加强了地球与中国物质扩张、中国地图和国家概念之间的联系 。<br />
--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 03:57, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
Once I gazed out an airplane window straight down upon the Pearl River delta; the heavens were crystal clear and I looked down and couldn’t help but cheer out loud because the Pearl River delta looked so magnificent that words couldn’t even describe it. The network of rivers and lakes shimmered in the sunlight while the earth looked like a piece of dark green velvet. The roads seemed as straight as if they had been sliced with a knife while the fields looked as neat as a chessboard. Wow! A hundred thousand years ago people looked to the skies for gods and miracles, but today the real miracle is taking place on the earth below.[ Qin Mu, Hua cheng (Guangzhou: Zuojia chubanshe, 1961) 17-18.]<br />
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
Many of Qin Mu’s essays in the collection Hua cheng (City of Flowers) imaginatively recreate an (occasionally ancient) historical scene, in a specific place the essay focuses on that the author is observing today (or at least gives that impression) like Liu Baiyu’s ”right here on this spot” refrain. In his 1956 essay ”Lyric on the Altar of the God of Grain,” the earthen, square altar referred to in the title is in Zhongshan park in Beijing, and was where aristocrats were traditionally enfoeffed by the emperor.[ Qin, 21-31.] In many ways, this is a continuation of the previous essay (”Earth”), extending reflections on the material symbolism of earth and the glorious wisdom of the ancients. <br />
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
This essay distinguishes itself by its relentless return to the altar itself, its self-conscious admiration of the brilliance of the ancients (with overtones of ethnic and cultural pride and reconciliation with the premodern culture of China) as well as a shrilly specific emphasis on unity as territorial sovereignty (”Once we liberate Taiwan and a few coastal islands, [our territorial] unity’s scope will be even more unprecedented.” 30)<br />
<br />
Qin Mu is at his most characteristic, though, in writing educational essays (zhishi xiaopin). Also known as scientific xiaopin, the character of such writings would seem to be defined by their subject matter. [ Another writer of the post-Hundred Flowers period that writes a lot in this vein is Ma Nancun (Deng Tuo), whose popular Yanshan yehua column in Beijing Wanbao lasted for years and was published in four volumes in book form.] But I would like to suggest that the transmission of modern scientific knowledge in these texts is not an end in itself, but rather one answer to the question of ”what to write about?” in socialist sanwen. And it conveys (in addition to the knowledge or information), a certain scientistic, post-industrial atmosphere of enthusiasm that is a style as much as content. <br />
==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
Qin Mu’s ”Xing xia” (Under the Stars, 1958)[ Qin, 49-60.] begins as a sweeping exploration of stars, moving from the universal experience of gazing at the skies and wondering about the questions of existence to the cultural perspectives of the beliefs and lore of the ancients and finally to the scientific perspective of the astronomical knowledge gathered in recent centuries, decades and years that confirm the author’s faith in science and industrial modernity. The scientific knowledge in fact becomes a context or background against which to look back with some disdain at the superstitious quality of premodern beliefs, not only about the structure of the cosmos, but the extensions of such speculation into areas of human destiny and supernatural beliefs.<br />
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
Reading this essay one can see that one of the keys to Qin Mu’s popularity lay not in his conspicuously Marxist-Leninist politics, but in his sweeping, timeless, universal and seemingly all-inclusive scope of vision and contemplation. Many or most of his essays give an exhilarating sense of vastness.<br />
<br />
But this essay does not reach its completion without being recontained, as are Yang Shuo’s landscape meditations, in a political context. Written in the early years of Soviet space exploration, it seems obvious to Qin Mu that Soviet success in this area and the US’s failure is a clear sign of the direction of history. He argues with almost excessive rhetorical force that the failure of space exploration and science in general under capitalism signifies the inability of the capitalist world view to free itself from outmoded beliefs, while socialism is easily and innocently aligned with scientific achievement and progress.<br />
==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
Qin Mu’s often shrill diatribes on historical materialism and Marxism-Leninism in educational essays (zhishi xiaopin) like this one, or about the history of overseas Chinese or the cosmic theories of warring states philosophers is an incongruous, inverted reflection of Qin’s perennial status as an outsider to the PRC socialist literary orthodoxy, being victimized by literary officials like Liu Baiyu in the anti-rightist campaign and only being admitted to the Communist Party in 1962. It is in his attempts to contain an ambitious gaze that can encompass human and natural history and the furthest reaches of space in a historicized polemic about the supremacy of Marxism-Leninism in the post war years that the incongruity of Qin Mu’s lyricism manifests itself.<br />
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
'''Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
The question of whether the ”real” world corresponds to the world these authors describe and narrate is moot; through the act of seeing or imagining the world as they do, they helped create the socialist world. These authors did not slavishly obey orders, writing from formulae they were provided by superiors and other writers; they willingly engaged in the procedures of research and composition that were part and parcel of communist education and literary practice; what they wrote followed from their training, it was the logical and organic extension of that training. They helped write the socialist world into existence.<br />
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
Slavoj Zizek’s interpretation of Pascal that belief can actually emerge from deliberately going through the motions of ritual and imitating the faithful, and Zizek’s further point that ”reality” in any society is produced by ideological fantasies peculiar to it, suggest a similar interpretation of socialist sanwen.[ Slavoj Zizek, The Sublime Object of Ideology (London: Verso, 1989) 38-43.] Going through the ritual motions of faith, the individual already believes without realizing it, he argues, and then it is only a matter of time before that belief gradually takes control of the conscious mind. But within that ideological fantasy that is the representation of social reality, there are at the fringes and in the shadows suggestions of the impossibility of the vision. What I have referred to as the ”incongruous” in Yang Shuo, Liu Baiyu and Qin Mu are those almost unconscious suggestions tainting the pristine vision.<br />
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
Reading literature from the first seventeen years of the People’s Republic of China requires as much attention to practices within the socialist orthodoxy as to dissidents and victims. Against the prevalent view that socialist literary culture in China was a self-contained system introduced from the Soviet Union as if into a vacuum, socialist sanwen speaks to the mutability of that literary culture and the voice of individual writers in its development, however much sanwen may have been used for propaganda and indoctrination, it retained an ambiguity and reserve inherent in the genre since before the War gainst Japan. Above all, I think this speaks to the enormous importance of various forms of sanwen in modern Chinese literary culture in general, and any general apprach to the modernn Chinese essay must further explore the legacy of socialist sanwen, particularly as today’s sanwen writers for the most part read the works of Yang Shuo, Liu Baiyu and Qin Mu in their middle school textbooks.<br />
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
'''Tradition as Construct and the Search for a Modern Identity: A Reading of Traditional Gestures in Modern Chinese Essays of Place ''' [ This article is an extended version of the paper “The Self in the Landscape: Chinese Essays of Place in the Republican Era (1912-1949)” delivered at the conference The Modern Chinese Literary Essay: Defining the Self in the 20th Century, held in Achern, Germany, August 25-27, 2000.]<br />
<br />
''Alexandra R. Wagner''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
Zhu Ziqing’s “The Qinhuai River Amidst the Sound of Oars and Shadows of Lamps” (Jiangsheng dengyingli de qinhuaihe, 1923), Yu Dafu’s “Spring Day on Diaotai” (Diaotai de chunzhou, 1932), and Fang Lingru’s “Travel Notes from the Langya Mountain” (Langyashan youji, 1936) are three modern Chinese essays in which place and memory serve as the main textual and conceptual elements through which the writers’ negotiation of identity and search for meaning unfolds. Examining these “essays of place” with a focus on the dynamics between place, on the one hand, and personal as well as cultural memory, on the other, challenges the prevailing views of modern travel or landscape essays as either lyrical evocations of scenery, backdrops for personal experiences and thoughts, or sources for information on locations.<br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
The aggregation of cultural and personal memory in these essays foregrounds the skepticism and uncertainty that characterize the mindset of Chinese writers situated in a transitional period moving from tradition to modernity. By questioning apparent meaning and literary convention, the essays are ultimately texts on writing as a continuous and open-ended exploration. <br />
<br />
Examining the “traditional gestures” central to the essays by Zhu, Yu, and Fang most prominently demonstrates this questioning of apparent meaning. Activities closely tied to places, such as climbing mountains, traversing lakes and rivers, and contemplating past history during visits to ruins and other sites are highly reminiscent of poetic onventions that have informed the long pre-modern literary history of travel and landscape writings. <br />
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
As manifestations of cultural memory, such activities are more than simply concrete actions; they are gestures, i.e. “acts made as a sign of attitude.” These traditional gestures suggest an affinity between pre-modern and modern texts, yet at the same time, the essays consistently question the significance and consequence of this apparent affinity. This questioning is achieved, first, by the authors’ encounters with people inhabiting the landscape, second, by introducing elements of imperfection and incompletion throughout the essays, and, third, by the self-referential aspects of the essays.<br />
==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
Adopting traditional gestures of contemplating place and past can be seen as an attempt to place the author in a privileged and thus assured position, offering him a way to authoritatively define himself within, yet separate from, his surroundings. However, encounters with people inhabiting the places make the author “interact” with these places. Rather than being objects of perception and contemplation only, places become parts of the perceiving and contemplating subject. The idea of place as distinct from the observer, providing a setting against which he can define himself as well as measure the changing times is deceptive.<br />
==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
In addition, elements of imperfection and incompletion disrupt the narrative in these essays and thus similarly question the reliability of traditional gestures in the search for stable definitions of selves. Self-referential aspects of the texts also draw attention to the essays’ constructedness, thus questioning the idea that the texts have a single, accurate (and thus authoritative) interpretation and significance.<br />
<br />
In sum, an “ironic” reading of the traditional gestures in these essays of place foregrounds the concept of tradition as a vital part and construct needed to engage in a discourse on tradition and modernity from which modern texts ultimately evolve.<br />
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing’s “The Qinhuai River Amidst Sounds of Oars and Shadows of Lamps” (''Qinhuaihe''), Yu Dafu’s “Spring Day on Diaotai” (''Diaotai''), and Fang Lingru’s “Travel Notes from Langya Mountain” (''Langyashan''), are three notable essays of place in which place and memory serve as the main conceptual elements through which the writers’ negotiation of identity and meaning unfolds. By questioning apparent meaning and literary convention, the texts become ultimately texts on writing as a continuous endeavor and exploration and thus texts on the open-ended nature of essays. <br />
<br />
In the essays, the authors engage in activities such as climbing mountains, traversing rivers, and contemplating history and historical figures while visiting ruins and other sites. <br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing’s ''Jiangsheng dengyingli de Qinhuaihe'', written in 1923, was first published in the January 25, 1924 issue of ''Dongfang zazhi'' (Eastern Miscellany, founded in 1904). （文献无需翻译） <br />
<br />
Yu Dafu’s ''Diaotai de chunzhou'', written in August 1932, first appeared in the inaugural issue of the journal ''Lunyu'' (Analects), on September 16, 1932. <br />
<br />
Fang Lingru’s ''Langyashan youji'' was written in April 1936 in Nanjing. Reprints in contemporary essay anthologies are taken from Fang’s essay collection Xin (Letters) published in 1945.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
In this paper, the terms “writer” and “author” are used interchangeably.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
朱自清的《浆声灯影里的秦淮河》（《秦淮河》）、郁达夫的《钓鱼台的春昼》（《钓鱼台》）和方令孺的《琅琊山游记》（ 《琅琊山》）是三篇有关地点的著名散文。在这几篇文章中，地点和回忆是主要的概念性元素，作者通过这些元素来具体展开关于身份认同以及具体含义的阐述。通过质疑明显的含义和文学习俗，这些文本最终象征着作者的不懈努力与探索，因此成为了文本的开放性文本。<br />
<br />
在这几篇散文中，作者在参观历史遗址时都参加了诸如爬山、过河、对历史以及历史人物进行深思的活动。<br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing’s ''Jiangsheng dengyingli de Qinhuaihe'', written in 1923, was first published in the January 25, 1924 issue of ''Dongfang zazhi'' (Eastern Miscellany, founded in 1904). （文献无需翻译） <br />
<br />
Yu Dafu’s ''Diaotai de chunzhou'', written in August 1932, first appeared in the inaugural issue of the journal ''Lunyu'' (Analects), on September 16, 1932. <br />
<br />
Fang Lingru’s ''Langyashan youji'' was written in April 1936 in Nanjing. Reprints in contemporary essay anthologies are taken from Fang’s essay collection Xin (Letters) published in 1945.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
In this paper, the terms “writer” and “author” are used interchangeably.（文献无需翻译）--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 11:26, 8 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
For example, all three essays contain elements reminiscent of the poetic convention of contemplating the past (''huaigu''), often conveying regret over gone times and places. Images exposing the transience of human life in an enduring landscape suggest the writer’s uncertainty about the present and future, implying his desire to find a more lasting place within his existing surroundings. <br />
<br />
In their apparent affinity to poetic conventions, traditional gestures seem to promise the writer a degree of authority and certainty in observing and interpreting surroundings and thus in determining his position and role in them. An ''ironic'' understanding and reading of such gestures in Zhu, Yu, and Fang's essays however, exposes the concept of tradition as construct indispensable for a discourse on modernity. <br />
<br />
Evoking and sharing the cultural memory of place writing, Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays not only contain, but also constitute traditional gestures.（文献无需翻译） <br />
<br />
FFor a concise explication of this poetic convention, see Hans H. Frankel, ''The Flowering Plum and the Palace Lady: Interpretations of Chinese Poetry'' (New Haven and London, 1976), chapter 9 “Contemplation of the Past.”（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
<br />
Modern texts evolve from a questioning and reassessment of well-established meaning and value, rather than from a mere rejection of what are perceived to be traditional notions, customs, and ideals. Once tradition is divested of its absolute claim and subject to interpretation and reconstruction, modernity can emerge. <br />
<br />
Generally, the term “gesture” describes an activity as “something done to convey one’s intentions or attitude.” The traveler’s activities are more than actions that have an obvious purpose, such as getting to a location or viewing a certain site. Roland Barthes’ notion of gestures in writing and writing as gesture suggests the multiplicity of meaning within essays of place and ultimately bears out the idea of essays of place as texts on writing. In ''The Responsibility of Forms'', Roland Barthes describes “gesture” in art as<br />
<br />
“Gesture.” Def.2. ''Oxford American Dictionary''. New York: Avon Books, 1980. （文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
''The Oxford English Dictionary'' defines “gesture” as “a move or course of action undertaken as an expression of feeling or as a formality; especially a demonstration of friendly feeling, usually with the purpose of eliciting a favorable response from another.” Def.4.b. ''The Oxford English Dictionary''. 2nd Ed. (Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1989).（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
[s]omething like the surplus of an action. The action is transitive, it seeks only to provoke an object, a result; the gesture is the indeterminate and inexhaustible total of reasons, pulsions, indolences which surround the action with an atmosphere [. . .]. Hence, let us distinguish the message, which seeks to produce information, and the sign, which seeks to produce an intellection, from the gesture, which produces all the rest (the “surplus”) without necessarily seeking to produce anything. <br />
<br />
Traversing mountains and lakes are activities with a concrete objective. As “gestures” or “surplus action,” those activities are signs of attitudes that in Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays ultimately serve to constantly question and change meaning by providing possibility instead of demarcation of meaning and signification. <br />
<br />
Barthes, Roland. “''[Readings: Gesture] Cy Twombly: Works on Paper.” The Responsibility of Forms''. By Barthes. Trans. Richard Howard, (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1985) 160.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
According to Roland Barthes, every text is ultimately a product of gestures Discussing the work of American painter Cy Twombly (b. 1928), Roland Barthes furthermore says about the workings of gestures:（文献无需翻译） <br />
<br />
[t]he artist [ . . . ] is by status an “operator” of gestures: he seeks to produce an effect and at the same time seeks no such thing; the effects he produces he has not obligatorily sought out; they are reversed, inadvertent effects which turn back upon him and thereupon provoke certain modifications, deviations, mitigations of the line, of the stroke. Thus in gesture is abolished the distinction between cause and effect, motivation and goal, expression and persuasion (Barthes 160).（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing’s ''Qinhuaihe'' describes a pleasure excursion on the Qinhuai River he and his friend Yu Pingbo embark on one summer evening. Singsong girls and their musicians, offering their services to passengers in the roaming boats, provide popular entertainment on the river. Zhu and Yu try to enjoy the atmosphere produced by a combination of natural scenery, history, lantern lights, and sound of oars and of music. Despite mingling with other boats whose passengers happily solicit the singsong girls’ services, they remain passive observers. Zhu's narrative culminates in his and Yu’s direct encounter with the singsong girls, who approach them to solicit business. This encounter mortifies and confounds Zhu, turning the trip into a disconcerting experience. Both Zhu and Yu reject the singsong girls’ solicitations, and soon after the encounter, they head back to the pier. <br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
Yu Dafu’s ''Diaotai'' describes his travels in the countryside after having hurriedly left Shanghai to avoid being rounded up by Nationalist forces in the spring of 1931. Watching boats taking locals to their ancestral graves, Yu decides to visit his hometown in time for the Qingming festival. After only a few days with relatives and friends however, he becomes restless and leaves for a trip to Diaotai (Fishing Terrace) on Fuchun Mountain. He stops over at Tonglu for the night and despite the late hour climbs Tongjun Mountain located across the river. The next day, Yu visits the memorial hall on Fuchun Mountain dedicated to the Eastern Han recluse Yan Ziling and then climbs the famous Diaotai. <br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
Fang Lingru and a group of friends visit various historic sites scattered in the mountains they traverse during a spring outing. The most famous site is the pavilion named by Ouyang Xiu and celebrated in his famous ''An Account of the Pavilion of the Drunken Old Man'' (Zuiweng ting ji). The group decides to stay overnight at the ''Temple of Cultivation'' (Kaihua si), located deeper in the mountains, and spends the rest of the day touring the mountains and their cultural imprints guided by a monk. In the evening, the friends enjoy the nocturnal atmosphere and quietude of temple and mountains. The next day, the day of the Qingming festival, the group tours two more mountains before returning to Nanjing in the evening. <br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
All three essays contain attempts to adopt gestures of contemplating times and places while traversing varied landscapes. Yet, three elements in the essays destabilize significance and consequence of those gestures, undermining their power to confirm identities and signaling the questioning nature of the texts. These three elements are first the authors’ encounters with people inhabiting the landscape, second, elements of incompletion and ambiguity that unsettle the traditional gestures, and, third, as supplementary elements, the essays’ self-referential strategies. The following readings of Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays explain and illustrate one of each of these elements respectively.<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
'''Encounters with People in Zhu Ziqing’s Qinhuaihe'''<br />
<br />
Encounters with people populating the landscape have two effects. First, these encounters force the author to interact with the landscape. It becomes impossible for him to demarcate his position and identity by contemplating places from an autonomous vantage point. Zhu and Yu’s encounter with the singsong girls is the central human encounter in Zhu’s ''Qinhuaihe''. Initially, the singsong girls’ presence on the river does not appear to displease or disconcert Zhu. However, he maintains this sanguine perception by keeping a distance to the singers’ boats. The distance allows him to assume the traditional gesture of traversing a river to take in and contemplate its scenery and history from an independent viewpoint.<br />
<br />
It is important to point out that a clear distinction between traveler and landscape does not mean the travelers’ disassociation from his surroundings. Rather it points to the clear demarcation of positions and roles necessary to form a stable unified whole from two distinct units.(文献无需翻译)<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
The encounter with the singsong girls witnessed by other passengers unsettles gesture and atmosphere. By diminishing the safe distance between writer and observed place (which so far included the singers), the encounter forces Zhu to play an active role in his surroundings. The singers step out of the landscape picture, and Zhu becomes part of the place against his will.<br />
<br />
Ironically, however, the ensuing interaction nevertheless exposes an unbridgeable gap between author and people inhabiting the landscape. Zhu’s confrontation with the singsong girls reinforces an experience of distance, misapprehension, and alienation rooted in the dilemma of modern intellectuals. <br />
<br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
Zhu is both tempted by the offer and ashamed about even entertaining such a sentiment. Being publicly approached by women who sell their services to men and confronting his inner conflicting emotion embarrasses Zhu, who considers himself a moral and modern individual professing to condemn the exploitation of underprivileged social groups. <br />
<br />
The text moves from the portrayal of external space and atmosphere to a detailed self-dissection of Zhu's psyche and thoughts, a strikingly modern feature. As Zhu's progressive sensibilities interfere with acting out his desire, this psychological passage further disrupts the cohesion of the text as traditional gesture.<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
The encounter quickly deflates and undermines Zhu's attempt to adopt traditional gestures, causing confusion and conflict rather than reassurance of positions and identities in the river’s ultimately unpredictable space. Zhu’s experience of place is marked by a tension arising from an attempt to assert his independent position within his surroundings, the futility of the attempt, and the concurrent impossibility to become part of his surroundings.<br />
<br />
Significantly, only when Zhu’s inner conflict has abated somewhat, he and Yu are rewarded. On their way back, they pass a boat with a solitary singer coming toward them.<br />
<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
<br />
The singer is sitting in the bow of the unlit boat, singing only to herself. This unexpected episode has an at least temporarily redeeming quality for Zhu. However, his feeling of contentment lasts only a fleeting instant, and soon he and Yu are back in the bustling amusement district. Importantly, Zhu and Yu do not truly encounter the solitary singer. Possibly, the singer did not even notice them. This brief moment comes closest to successfully adopting a traditional gesture. As long as they maintain a distance, fulfilling the significance of the gesture seems possible. Ultimately however, Zhu, not in control of the gesture, is unable to prolong this moment. <br />
<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
He is left in utter despondency. Threat and intimidation Zhu experiences are signified well by the way he perceives his surroundings immediately after passing the lone singer’s boat. Passing under a tall bridge, it seems to Zhu “as if the darkness was opening its huge mouth, about to swallow [their] boat.” Zhu is left in a no-man’s-land between private desire and modern awareness.<br />
<br />
'''Incompletion and Ambiguity in Yu Dafu’s ''Diaotai'''''<br />
<br />
Elements of incompletion and ambiguity further question the significance of traditional gestures. By unsettling the essay’s narrative, these elements suggest an ironic reading of the texts that undermines the reliability of traditional gestures when searching for stable definitions of selves and surroundings. <br />
<br />
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
Obstacles in Yu Dafu’s path paired with a restlessness he experiences in places destabilize the gestures he tries to adopt. The significance of his trip remains ambiguous.<br />
<br />
The evening before reaching Diaotai, Yu sets out to climb Tongjun Mountain to visit a Daoist temple. Upon disembarking from the ferryboat, he immediately falls over a loose rock on the dark and rugged mountain path. The image of a stumbling Yu on his solitary endeavor to climb the mountain at night is almost comical. His idea to climb the mountain at this hour appears unreasonable and undermines any effect the attempt to adopt a traditional gesture might have.<br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
The ferryman hands Yu a pack of matches to help him find the way. At first, Yu is “groping [his] way up the mountain,” but as he approaches the top, moonlight begins to illuminate his path. A vast sky and a broad vista into the distance and onto the town seem to increase Yu’s chances of adopting the traditional gesture of contemplating place and past. As he approaches the temple however, an apparently locked gate in the low wall surrounding it obstructs Yu’s progress. After pacing up and down for a while not knowing what to do, he finally tries the gate, and surprisingly it opens. Ironically, Yu’s trip is delayed and almost cut short not by a locked gate but by his indecision and hesitation.<br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
Although he finds the temple gates indeed securely shut for the night, Yu is at this point quite content to sit on the wall adjacent to the gate from where he can overlook the river and enjoy the scenery. He gazes at the stars, clouds, and moon above and the lights of the boats below gently wavering in the wind. At last, Yu’s position allows him to contemplate place and past from an elevated and independent vantage point. The unparalleled scenery of Tongjun Mountain inspires Yu to contemplate the lives of the Eastern Han (25-220 A.D.) recluse Yan Ziling and that of the two Dai brothers, Dai Bo and Dai Yong of the Easter Jin (317-420), who made this area their home.<br />
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
Yu fully appreciates and identifies with their decision to lead a hermit’s life foreshadowing his own life of seclusion soon to begin. The clapper of the night watch in town finally wakes Yu to reality. Startled, he runs back head over heels to the boat. This abrupt ending to Yu’s reverie and his sudden anxiety to get back to the boat sharply contrast with the reflective atmosphere and sentiment of the passage. The traditional gesture is abruptly terminated. Like the clapper startling Yu, this abrupt ending to the nightly scene startles the reader.<br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
On the boat to Diaotai, Yu, tired from admiring the scenery, falls asleep and dreams of a gathering with some old friends in an inn along the river. The text does not make it explicitly clear that Yu is dreaming. This becomes fully clear only when the boatman wakes Yu as they approach Diaotai. <br />
<br />
In his dream, the friends chat and make merry, but after all has been said and done, the atmosphere turns cheerless and awkward. At the center of the dream is a poem Yu composed a few years ago at a similar occasion. It is a political poem written in traditional septa-syllabic regulated verse style, lamenting the chaotic state of the country and expressing the dissatisfaction of intellectuals with the government.<br />
<br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
One prominent traditional image in the poem is the loyal official who, “feigning madness,” (yang kuang) speaks the truth that goes unheeded. Here, a well-known traditional gesture is embedded in a text within a text. Before the gesture can come to full fruition, however, it is again terminated, this time by the boatman who wakes Yu.<br />
<br />
Significantly, Yu's perception of his surrounding has completely changed. Before falling asleep, he saw green mountains encasing the clear river and sandbanks with blossoming flowers; in short, tranquil and picturesque scenery. As the boat approaches Diaotai, however, “river and mountain scenery all around had suddenly changed.” (文献无需翻译)<br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing, “Jiangsheng dengyingli de qinhuaihe,” Zhongguo xiandai youji xuan, eds. Ma Zhonglin, Yang Guozhang, and Wang Zhonghua (Beijing: Zhongguo lüyou chubanshe, 1982) 95.(文献无需翻译)<br />
<br />
Yu Dafu, “Diaotai de chunzhou,” Zhongguo xiandai youji xuan, eds. Ma Zhonglin, Yang Guozhang, and Wang Zhonghua (Beijing: Zhongguo lüyou chubanshe, 1982) 204.<br />
<br />
Yu Dafu, 206(文献无需翻译)<br />
<br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
The river has narrowed and the mountains have moved extremely close, “as if ahead was no further way.” The towering mountains create an oppressively lonely atmosphere, in which even the sound of the oars seems disheartened; the echo is audible only after a long while, amplifying the “ancient silence,” the “silence of extinction” enveloping the boat. The sun is gone, and only a soughing wind comes and goes. <br />
<br />
The surrounding has turned ominous. Yu’s anticipation turns into apprehension. Compared to his reverie on Tongjun Mountain, Yu now perceives Diaotai as desolate and gloomy, eerily echoing the chaos and tumult evoked in his poem. He describes dilapidated stone structures overgrown with weeds.<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
Approaching Yan Ziling’s ancestral hall, now no more than decrepit walls and broken tiles, Yu begins to feel “a little afraid, afraid to encounter the ghost of Master Yan, old and dried-up like strips from a towel gourd.” Yu’s rapidly growing skepticism and discomfort upon approaching the setting further suggest the impossibility to find meaning and identity by adopting traditional gestures in places.<br />
<br />
On the Fishing Terrace, Yu is curiously reminded of a postcard depicting the William Tell Memorial Hall and its scenery in Switzerland. The colors of mountains and rivers he sees from Diaotai are strikingly similar to those on the “collotype postcard.”<br />
<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
However, in the scenery he views from Diaotai, “the variations are a little greater, the surrounding in all directions is just a little more jumbled and chaotic, that’s all, but this is actually a plus, enough to represent the East’s desolate beauty of national degeneration.” Ironically, Yu’s comparison between the postcard picture and his view stresses the similarities between the colors of the landscapes only. He views a place that in its very structure carries the marks of present crisis. Associating his description of the scenery with Switzerland generally associated with national stability and social order only intensifies the image of national chaos and debility. <br />
<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
Superficially conforming to the traditional gesture of contemplating (and lamenting) place and past, the comparison here is not one between present and past, but one between two presents. Yu's view evokes scenery on a foreign postcard, which in its modern photographic quality and miniature size cannot evoke the past, challenging the idea of a traditional gesture. <br />
<br />
After having had some wine in the hall, Yu walks up to the Buddhist shrine whose derelict walls are covered with poems, most of them of poor quality. In a corner near the ceiling, he finds an inscription by the Qing loyalist and fellow villager Xia Lingfeng (Xia Zhenwu, 1854-1930), whose commitment Yu admires despite objecting to Xia’s political convictions. Yu inscribes the poem from his dream next to Xia’s. <br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
Initially, Yu's act of inscribing the poem suggests that he sympathizes and identifies with Xia. However, since Yu does object to the substance of Xia’s ideals and motives, the gesture of writing a poem next to Xia’s only stresses the ambiguity of such an act. With the gesture of inscribing his poem along with others of inferior quality and next to that of a Qing loyalist Yu willingly obscures his own political stance and inadvertently questions the relevance of his act. The traditional-style poem placed in an obscure corner on the wall as one among many is ineffective, and the gesture of inscribing it loses its significance. Yu’s position and role in his time and place remains ambiguous and difficult to define. Ironically, while Yu’s essay saves the poem and its context from obscurity, it also exposes the very ambiguity of his act.<br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
'''Self-referential strategy in Fang Lingru’s ''Langyashan'''''<br />
<br />
By foregrounding a texts’ constructedness, self-referential strategies question the idea of a texts’ definite and authoritative meaning. Suggesting the texts’ plurality of meaning further substantiates their significance in negotiating perspectives, positions, and identities.<br />
<br />
Concluding the narration of her two-day trip, Fang Lingru writes: “There are still many more scenic spots and ancient sites on Langya Mountain; if it’s meant to be, I’ll come another time to visit again. ''There is nothing more I can add to this piece'' (my emphasis).” <br />
<br />
Fang Lingru, “Langyashan youji,” ''Zhongguo xiandai youji xuan'', eds. Ma Zhonglin, Yang Guozhang, and Wang Zhonghua (Beijing: Zhongguo lüyou chubanshe, 1982) 148.<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
Yet, she goes on to recommend a particular dish and wine the group had at a restaurant in Chuzhou before returning to Nanjing. This rather banal and anticlimactic addendum to her narrative is then followed by two more paragraphs, describing her sentiments upon returning home. <br />
<br />
When I got home, it was already ten o’clock at night, and a fine drizzle filled the air. Just before leaving, the old monk Shangkuan had tied three Spring Azalea sprigs to my rickshaw, which I planted immediately upon coming home. Now the twigs have already developed tender sprouts; by this time next year, they will blossom. XX named them “Bodhi Shangkuan.” <br />
<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
I’ve been feeling extremely tired lately, but thinking back to the trip into the mountains, I can say that it was flawless, and I have no regrets. <br />
<br />
It is a cliché to state at the end of a text that nothing can be added. Fang’s appended restaurant and food recommendation suggests her eagerness to relate every detail from the trip. However, extending her narrative by two paragraphs, she effectively contradicts her own assertion that everything worth saying has been said. This contradiction and the contrast between her matter-of-fact-style in which she ostensibly ends the essay and the intimate tone and personal content of the concluding paragraphs highlight the act of writing and constructing the text.<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
The final paragraphs further question the effect of adopting traditional gestures to find stable meaning and purpose in and through one’s surroundings. For Fang the gesture of translating visits to sites and ruins into detailed description evoke the past is not sufficient. Her encounter with the monk ultimately renders her experience on Langya Mountain significant. The flowers she received from him signify the possibility of growth, nurturing, and encouragement. By contrast, the significance of the sites themselves remains ambiguous.<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
The last two paragraphs of Fang’s essay complete the framework of personal reflection that encases the largely dispassionate narration of her trip. Personal memory is the ultimate locus of meaningful experience and the creative force underlying the essay. Exhausting facts and details in representing an experience does not bring a text to its end despite assertions to the contrary. Fang’s last sentence suggests that remembering the trip in close connection with the human encounter constitutes a source of satisfaction for her, rather than the emulation of traditional gestures that seem to promise an authoritative rendition of place and time. <br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
Her memory and text are like the plant, living and changing. The gesture of announcing the end of her text is undermined by that same texts’ continuation. The self-referential strategy in Fang’s essay ultimately affirms possibility and potentiality not completeness and finality.<br />
<br />
Conclusion<br />
The attempt to adopt established poetic gestures in Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays does not dispel the writer’s uncertainty and ambivalence in navigating, redefining, and asserting his (or her) role in a changed and changing environment. In each essay, various elements question reliability and significance of these gestures, highlighting the ambiguity of the writer’s experience and position in the places he visits.<br />
Her memory and text are like the plant, living and changing. The gesture of announcing the end of her text is undermined by that same texts’ continuation. The self-referential strategy in Fang’s essay ultimately affirms possibility and potentiality not completeness and finality.<br />
<br />
'''Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
The attempt to adopt established poetic gestures in Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays does not dispel the writer’s uncertainty and ambivalence in navigating, redefining, and asserting his (or her) role in a changed and changing environment. In each essay, various elements question reliability and significance of these gestures, highlighting the ambiguity of the writer’s experience and position in the places he visits.<br />
<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
Traditionally, the poet contemplating place and past was a solitary figure estranged from his times and surroundings, often questioning the present state of affairs. From the perspective of literary history, however, sharing this gesture and its variations with other poets in a long line of succession offered writers a way to secure rather than question their role and identity. Through canon formation and the writing of literary history, acts and themes such as contemplating places and past came to be understood as customary endeavors gaining and increasing their significance from their perceived continuity. Such understanding is part of the ''construction of traditions'' to legitimize poetic authority and continuity, or - as during the May Fourth movement - change and eradication. <br />
<br />
Relevant to the argument here is the idea of canon formation and the way it works. The argument does by no means suggest that all texts based on or containing certain traditional gestures and conventions are indeed similar and unchanged over the long pre-modern period. Nor does it suggest that in pre-modern travel and landscape writings the writer can indeed successfully confirm his identity and role through following the conventions of his time. （文献无需翻译）<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
Instead of confirming the writer’s authority as mediator and interpreter of time and place, traditional gestures in modern essays such as Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s foreground his precarious role and position within his time and place. Attempting to adopt traditional gestures ultimately exposes the gestures as constructs that do not provide an indisputable way of understanding and representing surroundings and one’s position and role in them. <br />
<br />
By deconstructing the cultural and literary traditions, May Fourth intellectuals and writers tried to establish a practical dichotomy between conservative past and progressive present and future to confer authority upon the modern text.<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
As the above readings show however, modern texts inevitably comprise a ''discourse'' on what is made out to be tradition and modernity. This discourse inscribes, negotiates, and transforms tradition within the modern text albeit in an ever varying and irrepressible way. The texts’ complexity, subtexts, and plurality of meaning arises from a ''negotiation'' between familiar conventions and new and modern perspectives in search of identities, roles, and positions in a changing time and place. Ultimately, the texts are texts on writing as a continuous endeavor and exploration and thus texts on the open-ended nature of essays.<br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
'''From Historical Narrative to the World of Prose: The Essayistic Mode in Contemporary Chinese Literature'''<br />
<br />
''Wang Ban''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
As a genre, the essay in contemporary China can be seen as a symptom of the decline of historical consciousness and narrative. This comes through most sharply when compared with the previously established literary paradigm: the Chinese novel in the realistic mode. For many decades the fiction of revolutionary realism served as ideological apparatus and medium for providing coherent temporal perceptions about past, present, and future.<br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
The realistic novel's central assumption is epic best described by Georg Lukacs, who construes the epic form as a projected ideal that is realizable through narrated social and historical actions. Little thought needs to be taken to see that a revolutionary epic is a strenuous but finally triumphant harmony of ideal and reality. The rise of the essay in the recent decades epitomizes the turn of literary writing from the epic coherence of ideal and life to the dispersed and fragmented sensory or sensual pleasures and sheer appreciation of images or anecdotes.<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
The essay retreats from historical consciousness and responds warmly and lightheartedly to the advent of consumer culture. It is designed to satisfy the modest needs of the urban consumer whose sensibility is becoming “essayistic,” prosaic, ahistorical and everyday, preoccupied with the most intimate and quotidian matters. This paper takes a look back at Eileen Chang's thinking on the essay and attempts to trace the linkage between the modern essay and the rise of urban consumer culture. Then through an analysis of Wang Anyi's novella ''The Story of Our Uncle'' (Shushu de gushi), I demonstrate how the retreat from historical consciousness to what I would call the essayistic structure of feeling is dramatized by Wang's groping, explorative essay/fiction. <br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
The main character Uncle's career illustrates the waning of historical consciousness. This paper seeks to point out that the essay's ambivalence lies in its freedom from the straitjacket of the grand narrative and in its contribution to the withering of historical consciousness in the rising consumer culture in China. <br />
<br />
'''The Essay and the Novel'''<br />
<br />
The essay as a cultural form can be grasped in its relation to the novel. In twentieth-century China the novel in the epic, realistic mode had been the dominant form of literature and a pivotal ideological apparatus--probably up to the mid-1980s. The Chinese realistic novel can be construed as epic in the way formulated by Georg Lukács.<br />
<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
Its epic characteristic lies in its historical scope and teleology, its engagement with social and political issues, its intertwining of the individual's fate with collective projects, its aesthetics of the exemplary hero, and its striving for transcendence within everyday immanence. The novel of socialist realism in the Mao era strove to achieve an imaginary unity of transcendent ideals and quotidian reality. It depicts a universe in which the world and the self “never become permanent strangers to one another” (Lukács 29) and the individual's growth is of one piece with communal destiny. In the post-Mao era, often dubbed the New Period, works of fiction appeared to be different but were still imbued with an epic impulse. <br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
It is true that the 1980s saw the emphatic upsurge of interest in the subjectivity of the autonomous individual, but far from an atomistic ego of appetitive self-interest, fictional characters were still figured as the subject of history. For all its seeming revolt against the previously dominant mode, the image of the newly awakened modern self in the fiction of the New Period went hand in hand with the socio-historical process of socialist modernization, individuals serving as agents of this process. Thus, Fredric Jameson's concept of national allegory--in which the individual's fate tells a larger story of collective destiny – was well received in Chinese criticism and made to apply with equal ease to the realistic novel of the Mao era as well as those advocating reforms. <br />
<br />
Critics have noted that in the 1980s thought emancipation movement (sixiang jiefang), the fundamental literary mode and historical consciousness were derived from the Hegelian-Marxist version of the unity of subject and object, the individual and history. So the self that was upheld was not an autonomous self cut off from the collectivity of social processes, but was assimilated and modeled by the requirements of the modernization drive. See Qi Shuyu, 103-104.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
If this view of the novel sounds anachronistic to contemporary China, we may justify it by a reference to the striven-for unity of revolutionary ideals and social reality, of theory and practice, a prominent tenet in the utopian legacy of Marxism. As literary counterpart of this projected unity the Chinese realistic novel presents a mythical and epic structure in which dream and history, individual and collective become one. In Lukács the epic is contracted with the novel, because the latter is a form stripped of the former’s immediate and unproblematic unity of ideal and reality (56). <br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
In other words, the novel in the Western realistic tradition is troubled by the intrusion of time, which causes fractures in the epic, time-defying harmony between self and collectivity, dream and actuality. But Lukács still insists that the novel is a kind of epic, because it strives to close the fissures created by the gap of time, hence potentially able to attain the epic status on a higher level. <br />
<br />
The gap between ideal and reality is minimized in the Chinese novel, which appears to be more epic than the realistic novel in the West. The novel of revolutionary realism is closer to poetry, marked with tremendous lyricism, as Charles Laughlin notes with regard to the socialist sanwen in his essay “Incongruous Lyricism” in this volume. <br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
<br />
It would not seem incongruous when lyrical exuberance, equated with revolutionary idealism and utopianism, is maximized in the novel as a way to transcend and close the gap between a historical time marked by imperialist invasions, sufferings, and poverty on the one hand, and the ultimate ideal of communism culminating in the epic harmony of ideal and reality, theory and practice, on the other. The novel in this mode is supposed to be more than a text you read, curled up in your couch in a snowy winter night in solitary comfort. It was ideological, educational, edifying, its grand narrative projecting material praxis. It aimed to instigate you to go out into the streets or impoverished villages and get organized with other fellow humans to make history.<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
The rise of the essay in contemporary China is a sign that the novel in the epic mode has become an endangered species. This is not merely the problem of genre, nor am I suggesting that readers are flocking to essays and abandoning novels. My point is that the novel as a medium of envisioning social life and registering experiences of temporality is giving way to the essay, or more generally to the essayistic structure of sensibility. I play with the idea of essayistic in order to refer to the essay as a canonical textual form as well as those discursive moments in other literary genres embodying an “essayistic” quality and a “prosaic” structure of feeling.<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
One crucial point to made is that this emotional structure accords with the everyday sensibility of a city-dweller and consumer. This is one reason why it is instructive to contract the essayistic with the novel. The essay deals with a prosaic and mundane world. In Hayden White’s recapturing of Hegel’s distinction of poetry and prose, “The world in which prosaic utterance developed must be supposed to have been one in which experience had become atomized and denuded of its ideality and immediately apprehended significance, and voided of its richness and vitality” (87).This prosaic world of fragmented experience is to the Chinese novel as the Lukácsian novel is to the epic: a fall from an original oneness. In contemporary China, neither the novel nor poetry seems to be a means of closing this widened gap. My purpose in the essay is to examine the position of the essayistic in relation to the novel, and the related sensibilities in relation to history.<br />
<br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
The Hegelian Marxist perspective I sketched earlier is helpful here for understanding the shift from the novel to the essay. For Hegel art is necessary because it strives for a seamless, organic apotheosis of transcendent spirit and mundane reality. This view, though historical, can lead to two contradictory conclusions. In Hegel art is historical because it is a stage of the Spirit's journey to its self-realization. As art evolves as historically transitory forms of the Spirit, the movement of history leads to the abolition of certain forms of art, or the demise of art altogether. On this account the novel would be a casualty of the Spirit’s historical movement and self-realization. For Hegel art becomes problematic and obsolete because the “world of prose” has attained the empirical form erstwhile aspired to by art. In the world of prose, the Spirit has realized itself both in thought and in socio-political praxis, exemplified by the Prussian state.<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
The polity embodied by the Prussian state is for Hegel is the epitome of theory put into practice, a real image of realized art. As Luckács remarked of Hegel, “Thus art becomes problematic precisely because reality has become non-problematic” (Lukács 17).<br />
<br />
Lukács, however, draws a contrary lesson from this historical, or more precisely the “end-of-history,” “end of art” thesis. Taking issue with Hegel's view of art as “aestheticized” body politic, Lukacs argues that the problem of the novel is a mirror image of a world gone out of joint. In modern times the novel is still alive as the impulse of art is still pressing. The novel is aesthetically and epistemologically vital and necessary not because the established reality has achieved what art can only dream. On the contrary, the novel is a desperate attempt to patch up a broken reality and inject little doses of meaning into a world emptied of spontaneous and totalisable significance. <br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
Therein lies its modern irony, the irony of dreaming the perfection of the world while knowing acutely the impossibility of perfection. Interestingly, Lukács' insight into the ironic, self-reflexive nature of the novel provides a glimpse on the condition of the essay. In the Chinese realistic novel, to be sure, the historical totality of communist utopia emerging out of a mundane reality is the shining symbol of inspiration, bearing a superficial resemblance to the Hegelian realization of Spirit in the state. But the faith in the final triumph of communist utopia and the attainment of a fully emancipated society is presumed by the novelistic discourse as law-like and predetermined, hence realistic and inevitable. Thus the decline of the novel, the novel in the epic mode, can be read as the decline of the grand, Marxist narrative of historical teleology. In contrast, the rise of the essay harbingers a more fragmentary, disjoint, and private form of signifying practice that is springing up in the cracks and gaps of a fallen reality, a world out of joint.<br />
<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
The world out of joint is a compelling image of today's China going commercialized, globalized, and fragmented in all aspects of life. The phrase “out of joint' here is meant to denote both the explosive vitality and disorienting chaos, the drama and trauma of the Chinese scene unfolding in the past decade. To grasp China as a vast market place, a rising consumer society, an emergent culture of mass media and spectacles, I refer the reader to numerous reports by journalists, economists, and a vast number of essays written by writers who have recently turned to the personal essay as a forum. Literature, as a historical vision and ideological apparatus, is hanging in the balance.<br />
<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
Like many other spheres of culture, it has become commodified and entered the marketplace, being packaged into one more item in the mass media and entertainment industry. This altered social context is crucial to understanding the essay as a literary form and a cultural medium of expression in contemporary China. But this link between the culture of commodity and the essay, or the essayistic mode of writing and feeling, is not a brand new phenomenon of the last decade.<br />
<br />
For a tracing of the historical linkage we may turn to the earlier period in modern literary history. Eileen Chang's essays and her reflection on the essay form are the compelling and successful instance of the marriage between the essay and mass culture. Nicole Huang’s paper in this volume looks at some aspects of this marriage as manifest in Chang’s essay.<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
This marriage finds its new manifestations in the work of the contemporary writer Wang Anyi, who is writing in a renewed urban context in many ways similar to that of Chiang. An analysis of Eileen Chang's thinking on the essay will help us understand Wang's work. Eileen Chang's views give the essay form a clear shape as it emerged in an urban and consumer culture. Wang Anyi's essays and especially the essayistic moments in her fiction mark the return of this consumer-oriented genre under new historical circumstances.<br />
<br />
'''Eileen Chang and the Essay in the Urban Setting'''<br />
<br />
The story and essay writer Eileen Chang has been seen as one source for Wang Anyi's work. Although Eileen Chang wrote fictions of urban life set in Shanghai and Hong Kong in a mixture of traditional and modernist styles, her writing is a sharp contrast and an antidote to the grand narrative of the May Fourth Enlightenment and revolution in modern Chinese literature.<br />
<br />
This view of Hegel's on art is evoked by Lukács in his preface to ''The Theory of the Novel'', 11-23.<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
Her stories relish the irrelevancies, minor manias, trivia, and anxieties and depict random episodes of the urbanite's life. The intriguing depiction of the narrow romance and personality of the petty urbanites, ''xiaoshimin'', is her forte and attraction. The prose of life in a cramped and congested urban setting is not only the hallmark of her fiction, but also constitutes the major themes of her essays. While her essays correspond to and illuminate her fiction, her thoughts on essay writing serve to highlight the aesthetic quality of the essayistic in modern Chinese literature. <br />
<br />
Eileen Chang's essay collection ''Floating Words'' (sometimes translated as ”Written on Walter”) is a compelling example of the essay as it emerged in Chinese urban culture. In the opening essay entitled “The Child Utters his Words without Constraints” (Tongyan wuji) she equates her essays to the chatty, whimsical, and willful airing of pent-up feelings whenever and wherever she can, like an unrestrained child. <br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
Writers like her, she says, have little to do with earth-quaking, epoch-making historical events and should drop the dream of immortality attainable from self-portrayal by writing a popular autobiography. The satisfaction and salvation for a writer are writing “bits and pieces about matters concerning oneself” (7). The matters of self-concern, as Chang continues, include money, dress, eating, important personages and their grotesque undersides, and family relations. Within a few pages of this first essay we have a range of sundry themes expressing interest in consumer habit, survival in the city, personal and social relations in an increasingly compartmentalized urban culture. Running down the table of contents of this essay collection, we have trouble classifying what the essays focus on, except to say that they essay opinion and play around with perceptions just about anything in city life. They touch upon whatever flickers through the mind, passes in view, appeals to the senses, any stereotypical or routine scenes or acts in the urban setting.<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
There are, to give a taste of their randomness and miscellany, pieces about living in an apartment, beating up people, private and intimate words, shallow impressions about art, changing dresses, woman, rains, the umbrellas, even about a routine act of going upstairs. <br />
<br />
While it is surely impossible to box these essays into a general category and abstract a unifying principle, Eileen Chang points beyond this charmed collection of essays to the grand historical narrative and thus provides a useful reference point for what the essay refuses to do. If it is not clear what the essay is, Chang shows what it is not. She sees the essay in its withdrawal from and rejection of historical discourse and in its all-consuming absorption in the mundane and fragmented urban scenes. The nature of the essay seems to lie in its irrelevance to history as a literary principle:<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
I have no desire to write history, nor am I qualified to make judgement on the historian's perceptions. But privately I hope they would say more things that are irrelevant. Reality as such is not systematic; it is like seven or eight chatter-boxes sounding simultaneously, creating confusion. But amidst this incomprehensible sound and fury there occur moments of illumination, poignant and bright, enabling us to hear the tune and understand a bit, only to be swallowed up by the thickening darkness. Painters, writers, and composers connect these chancy, fragmented discoveries and create artistic wholes. (41)<br />
<br />
As a fiction writer Chang does not believe in artistic perfection. She creates “imperfect” and flawed characters in her fiction, as she repeatedly claims. In her essays she holds it important to write about the irrelevancies, for, as she proclaims, all life' charms are to be found in the irrelevancies. (42)<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
Eileen Chang's thinking on the essay reflects certain aspects of Chinese modernity that provides a context for understanding the essay form as an increasingly prominent cultural medium. The essay for her is a writing practice opposed to the historically oriented and politically charged literature, to the teleological historical narrative, and to the monumental work of art. Formalistically the essay is random, self-contradictory, expressive, and therapeutic. Eileen Chang's essays are a radical departure from Lu Xun's miscellaneous essay (''zawen''). Despite its similarly disjoint, personal, and casual form, the ''zawen'' à la Lu Xun is polemic, militant, acid, socially and political engaged. It seizes upon the small and transitory but its gaze goes past them to the culturally and historically significant. This engaged character puts the ''zawen'' in a close lineage with the didactic tradition of May Fourth literature aimed at raising readers' consciousness or jolting them out of the half-sleep of tradition and convention.<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
The rise of consumer mentality, urban culture, and the new role of the writer as a professional breadwinner brought to prominence the values of entertainment, charm, taste, performance, charisma, and glamour--values inherent to urban culture with a good appetite for entertainment, images, and spectacles. This emergent socio-historical context was overshadowed and marginalized by the dominant political ideology and historical narrative in the decades after Eileen Chang's short-lived popularity. <br />
<br />
Andrew Jones of UC-Berkeley is at work to translate Eileen Chang’s essay collection into English and he uses the phrase “Written on Water.”<br />
<br />
In his recent book ''Shanghai Modern'' Professor Leo Lee has admirably traced Eileen Chang's writing and the commercial urban culture she was immersed in. See the Chapter “Eileen Chang: Romances in a Fallen City,” 267-303.<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
In the 1990s and in Wang Anyi's work, this historical context re-emerged with sharpness and vengeance. I will argue that the fate of the essay or the aesthetic quality of the essayistic cannot be understood without considering the revival of urban and consumer culture and its increasing detachment from the historical consciousness.<br />
<br />
'''Telling a Story Where There is no Story to Tell'''<br />
<br />
Wang Anyi's work in the 1990s shows how deeply the urban mass culture has penetrated and transformed literature. The novel in the epic mode depends upon some preconceived story pattern which delivers ideological and historical convictions about temporal perceptions of past, present, and future. One symptom of the shift from the novel to the essay is the acute sense of lack of story, the sense that the archetypal stories that writers used to rely on to generate their narratives are no longer convincing. <br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
For Wang Anyi this poverty of stories is directly linked to the urban setting. The title of one of her essays on literature “The City Has no Story to Tell” (Chengshi wu gushi) highlights the disappearance of sharable, communicable narratives in the city's amorphous atmosphere and the anonymous urban crowd. This essay makes quite clear the sociological transformations that have given rise to the generic shift from story to non-story, or from narrative fiction to the essayistic mode. In it Wang sets up a contrast between the village community and urban social organization. The tightly knit rural communities, such as villages and small towns, are the nurturing ground for sharable stories. As the social relations are largely those of family, kinship or clan, human contact and communication are more intimate and primarily face to face. Individuals act out their life stories in a pre-given trajectory and within a received social network of work, authority, and hierarchy.<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
The stories both told and lived, recounted over and again against a backdrop of traditional orientation and self-evident norms. Traditional values and age-old customs shape the stories people tell each other and assure their intelligibility and guarantee cultural continuity. In short, the temporal and spatial perceptions are inherited and sedimented over time and can be repeated in new stories. <br />
<br />
This argument about village community brings to mind Benjamin's critique of the modern novel and re-evaluation of the communal storyteller. The village community is embedded in an inexhaustible fund of stories and exemplified by the culturally cohesive role of the storyteller. Benjamin's familiar argument takes on new significance when the contract between village and city is construed as a metaphoric tension between the self-assured story-telling in the epic mode of the Chinese novel and the disappearance of the story in the city. <br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
More importantly, the tension foregrounds the accelerated modernization process that has rendered almost obsolete, in less than a decade, the relatively habitual and time-worn socio-psychic infrastructure. It brings into sharp focus the market oriented, amorphous urban setting where the individual becomes atomic individuals, cut loose from the social moorings of kinship, community, and family, from lineage and history. Thrown into the competitive marketplace and transient impersonal relations, the individual has to rely on his or her own ingenuity and resources.. Since they come from different areas and are isolated from each other in the compartmentalized life spheres and specialized work, urban dwellers only have their own vastly different stories to tell, stories which are narrowly biographical and not readily meaningful to other people. There are more stories to tell, it is true, but the apparent multiplication of stories imply the poverty of a communicable story. <br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
This is what Wang means by saying there is lack of stories in the city. The endlessly varied confusion and lack of common interest lead to disjoint, fragmentary, anecdotal, performance-driven forms of writing often found in essays written for the consumer's relaxed state of mind, or mindlessness after a nice dinner.<br />
<br />
'''From the Historical to the Essayistic: the Fall of the Intellectual'''<br />
<br />
Wang Anyi's ''The Story of Our Uncle'' illustrates the transition from the historically and ideological oriented literature to a form that could be characterized as essayistic. The novella was written in 1990, a time of drastic change for Chinese society and culture as a whole. From a culture dominated by an ideologically oriented and centralized state China was moving quickly into a brave new world of frenzied economic development, investment, consumerism, and pop culture. Something fundamental had drastically shaken the basic fabrics of Chinese society. <br />
<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
''The Story of Our Uncle'' registered a very sensitive aspect of the epoch-making changes in China. Rather than interpret this novella as a literary text, I will look at it as a document tracing a shift in literary and social history. Focusing on a novelist's career, the novella delineates the qualitative shift in the value and function of literature in a time when ideology and politics were giving way to the market, economic development, and consumerism--all under the rubric of modernization. From the vicissitudes of a writer we may see how the novel as a cultural form loses its ground and how literary sensibility shifts to the essayistic. This generic shift provides a glimpse onto the fundamental social transformations in the 1990s.<br />
<br />
Critics have noticed the presence of essayistic quality in Wang's writing, especially in her fiction.In ''The Story of Our Uncle'', one finds the essayistic prevailing over narrative.<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
The text reads more like an essay-- rambling, random, analytical, disjoint, gossipy, chatty--than a straight narration, a fact acknowledged by the author herself. In this narrative-essay a young writer on behalf of his generation attempts make a biographical assessment of an older writer they call our uncle. One would be disappointed to expect an engaging action or dramatic story. Though the text retains the outward, apparent shape of a novella it is a hybrid composed of diverse genres, with literary and art criticisms, gossip, conjecture, history, philosophizing, anecdotes, and stories all rolled into one. The narrator suggests that this novella is an essay in the double sense of textual form and playful, explorative literary exercise. He proclaims in the opening paragraph that this is a story assembled out of a hodgepodge of elements, and there is no way to distinguish truth from falsehood. <br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
“Many blanks need to be filled up with imagination and inference,” and the story is filled with “subjective coloring” (181). The subjective, arbitrary, even whimsical character of the text is further associated, as the narrator notes, with the mode of production that writers have adopted as they are geared toward an emergent literary market. Writers, the narrator says, are people who spend their time making up stories. One day “we started circulating his (Uncle's) maxims.” To the laborers like us the maxims are significant, for they are capital in commodity production and can produce surplus value, which can put back to expanded reproduction. ''The Story of Our Uncle'' is thus premised on fragmentary axioms, an arbitrary principle of composition, random fantasy, and the form of commodity. <br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
In a strictly formalistic sense, Wang's text complies with the usual comments and generalizations on the essay as a literary form. In Theodore Adorno's well-known essay entitled “The Essay as Form” we find numerous descriptions well suited to an analysis of the essay in the Chinese context. Adorno pits the essay against the institutional system of philosophy, the discourse of scientific positivism, and its attendant socio-cultural condition of reification. The essay is envisaged as an ''enfant terrible'' or a serious playboy seeking the utopia space of the pleasure principle. Thus the essay turns up its nose to the notions of totality, completeness, systematicity, the universal and the eternal. It is marked by fragments, excessive fantasy and interpretation, exploration, and experiments. Its supposed form is actually formlessness. Abandoning the rigid conceptual schemata, it seeks and engages the object in its historical specificity and quotidian trivia. <br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
While Adorno's comments are apt and in tune with much of Eileen Chang and Wang Anyi's musings on the essay, the philosophical framework in Adorno that the essay rebels against is different: the essay is up against the high-minded conceptual tyranny of Western philosophical tradition. In the Chinese literary convention the essay is not so clearly defined against something so established. Its polemic pole, I have tried to argue throughout this essay, is to be identified as the Enlightenment and Marxist paradigm of teleological history and its literary counterpart: the novel of revolutionary realism. <br />
<br />
The essay is a literary exploration trying to break out of the conceptual and discursive straitjacket. Adorno quotes Max Bense and says that the essay “is distinguished from a treatise:<br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
The person who writes essayistically is the one who composes as he experiments, who turns his object around, questions it, feels it, tests it, reflects on it, who attacks it from different sides and assembles what he sees in his mind's eye and puts into words what the object allows one to see under the condition created in the course of writing. (17)<br />
<br />
The dropping of a grand, complete vision and opting for the incomplete, trivial, and the experimental are what makes for the essay. The German word Versuch, attempt or essay, Adorno writes, is the place where “thought's utopian vision of hitting the bullseye is united with the consciousness of its own fallibility and provisional character” (16). This “indicates . . . something about the form, something to be taken all the more seriously in that it takes place not systematically but rather as a characteristic of an intention groping its way” (16).<br />
<br />
See Wu Liang and Wang Anyi, “A Conversation on Reality and Fiction,” in Wang Anyi, Reality and Fiction (Jishi yu xugou) 325.<br />
<br />
Adorno, 3-23.<br />
<br />
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
An intention groping its way into the mysteries of the Uncle's life aptly describes the essayistic quality of Wang's novella. As a text assembled out of disparate materials-- hearsay, gossips, and guesswork, fantasy, and conjecture, the narrative enacts a wide array of pre-given discourses and narrative patterns to grope at the “real” life of the Uncle. These discourses and narratives are in their own turn commented on as objects of inquiry and critique on a “meta” level and treated as options in an experimental writing. As an intellectual the Uncle is typical of hundreds of thousands others persecuted in the political campaigns whose suffering and re-instatement in the post-Cultural Revolution period is now a cliche. But at the very outset the novella unpacks the myth of the suffering intellectual into forking paths of narrative.<br />
<br />
==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
One can make up a narrative of the Uncle on his way to the place of exile, for instance, by recourse to a tragic-sublime scenario of political victims echoing Dostoevesky. Riding in a beat-up truck drudging through the vast, snowy Siberian landscape in the Northwest plateau, the victim/hero would ponder the significance of life and fate with an elderly wise man. One could also cast the Uncle in a lackluster, comic or even grotesque light, reduced to a mere creature of survival, trapped in a narrow village life. Like thousands of other writers, Uncle was persecuted and exiled because of his writing. But this fabled story of the tragic-heroic writer is again playfully retouched into three different versions by Uncles' own retelling after the fact. In the first telling, his persecution is a political story, indicting the tyranny of the political system. Then it is an existential story, intimating the mysterious and ironical workings of fate.Thirdly, it is a prophetic story, in the fashion of an Aesop fable, full of prescience and bodings of catastrophe. <br />
<br />
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
This intention groping its way into the Uncle's life draws upon various types of narrative patterns and aesthetic resources. This is by no means a literary embellishment for pure rhetorical variety or pleasure. The narration is saddled with the difficulties of understanding and getting the Uncle's life's straight. The difficulty is not the usual generational gap, but reflects different historical experiences and memory that separate the young from the old. This difference not only drives a wedge into the writers as a group, but also gives rise to the divergence of generic practice and the aesthetics informing it. This divergence is the key to understanding the essay and the essayistic.<br />
<br />
==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
The older generation, having experienced political persecution and historical traumas at the first hand, is deeply grounded in a historical consciousness and a teleological narrative. The Uncle is intensely committed to writing literature as praxis for social change. His meteoric rise to the leading writer in the aftermath of the Cultural Revolution indicates that the position of what Gramsci called the “organic” intellectual remains strong, even thriving. The popularity of his novels shows that a work of literature can make a tremendous hit and is an effective medium for criticizing the flaws of the system and raising the social, political consciousness of readers. It revives the legacy of the New Literature of May Fourth and is rightly re-baptized as the literature of the New Period (xin shiqi wenxue). It is the voice of the farsighted and the vanguard in China's modernization drive. Despite all his traumas and sufferings, the Uncle's generation, writers in their forties and over in the narrative time, remains firm in their belief in the organic totality of socio-historical process and the people's capacity in steering the course of history. Literature is simply one vehicle that carries this historical mission. <br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
The historical consciousness embodied by the Uncle is to find its corresponding form in an epic mode of writing: the realistic novel. The Uncle's general outlook on the world is epic in the Lukácsian sense. The young narrator captures this ''Weltanschauung'' very accurately: <br />
<br />
The political life of the past few decades has filled up his personal experience and life. This enables Uncle to keep his worldview firmly anchored to reality and politics. The state and government encompass the whole world for him and form the vast backdrop for human activity. Patterns of people's behavior and conduct are but representatives of social life. The concept of culture sounds very abstract and empty to him. For him art should also perform real and political functions. (214-215)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
The young generation, in contrast, is not so firmly grounded. Growing up in a period when the dominant ideology is in decline, they are left floating in the winds of various imported ideologies and newfangled isms. Creatures of the newly emergent market and players of nihilistic intellectual fashions, they produce literature without any commitment to a socio-historical mission. Literature is but a playful, aesthetic game unburdened with any responsibility and weighty purposes. Art has become an artful, artsy activity, floating free of socio-historical grounding. Literary activity to them means, more specifically, attending pen conferences, pursuing hot fashions, innovating fresh forms and tastes, brandishing new theories, making up sensational and marketable stories. All this also leads to the enhancement of a writer's charisma and even sexual appeal. Indeed, to the young generation it is old fashioned to see literature as having historical or social significance; literature becomes more and more sexy and commercial.<br />
<br />
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
The story of the Uncle is an allegory of withdrawal from history and the dangers involved, exemplified in his crisis-ridden metamorphosis from a historically grounded writer to a playful artist, from novelist to essay writer. The Uncle's earlier success thrusts him to the status of literary celebrity and stardom: he becomes a prominent figure in the media. As the younger writers pursue fashions and cater to new consumers with playful, entertaining, artsy literary goods, the Uncle feels the need to catch up. His new position as a glamorous writer allows him to become a globetrotter. At the invitation of literary and academic circles and literary institutions around world eager to know a newly opened China, he journeys from country to country giving talks and socializing at literary cocktail parties. Increasingly, sightseeing and superficial impressions of exotic foreign countries become the only materials he can summon: he becomes a tourist and a writer of travelogue. <br />
<br />
==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
Going along with the role of a player in an increasingly cosmopolitan, global, and consumer oriented literary market is a new philosophy of writing, which favors a showy, playful, essayistic quality at the expense of the epic, social and historical. The Uncle is reborn, the younger narrator rightly observes, into a new life, and into an enclosed new realm of pure artistic creativity. He addresses serious social problems playfully in the style of black humor and through anachronistic narrative techniques. He becomes more and more detached from the grave political issues of the day. His new outlook is derived from a purely aesthetic principle. <br />
<br />
==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
Emptied of historical substance and filled up with fragmentary and rambling impressions in his global trips, both life and writing of the Uncle thin out into personal, irrelevant, discontinuous fragments. His writing begins to take on the essayistic quality, and borders on sheer images or simulacra, getting closer and closer to those of the younger generation. Real human relations are “only a literary conceit.” (227), he echoes the younger generation. Within the aesthetic shelter the “Uncle can no longer become excited or moved and is immune to suffering.” Tragic suffering is now only a literary category, and “the awareness of this is the hallmark of Uncle's becoming a pure writer” (225). Parallel with this essayistic quality is the Uncle's changed life style. His is more taken with things he would have considered vulgar, low, or quotidian;<br />
<br />
==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
he becomes more listless and yuppish. He has developed a strong interest in women and sexual intrigues and conquests; he indulges in vulgarity and trivial pursuits, exulting in money and showy, exotic collectibles. In short, he metamorphoses from an image of the epic novelist and organic intellectual to a middle class, professional writer, whose favored form is the essay and whose lifestyle takes on the “essayistic” quality of a ramble for self-pleasure.<br />
<br />
The transformation in the Uncle reflects the retreat of literature from a historically grounded medium to a form light-hearted, playful entertainment and a theatrical performance. The problem with this change, as the novella's ending suggests, is that it is self-deceptive. Despite the Uncle's willful creation of an aesthetic cocoon, history manages to intrude in the end as return of the repressed, in the person of his murderous son. His son embodies all the painful memory and disgraceful experience of the Uncle's life, unfit for the epic treatment in his novels and repressed in his ethereal, airtight, essayistic experiments. <br />
<br />
==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
The son's attempted murder of his father signifies the revenge of a history that the Uncle is trying to shut off from the serene, trouble-free aesthetic realm. Our concern, however, is not with the interpretation of the story per se, but with the way the Uncle's fate indicates the shift in literary form. If the Uncle's story apparently traces the trajectory of a novelist to a writer who not only writes travelogues and essays but also is imbued with essayistic sensibility, then the essay in contemporary China is a release from the epic form of writing and historical discourse. It is a release into the literary market and consumer taste, a response to the pervasive secularization of life and rising consumerism. <br />
<br />
==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
It comes as the image of a loosening up of the previous, ideologically controlled life, which is now becoming more private, more disjoint and fragmented, more removed from the totalistic social and political process. Yet history has not become the simulacrum to play with, as envisioned by the younger narrator or the Uncle himself as he catches up with the fashions. China’s social reality does not square so nicely with the essayistic playfulness one may wish. Thus the essay as a cultural form is caught in a tension between withdrawal from the burden of history and the possible return of the repressed. <br />
<br />
==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
'''Mulish Essays: the Genre of ''Zawen'' in Contemporary China<br />
'''<br />
<br />
''Mary Scoggin''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
Tone in an essay is an ironic figure of speech; how can you channel that which is carried in sound through the ink of print? This paper illustrates the trope of tone through the particularly ,sonorous' work of ShaoYanxiang, an official poet who in retirement is better known for the essays in which he collapses poetry into polemic, his ''zawen''. The distinct and beleaguered social and cultural space for ''zawen'' in contemporary China reveals the mechanics, ideology and significance of tone in Chinese writing. Even more than other literary genres, ''zawen'' depends upon something within the earthy noise of moody, mulish voices to carry its messages. Like most poetry, but unlike most fiction and drama, ''zawen'' is itself a first person voice, not a representation of voices.<br />
<br />
==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
Yet unlike poetry, which may need to be at least imagined to be read out loud, repeated and savored for full effect, ''zawen'''s ideal is to appear for a fleeting moment on the back page of a newspaper, to be received with the accompaniment of an enigmatic laugh, sigh or snort from the reader, and then thrown away quickly, before anyone can find their seat and sit in it, or take offence. While readers love and hate their morally and politically provocative ''zawen-of-the-moment'', writers string zawen across stretches of time and publishing organs to construct heavily intertextualized conversations. <br />
<br />
==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
Eventually they even preserve ''zawen'', long after the dizzying minutia of allusions, jokes and digs are forgotten, often compiling a career's worth of them into small print runs of volumes that they give away to friends and admirers as discursive portraits of themselves. Lu Xun's genre of the ,dagger and spear' is thus not only a sly political weapon, but also a complex sculpture of the self, chiseled by the cantankerous tones of social dialogue.<br />
<br />
In contemporary textbooks and manuals of Chinese essay composition, the “miscellaneous essay,” [literally, “mixed essay,” referred to as ''zawen'' hereafter] is presented as a particularly “Chinese” essay genre within a global view of universal literary categorization. <br />
<br />
==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
Lu Xun, the genre's initial back-handed champion, quipped sardonically that although he searched the standard encyclopedia thoroughly, he was unable to locate the genre of “tsa-wen” in any authoritative foreign classification. Lu Xun's sarcasm includes both defiance and self-conscious uneasiness about a writing practice that Chinese circumstances, he felt, rendered peculiar and unseemly upon a world stage. Compare the comments of a recent critic of ''zawen'':<br />
<br />
In Chinese affairs, there is a strange phenomenon that has held true until the present time, and that is; the value of any certain thing has to be established by a foreigner or by some common foreign publication. <br />
<br />
==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
As for this thing called modern Chinese ''zawen'', because its Chinese characteristics are too strong, Westerners truly have a hard time understanding them, and thus have difficulty in researching this subject... the American writer Pearl Buck said something like: 'this thing called ''zawen'' is too peculiar, you really cannot understand it.' That is why only Chinese people themselves can evaluate this phenomenon called zawen. (Yan Xiu in Zhang Hua [all translations by Scoggin unless otherwise noted])<br />
In this passage, Yan Xiu, an eminent writer and critic, articulated Lu Xun's defiance of the foreign authority to categorize essay genre in a relatively explicit way, while also maintaining a typical ''zawen''-esque playfulness of style. He continues his commentary;<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
But we do not need to worry about this long period of neglect in which foreigners do not recognize ''zawen.'' Even if a foreigner were to burst his/her mind researching Chinese zawen, I am afraid that they would not be able to research anything out of it even if they researched themselves flat broke and starving. But Chinese people all understand them easily. If they were not able to maintain the abiding appreciation and understanding of Chinese readers, this practice would have been lost. The historical reasons and significance for the creation and propagation of ''zawen'' in China are worth serious research and theorizing (ibid.).<br />
<br />
Bravely dismissing the risk of bankruptcy, I do propose to research and theorize the culture of this funny genre of essay in all of its supposed inscrutability. <br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
One ubiquitous characterization of zawen from textbooks and manuals is built upon the metaphor of the mule. This metaphor suggests a number of qualities, including hybrid vigor and strength, stubborn bad-temper, and resilience in the face of obstacles. Mules kick, spit and bray with distinctive exuberance. ''Zawen'' are often considered an awkward combination of “part-poetry, part politics” (Lin). Cross-bred traits extend the qualities of a mule; ''zawen'' are bred to toil at the most difficult of human labor, they are strong, hard-working and rather famously unloved creatures, best known for their expressive obstinance. <br />
<br />
So how does an essay kick, spit and bray? In Chinese theoretical discussion of ''zawen'' the metaphor moves from kinetics to sound; ''zawen'''s kick is located in its “tone,” a term taken from music, although the sound here is can be distinctly unlovely. <br />
<br />
==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
Elsewhere I have examined the function of “tone” through the lens of the published record of debate over tone between literary editors (see Scoggin 2001). I have posited the idea that approaches to writing ''zawen'' fall into two interdependent strategies, one overt and one covert, both blending the tactics of politics and poetics in perfect measure. Overt ''zawen'' are relatively bold and obvious in their churlish tone, reflecting confidence in a tolerant audience. Covert ''zawen'' are sometimes difficult to identify, disguised or hidden within other genre of writing, but still drawing upon the distinctive tones of ''zawen'' through intertextuality and other tricks. <br />
<br />
Below, I examine the mechanics of ''zawen'' tone through contrasting these two style of ''zawen'' issuing from a single pen, that of poet and noted ''zawen'' writer Shao Yanxiang. <br />
<br />
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
The two essays discussed below form opposites sides of a spectrum of variable transparency, and vastly differing publishing circumstances, although they were composed only months apart by the same individual, one before and one after a specific political event in China. I argue here that unifying the two ''zawen'' is a particular subset of modal tropes, qualified as the verbal equivalent to a mule's kick, bite or bray. The expression of this unclearly delineated but distinctive subset of modal tropes is the single central mission of ''zawen'' as a genre in Chinese literature and society. Chinese theoretical debates over “tone” specifically address the function of this kind of modal trope. While sometimes as bald and direct, as in the overt ''zawen'' “Pei pei pei! ”?discussed below, many zawen conceal their weapons, depending upon contextual circumstances of publishing to pack their punch, as does the essay “East Station,” also discussed below. <br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
Both types of ''zawen'' should be read “ethnographically,” in concrete social and historical circumstances. After covering some of the primary textual elements of ''zawen'', I will demonstrate the significance of more subtle contextual gestures of ''zawen'', which must be read out of the process of submitting and publishing ''zawen''. Through the contrast of these two essays, I will explicate and generalize about the formation and mechanics and of tone in modern Chinese literary history, and offer a thesis upon the reception of Chinese literature in Western scholarship as well.<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
An Demonstrative Sample – “'Pei Pei Pei!'?”<br />
''<br />
A friend from outside literary circles asked me to find him some “pei pei pei!” essays to read, and I had to stare at him blankly with nothing to say. He then explained that he had read in a newspaper that a certain provincial leader had announced at a banquet that there should be no more “pei pei pei – ing” all over the place, and so clearly there must be pei pei pei-ing all over the place. (Shao 1993, 181)<br />
So begins an essay entitled “呸呸呸!”? composed in February of 1989. I will return to the circumstances of publication shortly, but first I will demonstrate the trope of tone through this representative sample ''zawen.<br />
''<br />
==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
A word like “Pei!” contains what we can call a modal trope, a figure of speech that captures mood and emotion, expressing not only subjunctive or declamatory mood, as adverbial modal tropes such as “could” and “should” may do in English, but also more subtly embedded mood in the semantics of lexical items (the meanings in words) expressing outrage, joy, command, sarcasm, threat, pathos, irony (Friedrich, 30-32). Usually modal tropes work together with other functions of language but in the case of “pei!” the modal trope is more nearly pure, it stands primarily for the emotional tone it communicates. A parallel sample in English might be something like “tut, tut, tut!” although “tut” fails to pack the censorious reproach of the Chinese “pei!” <br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
In the case of this title, modal functions are reinforced by several formal tropes. Note the repetition (three pei's!) and the complex punctuation consisting of an exclamation point and a question mark, separated by quotation marks. In the case of “Pei pei pei!”?, the ''zawen'''s own voice is not the primary expression of the tone of disgust. The quotation marks invoke disgust only to distance it, while the question mark further challenges it. The title alone demonstrates modal function with very little distraction; one character, two repetitions and three punctuation marks move this title in several modally intense directions at once with almost no referential content at all. <br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
“Pei pei pei!”? performs a transparent metadiscursive comment upon ''zawen'', in this case defending the extracurricular genre favored by declasse intellectuals like Shao Yanxiang, himself, a “retired” poet who had resigned with bitterness from his career at the central Chinese poetry journal ''Shikan'', and devoted his post official career to writing zawen. Upon learning of this unnamed “provincial leader's” complaint about “pei pei pei”-ing, and sensing that he himself bore some responsibility for this reportedly lamentable state of affairs, Shao writes that he discovered that the provincial leader had indeed characterized a kind of caustic, sarcastic disparaging discourse about the party, the nationality and the people, as “pei pei pei-ing all over the place” and that he had further warned that this kind of talk was spreading a mood of despair and hopelessness. <br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
In the remainder of this essay Shao ridicules said provincial leader's complaint as circular, admitting no culpability on the part of his own fellow ''zawen''-writing social critics. <br />
<br />
The tone of “Pei pei pei!”? is that of pointed irony, expressed recursively upon three levels. The first level is located in the words themselves, including the use of “pei” I have described above. This “first order” irony, as I have described it (Scoggin 1997), is an elementary type of sarcasm, a part of the conventional rhetoric of any language, written or spoken, and not usually misunderstood by a competent interpreter. <br />
<br />
==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
Other examples of this level of tone in “Pei pei pei!”? would include the attitude of “stupidity” Shao Yanxiang assumes when he claims that he looks for pei pei pei ing “all over the place” but cannot find any at all, and the repeated use of expressions he lifted from the pointedly unnamed “provincial leader's” talk, including the primary charge of “mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal” Shao is refuting, and also the leader's assertion of “discipline and rectification,” which Shao has skillfully turned into a counter charge. <br />
<br />
A second level of irony requires contextual knowledge on the part of the reader. This includes assumptions that would be obvious to most readers. <br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
For example, Shao Yanxiang claims that he has never heard of the idea that “literary publications should be of assistance in stabilizing the people's minds, increasing faith, and not demoralizing the people's will.” But just such a position has clearly been long-standing socialist policy for many kinds of public writing, including media news and literature. References to historical events in terms like the cultural revolution tones of “newspaper [published] by all the people” and Han Shaogong's controversial Post-Mao short story “Ba Ba Ba” fall somewhere in between the first and second levels of ironic tone. <br />
<br />
A third level, which I have labeled “indexical irony,” makes use of immediately contextual information such as the actual publishing outlet of the essay (in this case, the mainstream ''Literature Journal'' essay column “Literature and the People's Lives,” which Shao mentions at the end of the article) and Shao's own writing persona. <br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
''Zawen'' often make extensive use of this third, intimately contextualized level. In this case Shao claims that he can find no “pei pei pei” articles, but many readers would recognize that he himself is well known for writing ''zawen'' that would certainly qualify.<br />
<br />
In “Pei pei pei!”? Shao Yanxiang has deliberately sought out an accusation that he then counters with withering acerbity. Complaint, combat and disgust are just the beginning of the range of contentious moods that ''zawen'' represent. ''Zawen'' accuse, retaliate, needle, and snarl; but as I will demonstrate shortly, they can also moan and sigh with considerable subtly. Either way they clothe all this, quite often, in word games of subterfuge and indirectness, which -- beyond the intellectual puzzle of circumlocution also common in other genres of verbal art -- carries the weight of ''zawen'''s mission in the singular feature of tone.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
As a ''zawen'' writer, the “provincial leader's” complaint is exactly the sort of accusation intellectuals like Shao Yanxiang are accustomed to facing. His defense links the ''zawen'' mission to many others we could find in diverse settings; he is also answering, for example, Spiro Agnew's famous condemnation of “nattering nabobs of negativism” in American public discourse, and displaying the cross-cultural breadth of a “Jeremiad,” evident in the travel-worthy allusion of the very term, rooted in biblical texts. In this and other ''zawen'', Shao defends the contemporary Chinese genre of zawen as a genre of protest and complaint. He borrows the insult of a critic to distinguish thoughtless emotional battering from the carefully aimed spar, which is both his own ideal and the standard mission of the genre of ''zawen.''<br />
<br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
'''A Restrained Sample – “East Station”'''<br />
<br />
I have outlined how one essay demonstrates the function of ''zawen'' in a particularly transparent way, but some of the best and most effective zawen are covert operations. On the opposite side of spectrum of transparency, we can place a relatively understated and “essay-like” ''zawen'', also by Shao Yanxiang. “East Station” was submitted for a national ''zawen'' competition in a southern evening newspaper in 1994. It was judged too “sensitive” to publish by the zawen editor, but nevertheless it was privately noted by the editors as the unofficial winner of the competition. At first glance there is very little to mark it as a ''zawen'' at all, not to mention a seditious ''zawen''.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
It is a rather lyrical survey of historical images centering upon refugees, migrants, political and literary figures on their passages to and from Beijing. It does, however, contain a few of the indications of first level irony that traditionally mark a ''zawen'', such as a “quotation” placed for its jarring effect, as in the opening passage below.<br />
<br />
Thirty years ago in Beijing, if you mentioned “East Station,” everybody would know that referred the Beijing East Station that lies to the outer East Side of Front Gate. Today this unremarkable construction, built in a half-westernized architectural style and sandwiched between the tall buildings of this noisy and busy city, supports a little sign that reads “Railway Workers Club.” It is already an “ancient artifact,” long gone are the prosperous and glorious days of old.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
The somber opening paragraph is in part marked as a zawen by the appearance of snapshot “quote,” in which what might have been a significant icon of Beijing history is reduced to a cheesy “Railway workers club” sign hanging on a architecturally half-breed building not even worthy of preservation. Other ironic comments of this sort include Shao's sarcastic reference to Guo Moruo;<br />
<br />
And in March of 1949, when Guo Moruo and his democrats gathered together and arrived in Beijing, they were received with grand ceremonious welcome; the tears they wept were of joy. At the time, he composed a poem “How much of the people's blood was spilled for this honor. <br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
Thinking of it, the tears fall, and happy laughter is unable to articulate in sound.” -- I do not know why, but this poem was not collected in any of his later collections.<br />
<br />
In a similar but more deeply contextualized vein would be Shao Yanxiang's allusion to Tu Fu's escape during the An Lu Shan rebellion during the Tang Dynasty contained in the quoted term “fortuitous rescue.” Shao's general structure in this piece is a recurring cyclical allegory that parallels the Japanese, the Nationalists and the Communists in bitter condemnation of the last, as only one more invasive army disturbing the lives of ordinary Chinese people. The People's Traffic Police also take their place in this cycle, a silly reminder that we are still in the realm of ''zawen''.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
Obviously this kind of first and second-level rhetorical sarcasm and historical irony alone is not enough to define an essay as a ''zawen'', but the difficulty of assigning an essay its genre is also no obstacle; ambiguous “mixedness” is part of ''zawen'''s identity. This covert zawen depends most fundamentally upon indexical irony, to an extent that surpasses “Pei Pei Pei!”?, above. One crucial feature that makes “East Station” a ''zawen'' is the entirely untextual fact that Shao Yanxiang submitted it in a competition specifically designated for ''zawen'' in a provincial evening newspaper. The editors did not reject the piece as “non-''zawen'',” on the contrary, they complained that it contained too much of the requisite ''zawen'' pique. In order to understand this, we must again go beyond the actual words of the piece. <br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
In a late night conversation in which the managing editor and two guests including myself drank beer and discussed the ''zawen'' competition to which “East Station” was submitted, the editor mused about the publication that wasn't. She said;<br />
<br />
Actually Shao Yanxiang submitted two manuscripts, but I had to return one. (Reaching around to a drawer) Well, I wanted to return it to him, but then I couldn't bear to. The original is still here, I wonder if you will understand? It requires some background...At the time it was the head editor that rejected the manuscript. He also felt badly, but there was no question but that it could not be printed, because it would certainly cause trouble...This happens with your friends, but I really felt uncomfortable about this one. <br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
Because this essay was just written so well. He just wrote about the East Station, but he used Beijing East Station to talk about his view on everything. (Scoggin Fieldnotes) <br />
<br />
She continued to discuss the essays that were just too “that way” (''neige le'') as they came in for the competition. “One day the police came and looked through that box all afternoon!” she added. The managing editor's two guests that evening jumped on her comment, “They what!?” But she retained the appearance of serenely refusing to interpret this police visit as a sinister gesture.<br />
It was just manuscripts, why should they look at those? They said they were just reading, there were two of them, I really don't know, I guess they enjoyed reading them too.(ibid)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
When she finally found the manuscript (tucked away where snooping police would not have found it) she decided to give it to me. She said she had called Shao Yanxiang to tell him that they could not print it, and even though he had said he understood, she still hated to bring the matter to his attention again by sending the essay back to him, and now it seemed too late. Since I was also acquainted with him, and clearly admired him, giving the manuscript to me as research material seemed to her to be a fitting conclusion to the whole matter. <br />
<br />
In the original manuscript of “East Station” is signed, as is the custom, with the date it was composed at the bottom, “September 13, 1989.” Although it was submitted to the newspaper in 1994, in a private note scrawled to the editors, Shao added; “Please don't cut or change this date. <br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
The new railway station began operation in 1959, and this fits in parallel with 'more that thirty years ago' at the beginning of the essay.” The emphasis upon these dates forces a new consideration of the essay as a whole. Suddenly the parallel between Nationalist, Japanese and Communist cycles of refuge and expulsion he mentions are rendered a sinister reference to a modern “rebellion” in the spring and summer of 1989. The date heightens the threat of Shao's concluding two sentences; “Today will also become history. And every inch of Beijing earth will provide proof of its history.” The scrawled note links 30 years, 1989, “today,” and the defiant “inches of proof” that mark East Station as a zawen, even beyond the micro structure of submission channels. For all its elusively distant tone, East Station suddenly became a pointed, angry, and, even in 1994, unpublishable ''zawen''. <br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
'''A Larger Trend: Revealing Ugly Truth through Troubled Tones'''<br />
<br />
It is almost a matter of definition, then, that discordant, troubling tones are the characteristic, even of the most beautiful ''zawen''. I have not illustrated “ugly” ''zawen'' here, but they do exist, and in profusion. Many ''zawen'' are suffused in a preachy, pedantic tone that is sometimes quite off-putting to Chinese and non-Chinese readers alike. And yet, like the larger category of essays in Chinese literature, ''zawen'' remain a popular staple in the literary supplements of Chinese newspapers, and many prominent writers turn later in their career to writing ''zawen''. In contemporary history the “mule” genre of ''zawen'' has also played a significant political role far beyond its humble posture (see Scoggin 1997). <br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
What is it about this genre that draws prominent writers, and commands significant attention of the Chinese readership? The answer lies, I think, in assumptions about the mechanics of tone rooted in Chinese literary history. To examine this problem we need to leave particular zawen behind and examine a larger picture that views Chinese literature via the globalized perspective that contemporary Chinese critics take.<br />
<br />
''Zawen'' as a category causes problems for Chinese as well as non Chinese classification, but there is a revealing divide between Western and Chinese treatment of zawen. With few exceptions, ''zawen'' has been neglected as a subject of the study of Chinese literature from outside of China until recently (the Achern conference on the Modern Chinese Literary Essay being a rare exception, with several papers devoted to zawen.) <br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
While the problem of the status of zawen is not important in itself, I propose difficulties with this particular genre can reflect larger issues of significance to the study of Chinese literature and culture more generally. ''Zawen'' can highlight some special features of Chinese writing that are latent in other, more respectable forms of Chinese literature and culture. My research on ''zawen'' showed many instances of zawen being held up as a unique outgrowth of Chinese particularities, such as a fondness for brevity in verbal art, a tendency to take intellectuals more seriously than they are taken in contemporary societies elsewhere, as well as a few “perversions” that are supposedly unique to China, such as political tyranny that is strikingly detail-oriented, or collective aversion to verbal performance that is too straightforward (Scoggin 1997). <br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
Some of these claims for Chinese exceptionalism may be overblown; but I think that the genre, driven by what I argue is its central mission of tone, makes observable certain strains and practices that have acted as stumbling blocks to international research on other aspects of Chinese culture. <br />
<br />
Chief among those obstacles to the study of Chinese literature is what I call the “bad literature” complaint.[ For recent affirmations of this complaint, see Huters 1990, McDougall 1997, Link, 2000. Earlier views in American sinology tie "bad literature" directly to the effects of political tyranny. ] Summarizing several quite different lines of argument, the suggestion is that with all the promise of Chinese literature holds as a naturally poetic language, with rich, revered and well-preserved traditions, with the particular visual and grammatical advantages of the Chinese character and linguistic structure, and further with dedicated literary “troops” to use the modern Chinese metaphor for institutions of organized and supported writers, modern Chinese literature has failed to produce truly great literature. <br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
Obviously this generalization is subject to objection at many, if not all of its points. I would argue, however, that the consistency with which similar arguments emerge, defensible or not, points to themes of some significance. Complaints frequently accrue over the following literary practices;<br />
<br />
1)Indulging in churlish tones, including hectoring, scolding and otherwise “yelling” in print<br />
<br />
2)Adhering to one or another “politically correct line” <br />
<br />
3)Participating in personal squabbles and vendettas, sometimes involving extraliterary persecution of both writers and targets <br />
<br />
4)Exhibiting an “obsession” with China, and an oversized sense of responsibility for its fate <br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
Interestingly, these complaints of “bad literature” are usually not strongly refuted by Chinese literary critics. Fair, true or not, this sort of summary criticism of the Jeremiah complex in Chinese literature in general is relevant to my discussion because these very faults that warrant the most notice are deliberately magnified in the genre of ''zawen'', and may be, I believe, essentially outgrowths of an almost unconscious commitment to the type of tone that defines the ''zawen'' genre most purely. I argue that what has happened here is that readers and analysts have failed to recognize a literary strategy that reflects deeper ideas about how tone is supposed to operate in verbal practice. <br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
These “off” tones are not just flaws and mistakes resulting from tyranny or exaggeration, nor are they mere signs of amateur literary expression, the struggles of a culture trying to modernize. Instead they are held to be nearly involuntary markers, not of beauty, but what we will have to call for lack of a better word, “truth,” revealed by critical examination of shortcomings and problems that appear to stem from, again for lack of a better word, “culture.” Culture, in the high modern ideology adopted more or less wholesale in contemporary Chinese theoretical systems is opposed to the neutral modernity of newspaper editorials and literary short stories and the other canonical genres of modern writing practices. <br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
Culture is not general, it is particular and peculiar, and Chinese culture exerts a powerfully perverse influence upon most genres of literature practiced in China.<br />
<br />
Examining tone in the broader context of Chinese culture reveals some of particular ways that social exchange, reference and the other mundane duties that plain (neutral, modern) words are supposed to carry out, must be crosscut with characteristically Chinese tone in order to communicate with the authority of truth, in explicit defiance of social requirements for polite and face-saving locutions held to be necessary in a uniquely Chinese way. Thus, complaint about “bad literature,” from a Chinese perspective may not be a mere reflection of failure but, rather, an expression of protest, a modal trope, mule's kick that works with stubborn tenacity to reveal unpleasant truths.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
''Zawen'' provide frequent commentary on precisely this issue. Lan Ling, a major opponent of “New Tone” zawen theory provides a characteristically provocative commentary on writing “the ugly truth” through zawen. In an essay that asks why such a fuss is made when a “upright and esteemed elderly writer” pronounces that he intends now to speak/write “the truth,” (he refers to Ba Jin, see ''Suiganlu'') Lan Ling demonstrates the difficulty of establishing truth through his own experience:<br />
<br />
It was several decades ago that they “struggled” me saying I was “reactionary.” I responded, “I am fundamentally not reactionary (''fandong''), in fact, I am actionary (''zhengdong'').” They said, “There you go with sophistry, you are lying, who has ever heard of such a thing as 'actionary'?” … But if what I said was false, that of course meant that what they said was true, and thus my political label was accomplished: “reactionary.” After several decades this conclusion was overturned and rectified, so now what I had said became the truth. (Lan, 85). <br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
The irony and false fatalism of this ''zawen'' is characteristic of its style. In this essay he claims to give up distinguishing the truth of his own speech; “No matter how difficult it is, this miserable person [I] still want to speak, and as for whether it is true or not, let someone else go analyze it.” (Lan, 85) Lan Ling reveals that he has created, in the heat of struggle, a misnomer; there is no such word as “actionary.” But, in the end, in its awkward and involuntary way, his retort rings true, what way is there to be, if not reactionary? Displaying all four characteristics of the “bad literature” complaint I have listed above, this piece is still an admired ''zawen''. It is the moody, but honest, kick of the mule. <br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
''Tone in Historical Context''<br />
<br />
As evidence that it is the modal trope that inspired the genre of zawen from its inception, I conclude this essay with a brief look at historical manifestations of tone. It is key, and often part of the Chinese subtext, that the notion of tone (discussed alternately ''diao, yin, yun'') ultimately originates beyond words, in music. Even as a metaphor that must obliterate the acoustic qualities of sound when applied to written Chinese, tone maintains ties to the power of something that is in, or is like, sound, emphasizing physical, oral, informal and emotional qualities that are not part the rational process of exposition, this is the “poetry” of ''zawen''. Tone plays a role in a tremendous range of social events that surround and comprise writing. It occurs in the figure of music as a central metaphor in the most influential theories of literature and poetry. <br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
For example, spoiled music can signal a larger or more abstract disturbance; in the classic novel Dream of the Red Chamber a heroine breaks a string on a instrument and sees her impending death; in a well known folk story a high ranking official Yu Boya hits a sour note and knows that a potential assassin is lurking in the woods, listening. Music figures centrally in the Confucian Great Preface to the Book of Odes:<br />
<br />
The affections emerge in sounds; when those sounds have patterning they are called “tones” [音] The tones of a well-managed aged are at rest and happy; its government is balanced. The tones of an age of turmoil are bitter and full of anger; its government is perverse. The tones of a ruined state are filled with lament and brooding; its people are in difficulty (Translated in Owen).</div>Hu Huifanghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=109018History of Translation Studies 92020-12-09T03:51:48Z<p>Hu Huifang: /* 3.2 Bassnett's "cultural equivalence" theory */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
<br />
='''Comparative Studies'''=<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Bibliography'''===<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang==<br />
<br />
==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br />
关键词：生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
''The Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. <br />
Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China. As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials.<br />
In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. So, the Chinese-English translation is of great significance. And in recent years, the domestic scholars attach great importance to the translation of political words. Therefore, it has important functions and research values to study on the Chinese-English translation of Government Work Report from the prospective of eco-translatology.<br />
Cheng Zhenqiu(2003）reposed that the translation of political articles should focus on politics. Huang Youyi(2004) proposed The Three Principles of External Publicity Translation. Tong Xiaohua (2014) explores the English translation of the Government Work Report from different perspectives. Wang Gangyi（2014）also pointed out that the former absolute loyalty to the translation of political texts can no longer satisfy the changing society and readers. Linguistics emphasizes the equivalence of texts from different aspects, which is of great guiding significance for texts like the Government Work Report that emphasizes fidelity. Under the guidance of Nida's functional equivalence theory, Zhou Ji studied the economic and political terms in the report at the lexical and textual levels. In 2001, Joan Pinkham (2000:1) published a book and it is The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, in which it explores the Chinglish in political publicity from the angle of lexis and syntax. In her book, she suggested that translators should not only understand the subtle connotations of words and sentences clearly and use more idioms to express the meanings of the source text, but also pay special attention to the tone and short sentences of Chinese, and avoid the use of outdated, rigid terms, slang and colloquialisms. Compared with domestic studies, the number of relevant studies abroad is very small, and there are almost no relevant translation studies. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that foreign countries are more interested in the content of the report, that is, to describe the national policies, culture and social issues. <br />
This thesis focuses on translation of political publicity from the perspective of eco-translatology in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology. <br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction of Government Work Report'''===<br />
<br />
Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.<br />
===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br />
For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.<br />
====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br />
The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. <br />
====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br />
As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.<br />
====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br />
The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.<br />
===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br />
In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. <br />
Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br />
It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br />
===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br />
In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.<br />
====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br />
Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br />
Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) [1]<br />
“获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) [1]<br />
“增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) [1]'''=====<br />
Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br />
Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )[1]<br />
“在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)[1]<br />
“放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)[1] <br />
<br />
==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br />
===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br />
Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br />
====='''2.1.1 Previous Studies on Eco-translatology '''=====<br />
As a translation theory originated in China, eco-translatology has been gradually improved in the past two decades. In 2001, professor Hu Gengshen laid the foundation for the theory of adaptation and selection of translation. Since then, the first decade has been the period of constructing and expanding the theoretical framework. In the second decade, with the holding of the international symposium on eco-translatology and the practice of the theory of eco-translatology of the professors of various universities, the eco-translatology system has gradually become mature. Liu Yafeng wrote adaptation and selection of translators -- a study on the translation process of external publicity, pointing out that translators should play their role of “selection” and “adaptation” as the center in the translation process of external publicity, so as to realize the harmony and unity of the whole translation ecological environment. For three-dimensional adaptation and selection principles, Zhou Li wrote the multi-dimensional integration principle under the care of the political party and government discourse translation to demonstrate the dimensions of language, culture, and communication in the perspective of the Chinese party guiding significance of discourse translation. It further enlightens the translator for the use of a multi-dimensional integration technique and set up a bridge of communication between the original language and target language.<br />
====='''2.1.2 Application of Eco-translatology '''=====<br />
There are many types of text analysis related to eco-translatology. Specifically, it includes: first, the analysis of various classical translations, such as a dream of red mansions, etc. Scholars have analyzed the reasons for the success of these classic works from the perspective of the overall translation ecological environment and the principle of “three-dimensional” transformation, pointing out that translators can only translate good works if they adapt to the translation ecological environment. These analysis has been the focus of research, and can best prove the feasibility of the theory. Secondly, the text analysis of public signs points out the direction from a new perspective. Thirdly, the text analysis of film title and subtitle. Fourthly, the text analysis of news translation. Scholars have analyzed the phenomenon of news text translation from different perspectives of eco-translatology and provided theoretical guidance.<br />
===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br />
====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br />
The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”[2]. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.[2]<br />
====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br />
Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.<br />
Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.<br />
Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.<br />
In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br />
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==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br />
From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br />
===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br />
The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br />
Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br />
“大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br />
Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br />
In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br />
Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br />
The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br />
===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br />
The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br />
Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br />
It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br />
Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br />
In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br />
Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br />
“筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br />
===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br />
From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br />
Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br />
For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br />
“保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br />
Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br />
In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br />
In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br />
Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br />
First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br />
However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br />
<br />
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Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br />
Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 1999. <br />
Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003 (4): 283-291.<br />
Joan Pinkham. The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br />
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方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br />
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==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603==<br />
<center>欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling </center><br />
==='''Abstract:'''===<br />
Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br />
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==='''Key words:'''===<br />
Nida, Cartford, equivalence theory, Linguistic theories<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br />
<br />
==='''摘要：'''===<br />
摘要：奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词：'''===<br />
<br />
奈达，卡特福德，对等理论，语言学理论<br />
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==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
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===='''1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence'''====<br />
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Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors. By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br />
<br />
===='''1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence'''====<br />
Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br />
<br />
==='''2.Similarities and Differences'''===<br />
<br />
===='''2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories'''====<br />
As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br />
<br />
====='''2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories'''=====<br />
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Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br />
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Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br />
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====='''2.1.2.The Approach to Achieve Equivalence'''=====<br />
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The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.<br />
His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br />
<br />
The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br />
<br />
===='''2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories'''====<br />
<br />
Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers. Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages. By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence. And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br />
<br />
====='''2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence'''=====<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that which focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br />
<br />
Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br />
<br />
<br />
====='''2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence'''=====<br />
<br />
Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence. These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text. By this dynamic equivalence theory Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation. Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br />
<br />
In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br />
<br />
====='''2.2.3.Different Research Approach''' =====<br />
<br />
To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language. So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices. In another aspect, Nida held a view that "meaning is universal" and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br />
<br />
By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br />
<br />
==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao==<br />
<br />
==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br />
<br />
===关键词=== <br />
尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of "dynamic equivalence", and Bassnett proposed the concept of "cultural equivalence". Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of "equivalence" or "equivalence" in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br />
<br />
==='''Key Words'''=== <br />
Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek "Bible New Testament" studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society. In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is "Toward a Science of Translation" "The Theory and Practice of translation" etc. His "dynamic equivalence" translation theory and "reader's response theory" translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br />
Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of "cultural equivalence" and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br />
Nida's "dynamic equivalence" and Bassnett's "cultural equivalence" theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the "similarities" and "differences" of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br />
<br />
===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br />
Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br />
Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values embodied in translated texts.<br />
<br />
===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br />
Nida's "dynamic equivalence" translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research. In the 1950s, since Nida served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Society for several years, Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the actual work of "Bible" translation. Since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the dynamic equivalent translation theory in translation projects organized by the American Bible Society (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br />
<br />
===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br />
As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to "Translation, History and Culure" (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that "Culural lurn" (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br />
Bassnett believes that the linguistic school of translation faces the following problems: The method of machine translation is an effective method, but it is not suitable for literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett pointed out that the research method of translation should undergo an cultural turn (eulturalturn). She believes that translators must perform translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators must not conduct translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett’s cultural translation view is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, it is rooted in and influenced by the culture of the language.<br />
<br />
===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br />
<br />
===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence" Theory===<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence" is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term "equivalence".<br />
<br />
3.1.1The nature of "equivalence"<br />
“Equivalence" is an important proposition in translation for it <br />
involves some key problems such as nature of translation, translation norms as well as quality and evaluation of translation. As a mathematic term, the word “ equivalence" refers to an absolutely symmetrical and equal relationship, but in many English dictionaries, it gets obscure meanings that things possess similarities or areessentially identical. Then, is the concept“equivalence in translation theories derived from its absolute mathematics reference orborrowed from its indistinct meanings as a word of general linguistices? According to many translation theorists (including Nida), it may mean more of the latter than the former.<br />
" Equivalence" is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that "loyalty" or "faith", for the concept of "loyalty"or "faith" refers to attitudes of translators while "faithful translation" indicates the quality of translation. But "equivalence" involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The "equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. The historic contribution of Nida's" dynamic equivalence" is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s "dynamic equivalence". however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br />
<br />
3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of " dynamic equivalence”<br />
It has been mentioned above that Nida s "dynamic equivalence" theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br />
3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br />
What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence" is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( 杨柳， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved." (金隄,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence " focuses mainly onthe relative side of " equivalence " rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br />
As a relative conception, the goal " dynamic equivalence" pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching. In sum, those who are against the theory argue that effect of equivalence can never be possible in translation because translation involves at least two different languages, cultures etc.which are rather hard to the non-native, while those who are in favor hold that equivalence can be achieved not only in senses and styles, but in effect as well. Nida has made it very clear that "the response can never be identical' , but "a high degree of equivalenceof response" is required and possible. And for "functional equivalence",Nida elaborates that no translation can be completely equivalent. Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, "equivalence" doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida<br />
holds that the expression“functional equivalence" is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something " identical" or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness" to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity". Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term " equivalence" in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from "identity", and " equivalence"is a rela-<br />
tive conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (金隄, 1998:44).<br />
<br />
3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of "Functional Equivalence" in China-A Comment on the Translation of "A Madman's Diary"<br />
Here are three examples to analyze the theory of "functional equivalence" used in the "Madman's Diary" in the translation of "The Call" by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br />
<br />
（1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br />
<br />
“what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers.." (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br />
<br />
If this example is literally translated "赵贵翁", it may be translated as "Zhao Guiweng" in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated "Mr. Zhao" in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The "old-year running book" here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means "old account book". If literally translated as "aged jour-nal", obviously there is no "old ledgers" which is more suitable for the time.<br />
Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br />
<br />
(2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br />
<br />
“Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home." (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br />
<br />
The personal pronoun "陈老五", if translated literally, might be translated as "Chen Laowu". Yang Xianyi translated "Old Chen", which is more authentic. "Chen Lao Wu" may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as "Lao Chen" here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br />
<br />
(3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br />
<br />
“a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop..." ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br />
<br />
"狼子村" is a place noun. If it is simply translated as "The Wolf Child Village", it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of "Cub" in "Wolf Cub Village" of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. "Cub" means "cub" and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br />
<br />
===3.2 Bassnett's "cultural equivalence" theory===<br />
Bassnett believes that the goal of translation should be changed from the text commonly accepted by people to culture, which is the so-called cultural shift. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. Only when people's heart, language and body are coordinated with each other, can people maintain vigor and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must take into account the overall physical condition of the patient. The same is true for translation practice. In the process of translating the target language into the target language, members of parliament must take into account the double standards of language accuracy and cultural adaptability, and must not strip away culture and treat translation in isolation.<br />
<br />
3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br />
Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br />
Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br />
<br />
3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br />
As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content. But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br />
<br />
3.2.3 "Intelligibility" of the translation<br />
Before the rise of the cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into plain and simple language in order for the translation to be better understood by readers, deleting literary metaphors and associations. In this way, the translation will indeed become easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work has been reduced, and the interest and depth will not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett believes that the "understandability" of the translation cannot be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but should try to maintain the original flavor of the original.<br />
<br />
3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br />
For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br />
<br />
3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br />
<br />
原文:<br />
<br />
“六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br />
<br />
辜译: "Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,"<br />
<br />
韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons." (Waley, 1999:37 )<br />
<br />
"六亲" in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as "the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it "sixnear ons" , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of "six relatives". (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br />
<br />
原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br />
<br />
辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses." ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br />
<br />
韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e.."(Waley,1999:131 )<br />
<br />
Both translators translated "驷马" into "four horses", which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br />
<br />
===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br />
Nida's translation thoughts are mainly influenced by language structuralist translators, which are manifested in his use of the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core similar to Chomsky's deep structure Syntactic analysis is a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation procedures from the perspective of language translation, that is, interlingual translation. However, the essence of Nida's translation thought lies in far more than its language structuralist translation view, but more of him In "translation is science", "translation and communication", "translation must emphasize readers' reflection" and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contribution in translation theory, especially in the translation theory of the Bible, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br />
But Bassnett's "cultural translation view" focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br />
<br />
===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br />
Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br />
Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the translation process, form should give way to content. Bassnett also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, the translator can not be restricted by the literary image. It can be seen that the two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of the translation.<br />
Nida pointed out that the languages and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br />
[2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br />
[3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br />
[4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br />
[5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br />
[6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br />
[7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br />
[8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br />
[9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's "Cultural Translation" Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br />
[10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br />
[11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br />
[12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br />
[13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及“信达雅”的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br />
<br />
===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br />
<br />
Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances (Vermeer, Hans J.1987a). <br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br />
<br />
The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br />
<br />
(1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br />
<br />
The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
(2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br />
<br />
Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.<br />
<br />
(3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br />
<br />
Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translational action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. <br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br />
<br />
There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br />
<br />
“The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’ (Vermeer), which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina & Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation (Christiane Nord, 1997). The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. <br />
Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz, 1995). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. <br />
<br />
The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. It means the skopos of target text should share identical views with the intention of original author. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose.<br />
<br />
These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including ''Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays''. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br />
<br />
(1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br />
<br />
The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in ''The Dhammapada sequence'' （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. The Biography of Yan Fu made a description that Yan Fu was stimulated by the utter failure of the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895 and then started to translate foreign works. The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into ''Yiliyan'' （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” In addition, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br />
<br />
(2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br />
<br />
Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main direction of this evolution.<br />
The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of this translation standard. While there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory. Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.<br />
Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br />
<br />
Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor. There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. <br />
“Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”. In his translation, he regarded ancient Chinesean old language as a way of elegant expression. <br />
<br />
These three standards are integrated, but there is also differentiation between priority and others. In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and “Expressiveness” is the aim of translation. <br />
<br />
===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br />
<br />
====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br />
<br />
=====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br />
<br />
The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory. Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that the translator should respect both the original author and the reader in the translation process. The principle of translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work in the intion and in the relationship among the author of the original text, the person who initiated the translation, and the reader of the translated work. In other words, the translator is responsible not only to the reader but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. The fidelity rule in Skopos theory emphasizes being faithful to the original text. The degree and form of fidelity depends on the requirements of the purpose of the translation. In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text, including the full text, according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties.<br />
<br />
This coincides with Yan Fu's "Faithfulness". Because"faith" emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And "Faithfulness" is the premise and foundation of translation. In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. The translator acts as a bridge between the original text and the translated text.<br />
If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of "Faithfulness", as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of the original text.<br />
<br />
=====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br />
<br />
The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of the reader's receptivity and comprehension, so that the receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. Nord suggests that a translation work is meaningful only if it is understood by the recipients. Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, the translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that the reader can have a better understanding of the translation. <br />
<br />
This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, ''Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli'' : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, the translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br />
<br />
=====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br />
<br />
The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and "one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation". In his view, translation is "the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers. <br />
<br />
While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for the old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 Different Theory Systems=====<br />
<br />
Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture. It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules. In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action. Besides, there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to the translator the standards and principles that they should follow.<br />
<br />
But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that "Faithfulness" refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. In addition, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br />
<br />
Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the "faithfulness principle" as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. "Skopos" usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, "the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers". Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.<br />
<br />
In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated, with no clear distinction of priority. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is only abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. In addition, it is limited in translating literary works.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br />
<br />
For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of the translator and frees the translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) the translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten the reader), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He play a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, the translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity.<br />
<br />
However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of the translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to the readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of the translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br />
<br />
===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 06:53, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
='''Art of Translation'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Art and Science of Translation --Take the Literary Translation as an Example 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br />
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--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 11:50, 8 December 2020 (UTC)==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 Liu Ou==<br />
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Abstract<br />
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Key words<br />
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摘要<br />
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关键词<br />
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2.1 The Abundant Resource of Hunan Scenic Spots <br />
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2.2 The Meaning of View of Culture Translation<br />
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2.3 The Existing English Translated Versions of Hunan Scenic Spots<br />
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2.4 The Strategy of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation<br />
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Conclusion<br />
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Reference<br />
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==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br />
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==The Visible Images and Invisible Hands: An Analysis of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility 祝美梅 Zhu Meimei student no. 202070080632== <br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
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This thesis tries to explain the visible images and invisible hands in the process of translation based on Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility. The inferior status of translation and improper techniques have rendered translators “invisible” in the past, however the improvement of the translator's status and the “cultural turn” in Translation Studies, have both served to make translators more “visible”. Thus the translator's subjectivity has received increasing recognition and status. Nonetheless, as a key point in translation studies, the translator's subjectivity should not be confined to the change from “invisibility” to “visibility”, but should be studied in all respects, and the challenges being faced should also be identified and dealt with.<br />
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==='''Key Words'''===<br />
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invisibility; visibility; Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory; Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility; the translator's subjectivity<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
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论文基于勒弗菲尔韦努蒂提出的术语translator’s invisibility解读,翻译地位的提高以及翻译研究的"文化转向",促使译者"显形",译者主体性也随之受到重视;但值得注意的是,在当今崭新的翻译时代背景下,各种翻译技术的发展导致译者"忘形",从而使译者主体性面临挑战。译者主体性作为翻译研究的重点,不应拘泥于由忽视到重视的转变,而应以全面地眼光,发现并正视其现在所面临的挑战。 <br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
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隐形；显形；劳伦斯韦努蒂；操纵理论；勒菲弗尔的操纵理论；韦努蒂《译者的隐形》<br />
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==='''1. Introduction'''===<br />
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====''''1.1 Introduction of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory '''===<br />
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====''''1.2 Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility '''====<br />
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==='''2. Study on the translator's subjectivity'''===<br />
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===='''2.1 The Translator's Invisibility '''====<br />
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===='''2.2 Culture Turn: The Translator Change from Invisibility to invisibility'''====<br />
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===='''2.3 The Translator's visibility '''====<br />
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==='''3. Factors Influencing translator's subjectivity'''===<br />
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===='''3.1 Interior Factors'''====<br />
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===='''3.2 External Factors'''====<br />
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In the early 1990s, Lefevere, a representative of the cultural school of translation studies and a well-known translation theorist, elaborated Manipulation Theory is his book Translation, rewriting and the Manipulation Literary Fame, in which he said: Translation is, of course, a rewriting of an original text. All rewritings, whatever their intention, reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and as such manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society. <br />
Lefevere, defines translation as a form of rewriting, thus treating translation as a form of creating another text image, just like literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, fiction, falsification of anthologies and reader’s guides. But it doesn’t mean that translation is rewriting. Lefevere thinks rewriting includes some other forms, for example, historiography, anthology,, criticism and editing. He ven emphasized that translation creates the literary and cultural image of the original text, the original author, and the original text. All rewriting, regardless of its intention, reflects a certain ideology and poetics. Therefore, translation is actually the manipulation of the translator to the text, which makes literature work with a certain way in a particular society. In any case, the understanding of translation as rewriting or manipulation of the original text deepens people’s understanding of translation to a great extent. <br />
In Lefevere’s view, there are three elements influencing the function of translation. The first one is professionals within the literary system, including critics, reviewers, teachers and translators who will affect the acceptance of translated works; the second is patronage outside of that system. Patronage here can be seen as the powers that can further or hinder the reading, writing, and rewriting of literature, and the third is the dominant poetics. <br />
Lefevere’s translation theory represents an important turning point in the history of translation study. He developed Zohar’s poly-system theory. And he studies translation in cultural approach. <br />
Before the “cultural turn”, translation was seen almost as an exclusively linguistic process, in which the translator was required to find the TL equivalent for a SL expression and which was not influenced by any other factors than linguistic ones. But in fact, Lefevere’s translation theory could instruct translation activities in many cases. Based on the understanding of three control factors, the translator will solve problems encountered in the process of translation, exploring changes of translation strategies under various factors, mainly including ideology, poetics and patronages, which will be introduced in the next chapter. <br />
<br />
Three control factors <br />
Lefevere points that all literature works should be placed in a certain social and cultural environment. Thus its meaning and value is influenced by these factors. The audience’s apprehension of the work also differs for these factors. He emphasizes three factors manipulating translation: ideology, poetic and patronage.<br />
Introduction of poetics <br />
According to Lefevere, a poetics includes two components. One is the literary method which consists of literary genres, prototypical characters and situations, motifs, symbols. The other is the concept of the literature function. <br />
As a theory about the study of poetry and their skills, poetics is also a theory of literature and art. After choosing some types of practice at a certain period, while excluding others, the poetics is codified. Then it will have tremendous influence on the further development of the literary system. Lefevere holds that the translation methods adopted by the translators are carried out under the guidance of certain strategies of certain poetic factors. It exerts on the choices of words, sentecnes, even the style and translation strategies of the whole article. Translation has greatly influenced the exchange of different literary systems, not only in introducing new literary methods into a certain poetics, but also in whether the image of a writer or a work can be successfully introduced into another literary system. In Lefevere’s view, as the manipulatin of a translator, rewriting should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence, because translators are bound to be influenced and constrained by different social and cultural factors in the process of translation. <br />
Rewriting under the guidance of poetics is an important part of the cultural system in which the rewriters produce works. Rewriters often adjust the original works to a certain extent to be in line with the dominant ideology and poetics of the period in which the rewriters lived, and to make the rewritten works accepted by as many audiences as possible. In order to adapt some famous works to the cultural background of various society and history, they have also been rewritten to varying degrees. As is mentioned above, works of the dominant poetics is what people called classics for future writers to follow. But “a poetics, any poetics, is a historical variable: it is not absolute.” For instance, poetics today differs from the dominant poetics of the Tang dynasty. In cater to the change of the dominant poetics, these canonized works will be adapted o rewritten. This is why some classical Greek works still have an impact on Western literature. Translators pay more and more attention on the poetic factors in translation, further developing translation theory. Poetics solve the problem of what literature should or can be, and deciding the role and influence of translation in the society to some extent. In the process of translation, emphasizing more on meaning and lesson poetic factors and literary component will make the poetic aesthetic sense of the original work disappear. <br />
Lefevere also points that any poetics transcend language, ethnic and political entities which is demonstrated by listing Multilanguage regions or various forms of social and political organizations in Africa share a common poetics. In his eyes, the poetics will not be adapted to any language, but the dominant poetics is dominated by the ideology. <br />
Introduction of ideology<br />
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==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan==<br />
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==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br />
==Translation Manipulated by Ideology 李泳珊 Li Yongshan==<br />
==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou==</div>Hu Huifanghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=109017History of Translation Studies 92020-12-09T03:51:05Z<p>Hu Huifang: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
<br />
='''Comparative Studies'''=<br />
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==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
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==='''Key words'''===<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
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==='''Introduction'''===<br />
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==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
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==='''Bibliography'''===<br />
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==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang==<br />
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==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br />
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==='''Abstract'''=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br />
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==='''Key words'''=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br />
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==='''摘要'''===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br />
关键词：生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br />
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==='''Introduction'''===<br />
''The Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. <br />
Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China. As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials.<br />
In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. So, the Chinese-English translation is of great significance. And in recent years, the domestic scholars attach great importance to the translation of political words. Therefore, it has important functions and research values to study on the Chinese-English translation of Government Work Report from the prospective of eco-translatology.<br />
Cheng Zhenqiu(2003）reposed that the translation of political articles should focus on politics. Huang Youyi(2004) proposed The Three Principles of External Publicity Translation. Tong Xiaohua (2014) explores the English translation of the Government Work Report from different perspectives. Wang Gangyi（2014）also pointed out that the former absolute loyalty to the translation of political texts can no longer satisfy the changing society and readers. Linguistics emphasizes the equivalence of texts from different aspects, which is of great guiding significance for texts like the Government Work Report that emphasizes fidelity. Under the guidance of Nida's functional equivalence theory, Zhou Ji studied the economic and political terms in the report at the lexical and textual levels. In 2001, Joan Pinkham (2000:1) published a book and it is The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, in which it explores the Chinglish in political publicity from the angle of lexis and syntax. In her book, she suggested that translators should not only understand the subtle connotations of words and sentences clearly and use more idioms to express the meanings of the source text, but also pay special attention to the tone and short sentences of Chinese, and avoid the use of outdated, rigid terms, slang and colloquialisms. Compared with domestic studies, the number of relevant studies abroad is very small, and there are almost no relevant translation studies. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that foreign countries are more interested in the content of the report, that is, to describe the national policies, culture and social issues. <br />
This thesis focuses on translation of political publicity from the perspective of eco-translatology in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology. <br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction of Government Work Report'''===<br />
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Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.<br />
===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br />
For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.<br />
====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br />
The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. <br />
====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br />
As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.<br />
====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br />
The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.<br />
===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br />
In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. <br />
Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br />
It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br />
===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br />
In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.<br />
====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br />
Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br />
Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) [1]<br />
“获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) [1]<br />
“增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) [1]'''=====<br />
Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br />
Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )[1]<br />
“在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)[1]<br />
“放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)[1] <br />
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==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br />
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Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br />
===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br />
Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br />
====='''2.1.1 Previous Studies on Eco-translatology '''=====<br />
As a translation theory originated in China, eco-translatology has been gradually improved in the past two decades. In 2001, professor Hu Gengshen laid the foundation for the theory of adaptation and selection of translation. Since then, the first decade has been the period of constructing and expanding the theoretical framework. In the second decade, with the holding of the international symposium on eco-translatology and the practice of the theory of eco-translatology of the professors of various universities, the eco-translatology system has gradually become mature. Liu Yafeng wrote adaptation and selection of translators -- a study on the translation process of external publicity, pointing out that translators should play their role of “selection” and “adaptation” as the center in the translation process of external publicity, so as to realize the harmony and unity of the whole translation ecological environment. For three-dimensional adaptation and selection principles, Zhou Li wrote the multi-dimensional integration principle under the care of the political party and government discourse translation to demonstrate the dimensions of language, culture, and communication in the perspective of the Chinese party guiding significance of discourse translation. It further enlightens the translator for the use of a multi-dimensional integration technique and set up a bridge of communication between the original language and target language.<br />
====='''2.1.2 Application of Eco-translatology '''=====<br />
There are many types of text analysis related to eco-translatology. Specifically, it includes: first, the analysis of various classical translations, such as a dream of red mansions, etc. Scholars have analyzed the reasons for the success of these classic works from the perspective of the overall translation ecological environment and the principle of “three-dimensional” transformation, pointing out that translators can only translate good works if they adapt to the translation ecological environment. These analysis has been the focus of research, and can best prove the feasibility of the theory. Secondly, the text analysis of public signs points out the direction from a new perspective. Thirdly, the text analysis of film title and subtitle. Fourthly, the text analysis of news translation. Scholars have analyzed the phenomenon of news text translation from different perspectives of eco-translatology and provided theoretical guidance.<br />
===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br />
====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br />
The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”[2]. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.[2]<br />
====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br />
Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.<br />
Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.<br />
Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.<br />
In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br />
<br />
==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br />
From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br />
===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br />
The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br />
Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br />
“大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br />
Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br />
In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br />
Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br />
The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br />
===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br />
The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br />
Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br />
It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br />
Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br />
In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br />
Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br />
“筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br />
===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br />
From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br />
Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br />
For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br />
“保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br />
Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br />
In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br />
In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br />
Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br />
First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br />
However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br />
<br />
==='''Bibliography'''===<br />
Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br />
Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br />
Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br />
Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 1999. <br />
Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003 (4): 283-291.<br />
Joan Pinkham. The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br />
程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br />
方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br />
胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br />
胡庚申．生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]．中国翻译,2011 (2) : 5－9．<br />
黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br />
胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br />
刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br />
童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br />
王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br />
王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br />
周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br />
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==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603==<br />
<center>欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling </center><br />
==='''Abstract:'''===<br />
Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words:'''===<br />
Nida, Cartford, equivalence theory, Linguistic theories<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br />
<br />
==='''摘要：'''===<br />
摘要：奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词：'''===<br />
<br />
奈达，卡特福德，对等理论，语言学理论<br />
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==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
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===='''1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence'''====<br />
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Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors. By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br />
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===='''1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence'''====<br />
Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br />
<br />
==='''2.Similarities and Differences'''===<br />
<br />
===='''2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories'''====<br />
As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br />
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====='''2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories'''=====<br />
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Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br />
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Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br />
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====='''2.1.2.The Approach to Achieve Equivalence'''=====<br />
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The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.<br />
His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br />
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The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br />
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===='''2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories'''====<br />
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Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers. Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages. By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence. And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br />
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====='''2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence'''=====<br />
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Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that which focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br />
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Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br />
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====='''2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence'''=====<br />
<br />
Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence. These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text. By this dynamic equivalence theory Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation. Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br />
<br />
In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br />
<br />
====='''2.2.3.Different Research Approach''' =====<br />
<br />
To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language. So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices. In another aspect, Nida held a view that "meaning is universal" and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br />
<br />
By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br />
<br />
==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao==<br />
<br />
==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br />
<br />
===关键词=== <br />
尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of "dynamic equivalence", and Bassnett proposed the concept of "cultural equivalence". Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of "equivalence" or "equivalence" in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br />
<br />
==='''Key Words'''=== <br />
Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek "Bible New Testament" studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society. In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is "Toward a Science of Translation" "The Theory and Practice of translation" etc. His "dynamic equivalence" translation theory and "reader's response theory" translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br />
Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of "cultural equivalence" and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br />
Nida's "dynamic equivalence" and Bassnett's "cultural equivalence" theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the "similarities" and "differences" of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br />
<br />
===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br />
Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br />
Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values embodied in translated texts.<br />
<br />
===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br />
Nida's "dynamic equivalence" translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research. In the 1950s, since Nida served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Society for several years, Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the actual work of "Bible" translation. Since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the dynamic equivalent translation theory in translation projects organized by the American Bible Society (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br />
<br />
===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br />
As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to "Translation, History and Culure" (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that "Culural lurn" (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br />
Bassnett believes that the linguistic school of translation faces the following problems: The method of machine translation is an effective method, but it is not suitable for literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett pointed out that the research method of translation should undergo an cultural turn (eulturalturn). She believes that translators must perform translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators must not conduct translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett’s cultural translation view is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, it is rooted in and influenced by the culture of the language.<br />
<br />
===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br />
<br />
===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence" Theory===<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence" is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term "equivalence".<br />
<br />
3.1.1The nature of "equivalence"<br />
“Equivalence" is an important proposition in translation for it <br />
involves some key problems such as nature of translation, translation norms as well as quality and evaluation of translation. As a mathematic term, the word “ equivalence" refers to an absolutely symmetrical and equal relationship, but in many English dictionaries, it gets obscure meanings that things possess similarities or areessentially identical. Then, is the concept“equivalence in translation theories derived from its absolute mathematics reference orborrowed from its indistinct meanings as a word of general linguistices? According to many translation theorists (including Nida), it may mean more of the latter than the former.<br />
" Equivalence" is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that "loyalty" or "faith", for the concept of "loyalty"or "faith" refers to attitudes of translators while "faithful translation" indicates the quality of translation. But "equivalence" involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The "equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. The historic contribution of Nida's" dynamic equivalence" is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s "dynamic equivalence". however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br />
<br />
3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of " dynamic equivalence”<br />
It has been mentioned above that Nida s "dynamic equivalence" theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br />
3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br />
What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence" is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( 杨柳， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved." (金隄,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence " focuses mainly onthe relative side of " equivalence " rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br />
As a relative conception, the goal " dynamic equivalence" pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching. In sum, those who are against the theory argue that effect of equivalence can never be possible in translation because translation involves at least two different languages, cultures etc.which are rather hard to the non-native, while those who are in favor hold that equivalence can be achieved not only in senses and styles, but in effect as well. Nida has made it very clear that "the response can never be identical' , but "a high degree of equivalenceof response" is required and possible. And for "functional equivalence",Nida elaborates that no translation can be completely equivalent. Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, "equivalence" doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida<br />
holds that the expression“functional equivalence" is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something " identical" or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness" to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity". Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term " equivalence" in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from "identity", and " equivalence"is a rela-<br />
tive conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (金隄, 1998:44).<br />
<br />
3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of "Functional Equivalence" in China-A Comment on the Translation of "A Madman's Diary"<br />
Here are three examples to analyze the theory of "functional equivalence" used in the "Madman's Diary" in the translation of "The Call" by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br />
<br />
（1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br />
<br />
“what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers.." (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br />
<br />
If this example is literally translated "赵贵翁", it may be translated as "Zhao Guiweng" in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated "Mr. Zhao" in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The "old-year running book" here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means "old account book". If literally translated as "aged jour-nal", obviously there is no "old ledgers" which is more suitable for the time.<br />
Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br />
<br />
(2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br />
<br />
“Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home." (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br />
<br />
The personal pronoun "陈老五", if translated literally, might be translated as "Chen Laowu". Yang Xianyi translated "Old Chen", which is more authentic. "Chen Lao Wu" may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as "Lao Chen" here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br />
<br />
(3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br />
<br />
“a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop..." ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br />
<br />
"狼子村" is a place noun. If it is simply translated as "The Wolf Child Village", it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of "Cub" in "Wolf Cub Village" of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. "Cub" means "cub" and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br />
<br />
===3.2 Bassnett's "cultural equivalence" theory===<br />
Bassnett believes that the goal of translation should be changed from the text commonly accepted by people to culture, which is the so-called cultural shift. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. Only when people's heart, language and body are coordinated with each other, can people maintain vigor and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must take into account the overall physical condition of the patient. The same is true for translation practice. In the process of translating the target language into the target language, members of parliament must take into account the double standards of language accuracy and cultural adaptability, and must not strip away culture and treat translation in isolation.<br />
<br />
3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br />
Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br />
Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br />
<br />
3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br />
As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content. But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br />
<br />
3.2.3 "Intelligibility" of the translation<br />
Before the rise of the cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into plain and simple language in order for the translation to be better understood by readers, deleting literary metaphors and associations. In this way, the translation will indeed become easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work has been reduced, and the interest and depth will not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett believes that the "understandability" of the translation cannot be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but should try to maintain the original flavor of the original.<br />
<br />
3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br />
For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br />
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3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br />
<br />
原文:<br />
<br />
“六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br />
<br />
辜译: "Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,"<br />
<br />
韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons." (Waley, 1999:37 )<br />
<br />
"六亲" in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as "the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it "sixnear ons" , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of "six relatives". (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br />
<br />
原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br />
<br />
辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses." ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br />
<br />
韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e.."(Waley,1999:131 )<br />
<br />
Both translators translated "驷马" into "four horses", which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br />
<br />
===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br />
Nida's translation thoughts are mainly influenced by language structuralist translators, which are manifested in his use of the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core similar to Chomsky's deep structure Syntactic analysis is a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation procedures from the perspective of language translation, that is, interlingual translation. However, the essence of Nida's translation thought lies in far more than its language structuralist translation view, but more of him In "translation is science", "translation and communication", "translation must emphasize readers' reflection" and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contribution in translation theory, especially in the translation theory of the Bible, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br />
But Bassnett's "cultural translation view" focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br />
<br />
===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br />
Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br />
Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the translation process, form should give way to content. Bassnett also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, the translator can not be restricted by the literary image. It can be seen that the two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of the translation.<br />
Nida pointed out that the languages and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br />
[2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br />
[3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br />
[4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br />
[5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br />
[6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br />
[7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br />
[8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br />
[9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's "Cultural Translation" Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br />
[10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br />
[11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br />
[12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br />
[13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及“信达雅”的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br />
<br />
===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br />
<br />
Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances (Vermeer, Hans J.1987a). <br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br />
<br />
The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br />
<br />
(1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br />
<br />
The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
(2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br />
<br />
Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.<br />
<br />
(3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br />
<br />
Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translational action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. <br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br />
<br />
There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br />
<br />
“The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’ (Vermeer), which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina & Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation (Christiane Nord, 1997). The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. <br />
Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz, 1995). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. <br />
<br />
The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. It means the skopos of target text should share identical views with the intention of original author. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose.<br />
<br />
These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including ''Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays''. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br />
<br />
(1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br />
<br />
The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in ''The Dhammapada sequence'' （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. The Biography of Yan Fu made a description that Yan Fu was stimulated by the utter failure of the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895 and then started to translate foreign works. The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into ''Yiliyan'' （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” In addition, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br />
<br />
(2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br />
<br />
Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main direction of this evolution.<br />
The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of this translation standard. While there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory. Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.<br />
Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br />
<br />
Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor. There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. <br />
“Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”. In his translation, he regarded ancient Chinesean old language as a way of elegant expression. <br />
<br />
These three standards are integrated, but there is also differentiation between priority and others. In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and “Expressiveness” is the aim of translation. <br />
<br />
===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br />
<br />
====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br />
<br />
=====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br />
<br />
The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory. Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that the translator should respect both the original author and the reader in the translation process. The principle of translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work in the intion and in the relationship among the author of the original text, the person who initiated the translation, and the reader of the translated work. In other words, the translator is responsible not only to the reader but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. The fidelity rule in Skopos theory emphasizes being faithful to the original text. The degree and form of fidelity depends on the requirements of the purpose of the translation. In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text, including the full text, according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties.<br />
<br />
This coincides with Yan Fu's "Faithfulness". Because"faith" emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And "Faithfulness" is the premise and foundation of translation. In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. The translator acts as a bridge between the original text and the translated text.<br />
If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of "Faithfulness", as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of the original text.<br />
<br />
=====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br />
<br />
The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of the reader's receptivity and comprehension, so that the receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. Nord suggests that a translation work is meaningful only if it is understood by the recipients. Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, the translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that the reader can have a better understanding of the translation. <br />
<br />
This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, ''Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli'' : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, the translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br />
<br />
=====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br />
<br />
The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and "one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation". In his view, translation is "the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers. <br />
<br />
While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for the old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 Different Theory Systems=====<br />
<br />
Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture. It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules. In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action. Besides, there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to the translator the standards and principles that they should follow.<br />
<br />
But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that "Faithfulness" refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. In addition, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br />
<br />
Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the "faithfulness principle" as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. "Skopos" usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, "the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers". Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.<br />
<br />
In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated, with no clear distinction of priority. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is only abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. In addition, it is limited in translating literary works.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br />
<br />
For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of the translator and frees the translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) the translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten the reader), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He play a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, the translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity.<br />
<br />
However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of the translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to the readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of the translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br />
<br />
===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 06:53, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
='''Art of Translation'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Art and Science of Translation --Take the Literary Translation as an Example 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br />
<br />
--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 11:50, 8 December 2020 (UTC)==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 Liu Ou==<br />
<br />
Abstract<br />
<br />
Key words<br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
关键词<br />
<br />
2.1 The Abundant Resource of Hunan Scenic Spots <br />
<br />
2.2 The Meaning of View of Culture Translation<br />
<br />
2.3 The Existing English Translated Versions of Hunan Scenic Spots<br />
<br />
2.4 The Strategy of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation<br />
<br />
Conclusion<br />
<br />
Reference<br />
<br />
==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br />
<br />
==The Visible Images and Invisible Hands: An Analysis of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility 祝美梅 Zhu Meimei student no. 202070080632== <br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
This thesis tries to explain the visible images and invisible hands in the process of translation based on Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility. The inferior status of translation and improper techniques have rendered translators “invisible” in the past, however the improvement of the translator's status and the “cultural turn” in Translation Studies, have both served to make translators more “visible”. Thus the translator's subjectivity has received increasing recognition and status. Nonetheless, as a key point in translation studies, the translator's subjectivity should not be confined to the change from “invisibility” to “visibility”, but should be studied in all respects, and the challenges being faced should also be identified and dealt with.<br />
<br />
==='''Key Words'''===<br />
<br />
invisibility; visibility; Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory; Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility; the translator's subjectivity<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
论文基于勒弗菲尔韦努蒂提出的术语translator’s invisibility解读,翻译地位的提高以及翻译研究的"文化转向",促使译者"显形",译者主体性也随之受到重视;但值得注意的是,在当今崭新的翻译时代背景下,各种翻译技术的发展导致译者"忘形",从而使译者主体性面临挑战。译者主体性作为翻译研究的重点,不应拘泥于由忽视到重视的转变,而应以全面地眼光,发现并正视其现在所面临的挑战。 <br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
隐形；显形；劳伦斯韦努蒂；操纵理论；勒菲弗尔的操纵理论；韦努蒂《译者的隐形》<br />
<br />
==='''1. Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
====''''1.1 Introduction of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory '''===<br />
<br />
====''''1.2 Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility '''====<br />
<br />
==='''2. Study on the translator's subjectivity'''===<br />
<br />
===='''2.1 The Translator's Invisibility '''====<br />
<br />
===='''2.2 Culture Turn: The Translator Change from Invisibility to invisibility'''====<br />
<br />
===='''2.3 The Translator's visibility '''====<br />
<br />
==='''3. Factors Influencing translator's subjectivity'''===<br />
<br />
===='''3.1 Interior Factors'''====<br />
<br />
===='''3.2 External Factors'''====<br />
<br />
In the early 1990s, Lefevere, a representative of the cultural school of translation studies and a well-known translation theorist, elaborated Manipulation Theory is his book Translation, rewriting and the Manipulation Literary Fame, in which he said: Translation is, of course, a rewriting of an original text. All rewritings, whatever their intention, reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and as such manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society. <br />
Lefevere, defines translation as a form of rewriting, thus treating translation as a form of creating another text image, just like literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, fiction, falsification of anthologies and reader’s guides. But it doesn’t mean that translation is rewriting. Lefevere thinks rewriting includes some other forms, for example, historiography, anthology,, criticism and editing. He ven emphasized that translation creates the literary and cultural image of the original text, the original author, and the original text. All rewriting, regardless of its intention, reflects a certain ideology and poetics. Therefore, translation is actually the manipulation of the translator to the text, which makes literature work with a certain way in a particular society. In any case, the understanding of translation as rewriting or manipulation of the original text deepens people’s understanding of translation to a great extent. <br />
In Lefevere’s view, there are three elements influencing the function of translation. The first one is professionals within the literary system, including critics, reviewers, teachers and translators who will affect the acceptance of translated works; the second is patronage outside of that system. Patronage here can be seen as the powers that can further or hinder the reading, writing, and rewriting of literature, and the third is the dominant poetics. <br />
Lefevere’s translation theory represents an important turning point in the history of translation study. He developed Zohar’s poly-system theory. And he studies translation in cultural approach. <br />
Before the “cultural turn”, translation was seen almost as an exclusively linguistic process, in which the translator was required to find the TL equivalent for a SL expression and which was not influenced by any other factors than linguistic ones. But in fact, Lefevere’s translation theory could instruct translation activities in many cases. Based on the understanding of three control factors, the translator will solve problems encountered in the process of translation, exploring changes of translation strategies under various factors, mainly including ideology, poetics and patronages, which will be introduced in the next chapter. <br />
<br />
Three control factors <br />
Lefevere points that all literature works should be placed in a certain social and cultural environment. Thus its meaning and value is influenced by these factors. The audience’s apprehension of the work also differs for these factors. He emphasizes three factors manipulating translation: ideology, poetic and patronage.<br />
Introduction of poetics <br />
According to Lefevere, a poetics includes two components. One is the literary method which consists of literary genres, prototypical characters and situations, motifs, symbols. The other is the concept of the literature function. <br />
As a theory about the study of poetry and their skills, poetics is also a theory of literature and art. After choosing some types of practice at a certain period, while excluding others, the poetics is codified. Then it will have tremendous influence on the further development of the literary system. Lefevere holds that the translation methods adopted by the translators are carried out under the guidance of certain strategies of certain poetic factors. It exerts on the choices of words, sentecnes, even the style and translation strategies of the whole article. Translation has greatly influenced the exchange of different literary systems, not only in introducing new literary methods into a certain poetics, but also in whether the image of a writer or a work can be successfully introduced into another literary system. In Lefevere’s view, as the manipulatin of a translator, rewriting should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence, because translators are bound to be influenced and constrained by different social and cultural factors in the process of translation. <br />
Rewriting under the guidance of poetics is an important part of the cultural system in which the rewriters produce works. Rewriters often adjust the original works to a certain extent to be in line with the dominant ideology and poetics of the period in which the rewriters lived, and to make the rewritten works accepted by as many audiences as possible. In order to adapt some famous works to the cultural background of various society and history, they have also been rewritten to varying degrees. As is mentioned above, works of the dominant poetics is what people called classics for future writers to follow. But “a poetics, any poetics, is a historical variable: it is not absolute.” For instance, poetics today differs from the dominant poetics of the Tang dynasty. In cater to the change of the dominant poetics, these canonized works will be adapted o rewritten. This is why some classical Greek works still have an impact on Western literature. Translators pay more and more attention on the poetic factors in translation, further developing translation theory. Poetics solve the problem of what literature should or can be, and deciding the role and influence of translation in the society to some extent. In the process of translation, emphasizing more on meaning and lesson poetic factors and literary component will make the poetic aesthetic sense of the original work disappear. <br />
Lefevere also points that any poetics transcend language, ethnic and political entities which is demonstrated by listing Multilanguage regions or various forms of social and political organizations in Africa share a common poetics. In his eyes, the poetics will not be adapted to any language, but the dominant poetics is dominated by the ideology. <br />
Introduction of ideology<br />
<br />
==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan==<br />
<br />
==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br />
==Translation Manipulated by Ideology 李泳珊 Li Yongshan==<br />
==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou==</div>Hu Huifanghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=109016History of Translation Studies 92020-12-09T03:49:40Z<p>Hu Huifang: /* References */</p>
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学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
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*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
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*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
<br />
='''Comparative Studies'''=<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
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==='''Key words'''===<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
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==='''Introduction'''===<br />
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==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
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==='''Bibliography'''===<br />
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==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang==<br />
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==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br />
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==='''Abstract'''=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br />
关键词：生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
''The Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. <br />
Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China. As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials.<br />
In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. So, the Chinese-English translation is of great significance. And in recent years, the domestic scholars attach great importance to the translation of political words. Therefore, it has important functions and research values to study on the Chinese-English translation of Government Work Report from the prospective of eco-translatology.<br />
Cheng Zhenqiu(2003）reposed that the translation of political articles should focus on politics. Huang Youyi(2004) proposed The Three Principles of External Publicity Translation. Tong Xiaohua (2014) explores the English translation of the Government Work Report from different perspectives. Wang Gangyi（2014）also pointed out that the former absolute loyalty to the translation of political texts can no longer satisfy the changing society and readers. Linguistics emphasizes the equivalence of texts from different aspects, which is of great guiding significance for texts like the Government Work Report that emphasizes fidelity. Under the guidance of Nida's functional equivalence theory, Zhou Ji studied the economic and political terms in the report at the lexical and textual levels. In 2001, Joan Pinkham (2000:1) published a book and it is The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, in which it explores the Chinglish in political publicity from the angle of lexis and syntax. In her book, she suggested that translators should not only understand the subtle connotations of words and sentences clearly and use more idioms to express the meanings of the source text, but also pay special attention to the tone and short sentences of Chinese, and avoid the use of outdated, rigid terms, slang and colloquialisms. Compared with domestic studies, the number of relevant studies abroad is very small, and there are almost no relevant translation studies. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that foreign countries are more interested in the content of the report, that is, to describe the national policies, culture and social issues. <br />
This thesis focuses on translation of political publicity from the perspective of eco-translatology in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology. <br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction of Government Work Report'''===<br />
<br />
Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.<br />
===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br />
For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.<br />
====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br />
The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. <br />
====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br />
As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.<br />
====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br />
The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.<br />
===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br />
In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. <br />
Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br />
It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br />
===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br />
In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.<br />
====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br />
Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br />
Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) [1]<br />
“获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) [1]<br />
“增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) [1]'''=====<br />
Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br />
Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )[1]<br />
“在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)[1]<br />
“放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)[1] <br />
<br />
==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br />
===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br />
Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br />
====='''2.1.1 Previous Studies on Eco-translatology '''=====<br />
As a translation theory originated in China, eco-translatology has been gradually improved in the past two decades. In 2001, professor Hu Gengshen laid the foundation for the theory of adaptation and selection of translation. Since then, the first decade has been the period of constructing and expanding the theoretical framework. In the second decade, with the holding of the international symposium on eco-translatology and the practice of the theory of eco-translatology of the professors of various universities, the eco-translatology system has gradually become mature. Liu Yafeng wrote adaptation and selection of translators -- a study on the translation process of external publicity, pointing out that translators should play their role of “selection” and “adaptation” as the center in the translation process of external publicity, so as to realize the harmony and unity of the whole translation ecological environment. For three-dimensional adaptation and selection principles, Zhou Li wrote the multi-dimensional integration principle under the care of the political party and government discourse translation to demonstrate the dimensions of language, culture, and communication in the perspective of the Chinese party guiding significance of discourse translation. It further enlightens the translator for the use of a multi-dimensional integration technique and set up a bridge of communication between the original language and target language.<br />
====='''2.1.2 Application of Eco-translatology '''=====<br />
There are many types of text analysis related to eco-translatology. Specifically, it includes: first, the analysis of various classical translations, such as a dream of red mansions, etc. Scholars have analyzed the reasons for the success of these classic works from the perspective of the overall translation ecological environment and the principle of “three-dimensional” transformation, pointing out that translators can only translate good works if they adapt to the translation ecological environment. These analysis has been the focus of research, and can best prove the feasibility of the theory. Secondly, the text analysis of public signs points out the direction from a new perspective. Thirdly, the text analysis of film title and subtitle. Fourthly, the text analysis of news translation. Scholars have analyzed the phenomenon of news text translation from different perspectives of eco-translatology and provided theoretical guidance.<br />
===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br />
====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br />
The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”[2]. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.[2]<br />
====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br />
Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.<br />
Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.<br />
Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.<br />
In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br />
<br />
==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br />
From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br />
===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br />
The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br />
Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br />
“大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br />
Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br />
In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br />
Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br />
The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br />
===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br />
The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br />
Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br />
It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br />
Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br />
In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br />
Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br />
“筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br />
===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br />
From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br />
Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br />
For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br />
“保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br />
Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br />
In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br />
In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br />
Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br />
First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br />
However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br />
<br />
==='''Bibliography'''===<br />
Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br />
Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br />
Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br />
Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 1999. <br />
Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003 (4): 283-291.<br />
Joan Pinkham. The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br />
程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br />
方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br />
胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br />
胡庚申．生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]．中国翻译,2011 (2) : 5－9．<br />
黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br />
胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br />
刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br />
童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br />
王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br />
王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br />
周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br />
周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br />
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<br />
==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603==<br />
<center>欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling </center><br />
==='''Abstract:'''===<br />
Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br />
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==='''Key words:'''===<br />
Nida, Cartford, equivalence theory, Linguistic theories<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br />
<br />
==='''摘要：'''===<br />
摘要：奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词：'''===<br />
<br />
奈达，卡特福德，对等理论，语言学理论<br />
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==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
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===='''1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence'''====<br />
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Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors. By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br />
<br />
===='''1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence'''====<br />
Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br />
<br />
==='''2.Similarities and Differences'''===<br />
<br />
===='''2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories'''====<br />
As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br />
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====='''2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories'''=====<br />
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Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br />
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Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br />
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====='''2.1.2.The Approach to Achieve Equivalence'''=====<br />
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The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.<br />
His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br />
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The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br />
<br />
===='''2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories'''====<br />
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Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers. Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages. By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence. And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br />
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====='''2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence'''=====<br />
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Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that which focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br />
<br />
Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br />
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====='''2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence'''=====<br />
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Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence. These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text. By this dynamic equivalence theory Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation. Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br />
<br />
In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br />
<br />
====='''2.2.3.Different Research Approach''' =====<br />
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To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language. So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices. In another aspect, Nida held a view that "meaning is universal" and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br />
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By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br />
<br />
==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao==<br />
<br />
==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br />
<br />
===关键词=== <br />
尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of "dynamic equivalence", and Bassnett proposed the concept of "cultural equivalence". Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of "equivalence" or "equivalence" in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br />
<br />
==='''Key Words'''=== <br />
Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek "Bible New Testament" studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society. In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is "Toward a Science of Translation" "The Theory and Practice of translation" etc. His "dynamic equivalence" translation theory and "reader's response theory" translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br />
Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of "cultural equivalence" and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br />
Nida's "dynamic equivalence" and Bassnett's "cultural equivalence" theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the "similarities" and "differences" of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br />
<br />
===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br />
Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br />
Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values embodied in translated texts.<br />
<br />
===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br />
Nida's "dynamic equivalence" translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research. In the 1950s, since Nida served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Society for several years, Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the actual work of "Bible" translation. Since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the dynamic equivalent translation theory in translation projects organized by the American Bible Society (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br />
<br />
===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br />
As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to "Translation, History and Culure" (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that "Culural lurn" (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br />
Bassnett believes that the linguistic school of translation faces the following problems: The method of machine translation is an effective method, but it is not suitable for literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett pointed out that the research method of translation should undergo an cultural turn (eulturalturn). She believes that translators must perform translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators must not conduct translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett’s cultural translation view is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, it is rooted in and influenced by the culture of the language.<br />
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===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br />
<br />
===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence" Theory===<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence" is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term "equivalence".<br />
<br />
3.1.1The nature of "equivalence"<br />
“Equivalence" is an important proposition in translation for it <br />
involves some key problems such as nature of translation, translation norms as well as quality and evaluation of translation. As a mathematic term, the word “ equivalence" refers to an absolutely symmetrical and equal relationship, but in many English dictionaries, it gets obscure meanings that things possess similarities or areessentially identical. Then, is the concept“equivalence in translation theories derived from its absolute mathematics reference orborrowed from its indistinct meanings as a word of general linguistices? According to many translation theorists (including Nida), it may mean more of the latter than the former.<br />
" Equivalence" is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that "loyalty" or "faith", for the concept of "loyalty"or "faith" refers to attitudes of translators while "faithful translation" indicates the quality of translation. But "equivalence" involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The "equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. The historic contribution of Nida's" dynamic equivalence" is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s "dynamic equivalence". however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br />
<br />
3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of " dynamic equivalence”<br />
It has been mentioned above that Nida s "dynamic equivalence" theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br />
3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br />
What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence" is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( 杨柳， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved." (金隄,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence " focuses mainly onthe relative side of " equivalence " rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br />
As a relative conception, the goal " dynamic equivalence" pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching. In sum, those who are against the theory argue that effect of equivalence can never be possible in translation because translation involves at least two different languages, cultures etc.which are rather hard to the non-native, while those who are in favor hold that equivalence can be achieved not only in senses and styles, but in effect as well. Nida has made it very clear that "the response can never be identical' , but "a high degree of equivalenceof response" is required and possible. And for "functional equivalence",Nida elaborates that no translation can be completely equivalent. Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, "equivalence" doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida<br />
holds that the expression“functional equivalence" is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something " identical" or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness" to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity". Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term " equivalence" in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from "identity", and " equivalence"is a rela-<br />
tive conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (金隄, 1998:44).<br />
<br />
3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of "Functional Equivalence" in China-A Comment on the Translation of "A Madman's Diary"<br />
Here are three examples to analyze the theory of "functional equivalence" used in the "Madman's Diary" in the translation of "The Call" by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br />
<br />
（1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br />
<br />
“what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers.." (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br />
<br />
If this example is literally translated "赵贵翁", it may be translated as "Zhao Guiweng" in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated "Mr. Zhao" in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The "old-year running book" here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means "old account book". If literally translated as "aged jour-nal", obviously there is no "old ledgers" which is more suitable for the time.<br />
Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br />
<br />
(2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br />
<br />
“Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home." (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br />
<br />
The personal pronoun "陈老五", if translated literally, might be translated as "Chen Laowu". Yang Xianyi translated "Old Chen", which is more authentic. "Chen Lao Wu" may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as "Lao Chen" here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br />
<br />
(3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br />
<br />
“a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop..." ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br />
<br />
"狼子村" is a place noun. If it is simply translated as "The Wolf Child Village", it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of "Cub" in "Wolf Cub Village" of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. "Cub" means "cub" and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br />
<br />
===3.2 Bassnett's "cultural equivalence" theory===<br />
Bassnett believes that the goal of translation should be changed from the text commonly accepted by people to culture, which is the so-called cultural shift. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. Only when people's heart, language and body are coordinated with each other, can people maintain vigor and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must take into account the overall physical condition of the patient. The same is true for translation practice. In the process of translating the target language into the target language, members of parliament must take into account the double standards of language accuracy and cultural adaptability, and must not strip away culture and treat translation in isolation.<br />
<br />
3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br />
Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br />
Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br />
<br />
3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br />
As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content. But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br />
<br />
3.2.3 "Intelligibility" of the translation<br />
Before the rise of the cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into plain and simple language in order for the translation to be better understood by readers, deleting literary metaphors and associations. In this way, the translation will indeed become easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work has been reduced, and the interest and depth will not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett believes that the "understandability" of the translation cannot be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but should try to maintain the original flavor of the original.<br />
<br />
3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br />
For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br />
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3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br />
<br />
原文:<br />
<br />
“六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br />
<br />
辜译: "Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,"<br />
<br />
韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons." (Waley, 1999:37 )<br />
<br />
"六亲" in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as "the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it "sixnear ons" , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of "six relatives". (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br />
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原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br />
<br />
辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses." ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br />
<br />
韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e.."(Waley,1999:131 )<br />
<br />
Both translators translated "驷马" into "four horses", which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br />
<br />
===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br />
Nida's translation thoughts are mainly influenced by language structuralist translators, which are manifested in his use of the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core similar to Chomsky's deep structure Syntactic analysis is a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation procedures from the perspective of language translation, that is, interlingual translation. However, the essence of Nida's translation thought lies in far more than its language structuralist translation view, but more of him In "translation is science", "translation and communication", "translation must emphasize readers' reflection" and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contribution in translation theory, especially in the translation theory of the Bible, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br />
But Bassnett's "cultural translation view" focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br />
<br />
===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br />
Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br />
Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the translation process, form should give way to content. Bassnett also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, the translator can not be restricted by the literary image. It can be seen that the two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of the translation.<br />
Nida pointed out that the languages and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br />
[2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br />
[3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br />
[4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].中国比较文化[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br />
[5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br />
[6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. 四川大学学报[Journal of Sichuan University]<br />
[7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. 扬州大学学报[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br />
[8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. 四川文理学院学报[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br />
[9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's "Cultural Translation" Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br />
[10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br />
[11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br />
[12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br />
[13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及“信达雅”的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br />
<br />
===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br />
<br />
Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances (Vermeer, Hans J.1987a). <br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br />
<br />
The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br />
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(1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br />
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The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.<br />
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(2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br />
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Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.<br />
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(3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br />
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Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translational action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. <br />
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=====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br />
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There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br />
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“The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’ (Vermeer), which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina & Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation (Christiane Nord, 1997). The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. <br />
Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz, 1995). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. <br />
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The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. It means the skopos of target text should share identical views with the intention of original author. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose.<br />
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These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br />
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====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br />
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Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including ''Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays''. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.<br />
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=====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br />
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(1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br />
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The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in ''The Dhammapada sequence'' （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. The Biography of Yan Fu made a description that Yan Fu was stimulated by the utter failure of the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895 and then started to translate foreign works. The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into ''Yiliyan'' （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” In addition, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br />
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(2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br />
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Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main direction of this evolution.<br />
The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of this translation standard. While there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory. Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.<br />
Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made.<br />
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=====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br />
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Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor. There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. <br />
“Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”. In his translation, he regarded ancient Chinesean old language as a way of elegant expression. <br />
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These three standards are integrated, but there is also differentiation between priority and others. In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and “Expressiveness” is the aim of translation. <br />
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===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br />
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====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br />
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Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br />
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=====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br />
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The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory. Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that the translator should respect both the original author and the reader in the translation process. The principle of translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work in the intion and in the relationship among the author of the original text, the person who initiated the translation, and the reader of the translated work. In other words, the translator is responsible not only to the reader but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. The fidelity rule in Skopos theory emphasizes being faithful to the original text. The degree and form of fidelity depends on the requirements of the purpose of the translation. In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text, including the full text, according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties.<br />
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This coincides with Yan Fu's "Faithfulness". Because"faith" emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And "Faithfulness" is the premise and foundation of translation. In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. The translator acts as a bridge between the original text and the translated text.<br />
If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of "Faithfulness", as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of the original text.<br />
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=====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br />
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The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of the reader's receptivity and comprehension, so that the receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. Nord suggests that a translation work is meaningful only if it is understood by the recipients. Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, the translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that the reader can have a better understanding of the translation. <br />
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This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, ''Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli'' : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, the translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br />
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=====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br />
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The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and "one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation". In his view, translation is "the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers. <br />
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While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for the old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br />
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====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br />
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Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge.<br />
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=====3.2.1 Different Theory Systems=====<br />
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Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture. It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules. In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action. Besides, there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to the translator the standards and principles that they should follow.<br />
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But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that "Faithfulness" refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. In addition, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.<br />
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Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br />
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=====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br />
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Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the "faithfulness principle" as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. "Skopos" usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, "the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers". Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.<br />
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In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated, with no clear distinction of priority. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is only abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. In addition, it is limited in translating literary works.<br />
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=====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br />
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For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of the translator and frees the translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) the translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten the reader), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He play a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, the translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity.<br />
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However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of the translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to the readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of the translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br />
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===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br />
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====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br />
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====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
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--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 06:53, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
='''Art of Translation'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Art and Science of Translation --Take the Literary Translation as an Example 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br />
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--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 11:50, 8 December 2020 (UTC)==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 Liu Ou==<br />
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Abstract<br />
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Key words<br />
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摘要<br />
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关键词<br />
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2.1 The Abundant Resource of Hunan Scenic Spots <br />
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2.2 The Meaning of View of Culture Translation<br />
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2.3 The Existing English Translated Versions of Hunan Scenic Spots<br />
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2.4 The Strategy of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation<br />
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Conclusion<br />
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Reference<br />
<br />
==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br />
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==The Visible Images and Invisible Hands: An Analysis of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility 祝美梅 Zhu Meimei student no. 202070080632== <br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
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This thesis tries to explain the visible images and invisible hands in the process of translation based on Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility. The inferior status of translation and improper techniques have rendered translators “invisible” in the past, however the improvement of the translator's status and the “cultural turn” in Translation Studies, have both served to make translators more “visible”. Thus the translator's subjectivity has received increasing recognition and status. Nonetheless, as a key point in translation studies, the translator's subjectivity should not be confined to the change from “invisibility” to “visibility”, but should be studied in all respects, and the challenges being faced should also be identified and dealt with.<br />
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==='''Key Words'''===<br />
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invisibility; visibility; Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory; Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility; the translator's subjectivity<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
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论文基于勒弗菲尔韦努蒂提出的术语translator’s invisibility解读,翻译地位的提高以及翻译研究的"文化转向",促使译者"显形",译者主体性也随之受到重视;但值得注意的是,在当今崭新的翻译时代背景下,各种翻译技术的发展导致译者"忘形",从而使译者主体性面临挑战。译者主体性作为翻译研究的重点,不应拘泥于由忽视到重视的转变,而应以全面地眼光,发现并正视其现在所面临的挑战。 <br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
隐形；显形；劳伦斯韦努蒂；操纵理论；勒菲弗尔的操纵理论；韦努蒂《译者的隐形》<br />
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==='''1. Introduction'''===<br />
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====''''1.1 Introduction of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory '''===<br />
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====''''1.2 Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility '''====<br />
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==='''2. Study on the translator's subjectivity'''===<br />
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===='''2.1 The Translator's Invisibility '''====<br />
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===='''2.2 Culture Turn: The Translator Change from Invisibility to invisibility'''====<br />
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===='''2.3 The Translator's visibility '''====<br />
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==='''3. Factors Influencing translator's subjectivity'''===<br />
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===='''3.1 Interior Factors'''====<br />
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===='''3.2 External Factors'''====<br />
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In the early 1990s, Lefevere, a representative of the cultural school of translation studies and a well-known translation theorist, elaborated Manipulation Theory is his book Translation, rewriting and the Manipulation Literary Fame, in which he said: Translation is, of course, a rewriting of an original text. All rewritings, whatever their intention, reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and as such manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society. <br />
Lefevere, defines translation as a form of rewriting, thus treating translation as a form of creating another text image, just like literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, fiction, falsification of anthologies and reader’s guides. But it doesn’t mean that translation is rewriting. Lefevere thinks rewriting includes some other forms, for example, historiography, anthology,, criticism and editing. He ven emphasized that translation creates the literary and cultural image of the original text, the original author, and the original text. All rewriting, regardless of its intention, reflects a certain ideology and poetics. Therefore, translation is actually the manipulation of the translator to the text, which makes literature work with a certain way in a particular society. In any case, the understanding of translation as rewriting or manipulation of the original text deepens people’s understanding of translation to a great extent. <br />
In Lefevere’s view, there are three elements influencing the function of translation. The first one is professionals within the literary system, including critics, reviewers, teachers and translators who will affect the acceptance of translated works; the second is patronage outside of that system. Patronage here can be seen as the powers that can further or hinder the reading, writing, and rewriting of literature, and the third is the dominant poetics. <br />
Lefevere’s translation theory represents an important turning point in the history of translation study. He developed Zohar’s poly-system theory. And he studies translation in cultural approach. <br />
Before the “cultural turn”, translation was seen almost as an exclusively linguistic process, in which the translator was required to find the TL equivalent for a SL expression and which was not influenced by any other factors than linguistic ones. But in fact, Lefevere’s translation theory could instruct translation activities in many cases. Based on the understanding of three control factors, the translator will solve problems encountered in the process of translation, exploring changes of translation strategies under various factors, mainly including ideology, poetics and patronages, which will be introduced in the next chapter. <br />
<br />
Three control factors <br />
Lefevere points that all literature works should be placed in a certain social and cultural environment. Thus its meaning and value is influenced by these factors. The audience’s apprehension of the work also differs for these factors. He emphasizes three factors manipulating translation: ideology, poetic and patronage.<br />
Introduction of poetics <br />
According to Lefevere, a poetics includes two components. One is the literary method which consists of literary genres, prototypical characters and situations, motifs, symbols. The other is the concept of the literature function. <br />
As a theory about the study of poetry and their skills, poetics is also a theory of literature and art. After choosing some types of practice at a certain period, while excluding others, the poetics is codified. Then it will have tremendous influence on the further development of the literary system. Lefevere holds that the translation methods adopted by the translators are carried out under the guidance of certain strategies of certain poetic factors. It exerts on the choices of words, sentecnes, even the style and translation strategies of the whole article. Translation has greatly influenced the exchange of different literary systems, not only in introducing new literary methods into a certain poetics, but also in whether the image of a writer or a work can be successfully introduced into another literary system. In Lefevere’s view, as the manipulatin of a translator, rewriting should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence, because translators are bound to be influenced and constrained by different social and cultural factors in the process of translation. <br />
Rewriting under the guidance of poetics is an important part of the cultural system in which the rewriters produce works. Rewriters often adjust the original works to a certain extent to be in line with the dominant ideology and poetics of the period in which the rewriters lived, and to make the rewritten works accepted by as many audiences as possible. In order to adapt some famous works to the cultural background of various society and history, they have also been rewritten to varying degrees. As is mentioned above, works of the dominant poetics is what people called classics for future writers to follow. But “a poetics, any poetics, is a historical variable: it is not absolute.” For instance, poetics today differs from the dominant poetics of the Tang dynasty. In cater to the change of the dominant poetics, these canonized works will be adapted o rewritten. This is why some classical Greek works still have an impact on Western literature. Translators pay more and more attention on the poetic factors in translation, further developing translation theory. Poetics solve the problem of what literature should or can be, and deciding the role and influence of translation in the society to some extent. In the process of translation, emphasizing more on meaning and lesson poetic factors and literary component will make the poetic aesthetic sense of the original work disappear. <br />
Lefevere also points that any poetics transcend language, ethnic and political entities which is demonstrated by listing Multilanguage regions or various forms of social and political organizations in Africa share a common poetics. In his eyes, the poetics will not be adapted to any language, but the dominant poetics is dominated by the ideology. <br />
Introduction of ideology<br />
<br />
==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan==<br />
<br />
==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br />
==Translation Manipulated by Ideology 李泳珊 Li Yongshan==<br />
==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou==</div>Hu Huifanghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=109014History of Translation Studies 92020-12-09T03:13:20Z<p>Hu Huifang: /* References */</p>
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学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
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='''Comparative Studies'''=<br />
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==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
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==='''Key words'''===<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
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==='''Introduction'''===<br />
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==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
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==='''Bibliography'''===<br />
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==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang==<br />
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==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br />
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==='''Abstract'''=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br />
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==='''Key words'''=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br />
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==='''摘要'''===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br />
关键词：生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br />
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==='''Introduction'''===<br />
''The Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. <br />
Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China. As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials.<br />
In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. So, the Chinese-English translation is of great significance. And in recent years, the domestic scholars attach great importance to the translation of political words. Therefore, it has important functions and research values to study on the Chinese-English translation of Government Work Report from the prospective of eco-translatology.<br />
Cheng Zhenqiu(2003）reposed that the translation of political articles should focus on politics. Huang Youyi(2004) proposed The Three Principles of External Publicity Translation. Tong Xiaohua (2014) explores the English translation of the Government Work Report from different perspectives. Wang Gangyi（2014）also pointed out that the former absolute loyalty to the translation of political texts can no longer satisfy the changing society and readers. Linguistics emphasizes the equivalence of texts from different aspects, which is of great guiding significance for texts like the Government Work Report that emphasizes fidelity. Under the guidance of Nida's functional equivalence theory, Zhou Ji studied the economic and political terms in the report at the lexical and textual levels. In 2001, Joan Pinkham (2000:1) published a book and it is The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, in which it explores the Chinglish in political publicity from the angle of lexis and syntax. In her book, she suggested that translators should not only understand the subtle connotations of words and sentences clearly and use more idioms to express the meanings of the source text, but also pay special attention to the tone and short sentences of Chinese, and avoid the use of outdated, rigid terms, slang and colloquialisms. Compared with domestic studies, the number of relevant studies abroad is very small, and there are almost no relevant translation studies. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that foreign countries are more interested in the content of the report, that is, to describe the national policies, culture and social issues. <br />
This thesis focuses on translation of political publicity from the perspective of eco-translatology in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology. <br />
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==='''1.Introduction of Government Work Report'''===<br />
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Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.<br />
===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br />
For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.<br />
====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br />
The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. <br />
====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br />
As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.<br />
====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br />
The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.<br />
===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br />
In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. <br />
Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br />
It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br />
===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br />
In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.<br />
====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br />
Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br />
Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) [1]<br />
“获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) [1]<br />
“增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) [1]'''=====<br />
Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br />
Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )[1]<br />
“在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)[1]<br />
“放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)[1] <br />
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==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br />
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Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br />
===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br />
Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br />
====='''2.1.1 Previous Studies on Eco-translatology '''=====<br />
As a translation theory originated in China, eco-translatology has been gradually improved in the past two decades. In 2001, professor Hu Gengshen laid the foundation for the theory of adaptation and selection of translation. Since then, the first decade has been the period of constructing and expanding the theoretical framework. In the second decade, with the holding of the international symposium on eco-translatology and the practice of the theory of eco-translatology of the professors of various universities, the eco-translatology system has gradually become mature. Liu Yafeng wrote adaptation and selection of translators -- a study on the translation process of external publicity, pointing out that translators should play their role of “selection” and “adaptation” as the center in the translation process of external publicity, so as to realize the harmony and unity of the whole translation ecological environment. For three-dimensional adaptation and selection principles, Zhou Li wrote the multi-dimensional integration principle under the care of the political party and government discourse translation to demonstrate the dimensions of language, culture, and communication in the perspective of the Chinese party guiding significance of discourse translation. It further enlightens the translator for the use of a multi-dimensional integration technique and set up a bridge of communication between the original language and target language.<br />
====='''2.1.2 Application of Eco-translatology '''=====<br />
There are many types of text analysis related to eco-translatology. Specifically, it includes: first, the analysis of various classical translations, such as a dream of red mansions, etc. Scholars have analyzed the reasons for the success of these classic works from the perspective of the overall translation ecological environment and the principle of “three-dimensional” transformation, pointing out that translators can only translate good works if they adapt to the translation ecological environment. These analysis has been the focus of research, and can best prove the feasibility of the theory. Secondly, the text analysis of public signs points out the direction from a new perspective. Thirdly, the text analysis of film title and subtitle. Fourthly, the text analysis of news translation. Scholars have analyzed the phenomenon of news text translation from different perspectives of eco-translatology and provided theoretical guidance.<br />
===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br />
====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br />
The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”[2]. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.[2]<br />
====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br />
Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.<br />
Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.<br />
Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.<br />
In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br />
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==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br />
From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br />
===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br />
The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br />
Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br />
“大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br />
Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br />
In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br />
Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br />
The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br />
===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br />
The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br />
Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br />
It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br />
Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br />
In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br />
Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br />
“筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br />
===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br />
From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br />
Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br />
For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br />
“保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br />
Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br />
In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br />
In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
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During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br />
Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br />
First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br />
However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br />
<br />
==='''Bibliography'''===<br />
Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br />
Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br />
Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br />
Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 1999. <br />
Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003 (4): 283-291.<br />
Joan Pinkham. The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br />
程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br />
方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br />
胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br />
胡庚申．生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]．中国翻译,2011 (2) : 5－9．<br />
黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br />
胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br />
刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br />
童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br />
王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br />
王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br />
周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br />
周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br />
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==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603==<br />
<center>欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling </center><br />
==='''Abstract:'''===<br />
Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br />
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==='''Key words:'''===<br />
Nida, Cartford, equivalence theory, Linguistic theories<br />
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===题目===<br />
《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br />
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==='''摘要：'''===<br />
摘要：奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br />
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==='''关键词：'''===<br />
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奈达，卡特福德，对等理论，语言学理论<br />
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==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
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===='''1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence'''====<br />
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Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors. By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br />
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===='''1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence'''====<br />
Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br />
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==='''2.Similarities and Differences'''===<br />
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===='''2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories'''====<br />
As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br />
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====='''2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories'''=====<br />
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Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br />
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Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br />
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====='''2.1.2.The Approach to Achieve Equivalence'''=====<br />
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The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.<br />
His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br />
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The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br />
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===='''2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories'''====<br />
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Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers. Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages. By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence. And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br />
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====='''2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence'''=====<br />
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Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that which focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br />
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Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br />
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====='''2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence'''=====<br />
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Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence. These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text. By this dynamic equivalence theory Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation. Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br />
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In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br />
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====='''2.2.3.Different Research Approach''' =====<br />
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To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language. So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices. In another aspect, Nida held a view that "meaning is universal" and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br />
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By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br />
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==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao==<br />
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==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br />
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===摘要===<br />
尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br />
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===关键词=== <br />
尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of "dynamic equivalence", and Bassnett proposed the concept of "cultural equivalence". Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of "equivalence" or "equivalence" in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br />
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==='''Key Words'''=== <br />
Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek "Bible New Testament" studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society. In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is "Toward a Science of Translation" "The Theory and Practice of translation" etc. His "dynamic equivalence" translation theory and "reader's response theory" translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br />
Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of "cultural equivalence" and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br />
Nida's "dynamic equivalence" and Bassnett's "cultural equivalence" theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the "similarities" and "differences" of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br />
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===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br />
Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br />
Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values embodied in translated texts.<br />
<br />
===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br />
Nida's "dynamic equivalence" translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research. In the 1950s, since Nida served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Society for several years, Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the actual work of "Bible" translation. Since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the dynamic equivalent translation theory in translation projects organized by the American Bible Society (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br />
<br />
===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br />
As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to "Translation, History and Culure" (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that "Culural lurn" (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br />
Bassnett believes that the linguistic school of translation faces the following problems: The method of machine translation is an effective method, but it is not suitable for literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett pointed out that the research method of translation should undergo an cultural turn (eulturalturn). She believes that translators must perform translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators must not conduct translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett’s cultural translation view is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, it is rooted in and influenced by the culture of the language.<br />
<br />
===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br />
<br />
===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence" Theory===<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence" is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term "equivalence".<br />
<br />
3.1.1The nature of "equivalence"<br />
“Equivalence" is an important proposition in translation for it <br />
involves some key problems such as nature of translation, translation norms as well as quality and evaluation of translation. As a mathematic term, the word “ equivalence" refers to an absolutely symmetrical and equal relationship, but in many English dictionaries, it gets obscure meanings that things possess similarities or areessentially identical. Then, is the concept“equivalence in translation theories derived from its absolute mathematics reference orborrowed from its indistinct meanings as a word of general linguistices? According to many translation theorists (including Nida), it may mean more of the latter than the former.<br />
" Equivalence" is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that "loyalty" or "faith", for the concept of "loyalty"or "faith" refers to attitudes of translators while "faithful translation" indicates the quality of translation. But "equivalence" involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The "equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. The historic contribution of Nida's" dynamic equivalence" is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s "dynamic equivalence". however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br />
<br />
3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of " dynamic equivalence”<br />
It has been mentioned above that Nida s "dynamic equivalence" theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br />
3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br />
What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence" is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( 杨柳， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved." (金隄,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence " focuses mainly onthe relative side of " equivalence " rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br />
As a relative conception, the goal " dynamic equivalence" pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching. In sum, those who are against the theory argue that effect of equivalence can never be possible in translation because translation involves at least two different languages, cultures etc.which are rather hard to the non-native, while those who are in favor hold that equivalence can be achieved not only in senses and styles, but in effect as well. Nida has made it very clear that "the response can never be identical' , but "a high degree of equivalenceof response" is required and possible. And for "functional equivalence",Nida elaborates that no translation can be completely equivalent. Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, "equivalence" doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida<br />
holds that the expression“functional equivalence" is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something " identical" or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness" to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity". Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term " equivalence" in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from "identity", and " equivalence"is a rela-<br />
tive conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (金隄, 1998:44).<br />
<br />
3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of "Functional Equivalence" in China-A Comment on the Translation of "A Madman's Diary"<br />
Here are three examples to analyze the theory of "functional equivalence" used in the "Madman's Diary" in the translation of "The Call" by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br />
<br />
（1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br />
<br />
“what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers.." (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br />
<br />
If this example is literally translated "赵贵翁", it may be translated as "Zhao Guiweng" in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated "Mr. Zhao" in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The "old-year running book" here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means "old account book". If literally translated as "aged jour-nal", obviously there is no "old ledgers" which is more suitable for the time.<br />
Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br />
<br />
(2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br />
<br />
“Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home." (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br />
<br />
The personal pronoun "陈老五", if translated literally, might be translated as "Chen Laowu". Yang Xianyi translated "Old Chen", which is more authentic. "Chen Lao Wu" may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as "Lao Chen" here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br />
<br />
(3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br />
<br />
“a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop..." ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br />
<br />
"狼子村" is a place noun. If it is simply translated as "The Wolf Child Village", it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of "Cub" in "Wolf Cub Village" of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. "Cub" means "cub" and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br />
<br />
===3.2 Bassnett's "cultural equivalence" theory===<br />
Bassnett believes that the goal of translation should be changed from the text commonly accepted by people to culture, which is the so-called cultural shift. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. Only when people's heart, language and body are coordinated with each other, can people maintain vigor and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must take into account the overall physical condition of the patient. The same is true for translation practice. In the process of translating the target language into the target language, members of parliament must take into account the double standards of language accuracy and cultural adaptability, and must not strip away culture and treat translation in isolation.<br />
<br />
3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br />
Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br />
Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br />
<br />
3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br />
As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content. But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br />
<br />
3.2.3 "Intelligibility" of the translation<br />
Before the rise of the cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into plain and simple language in order for the translation to be better understood by readers, deleting literary metaphors and associations. In this way, the translation will indeed become easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work has been reduced, and the interest and depth will not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett believes that the "understandability" of the translation cannot be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but should try to maintain the original flavor of the original.<br />
<br />
3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br />
For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br />
<br />
3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br />
<br />
原文:<br />
<br />
“六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br />
<br />
辜译: "Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,"<br />
<br />
韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons." (Waley, 1999:37 )<br />
<br />
"六亲" in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as "the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it "sixnear ons" , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of "six relatives". (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br />
<br />
原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br />
<br />
辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses." ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br />
<br />
韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e.."(Waley,1999:131 )<br />
<br />
Both translators translated "驷马" into "four horses", which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br />
<br />
===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br />
Nida's translation thoughts are mainly influenced by language structuralist translators, which are manifested in his use of the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core similar to Chomsky's deep structure Syntactic analysis is a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation procedures from the perspective of language translation, that is, interlingual translation. However, the essence of Nida's translation thought lies in far more than its language structuralist translation view, but more of him In "translation is science", "translation and communication", "translation must emphasize readers' reflection" and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contribution in translation theory, especially in the translation theory of the Bible, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br />
But Bassnett's "cultural translation view" focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br />
<br />
===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br />
Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br />
Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the translation process, form should give way to content. Bassnett also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, the translator can not be restricted by the literary image. It can be seen that the two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of the translation.<br />
Nida pointed out that the languages and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br />
[2]廖七一.当代西方翻译理论探索[M].南京:译林出版社,2000.<br />
[3]刘润清.西方语言学流派[M].北京:外语教学与研究出版社,2002.<br />
[4]陆刚.巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[J].中国比较文化,(2006,(4)。<br />
[5]谭载喜.西方翻译简史（修订版）[M].北京：商务印书馆,1991.<br />
[6]段峰.苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评[J].四川大学学报.2006(2).<br />
[7]陆刚。巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[j].扬州大学学报：人文社会科学版。2010（4）。<br />
[8]邓巨，秦中书。苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[J]四川文理学院学报：社会科学版，2007（3）：104-106<br />
[9]罗承丽.操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究[D].北京语言大学，2010.<br />
[10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br />
[11]鲁迅.呐喊[M].南昌：江西教育出版社，2019.<br />
[12]鲁迅.呐喊[M].杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京：北京外文出版社，2000.<br />
[13]辜正坤.老子道德经[M].北京：北京大学出版社，2008.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及“信达雅”的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br />
<br />
===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br />
<br />
Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances (Vermeer, Hans J.1987a). <br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br />
<br />
The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br />
<br />
(1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br />
<br />
The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
(2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br />
<br />
Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.<br />
<br />
(3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br />
<br />
Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translational action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. <br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br />
<br />
There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br />
<br />
“The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’ (Vermeer), which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina & Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation (Christiane Nord, 1997). The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. <br />
Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz, 1995). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. <br />
<br />
The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. It means the skopos of target text should share identical views with the intention of original author. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose.<br />
<br />
These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including ''Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays''. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br />
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(1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br />
<br />
The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in ''The Dhammapada sequence'' （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. The Biography of Yan Fu made a description that Yan Fu was stimulated by the utter failure of the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895 and then started to translate foreign works. The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into ''Yiliyan'' （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” In addition, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br />
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(2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br />
<br />
Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main direction of this evolution.<br />
The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of this translation standard. While there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory. Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.<br />
Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br />
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Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor. There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. <br />
“Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”. In his translation, he regarded ancient Chinesean old language as a way of elegant expression. <br />
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These three standards are integrated, but there is also differentiation between priority and others. In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and “Expressiveness” is the aim of translation. <br />
<br />
===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br />
<br />
====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br />
<br />
=====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br />
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The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory. Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that the translator should respect both the original author and the reader in the translation process. The principle of translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work in the intion and in the relationship among the author of the original text, the person who initiated the translation, and the reader of the translated work. In other words, the translator is responsible not only to the reader but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. The fidelity rule in Skopos theory emphasizes being faithful to the original text. The degree and form of fidelity depends on the requirements of the purpose of the translation. In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text, including the full text, according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties.<br />
<br />
This coincides with Yan Fu's "Faithfulness". Because"faith" emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And "Faithfulness" is the premise and foundation of translation. In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. The translator acts as a bridge between the original text and the translated text.<br />
If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of "Faithfulness", as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of the original text.<br />
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=====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br />
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The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of the reader's receptivity and comprehension, so that the receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. Nord suggests that a translation work is meaningful only if it is understood by the recipients. Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, the translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that the reader can have a better understanding of the translation. <br />
<br />
This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, ''Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli'' : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, the translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br />
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=====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br />
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The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and "one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation". In his view, translation is "the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers. <br />
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While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for the old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 Different Theory Systems=====<br />
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Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture. It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules. In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action. Besides, there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to the translator the standards and principles that they should follow.<br />
<br />
But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that "Faithfulness" refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. In addition, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br />
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Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the "faithfulness principle" as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. "Skopos" usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, "the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers". Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.<br />
<br />
In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated, with no clear distinction of priority. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is only abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. In addition, it is limited in translating literary works.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br />
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For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of the translator and frees the translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) the translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten the reader), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He play a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, the translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity.<br />
<br />
However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of the translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to the readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of the translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br />
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===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br />
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====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br />
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====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
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--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 06:53, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
='''Art of Translation'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Art and Science of Translation --Take the Literary Translation as an Example 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br />
<br />
--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 11:50, 8 December 2020 (UTC)==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 Liu Ou==<br />
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Abstract<br />
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Key words<br />
<br />
摘要<br />
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关键词<br />
<br />
2.1 The Abundant Resource of Hunan Scenic Spots <br />
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2.2 The Meaning of View of Culture Translation<br />
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2.3 The Existing English Translated Versions of Hunan Scenic Spots<br />
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2.4 The Strategy of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation<br />
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Conclusion<br />
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Reference<br />
<br />
==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br />
<br />
==The Visible Images and Invisible Hands: An Analysis of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility 祝美梅 Zhu Meimei student no. 202070080632== <br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
This thesis tries to explain the visible images and invisible hands in the process of translation based on Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility. The inferior status of translation and improper techniques have rendered translators “invisible” in the past, however the improvement of the translator's status and the “cultural turn” in Translation Studies, have both served to make translators more “visible”. Thus the translator's subjectivity has received increasing recognition and status. Nonetheless, as a key point in translation studies, the translator's subjectivity should not be confined to the change from “invisibility” to “visibility”, but should be studied in all respects, and the challenges being faced should also be identified and dealt with.<br />
<br />
==='''Key Words'''===<br />
<br />
invisibility; visibility; Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory; Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility; the translator's subjectivity<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
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论文基于勒弗菲尔韦努蒂提出的术语translator’s invisibility解读,翻译地位的提高以及翻译研究的"文化转向",促使译者"显形",译者主体性也随之受到重视;但值得注意的是,在当今崭新的翻译时代背景下,各种翻译技术的发展导致译者"忘形",从而使译者主体性面临挑战。译者主体性作为翻译研究的重点,不应拘泥于由忽视到重视的转变,而应以全面地眼光,发现并正视其现在所面临的挑战。 <br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
隐形；显形；劳伦斯韦努蒂；操纵理论；勒菲弗尔的操纵理论；韦努蒂《译者的隐形》<br />
<br />
==='''1. Introduction'''===<br />
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====''''1.1 Introduction of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory '''===<br />
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====''''1.2 Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility '''====<br />
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==='''2. Study on the translator's subjectivity'''===<br />
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===='''2.1 The Translator's Invisibility '''====<br />
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===='''2.2 Culture Turn: The Translator Change from Invisibility to invisibility'''====<br />
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===='''2.3 The Translator's visibility '''====<br />
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==='''3. Factors Influencing translator's subjectivity'''===<br />
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===='''3.1 Interior Factors'''====<br />
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===='''3.2 External Factors'''====<br />
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In the early 1990s, Lefevere, a representative of the cultural school of translation studies and a well-known translation theorist, elaborated Manipulation Theory is his book Translation, rewriting and the Manipulation Literary Fame, in which he said: Translation is, of course, a rewriting of an original text. All rewritings, whatever their intention, reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and as such manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society. <br />
Lefevere, defines translation as a form of rewriting, thus treating translation as a form of creating another text image, just like literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, fiction, falsification of anthologies and reader’s guides. But it doesn’t mean that translation is rewriting. Lefevere thinks rewriting includes some other forms, for example, historiography, anthology,, criticism and editing. He ven emphasized that translation creates the literary and cultural image of the original text, the original author, and the original text. All rewriting, regardless of its intention, reflects a certain ideology and poetics. Therefore, translation is actually the manipulation of the translator to the text, which makes literature work with a certain way in a particular society. In any case, the understanding of translation as rewriting or manipulation of the original text deepens people’s understanding of translation to a great extent. <br />
In Lefevere’s view, there are three elements influencing the function of translation. The first one is professionals within the literary system, including critics, reviewers, teachers and translators who will affect the acceptance of translated works; the second is patronage outside of that system. Patronage here can be seen as the powers that can further or hinder the reading, writing, and rewriting of literature, and the third is the dominant poetics. <br />
Lefevere’s translation theory represents an important turning point in the history of translation study. He developed Zohar’s poly-system theory. And he studies translation in cultural approach. <br />
Before the “cultural turn”, translation was seen almost as an exclusively linguistic process, in which the translator was required to find the TL equivalent for a SL expression and which was not influenced by any other factors than linguistic ones. But in fact, Lefevere’s translation theory could instruct translation activities in many cases. Based on the understanding of three control factors, the translator will solve problems encountered in the process of translation, exploring changes of translation strategies under various factors, mainly including ideology, poetics and patronages, which will be introduced in the next chapter. <br />
<br />
Three control factors <br />
Lefevere points that all literature works should be placed in a certain social and cultural environment. Thus its meaning and value is influenced by these factors. The audience’s apprehension of the work also differs for these factors. He emphasizes three factors manipulating translation: ideology, poetic and patronage.<br />
Introduction of poetics <br />
According to Lefevere, a poetics includes two components. One is the literary method which consists of literary genres, prototypical characters and situations, motifs, symbols. The other is the concept of the literature function. <br />
As a theory about the study of poetry and their skills, poetics is also a theory of literature and art. After choosing some types of practice at a certain period, while excluding others, the poetics is codified. Then it will have tremendous influence on the further development of the literary system. Lefevere holds that the translation methods adopted by the translators are carried out under the guidance of certain strategies of certain poetic factors. It exerts on the choices of words, sentecnes, even the style and translation strategies of the whole article. Translation has greatly influenced the exchange of different literary systems, not only in introducing new literary methods into a certain poetics, but also in whether the image of a writer or a work can be successfully introduced into another literary system. In Lefevere’s view, as the manipulatin of a translator, rewriting should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence, because translators are bound to be influenced and constrained by different social and cultural factors in the process of translation. <br />
Rewriting under the guidance of poetics is an important part of the cultural system in which the rewriters produce works. Rewriters often adjust the original works to a certain extent to be in line with the dominant ideology and poetics of the period in which the rewriters lived, and to make the rewritten works accepted by as many audiences as possible. In order to adapt some famous works to the cultural background of various society and history, they have also been rewritten to varying degrees. As is mentioned above, works of the dominant poetics is what people called classics for future writers to follow. But “a poetics, any poetics, is a historical variable: it is not absolute.” For instance, poetics today differs from the dominant poetics of the Tang dynasty. In cater to the change of the dominant poetics, these canonized works will be adapted o rewritten. This is why some classical Greek works still have an impact on Western literature. Translators pay more and more attention on the poetic factors in translation, further developing translation theory. Poetics solve the problem of what literature should or can be, and deciding the role and influence of translation in the society to some extent. In the process of translation, emphasizing more on meaning and lesson poetic factors and literary component will make the poetic aesthetic sense of the original work disappear. <br />
Lefevere also points that any poetics transcend language, ethnic and political entities which is demonstrated by listing Multilanguage regions or various forms of social and political organizations in Africa share a common poetics. In his eyes, the poetics will not be adapted to any language, but the dominant poetics is dominated by the ideology. <br />
Introduction of ideology<br />
<br />
==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan==<br />
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==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br />
==Translation Manipulated by Ideology 李泳珊 Li Yongshan==<br />
==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou==</div>Hu Huifanghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=109013History of Translation Studies 92020-12-09T03:11:52Z<p>Hu Huifang: /* Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
<br />
='''Comparative Studies'''=<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
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==='''Key words'''===<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
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==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
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==='''Bibliography'''===<br />
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==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang==<br />
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==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br />
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==='''Abstract'''=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br />
关键词：生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br />
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==='''Introduction'''===<br />
''The Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. <br />
Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China. As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials.<br />
In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. So, the Chinese-English translation is of great significance. And in recent years, the domestic scholars attach great importance to the translation of political words. Therefore, it has important functions and research values to study on the Chinese-English translation of Government Work Report from the prospective of eco-translatology.<br />
Cheng Zhenqiu(2003）reposed that the translation of political articles should focus on politics. Huang Youyi(2004) proposed The Three Principles of External Publicity Translation. Tong Xiaohua (2014) explores the English translation of the Government Work Report from different perspectives. Wang Gangyi（2014）also pointed out that the former absolute loyalty to the translation of political texts can no longer satisfy the changing society and readers. Linguistics emphasizes the equivalence of texts from different aspects, which is of great guiding significance for texts like the Government Work Report that emphasizes fidelity. Under the guidance of Nida's functional equivalence theory, Zhou Ji studied the economic and political terms in the report at the lexical and textual levels. In 2001, Joan Pinkham (2000:1) published a book and it is The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, in which it explores the Chinglish in political publicity from the angle of lexis and syntax. In her book, she suggested that translators should not only understand the subtle connotations of words and sentences clearly and use more idioms to express the meanings of the source text, but also pay special attention to the tone and short sentences of Chinese, and avoid the use of outdated, rigid terms, slang and colloquialisms. Compared with domestic studies, the number of relevant studies abroad is very small, and there are almost no relevant translation studies. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that foreign countries are more interested in the content of the report, that is, to describe the national policies, culture and social issues. <br />
This thesis focuses on translation of political publicity from the perspective of eco-translatology in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology. <br />
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==='''1.Introduction of Government Work Report'''===<br />
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Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.<br />
===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br />
For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.<br />
====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br />
The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. <br />
====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br />
As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.<br />
====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br />
The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.<br />
===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br />
In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. <br />
Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br />
It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br />
===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br />
In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.<br />
====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br />
Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br />
Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) [1]<br />
“获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) [1]<br />
“增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) [1]'''=====<br />
Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br />
Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )[1]<br />
“在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)[1]<br />
“放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)[1] <br />
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==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br />
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Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br />
===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br />
Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br />
====='''2.1.1 Previous Studies on Eco-translatology '''=====<br />
As a translation theory originated in China, eco-translatology has been gradually improved in the past two decades. In 2001, professor Hu Gengshen laid the foundation for the theory of adaptation and selection of translation. Since then, the first decade has been the period of constructing and expanding the theoretical framework. In the second decade, with the holding of the international symposium on eco-translatology and the practice of the theory of eco-translatology of the professors of various universities, the eco-translatology system has gradually become mature. Liu Yafeng wrote adaptation and selection of translators -- a study on the translation process of external publicity, pointing out that translators should play their role of “selection” and “adaptation” as the center in the translation process of external publicity, so as to realize the harmony and unity of the whole translation ecological environment. For three-dimensional adaptation and selection principles, Zhou Li wrote the multi-dimensional integration principle under the care of the political party and government discourse translation to demonstrate the dimensions of language, culture, and communication in the perspective of the Chinese party guiding significance of discourse translation. It further enlightens the translator for the use of a multi-dimensional integration technique and set up a bridge of communication between the original language and target language.<br />
====='''2.1.2 Application of Eco-translatology '''=====<br />
There are many types of text analysis related to eco-translatology. Specifically, it includes: first, the analysis of various classical translations, such as a dream of red mansions, etc. Scholars have analyzed the reasons for the success of these classic works from the perspective of the overall translation ecological environment and the principle of “three-dimensional” transformation, pointing out that translators can only translate good works if they adapt to the translation ecological environment. These analysis has been the focus of research, and can best prove the feasibility of the theory. Secondly, the text analysis of public signs points out the direction from a new perspective. Thirdly, the text analysis of film title and subtitle. Fourthly, the text analysis of news translation. Scholars have analyzed the phenomenon of news text translation from different perspectives of eco-translatology and provided theoretical guidance.<br />
===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br />
====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br />
The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”[2]. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.[2]<br />
====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br />
Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.<br />
Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.<br />
Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.<br />
In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br />
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==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br />
From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br />
===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br />
The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br />
Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br />
“大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br />
Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br />
In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br />
Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br />
The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br />
===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br />
The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br />
Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br />
It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br />
Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br />
In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br />
Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br />
“筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br />
===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br />
From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br />
Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br />
For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br />
“保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br />
Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br />
In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br />
In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
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During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br />
Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br />
First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br />
However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br />
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杨广,吉鑫悦. 生态视角下的政府工作报告英译解读[J]. 海外英语,2017(13):108-109<br />
中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br />
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==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603==<br />
<center>欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling </center><br />
==='''Abstract:'''===<br />
Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br />
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==='''Key words:'''===<br />
Nida, Cartford, equivalence theory, Linguistic theories<br />
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===题目===<br />
《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br />
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==='''摘要：'''===<br />
摘要：奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br />
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==='''关键词：'''===<br />
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奈达，卡特福德，对等理论，语言学理论<br />
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==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
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===='''1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence'''====<br />
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Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors. By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br />
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===='''1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence'''====<br />
Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br />
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==='''2.Similarities and Differences'''===<br />
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===='''2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories'''====<br />
As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br />
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====='''2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories'''=====<br />
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Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br />
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Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br />
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====='''2.1.2.The Approach to Achieve Equivalence'''=====<br />
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The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.<br />
His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br />
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The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br />
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===='''2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories'''====<br />
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Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers. Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages. By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence. And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br />
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====='''2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence'''=====<br />
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Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that which focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br />
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Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br />
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====='''2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence'''=====<br />
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Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence. These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text. By this dynamic equivalence theory Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation. Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br />
<br />
In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br />
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====='''2.2.3.Different Research Approach''' =====<br />
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To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language. So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices. In another aspect, Nida held a view that "meaning is universal" and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br />
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By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br />
<br />
==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao==<br />
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==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br />
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===摘要===<br />
尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br />
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===关键词=== <br />
尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of "dynamic equivalence", and Bassnett proposed the concept of "cultural equivalence". Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of "equivalence" or "equivalence" in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br />
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==='''Key Words'''=== <br />
Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek "Bible New Testament" studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society. In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is "Toward a Science of Translation" "The Theory and Practice of translation" etc. His "dynamic equivalence" translation theory and "reader's response theory" translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br />
Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of "cultural equivalence" and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br />
Nida's "dynamic equivalence" and Bassnett's "cultural equivalence" theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the "similarities" and "differences" of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br />
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===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br />
Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br />
Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values embodied in translated texts.<br />
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===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br />
Nida's "dynamic equivalence" translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research. In the 1950s, since Nida served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Society for several years, Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the actual work of "Bible" translation. Since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the dynamic equivalent translation theory in translation projects organized by the American Bible Society (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br />
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===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br />
As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to "Translation, History and Culure" (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that "Culural lurn" (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br />
Bassnett believes that the linguistic school of translation faces the following problems: The method of machine translation is an effective method, but it is not suitable for literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett pointed out that the research method of translation should undergo an cultural turn (eulturalturn). She believes that translators must perform translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators must not conduct translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett’s cultural translation view is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, it is rooted in and influenced by the culture of the language.<br />
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===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br />
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===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence" Theory===<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence" is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term "equivalence".<br />
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3.1.1The nature of "equivalence"<br />
“Equivalence" is an important proposition in translation for it <br />
involves some key problems such as nature of translation, translation norms as well as quality and evaluation of translation. As a mathematic term, the word “ equivalence" refers to an absolutely symmetrical and equal relationship, but in many English dictionaries, it gets obscure meanings that things possess similarities or areessentially identical. Then, is the concept“equivalence in translation theories derived from its absolute mathematics reference orborrowed from its indistinct meanings as a word of general linguistices? According to many translation theorists (including Nida), it may mean more of the latter than the former.<br />
" Equivalence" is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that "loyalty" or "faith", for the concept of "loyalty"or "faith" refers to attitudes of translators while "faithful translation" indicates the quality of translation. But "equivalence" involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The "equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. The historic contribution of Nida's" dynamic equivalence" is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s "dynamic equivalence". however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br />
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3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of " dynamic equivalence”<br />
It has been mentioned above that Nida s "dynamic equivalence" theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br />
3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br />
What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence" is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( 杨柳， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved." (金隄,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence " focuses mainly onthe relative side of " equivalence " rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br />
As a relative conception, the goal " dynamic equivalence" pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching. In sum, those who are against the theory argue that effect of equivalence can never be possible in translation because translation involves at least two different languages, cultures etc.which are rather hard to the non-native, while those who are in favor hold that equivalence can be achieved not only in senses and styles, but in effect as well. Nida has made it very clear that "the response can never be identical' , but "a high degree of equivalenceof response" is required and possible. And for "functional equivalence",Nida elaborates that no translation can be completely equivalent. Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, "equivalence" doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida<br />
holds that the expression“functional equivalence" is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something " identical" or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness" to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity". Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term " equivalence" in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from "identity", and " equivalence"is a rela-<br />
tive conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (金隄, 1998:44).<br />
<br />
3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of "Functional Equivalence" in China-A Comment on the Translation of "A Madman's Diary"<br />
Here are three examples to analyze the theory of "functional equivalence" used in the "Madman's Diary" in the translation of "The Call" by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br />
<br />
（1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br />
<br />
“what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers.." (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br />
<br />
If this example is literally translated "赵贵翁", it may be translated as "Zhao Guiweng" in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated "Mr. Zhao" in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The "old-year running book" here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means "old account book". If literally translated as "aged jour-nal", obviously there is no "old ledgers" which is more suitable for the time.<br />
Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br />
<br />
(2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br />
<br />
“Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home." (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br />
<br />
The personal pronoun "陈老五", if translated literally, might be translated as "Chen Laowu". Yang Xianyi translated "Old Chen", which is more authentic. "Chen Lao Wu" may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as "Lao Chen" here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br />
<br />
(3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br />
<br />
“a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop..." ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br />
<br />
"狼子村" is a place noun. If it is simply translated as "The Wolf Child Village", it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of "Cub" in "Wolf Cub Village" of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. "Cub" means "cub" and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br />
<br />
===3.2 Bassnett's "cultural equivalence" theory===<br />
Bassnett believes that the goal of translation should be changed from the text commonly accepted by people to culture, which is the so-called cultural shift. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. Only when people's heart, language and body are coordinated with each other, can people maintain vigor and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must take into account the overall physical condition of the patient. The same is true for translation practice. In the process of translating the target language into the target language, members of parliament must take into account the double standards of language accuracy and cultural adaptability, and must not strip away culture and treat translation in isolation.<br />
<br />
3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br />
Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br />
Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br />
<br />
3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br />
As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content. But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br />
<br />
3.2.3 "Intelligibility" of the translation<br />
Before the rise of the cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into plain and simple language in order for the translation to be better understood by readers, deleting literary metaphors and associations. In this way, the translation will indeed become easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work has been reduced, and the interest and depth will not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett believes that the "understandability" of the translation cannot be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but should try to maintain the original flavor of the original.<br />
<br />
3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br />
For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br />
<br />
3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br />
<br />
原文:<br />
<br />
“六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br />
<br />
辜译: "Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,"<br />
<br />
韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons." (Waley, 1999:37 )<br />
<br />
"六亲" in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as "the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it "sixnear ons" , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of "six relatives". (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br />
<br />
原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br />
<br />
辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses." ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br />
<br />
韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e.."(Waley,1999:131 )<br />
<br />
Both translators translated "驷马" into "four horses", which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br />
<br />
===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br />
Nida's translation thoughts are mainly influenced by language structuralist translators, which are manifested in his use of the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core similar to Chomsky's deep structure Syntactic analysis is a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation procedures from the perspective of language translation, that is, interlingual translation. However, the essence of Nida's translation thought lies in far more than its language structuralist translation view, but more of him In "translation is science", "translation and communication", "translation must emphasize readers' reflection" and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contribution in translation theory, especially in the translation theory of the Bible, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br />
But Bassnett's "cultural translation view" focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br />
<br />
===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br />
Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br />
Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the translation process, form should give way to content. Bassnett also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, the translator can not be restricted by the literary image. It can be seen that the two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of the translation.<br />
Nida pointed out that the languages and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br />
[2]廖七一.当代西方翻译理论探索[M].南京:译林出版社,2000.<br />
[3]刘润清.西方语言学流派[M].北京:外语教学与研究出版社,2002.<br />
[4]陆刚.巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[J].中国比较文化,(2006,(4)。<br />
[5]谭载喜.西方翻译商史（修订版）[M].北京：商务印书馆,1991.<br />
[6]段峰.苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评[J].四川大学学报.2006(2).<br />
[7]陆刚。巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[j].扬州大学学报：人文社会科学版。2010（4）。<br />
[8]邓巨，秦中书。苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[J]四川文理学院学报：社会科学版，2007（3）：104-106<br />
[9]罗承丽.操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究[D].北京语言大学，2010.<br />
[10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br />
[11]鲁迅.呐喊[M].南昌：江西教育出版社，2019.<br />
[12]鲁迅.呐喊[M].杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京：北京外文出版社，2000.<br />
[13]辜正坤.老子道德经[M].北京：北京大学出版社，2008.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及“信达雅”的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br />
<br />
===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br />
<br />
Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances (Vermeer, Hans J.1987a). <br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br />
<br />
The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br />
<br />
(1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br />
<br />
The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
(2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br />
<br />
Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.<br />
<br />
(3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br />
<br />
Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translational action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. <br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br />
<br />
There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br />
<br />
“The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’ (Vermeer), which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina & Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation (Christiane Nord, 1997). The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. <br />
Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz, 1995). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. <br />
<br />
The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. It means the skopos of target text should share identical views with the intention of original author. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose.<br />
<br />
These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including ''Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays''. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br />
<br />
(1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br />
<br />
The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in ''The Dhammapada sequence'' （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. The Biography of Yan Fu made a description that Yan Fu was stimulated by the utter failure of the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895 and then started to translate foreign works. The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into ''Yiliyan'' （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” In addition, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br />
<br />
(2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br />
<br />
Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main direction of this evolution.<br />
The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of this translation standard. While there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory. Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.<br />
Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br />
<br />
Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor. There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. <br />
“Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”. In his translation, he regarded ancient Chinesean old language as a way of elegant expression. <br />
<br />
These three standards are integrated, but there is also differentiation between priority and others. In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and “Expressiveness” is the aim of translation. <br />
<br />
===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br />
<br />
====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br />
<br />
=====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br />
<br />
The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory. Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that the translator should respect both the original author and the reader in the translation process. The principle of translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work in the intion and in the relationship among the author of the original text, the person who initiated the translation, and the reader of the translated work. In other words, the translator is responsible not only to the reader but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. The fidelity rule in Skopos theory emphasizes being faithful to the original text. The degree and form of fidelity depends on the requirements of the purpose of the translation. In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text, including the full text, according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties.<br />
<br />
This coincides with Yan Fu's "Faithfulness". Because"faith" emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And "Faithfulness" is the premise and foundation of translation. In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. The translator acts as a bridge between the original text and the translated text.<br />
If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of "Faithfulness", as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of the original text.<br />
<br />
=====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br />
<br />
The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of the reader's receptivity and comprehension, so that the receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. Nord suggests that a translation work is meaningful only if it is understood by the recipients. Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, the translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that the reader can have a better understanding of the translation. <br />
<br />
This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, ''Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli'' : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, the translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br />
<br />
=====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br />
<br />
The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and "one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation". In his view, translation is "the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers. <br />
<br />
While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for the old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 Different Theory Systems=====<br />
<br />
Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture. It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules. In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action. Besides, there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to the translator the standards and principles that they should follow.<br />
<br />
But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that "Faithfulness" refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. In addition, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br />
<br />
Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the "faithfulness principle" as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. "Skopos" usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, "the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers". Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.<br />
<br />
In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated, with no clear distinction of priority. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is only abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. In addition, it is limited in translating literary works.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br />
<br />
For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of the translator and frees the translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) the translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten the reader), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He play a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, the translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity.<br />
<br />
However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of the translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to the readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of the translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br />
<br />
===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 06:53, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
='''Art of Translation'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Art and Science of Translation --Take the Literary Translation as an Example 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br />
<br />
--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 11:50, 8 December 2020 (UTC)==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 Liu Ou==<br />
<br />
Abstract<br />
<br />
Key words<br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
关键词<br />
<br />
2.1 The Abundant Resource of Hunan Scenic Spots <br />
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2.2 The Meaning of View of Culture Translation<br />
<br />
2.3 The Existing English Translated Versions of Hunan Scenic Spots<br />
<br />
2.4 The Strategy of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation<br />
<br />
Conclusion<br />
<br />
Reference<br />
<br />
==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br />
<br />
==The Visible Images and Invisible Hands: An Analysis of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility 祝美梅 Zhu Meimei student no. 202070080632== <br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
This thesis tries to explain the visible images and invisible hands in the process of translation based on Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility. The inferior status of translation and improper techniques have rendered translators “invisible” in the past, however the improvement of the translator's status and the “cultural turn” in Translation Studies, have both served to make translators more “visible”. Thus the translator's subjectivity has received increasing recognition and status. Nonetheless, as a key point in translation studies, the translator's subjectivity should not be confined to the change from “invisibility” to “visibility”, but should be studied in all respects, and the challenges being faced should also be identified and dealt with.<br />
<br />
==='''Key Words'''===<br />
<br />
invisibility; visibility; Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory; Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility; the translator's subjectivity<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
论文基于勒弗菲尔韦努蒂提出的术语translator’s invisibility解读,翻译地位的提高以及翻译研究的"文化转向",促使译者"显形",译者主体性也随之受到重视;但值得注意的是,在当今崭新的翻译时代背景下,各种翻译技术的发展导致译者"忘形",从而使译者主体性面临挑战。译者主体性作为翻译研究的重点,不应拘泥于由忽视到重视的转变,而应以全面地眼光,发现并正视其现在所面临的挑战。 <br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
隐形；显形；劳伦斯韦努蒂；操纵理论；勒菲弗尔的操纵理论；韦努蒂《译者的隐形》<br />
<br />
==='''1. Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
====''''1.1 Introduction of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory '''===<br />
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====''''1.2 Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility '''====<br />
<br />
==='''2. Study on the translator's subjectivity'''===<br />
<br />
===='''2.1 The Translator's Invisibility '''====<br />
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===='''2.2 Culture Turn: The Translator Change from Invisibility to invisibility'''====<br />
<br />
===='''2.3 The Translator's visibility '''====<br />
<br />
==='''3. Factors Influencing translator's subjectivity'''===<br />
<br />
===='''3.1 Interior Factors'''====<br />
<br />
===='''3.2 External Factors'''====<br />
<br />
In the early 1990s, Lefevere, a representative of the cultural school of translation studies and a well-known translation theorist, elaborated Manipulation Theory is his book Translation, rewriting and the Manipulation Literary Fame, in which he said: Translation is, of course, a rewriting of an original text. All rewritings, whatever their intention, reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and as such manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society. <br />
Lefevere, defines translation as a form of rewriting, thus treating translation as a form of creating another text image, just like literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, fiction, falsification of anthologies and reader’s guides. But it doesn’t mean that translation is rewriting. Lefevere thinks rewriting includes some other forms, for example, historiography, anthology,, criticism and editing. He ven emphasized that translation creates the literary and cultural image of the original text, the original author, and the original text. All rewriting, regardless of its intention, reflects a certain ideology and poetics. Therefore, translation is actually the manipulation of the translator to the text, which makes literature work with a certain way in a particular society. In any case, the understanding of translation as rewriting or manipulation of the original text deepens people’s understanding of translation to a great extent. <br />
In Lefevere’s view, there are three elements influencing the function of translation. The first one is professionals within the literary system, including critics, reviewers, teachers and translators who will affect the acceptance of translated works; the second is patronage outside of that system. Patronage here can be seen as the powers that can further or hinder the reading, writing, and rewriting of literature, and the third is the dominant poetics. <br />
Lefevere’s translation theory represents an important turning point in the history of translation study. He developed Zohar’s poly-system theory. And he studies translation in cultural approach. <br />
Before the “cultural turn”, translation was seen almost as an exclusively linguistic process, in which the translator was required to find the TL equivalent for a SL expression and which was not influenced by any other factors than linguistic ones. But in fact, Lefevere’s translation theory could instruct translation activities in many cases. Based on the understanding of three control factors, the translator will solve problems encountered in the process of translation, exploring changes of translation strategies under various factors, mainly including ideology, poetics and patronages, which will be introduced in the next chapter. <br />
<br />
Three control factors <br />
Lefevere points that all literature works should be placed in a certain social and cultural environment. Thus its meaning and value is influenced by these factors. The audience’s apprehension of the work also differs for these factors. He emphasizes three factors manipulating translation: ideology, poetic and patronage.<br />
Introduction of poetics <br />
According to Lefevere, a poetics includes two components. One is the literary method which consists of literary genres, prototypical characters and situations, motifs, symbols. The other is the concept of the literature function. <br />
As a theory about the study of poetry and their skills, poetics is also a theory of literature and art. After choosing some types of practice at a certain period, while excluding others, the poetics is codified. Then it will have tremendous influence on the further development of the literary system. Lefevere holds that the translation methods adopted by the translators are carried out under the guidance of certain strategies of certain poetic factors. It exerts on the choices of words, sentecnes, even the style and translation strategies of the whole article. Translation has greatly influenced the exchange of different literary systems, not only in introducing new literary methods into a certain poetics, but also in whether the image of a writer or a work can be successfully introduced into another literary system. In Lefevere’s view, as the manipulatin of a translator, rewriting should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence, because translators are bound to be influenced and constrained by different social and cultural factors in the process of translation. <br />
Rewriting under the guidance of poetics is an important part of the cultural system in which the rewriters produce works. Rewriters often adjust the original works to a certain extent to be in line with the dominant ideology and poetics of the period in which the rewriters lived, and to make the rewritten works accepted by as many audiences as possible. In order to adapt some famous works to the cultural background of various society and history, they have also been rewritten to varying degrees. As is mentioned above, works of the dominant poetics is what people called classics for future writers to follow. But “a poetics, any poetics, is a historical variable: it is not absolute.” For instance, poetics today differs from the dominant poetics of the Tang dynasty. In cater to the change of the dominant poetics, these canonized works will be adapted o rewritten. This is why some classical Greek works still have an impact on Western literature. Translators pay more and more attention on the poetic factors in translation, further developing translation theory. Poetics solve the problem of what literature should or can be, and deciding the role and influence of translation in the society to some extent. In the process of translation, emphasizing more on meaning and lesson poetic factors and literary component will make the poetic aesthetic sense of the original work disappear. <br />
Lefevere also points that any poetics transcend language, ethnic and political entities which is demonstrated by listing Multilanguage regions or various forms of social and political organizations in Africa share a common poetics. In his eyes, the poetics will not be adapted to any language, but the dominant poetics is dominated by the ideology. <br />
Introduction of ideology<br />
<br />
==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan==<br />
<br />
==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br />
==Translation Manipulated by Ideology 李泳珊 Li Yongshan==<br />
==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou==</div>Hu Huifanghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=109011History of Translation Studies 92020-12-09T03:08:49Z<p>Hu Huifang: /* Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
<br />
='''Comparative Studies'''=<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Bibliography'''===<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang==<br />
<br />
==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br />
关键词：生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
''The Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. <br />
Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China. As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials.<br />
In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. So, the Chinese-English translation is of great significance. And in recent years, the domestic scholars attach great importance to the translation of political words. Therefore, it has important functions and research values to study on the Chinese-English translation of Government Work Report from the prospective of eco-translatology.<br />
Cheng Zhenqiu(2003）reposed that the translation of political articles should focus on politics. Huang Youyi(2004) proposed The Three Principles of External Publicity Translation. Tong Xiaohua (2014) explores the English translation of the Government Work Report from different perspectives. Wang Gangyi（2014）also pointed out that the former absolute loyalty to the translation of political texts can no longer satisfy the changing society and readers. Linguistics emphasizes the equivalence of texts from different aspects, which is of great guiding significance for texts like the Government Work Report that emphasizes fidelity. Under the guidance of Nida's functional equivalence theory, Zhou Ji studied the economic and political terms in the report at the lexical and textual levels. In 2001, Joan Pinkham (2000:1) published a book and it is The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, in which it explores the Chinglish in political publicity from the angle of lexis and syntax. In her book, she suggested that translators should not only understand the subtle connotations of words and sentences clearly and use more idioms to express the meanings of the source text, but also pay special attention to the tone and short sentences of Chinese, and avoid the use of outdated, rigid terms, slang and colloquialisms. Compared with domestic studies, the number of relevant studies abroad is very small, and there are almost no relevant translation studies. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that foreign countries are more interested in the content of the report, that is, to describe the national policies, culture and social issues. <br />
This thesis focuses on translation of political publicity from the perspective of eco-translatology in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology. <br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction of Government Work Report'''===<br />
<br />
Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.<br />
===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br />
For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.<br />
====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br />
The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. <br />
====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br />
As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.<br />
====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br />
The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.<br />
===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br />
In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. <br />
Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br />
It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br />
===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br />
In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.<br />
====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br />
Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br />
Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) [1]<br />
“获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) [1]<br />
“增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) [1]'''=====<br />
Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br />
Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )[1]<br />
“在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)[1]<br />
“放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)[1] <br />
<br />
==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br />
===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br />
Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br />
====='''2.1.1 Previous Studies on Eco-translatology '''=====<br />
As a translation theory originated in China, eco-translatology has been gradually improved in the past two decades. In 2001, professor Hu Gengshen laid the foundation for the theory of adaptation and selection of translation. Since then, the first decade has been the period of constructing and expanding the theoretical framework. In the second decade, with the holding of the international symposium on eco-translatology and the practice of the theory of eco-translatology of the professors of various universities, the eco-translatology system has gradually become mature. Liu Yafeng wrote adaptation and selection of translators -- a study on the translation process of external publicity, pointing out that translators should play their role of “selection” and “adaptation” as the center in the translation process of external publicity, so as to realize the harmony and unity of the whole translation ecological environment. For three-dimensional adaptation and selection principles, Zhou Li wrote the multi-dimensional integration principle under the care of the political party and government discourse translation to demonstrate the dimensions of language, culture, and communication in the perspective of the Chinese party guiding significance of discourse translation. It further enlightens the translator for the use of a multi-dimensional integration technique and set up a bridge of communication between the original language and target language.<br />
====='''2.1.2 Application of Eco-translatology '''=====<br />
There are many types of text analysis related to eco-translatology. Specifically, it includes: first, the analysis of various classical translations, such as a dream of red mansions, etc. Scholars have analyzed the reasons for the success of these classic works from the perspective of the overall translation ecological environment and the principle of “three-dimensional” transformation, pointing out that translators can only translate good works if they adapt to the translation ecological environment. These analysis has been the focus of research, and can best prove the feasibility of the theory. Secondly, the text analysis of public signs points out the direction from a new perspective. Thirdly, the text analysis of film title and subtitle. Fourthly, the text analysis of news translation. Scholars have analyzed the phenomenon of news text translation from different perspectives of eco-translatology and provided theoretical guidance.<br />
===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br />
====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br />
The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”[2]. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.[2]<br />
====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br />
Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.<br />
Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.<br />
Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.<br />
In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br />
<br />
==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br />
From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br />
===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br />
The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br />
Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br />
“大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br />
Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br />
In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br />
Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br />
The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br />
===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br />
The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br />
Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br />
It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br />
Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br />
In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br />
Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br />
“筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br />
===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br />
From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br />
Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br />
For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br />
“保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br />
Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br />
In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br />
In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br />
Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br />
First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br />
However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br />
<br />
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Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003 (4): 283-291.<br />
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==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603==<br />
<center>欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling </center><br />
==='''Abstract:'''===<br />
Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words:'''===<br />
Nida, Cartford, equivalence theory, Linguistic theories<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br />
<br />
==='''摘要：'''===<br />
摘要：奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词：'''===<br />
<br />
奈达，卡特福德，对等理论，语言学理论<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
===='''1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence'''====<br />
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Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors. By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br />
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===='''1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence'''====<br />
Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br />
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==='''2.Similarities and Differences'''===<br />
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===='''2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories'''====<br />
As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br />
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====='''2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories'''=====<br />
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Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br />
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Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br />
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====='''2.1.2.The Approach to Achieve Equivalence'''=====<br />
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The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.<br />
His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br />
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The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br />
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===='''2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories'''====<br />
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Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers. Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages. By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence. And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br />
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====='''2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence'''=====<br />
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Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that which focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br />
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Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br />
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====='''2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence'''=====<br />
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Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence. These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text. By this dynamic equivalence theory Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation. Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br />
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In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br />
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====='''2.2.3.Different Research Approach''' =====<br />
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To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language. So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices. In another aspect, Nida held a view that "meaning is universal" and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br />
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By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br />
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==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao==<br />
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==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br />
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===摘要===<br />
尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br />
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===关键词=== <br />
尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of "dynamic equivalence", and Bassnett proposed the concept of "cultural equivalence". Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of "equivalence" or "equivalence" in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br />
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==='''Key Words'''=== <br />
Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek "Bible New Testament" studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society. In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is "Toward a Science of Translation" "The Theory and Practice of translation" etc. His "dynamic equivalence" translation theory and "reader's response theory" translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br />
Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of "cultural equivalence" and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br />
Nida's "dynamic equivalence" and Bassnett's "cultural equivalence" theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the "similarities" and "differences" of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br />
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===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br />
Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br />
Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values embodied in translated texts.<br />
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===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br />
Nida's "dynamic equivalence" translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research. In the 1950s, since Nida served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Society for several years, Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the actual work of "Bible" translation. Since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the dynamic equivalent translation theory in translation projects organized by the American Bible Society (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br />
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===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br />
As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to "Translation, History and Culure" (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that "Culural lurn" (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br />
Bassnett believes that the linguistic school of translation faces the following problems: The method of machine translation is an effective method, but it is not suitable for literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett pointed out that the research method of translation should undergo an cultural turn (eulturalturn). She believes that translators must perform translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators must not conduct translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett’s cultural translation view is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, it is rooted in and influenced by the culture of the language.<br />
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===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br />
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===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence" Theory===<br />
“Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence" is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term "equivalence".<br />
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3.1.1The nature of "equivalence"<br />
“Equivalence" is an important proposition in translation for it <br />
involves some key problems such as nature of translation, translation norms as well as quality and evaluation of translation. As a mathematic term, the word “ equivalence" refers to an absolutely symmetrical and equal relationship, but in many English dictionaries, it gets obscure meanings that things possess similarities or areessentially identical. Then, is the concept“equivalence in translation theories derived from its absolute mathematics reference orborrowed from its indistinct meanings as a word of general linguistices? According to many translation theorists (including Nida), it may mean more of the latter than the former.<br />
" Equivalence" is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that "loyalty" or "faith", for the concept of "loyalty"or "faith" refers to attitudes of translators while "faithful translation" indicates the quality of translation. But "equivalence" involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The "equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. The historic contribution of Nida's" dynamic equivalence" is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s "dynamic equivalence". however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br />
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3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of " dynamic equivalence”<br />
It has been mentioned above that Nida s "dynamic equivalence" theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br />
3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br />
What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence" is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( 杨柳， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved." (金隄,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence " focuses mainly onthe relative side of " equivalence " rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br />
As a relative conception, the goal " dynamic equivalence" pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching. In sum, those who are against the theory argue that effect of equivalence can never be possible in translation because translation involves at least two different languages, cultures etc.which are rather hard to the non-native, while those who are in favor hold that equivalence can be achieved not only in senses and styles, but in effect as well. Nida has made it very clear that "the response can never be identical' , but "a high degree of equivalenceof response" is required and possible. And for "functional equivalence",Nida elaborates that no translation can be completely equivalent. Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, "equivalence" doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida<br />
holds that the expression“functional equivalence" is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something " identical" or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness" to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity". Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term " equivalence" in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from "identity", and " equivalence"is a rela-<br />
tive conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (金隄, 1998:44).<br />
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3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of "Functional Equivalence" in China-A Comment on the Translation of "A Madman's Diary"<br />
Here are three examples to analyze the theory of "functional equivalence" used in the "Madman's Diary" in the translation of "The Call" by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br />
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（1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br />
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“what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers.." (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br />
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If this example is literally translated "赵贵翁", it may be translated as "Zhao Guiweng" in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated "Mr. Zhao" in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The "old-year running book" here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means "old account book". If literally translated as "aged jour-nal", obviously there is no "old ledgers" which is more suitable for the time.<br />
Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br />
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(2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br />
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“Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home." (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br />
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The personal pronoun "陈老五", if translated literally, might be translated as "Chen Laowu". Yang Xianyi translated "Old Chen", which is more authentic. "Chen Lao Wu" may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as "Lao Chen" here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br />
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(3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br />
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“a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop..." ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br />
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"狼子村" is a place noun. If it is simply translated as "The Wolf Child Village", it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of "Cub" in "Wolf Cub Village" of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. "Cub" means "cub" and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br />
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===3.2 Bassnett's "cultural equivalence" theory===<br />
Bassnett believes that the goal of translation should be changed from the text commonly accepted by people to culture, which is the so-called cultural shift. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. Only when people's heart, language and body are coordinated with each other, can people maintain vigor and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must take into account the overall physical condition of the patient. The same is true for translation practice. In the process of translating the target language into the target language, members of parliament must take into account the double standards of language accuracy and cultural adaptability, and must not strip away culture and treat translation in isolation.<br />
<br />
3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br />
Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br />
Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br />
<br />
3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br />
As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content. But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br />
<br />
3.2.3 "Intelligibility" of the translation<br />
Before the rise of the cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into plain and simple language in order for the translation to be better understood by readers, deleting literary metaphors and associations. In this way, the translation will indeed become easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work has been reduced, and the interest and depth will not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett believes that the "understandability" of the translation cannot be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but should try to maintain the original flavor of the original.<br />
<br />
3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br />
For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br />
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3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br />
<br />
原文:<br />
<br />
“六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br />
<br />
辜译: "Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,"<br />
<br />
韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons." (Waley, 1999:37 )<br />
<br />
"六亲" in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as "the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it "sixnear ons" , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of "six relatives". (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br />
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原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br />
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辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses." ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br />
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韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e.."(Waley,1999:131 )<br />
<br />
Both translators translated "驷马" into "four horses", which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br />
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===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br />
Nida's translation thoughts are mainly influenced by language structuralist translators, which are manifested in his use of the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core similar to Chomsky's deep structure Syntactic analysis is a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation procedures from the perspective of language translation, that is, interlingual translation. However, the essence of Nida's translation thought lies in far more than its language structuralist translation view, but more of him In "translation is science", "translation and communication", "translation must emphasize readers' reflection" and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contribution in translation theory, especially in the translation theory of the Bible, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br />
But Bassnett's "cultural translation view" focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br />
<br />
===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br />
Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br />
Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the translation process, form should give way to content. Bassnett also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, the translator can not be restricted by the literary image. It can be seen that the two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of the translation.<br />
Nida pointed out that the languages and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
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Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及“信达雅”的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
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目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
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Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br />
<br />
===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br />
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Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances (Vermeer, Hans J.1987a). <br />
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=====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br />
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The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br />
<br />
(1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br />
<br />
The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.<br />
<br />
(2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br />
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Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.<br />
<br />
(3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br />
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Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translational action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. <br />
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=====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br />
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There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br />
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“The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’ (Vermeer), which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina & Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation (Christiane Nord, 1997). The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. <br />
Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz, 1995). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. <br />
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The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. It means the skopos of target text should share identical views with the intention of original author. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose.<br />
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These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br />
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====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br />
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Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including ''Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays''. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.<br />
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=====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br />
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(1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br />
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The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in ''The Dhammapada sequence'' （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. The Biography of Yan Fu made a description that Yan Fu was stimulated by the utter failure of the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895 and then started to translate foreign works. The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into ''Yiliyan'' （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” In addition, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br />
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(2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br />
<br />
Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main direction of this evolution.<br />
The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of this translation standard. While there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory. Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.<br />
Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made.<br />
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=====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br />
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Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor. There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. <br />
“Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”. In his translation, he regarded ancient Chinesean old language as a way of elegant expression. <br />
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These three standards are integrated, but there is also differentiation between priority and others. In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and “Expressiveness” is the aim of translation. <br />
<br />
===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br />
<br />
====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br />
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=====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br />
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The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory. Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that the translator should respect both the original author and the reader in the translation process. The principle of translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work in the intion and in the relationship among the author of the original text, the person who initiated the translation, and the reader of the translated work. In other words, the translator is responsible not only to the reader but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. The fidelity rule in Skopos theory emphasizes being faithful to the original text. The degree and form of fidelity depends on the requirements of the purpose of the translation. In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text, including the full text, according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties.<br />
<br />
This coincides with Yan Fu's "Faithfulness". Because"faith" emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And "Faithfulness" is the premise and foundation of translation. In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. The translator acts as a bridge between the original text and the translated text.<br />
If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of "Faithfulness", as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of the original text.<br />
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=====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br />
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The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of the reader's receptivity and comprehension, so that the receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. Nord suggests that a translation work is meaningful only if it is understood by the recipients. Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, the translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that the reader can have a better understanding of the translation. <br />
<br />
This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, ''Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli'' : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, the translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br />
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=====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br />
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The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and "one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation". In his view, translation is "the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers. <br />
<br />
While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for the old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 Different Theory Systems=====<br />
<br />
Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture. It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules. In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action. Besides, there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to the translator the standards and principles that they should follow.<br />
<br />
But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that "Faithfulness" refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. In addition, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br />
<br />
Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the "faithfulness principle" as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. "Skopos" usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, "the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers". Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.<br />
<br />
In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated, with no clear distinction of priority. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is only abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. In addition, it is limited in translating literary works.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br />
<br />
For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of the translator and frees the translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) the translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten the reader), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He play a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, the translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity.<br />
<br />
However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of the translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to the readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of the translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br />
<br />
===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 06:53, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
='''Art of Translation'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Art and Science of Translation --Take the Literary Translation as an Example 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br />
<br />
--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 11:50, 8 December 2020 (UTC)==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 Liu Ou==<br />
<br />
Abstract<br />
<br />
Key words<br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
关键词<br />
<br />
2.1 The Abundant Resource of Hunan Scenic Spots <br />
<br />
2.2 The Meaning of View of Culture Translation<br />
<br />
2.3 The Existing English Translated Versions of Hunan Scenic Spots<br />
<br />
2.4 The Strategy of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation<br />
<br />
Conclusion<br />
<br />
Reference<br />
<br />
==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br />
<br />
==The Visible Images and Invisible Hands: An Analysis of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility 祝美梅 Zhu Meimei student no. 202070080632== <br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
This thesis tries to explain the visible images and invisible hands in the process of translation based on Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility. The inferior status of translation and improper techniques have rendered translators “invisible” in the past, however the improvement of the translator's status and the “cultural turn” in Translation Studies, have both served to make translators more “visible”. Thus the translator's subjectivity has received increasing recognition and status. Nonetheless, as a key point in translation studies, the translator's subjectivity should not be confined to the change from “invisibility” to “visibility”, but should be studied in all respects, and the challenges being faced should also be identified and dealt with.<br />
<br />
==='''Key Words'''===<br />
<br />
invisibility; visibility; Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory; Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility; the translator's subjectivity<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
论文基于勒弗菲尔韦努蒂提出的术语translator’s invisibility解读,翻译地位的提高以及翻译研究的"文化转向",促使译者"显形",译者主体性也随之受到重视;但值得注意的是,在当今崭新的翻译时代背景下,各种翻译技术的发展导致译者"忘形",从而使译者主体性面临挑战。译者主体性作为翻译研究的重点,不应拘泥于由忽视到重视的转变,而应以全面地眼光,发现并正视其现在所面临的挑战。 <br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
隐形；显形；劳伦斯韦努蒂；操纵理论；勒菲弗尔的操纵理论；韦努蒂《译者的隐形》<br />
<br />
==='''1. Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
====''''1.1 Introduction of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory '''===<br />
<br />
====''''1.2 Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility '''====<br />
<br />
==='''2. Study on the translator's subjectivity'''===<br />
<br />
===='''2.1 The Translator's Invisibility '''====<br />
<br />
===='''2.2 Culture Turn: The Translator Change from Invisibility to invisibility'''====<br />
<br />
===='''2.3 The Translator's visibility '''====<br />
<br />
==='''3. Factors Influencing translator's subjectivity'''===<br />
<br />
===='''3.1 Interior Factors'''====<br />
<br />
===='''3.2 External Factors'''====<br />
<br />
In the early 1990s, Lefevere, a representative of the cultural school of translation studies and a well-known translation theorist, elaborated Manipulation Theory is his book Translation, rewriting and the Manipulation Literary Fame, in which he said: Translation is, of course, a rewriting of an original text. All rewritings, whatever their intention, reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and as such manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society. <br />
Lefevere, defines translation as a form of rewriting, thus treating translation as a form of creating another text image, just like literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, fiction, falsification of anthologies and reader’s guides. But it doesn’t mean that translation is rewriting. Lefevere thinks rewriting includes some other forms, for example, historiography, anthology,, criticism and editing. He ven emphasized that translation creates the literary and cultural image of the original text, the original author, and the original text. All rewriting, regardless of its intention, reflects a certain ideology and poetics. Therefore, translation is actually the manipulation of the translator to the text, which makes literature work with a certain way in a particular society. In any case, the understanding of translation as rewriting or manipulation of the original text deepens people’s understanding of translation to a great extent. <br />
In Lefevere’s view, there are three elements influencing the function of translation. The first one is professionals within the literary system, including critics, reviewers, teachers and translators who will affect the acceptance of translated works; the second is patronage outside of that system. Patronage here can be seen as the powers that can further or hinder the reading, writing, and rewriting of literature, and the third is the dominant poetics. <br />
Lefevere’s translation theory represents an important turning point in the history of translation study. He developed Zohar’s poly-system theory. And he studies translation in cultural approach. <br />
Before the “cultural turn”, translation was seen almost as an exclusively linguistic process, in which the translator was required to find the TL equivalent for a SL expression and which was not influenced by any other factors than linguistic ones. But in fact, Lefevere’s translation theory could instruct translation activities in many cases. Based on the understanding of three control factors, the translator will solve problems encountered in the process of translation, exploring changes of translation strategies under various factors, mainly including ideology, poetics and patronages, which will be introduced in the next chapter. <br />
<br />
Three control factors <br />
Lefevere points that all literature works should be placed in a certain social and cultural environment. Thus its meaning and value is influenced by these factors. The audience’s apprehension of the work also differs for these factors. He emphasizes three factors manipulating translation: ideology, poetic and patronage.<br />
Introduction of poetics <br />
According to Lefevere, a poetics includes two components. One is the literary method which consists of literary genres, prototypical characters and situations, motifs, symbols. The other is the concept of the literature function. <br />
As a theory about the study of poetry and their skills, poetics is also a theory of literature and art. After choosing some types of practice at a certain period, while excluding others, the poetics is codified. Then it will have tremendous influence on the further development of the literary system. Lefevere holds that the translation methods adopted by the translators are carried out under the guidance of certain strategies of certain poetic factors. It exerts on the choices of words, sentecnes, even the style and translation strategies of the whole article. Translation has greatly influenced the exchange of different literary systems, not only in introducing new literary methods into a certain poetics, but also in whether the image of a writer or a work can be successfully introduced into another literary system. In Lefevere’s view, as the manipulatin of a translator, rewriting should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence, because translators are bound to be influenced and constrained by different social and cultural factors in the process of translation. <br />
Rewriting under the guidance of poetics is an important part of the cultural system in which the rewriters produce works. Rewriters often adjust the original works to a certain extent to be in line with the dominant ideology and poetics of the period in which the rewriters lived, and to make the rewritten works accepted by as many audiences as possible. In order to adapt some famous works to the cultural background of various society and history, they have also been rewritten to varying degrees. As is mentioned above, works of the dominant poetics is what people called classics for future writers to follow. But “a poetics, any poetics, is a historical variable: it is not absolute.” For instance, poetics today differs from the dominant poetics of the Tang dynasty. In cater to the change of the dominant poetics, these canonized works will be adapted o rewritten. This is why some classical Greek works still have an impact on Western literature. Translators pay more and more attention on the poetic factors in translation, further developing translation theory. Poetics solve the problem of what literature should or can be, and deciding the role and influence of translation in the society to some extent. In the process of translation, emphasizing more on meaning and lesson poetic factors and literary component will make the poetic aesthetic sense of the original work disappear. <br />
Lefevere also points that any poetics transcend language, ethnic and political entities which is demonstrated by listing Multilanguage regions or various forms of social and political organizations in Africa share a common poetics. In his eyes, the poetics will not be adapted to any language, but the dominant poetics is dominated by the ideology. <br />
Introduction of ideology<br />
<br />
==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan==<br />
<br />
==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br />
==Translation Manipulated by Ideology 李泳珊 Li Yongshan==<br />
==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou==</div>Hu Huifanghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=109010History of Translation Studies 92020-12-09T03:05:53Z<p>Hu Huifang: /* Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
<br />
='''Comparative Studies'''=<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Bibliography'''===<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang==<br />
<br />
==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br />
关键词：生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
''The Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. <br />
Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China. As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials.<br />
In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. So, the Chinese-English translation is of great significance. And in recent years, the domestic scholars attach great importance to the translation of political words. Therefore, it has important functions and research values to study on the Chinese-English translation of Government Work Report from the prospective of eco-translatology.<br />
Cheng Zhenqiu(2003）reposed that the translation of political articles should focus on politics. Huang Youyi(2004) proposed The Three Principles of External Publicity Translation. Tong Xiaohua (2014) explores the English translation of the Government Work Report from different perspectives. Wang Gangyi（2014）also pointed out that the former absolute loyalty to the translation of political texts can no longer satisfy the changing society and readers. Linguistics emphasizes the equivalence of texts from different aspects, which is of great guiding significance for texts like the Government Work Report that emphasizes fidelity. Under the guidance of Nida's functional equivalence theory, Zhou Ji studied the economic and political terms in the report at the lexical and textual levels. In 2001, Joan Pinkham (2000:1) published a book and it is The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, in which it explores the Chinglish in political publicity from the angle of lexis and syntax. In her book, she suggested that translators should not only understand the subtle connotations of words and sentences clearly and use more idioms to express the meanings of the source text, but also pay special attention to the tone and short sentences of Chinese, and avoid the use of outdated, rigid terms, slang and colloquialisms. Compared with domestic studies, the number of relevant studies abroad is very small, and there are almost no relevant translation studies. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that foreign countries are more interested in the content of the report, that is, to describe the national policies, culture and social issues. <br />
This thesis focuses on translation of political publicity from the perspective of eco-translatology in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology. <br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction of Government Work Report'''===<br />
<br />
Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.<br />
===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br />
For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.<br />
====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br />
The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. <br />
====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br />
As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.<br />
====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br />
The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.<br />
===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br />
In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. <br />
Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br />
It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br />
===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br />
In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.<br />
====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br />
Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br />
Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) [1]<br />
“获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) [1]<br />
“增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) [1]'''=====<br />
Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br />
Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )[1]<br />
“在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)[1]<br />
“放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)[1] <br />
<br />
==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br />
===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br />
Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br />
====='''2.1.1 Previous Studies on Eco-translatology '''=====<br />
As a translation theory originated in China, eco-translatology has been gradually improved in the past two decades. In 2001, professor Hu Gengshen laid the foundation for the theory of adaptation and selection of translation. Since then, the first decade has been the period of constructing and expanding the theoretical framework. In the second decade, with the holding of the international symposium on eco-translatology and the practice of the theory of eco-translatology of the professors of various universities, the eco-translatology system has gradually become mature. Liu Yafeng wrote adaptation and selection of translators -- a study on the translation process of external publicity, pointing out that translators should play their role of “selection” and “adaptation” as the center in the translation process of external publicity, so as to realize the harmony and unity of the whole translation ecological environment. For three-dimensional adaptation and selection principles, Zhou Li wrote the multi-dimensional integration principle under the care of the political party and government discourse translation to demonstrate the dimensions of language, culture, and communication in the perspective of the Chinese party guiding significance of discourse translation. It further enlightens the translator for the use of a multi-dimensional integration technique and set up a bridge of communication between the original language and target language.<br />
====='''2.1.2 Application of Eco-translatology '''=====<br />
There are many types of text analysis related to eco-translatology. Specifically, it includes: first, the analysis of various classical translations, such as a dream of red mansions, etc. Scholars have analyzed the reasons for the success of these classic works from the perspective of the overall translation ecological environment and the principle of “three-dimensional” transformation, pointing out that translators can only translate good works if they adapt to the translation ecological environment. These analysis has been the focus of research, and can best prove the feasibility of the theory. Secondly, the text analysis of public signs points out the direction from a new perspective. Thirdly, the text analysis of film title and subtitle. Fourthly, the text analysis of news translation. Scholars have analyzed the phenomenon of news text translation from different perspectives of eco-translatology and provided theoretical guidance.<br />
===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br />
====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br />
The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”[2]. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.[2]<br />
====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br />
Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.<br />
Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.<br />
Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.<br />
In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br />
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==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br />
From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br />
===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br />
The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br />
Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br />
“大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br />
Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br />
In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br />
Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br />
The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br />
===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br />
The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br />
Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br />
It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br />
Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br />
In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br />
Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br />
“筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br />
===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br />
From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br />
Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br />
For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br />
“保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br />
Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br />
In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br />
In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br />
Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br />
First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br />
However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br />
<br />
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Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br />
Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br />
Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 1999. <br />
Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003 (4): 283-291.<br />
Joan Pinkham. The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br />
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方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br />
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==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603==<br />
<center>欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling </center><br />
==='''Abstract:'''===<br />
Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br />
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==='''Key words:'''===<br />
Nida, Cartford, equivalence theory, Linguistic theories<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br />
<br />
==='''摘要：'''===<br />
摘要：奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词：'''===<br />
<br />
奈达，卡特福德，对等理论，语言学理论<br />
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==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
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===='''1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence'''====<br />
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Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors. By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br />
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===='''1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence'''====<br />
Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br />
<br />
==='''2.Similarities and Differences'''===<br />
<br />
===='''2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories'''====<br />
As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br />
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====='''2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories'''=====<br />
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Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br />
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Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br />
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====='''2.1.2.The Approach to Achieve Equivalence'''=====<br />
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The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.<br />
His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br />
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The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br />
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===='''2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories'''====<br />
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Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers. Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages. By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence. And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br />
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====='''2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence'''=====<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that which focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br />
<br />
Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br />
<br />
<br />
====='''2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence'''=====<br />
<br />
Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence. These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text. By this dynamic equivalence theory Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation. Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br />
<br />
In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br />
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====='''2.2.3.Different Research Approach''' =====<br />
<br />
To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language. So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices. In another aspect, Nida held a view that "meaning is universal" and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br />
<br />
By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br />
<br />
==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao==<br />
<br />
==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br />
<br />
===关键词=== <br />
尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of "dynamic equivalence", and Bassnett proposed the concept of "cultural equivalence". Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of "equivalence" or "equivalence" in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br />
<br />
==='''Key Words'''=== <br />
Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek "Bible New Testament" studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society. In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is "Toward a Science of Translation" "The Theory and Practice of translation" etc. His "dynamic equivalence" translation theory and "reader's response theory" translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br />
Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of "cultural equivalence" and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br />
Nida's "dynamic equivalence" and Bassnett's "cultural equivalence" theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the "similarities" and "differences" of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br />
<br />
===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br />
Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br />
Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values embodied in translated texts.<br />
<br />
===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br />
Nida's "dynamic equivalence" translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research. In the 1950s, since Nida served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Society for several years, Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the actual work of "Bible" translation. Since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the dynamic equivalent translation theory in translation projects organized by the American Bible Society (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br />
<br />
===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br />
As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to "Translation, History and Culure" (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that "Culural lurn" (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br />
Bassnett believes that the linguistic school of translation faces the following problems: The method of machine translation is an effective method, but it is not suitable for literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett pointed out that the research method of translation should undergo an cultural turn (eulturalturn). She believes that translators must perform translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators must not conduct translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett’s cultural translation view is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, it is rooted in and influenced by the culture of the language.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及“信达雅”的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br />
<br />
===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br />
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Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances (Vermeer, Hans J.1987a). <br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br />
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The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br />
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(1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br />
<br />
The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.<br />
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(2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br />
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Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.<br />
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(3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br />
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Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translational action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. <br />
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=====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br />
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There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br />
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“The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’ (Vermeer), which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina & Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation (Christiane Nord, 1997). The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. <br />
Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz, 1995). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. <br />
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The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. It means the skopos of target text should share identical views with the intention of original author. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose.<br />
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These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br />
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Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including ''Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays''. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.<br />
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=====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br />
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(1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br />
<br />
The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in ''The Dhammapada sequence'' （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. The Biography of Yan Fu made a description that Yan Fu was stimulated by the utter failure of the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895 and then started to translate foreign works. The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into ''Yiliyan'' （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” In addition, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br />
<br />
(2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br />
<br />
Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main direction of this evolution.<br />
The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of this translation standard. While there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory. Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.<br />
Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made.<br />
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=====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br />
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Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor. There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. <br />
“Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”. In his translation, he regarded ancient Chinesean old language as a way of elegant expression. <br />
<br />
These three standards are integrated, but there is also differentiation between priority and others. In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and “Expressiveness” is the aim of translation. <br />
<br />
===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br />
<br />
====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br />
<br />
=====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br />
<br />
The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory. Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that the translator should respect both the original author and the reader in the translation process. The principle of translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work in the intion and in the relationship among the author of the original text, the person who initiated the translation, and the reader of the translated work. In other words, the translator is responsible not only to the reader but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. The fidelity rule in Skopos theory emphasizes being faithful to the original text. The degree and form of fidelity depends on the requirements of the purpose of the translation. In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text, including the full text, according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties.<br />
<br />
This coincides with Yan Fu's "Faithfulness". Because"faith" emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And "Faithfulness" is the premise and foundation of translation. In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. The translator acts as a bridge between the original text and the translated text.<br />
If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of "Faithfulness", as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of the original text.<br />
<br />
=====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br />
<br />
The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of the reader's receptivity and comprehension, so that the receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. Nord suggests that a translation work is meaningful only if it is understood by the recipients. Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, the translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that the reader can have a better understanding of the translation. <br />
<br />
This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, ''Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli'' : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, the translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br />
<br />
=====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br />
<br />
The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and "one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation". In his view, translation is "the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers. <br />
<br />
While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for the old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 Different Theory Systems=====<br />
<br />
Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture. It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules. In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action. Besides, there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to the translator the standards and principles that they should follow.<br />
<br />
But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that "Faithfulness" refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. In addition, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br />
<br />
Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the "faithfulness principle" as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. "Skopos" usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, "the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers". Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.<br />
<br />
In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated, with no clear distinction of priority. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is only abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. In addition, it is limited in translating literary works.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br />
<br />
For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of the translator and frees the translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) the translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten the reader), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He play a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, the translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity.<br />
<br />
However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of the translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to the readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of the translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br />
<br />
===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 06:53, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
='''Art of Translation'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Art and Science of Translation --Take the Literary Translation as an Example 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br />
<br />
--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 11:50, 8 December 2020 (UTC)==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 Liu Ou==<br />
<br />
Abstract<br />
<br />
Key words<br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
关键词<br />
<br />
2.1 The Abundant Resource of Hunan Scenic Spots <br />
<br />
2.2 The Meaning of View of Culture Translation<br />
<br />
2.3 The Existing English Translated Versions of Hunan Scenic Spots<br />
<br />
2.4 The Strategy of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation<br />
<br />
Conclusion<br />
<br />
Reference<br />
<br />
==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br />
<br />
==The Visible Images and Invisible Hands: An Analysis of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility 祝美梅 Zhu Meimei student no. 202070080632== <br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
This thesis tries to explain the visible images and invisible hands in the process of translation based on Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility. The inferior status of translation and improper techniques have rendered translators “invisible” in the past, however the improvement of the translator's status and the “cultural turn” in Translation Studies, have both served to make translators more “visible”. Thus the translator's subjectivity has received increasing recognition and status. Nonetheless, as a key point in translation studies, the translator's subjectivity should not be confined to the change from “invisibility” to “visibility”, but should be studied in all respects, and the challenges being faced should also be identified and dealt with.<br />
<br />
==='''Key Words'''===<br />
<br />
invisibility; visibility; Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory; Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility; the translator's subjectivity<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
论文基于勒弗菲尔韦努蒂提出的术语translator’s invisibility解读,翻译地位的提高以及翻译研究的"文化转向",促使译者"显形",译者主体性也随之受到重视;但值得注意的是,在当今崭新的翻译时代背景下,各种翻译技术的发展导致译者"忘形",从而使译者主体性面临挑战。译者主体性作为翻译研究的重点,不应拘泥于由忽视到重视的转变,而应以全面地眼光,发现并正视其现在所面临的挑战。 <br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
隐形；显形；劳伦斯韦努蒂；操纵理论；勒菲弗尔的操纵理论；韦努蒂《译者的隐形》<br />
<br />
==='''1. Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
====''''1.1 Introduction of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory '''===<br />
<br />
====''''1.2 Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility '''====<br />
<br />
==='''2. Study on the translator's subjectivity'''===<br />
<br />
===='''2.1 The Translator's Invisibility '''====<br />
<br />
===='''2.2 Culture Turn: The Translator Change from Invisibility to invisibility'''====<br />
<br />
===='''2.3 The Translator's visibility '''====<br />
<br />
==='''3. Factors Influencing translator's subjectivity'''===<br />
<br />
===='''3.1 Interior Factors'''====<br />
<br />
===='''3.2 External Factors'''====<br />
<br />
In the early 1990s, Lefevere, a representative of the cultural school of translation studies and a well-known translation theorist, elaborated Manipulation Theory is his book Translation, rewriting and the Manipulation Literary Fame, in which he said: Translation is, of course, a rewriting of an original text. All rewritings, whatever their intention, reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and as such manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society. <br />
Lefevere, defines translation as a form of rewriting, thus treating translation as a form of creating another text image, just like literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, fiction, falsification of anthologies and reader’s guides. But it doesn’t mean that translation is rewriting. Lefevere thinks rewriting includes some other forms, for example, historiography, anthology,, criticism and editing. He ven emphasized that translation creates the literary and cultural image of the original text, the original author, and the original text. All rewriting, regardless of its intention, reflects a certain ideology and poetics. Therefore, translation is actually the manipulation of the translator to the text, which makes literature work with a certain way in a particular society. In any case, the understanding of translation as rewriting or manipulation of the original text deepens people’s understanding of translation to a great extent. <br />
In Lefevere’s view, there are three elements influencing the function of translation. The first one is professionals within the literary system, including critics, reviewers, teachers and translators who will affect the acceptance of translated works; the second is patronage outside of that system. Patronage here can be seen as the powers that can further or hinder the reading, writing, and rewriting of literature, and the third is the dominant poetics. <br />
Lefevere’s translation theory represents an important turning point in the history of translation study. He developed Zohar’s poly-system theory. And he studies translation in cultural approach. <br />
Before the “cultural turn”, translation was seen almost as an exclusively linguistic process, in which the translator was required to find the TL equivalent for a SL expression and which was not influenced by any other factors than linguistic ones. But in fact, Lefevere’s translation theory could instruct translation activities in many cases. Based on the understanding of three control factors, the translator will solve problems encountered in the process of translation, exploring changes of translation strategies under various factors, mainly including ideology, poetics and patronages, which will be introduced in the next chapter. <br />
<br />
Three control factors <br />
Lefevere points that all literature works should be placed in a certain social and cultural environment. Thus its meaning and value is influenced by these factors. The audience’s apprehension of the work also differs for these factors. He emphasizes three factors manipulating translation: ideology, poetic and patronage.<br />
Introduction of poetics <br />
According to Lefevere, a poetics includes two components. One is the literary method which consists of literary genres, prototypical characters and situations, motifs, symbols. The other is the concept of the literature function. <br />
As a theory about the study of poetry and their skills, poetics is also a theory of literature and art. After choosing some types of practice at a certain period, while excluding others, the poetics is codified. Then it will have tremendous influence on the further development of the literary system. Lefevere holds that the translation methods adopted by the translators are carried out under the guidance of certain strategies of certain poetic factors. It exerts on the choices of words, sentecnes, even the style and translation strategies of the whole article. Translation has greatly influenced the exchange of different literary systems, not only in introducing new literary methods into a certain poetics, but also in whether the image of a writer or a work can be successfully introduced into another literary system. In Lefevere’s view, as the manipulatin of a translator, rewriting should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence, because translators are bound to be influenced and constrained by different social and cultural factors in the process of translation. <br />
Rewriting under the guidance of poetics is an important part of the cultural system in which the rewriters produce works. Rewriters often adjust the original works to a certain extent to be in line with the dominant ideology and poetics of the period in which the rewriters lived, and to make the rewritten works accepted by as many audiences as possible. In order to adapt some famous works to the cultural background of various society and history, they have also been rewritten to varying degrees. As is mentioned above, works of the dominant poetics is what people called classics for future writers to follow. But “a poetics, any poetics, is a historical variable: it is not absolute.” For instance, poetics today differs from the dominant poetics of the Tang dynasty. In cater to the change of the dominant poetics, these canonized works will be adapted o rewritten. This is why some classical Greek works still have an impact on Western literature. Translators pay more and more attention on the poetic factors in translation, further developing translation theory. Poetics solve the problem of what literature should or can be, and deciding the role and influence of translation in the society to some extent. In the process of translation, emphasizing more on meaning and lesson poetic factors and literary component will make the poetic aesthetic sense of the original work disappear. <br />
Lefevere also points that any poetics transcend language, ethnic and political entities which is demonstrated by listing Multilanguage regions or various forms of social and political organizations in Africa share a common poetics. In his eyes, the poetics will not be adapted to any language, but the dominant poetics is dominated by the ideology. <br />
Introduction of ideology<br />
<br />
==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan==<br />
<br />
==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br />
==Translation Manipulated by Ideology 李泳珊 Li Yongshan==<br />
==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou==</div>Hu Huifanghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=109007History of Translation Studies 92020-12-09T03:03:36Z<p>Hu Huifang: /* Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
<br />
='''Comparative Studies'''=<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Bibliography'''===<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang==<br />
<br />
==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br />
关键词：生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
''The Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. <br />
Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China. As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials.<br />
In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. So, the Chinese-English translation is of great significance. And in recent years, the domestic scholars attach great importance to the translation of political words. Therefore, it has important functions and research values to study on the Chinese-English translation of Government Work Report from the prospective of eco-translatology.<br />
Cheng Zhenqiu(2003）reposed that the translation of political articles should focus on politics. Huang Youyi(2004) proposed The Three Principles of External Publicity Translation. Tong Xiaohua (2014) explores the English translation of the Government Work Report from different perspectives. Wang Gangyi（2014）also pointed out that the former absolute loyalty to the translation of political texts can no longer satisfy the changing society and readers. Linguistics emphasizes the equivalence of texts from different aspects, which is of great guiding significance for texts like the Government Work Report that emphasizes fidelity. Under the guidance of Nida's functional equivalence theory, Zhou Ji studied the economic and political terms in the report at the lexical and textual levels. In 2001, Joan Pinkham (2000:1) published a book and it is The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, in which it explores the Chinglish in political publicity from the angle of lexis and syntax. In her book, she suggested that translators should not only understand the subtle connotations of words and sentences clearly and use more idioms to express the meanings of the source text, but also pay special attention to the tone and short sentences of Chinese, and avoid the use of outdated, rigid terms, slang and colloquialisms. Compared with domestic studies, the number of relevant studies abroad is very small, and there are almost no relevant translation studies. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that foreign countries are more interested in the content of the report, that is, to describe the national policies, culture and social issues. <br />
This thesis focuses on translation of political publicity from the perspective of eco-translatology in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology. <br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction of Government Work Report'''===<br />
<br />
Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.<br />
===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br />
For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.<br />
====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br />
The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. <br />
====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br />
As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.<br />
====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br />
The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.<br />
===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br />
In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. <br />
Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br />
It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br />
===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br />
In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.<br />
====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br />
Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br />
Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) [1]<br />
“获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) [1]<br />
“增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) [1]'''=====<br />
Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br />
Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )[1]<br />
“在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)[1]<br />
“放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)[1] <br />
<br />
==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br />
===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br />
Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br />
====='''2.1.1 Previous Studies on Eco-translatology '''=====<br />
As a translation theory originated in China, eco-translatology has been gradually improved in the past two decades. In 2001, professor Hu Gengshen laid the foundation for the theory of adaptation and selection of translation. Since then, the first decade has been the period of constructing and expanding the theoretical framework. In the second decade, with the holding of the international symposium on eco-translatology and the practice of the theory of eco-translatology of the professors of various universities, the eco-translatology system has gradually become mature. Liu Yafeng wrote adaptation and selection of translators -- a study on the translation process of external publicity, pointing out that translators should play their role of “selection” and “adaptation” as the center in the translation process of external publicity, so as to realize the harmony and unity of the whole translation ecological environment. For three-dimensional adaptation and selection principles, Zhou Li wrote the multi-dimensional integration principle under the care of the political party and government discourse translation to demonstrate the dimensions of language, culture, and communication in the perspective of the Chinese party guiding significance of discourse translation. It further enlightens the translator for the use of a multi-dimensional integration technique and set up a bridge of communication between the original language and target language.<br />
====='''2.1.2 Application of Eco-translatology '''=====<br />
There are many types of text analysis related to eco-translatology. Specifically, it includes: first, the analysis of various classical translations, such as a dream of red mansions, etc. Scholars have analyzed the reasons for the success of these classic works from the perspective of the overall translation ecological environment and the principle of “three-dimensional” transformation, pointing out that translators can only translate good works if they adapt to the translation ecological environment. These analysis has been the focus of research, and can best prove the feasibility of the theory. Secondly, the text analysis of public signs points out the direction from a new perspective. Thirdly, the text analysis of film title and subtitle. Fourthly, the text analysis of news translation. Scholars have analyzed the phenomenon of news text translation from different perspectives of eco-translatology and provided theoretical guidance.<br />
===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br />
====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br />
The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”[2]. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.[2]<br />
====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br />
Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.<br />
Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.<br />
Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.<br />
In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br />
<br />
==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br />
From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br />
===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br />
The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br />
Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br />
“大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br />
Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br />
In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br />
Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br />
The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br />
===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br />
The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br />
Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br />
It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br />
Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br />
In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br />
Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br />
“筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br />
===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br />
From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br />
Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br />
For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br />
“保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br />
Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br />
In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br />
In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br />
Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br />
First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br />
However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br />
<br />
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Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br />
Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 1999. <br />
Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003 (4): 283-291.<br />
Joan Pinkham. The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br />
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方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br />
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==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603==<br />
<center>欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling </center><br />
==='''Abstract:'''===<br />
Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words:'''===<br />
Nida, Cartford, equivalence theory, Linguistic theories<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br />
<br />
==='''摘要：'''===<br />
摘要：奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词：'''===<br />
<br />
奈达，卡特福德，对等理论，语言学理论<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
===='''1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence'''====<br />
<br />
Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors. By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br />
<br />
===='''1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence'''====<br />
Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br />
<br />
==='''2.Similarities and Differences'''===<br />
<br />
===='''2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories'''====<br />
As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br />
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====='''2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories'''=====<br />
<br />
Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br />
<br />
Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br />
<br />
====='''2.1.2.The Approach to Achieve Equivalence'''=====<br />
<br />
The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.<br />
His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br />
<br />
The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br />
<br />
===='''2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories'''====<br />
<br />
Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers. Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages. By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence. And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br />
<br />
====='''2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence'''=====<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that which focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br />
<br />
Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br />
<br />
<br />
====='''2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence'''=====<br />
<br />
Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence. These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text. By this dynamic equivalence theory Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation. Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br />
<br />
In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br />
<br />
====='''2.2.3.Different Research Approach''' =====<br />
<br />
To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language. So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices. In another aspect, Nida held a view that "meaning is universal" and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br />
<br />
By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br />
<br />
==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao==<br />
<br />
==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br />
<br />
===关键词=== <br />
尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of "dynamic equivalence", and Bassnett proposed the concept of "cultural equivalence". Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of "equivalence" or "equivalence" in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br />
<br />
==='''Key Words'''=== <br />
Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek "Bible New Testament" studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society. In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is "Toward a Science of Translation" "The Theory and Practice of translation" etc. His "dynamic equivalence" translation theory and "reader's response theory" translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br />
Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of "cultural equivalence" and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br />
Nida's "dynamic equivalence" and Bassnett's "cultural equivalence" theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the "similarities" and "differences" of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及“信达雅”的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
<br />
Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br />
<br />
===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br />
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Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances (Vermeer, Hans J.1987a). <br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br />
<br />
The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br />
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(1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br />
<br />
The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.<br />
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(2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br />
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Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.<br />
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(3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br />
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Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translational action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. <br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br />
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There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br />
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“The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’ (Vermeer), which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina & Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation (Christiane Nord, 1997). The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. <br />
Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz, 1995). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. <br />
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The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. It means the skopos of target text should share identical views with the intention of original author. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose.<br />
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These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br />
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Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including ''Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays''. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br />
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(1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br />
<br />
The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in ''The Dhammapada sequence'' （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. The Biography of Yan Fu made a description that Yan Fu was stimulated by the utter failure of the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895 and then started to translate foreign works. The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into ''Yiliyan'' （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” In addition, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br />
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(2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br />
<br />
Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main direction of this evolution.<br />
The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of this translation standard. While there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory. Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.<br />
Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br />
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Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor. There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. <br />
“Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”. In his translation, he regarded ancient Chinesean old language as a way of elegant expression. <br />
<br />
These three standards are integrated, but there is also differentiation between priority and others. In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and “Expressiveness” is the aim of translation. <br />
<br />
===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br />
<br />
====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br />
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=====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br />
<br />
The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory. Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that the translator should respect both the original author and the reader in the translation process. The principle of translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work in the intion and in the relationship among the author of the original text, the person who initiated the translation, and the reader of the translated work. In other words, the translator is responsible not only to the reader but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. The fidelity rule in Skopos theory emphasizes being faithful to the original text. The degree and form of fidelity depends on the requirements of the purpose of the translation. In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text, including the full text, according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties.<br />
<br />
This coincides with Yan Fu's "Faithfulness". Because"faith" emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And "Faithfulness" is the premise and foundation of translation. In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. The translator acts as a bridge between the original text and the translated text.<br />
If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of "Faithfulness", as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of the original text.<br />
<br />
=====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br />
<br />
The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of the reader's receptivity and comprehension, so that the receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. Nord suggests that a translation work is meaningful only if it is understood by the recipients. Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, the translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that the reader can have a better understanding of the translation. <br />
<br />
This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, ''Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli'' : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, the translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br />
<br />
=====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br />
<br />
The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and "one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation". In his view, translation is "the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers. <br />
<br />
While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for the old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 Different Theory Systems=====<br />
<br />
Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture. It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules. In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action. Besides, there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to the translator the standards and principles that they should follow.<br />
<br />
But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that "Faithfulness" refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. In addition, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br />
<br />
Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the "faithfulness principle" as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. "Skopos" usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, "the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers". Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.<br />
<br />
In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated, with no clear distinction of priority. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is only abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. In addition, it is limited in translating literary works.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br />
<br />
For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of the translator and frees the translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) the translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten the reader), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He play a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, the translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity.<br />
<br />
However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of the translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to the readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of the translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br />
<br />
===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 06:53, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
='''Art of Translation'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Art and Science of Translation --Take the Literary Translation as an Example 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br />
<br />
--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 11:50, 8 December 2020 (UTC)==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 Liu Ou==<br />
<br />
Abstract<br />
<br />
Key words<br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
关键词<br />
<br />
2.1 The Abundant Resource of Hunan Scenic Spots <br />
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2.2 The Meaning of View of Culture Translation<br />
<br />
2.3 The Existing English Translated Versions of Hunan Scenic Spots<br />
<br />
2.4 The Strategy of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation<br />
<br />
Conclusion<br />
<br />
Reference<br />
<br />
==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br />
<br />
==The Visible Images and Invisible Hands: An Analysis of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility 祝美梅 Zhu Meimei student no. 202070080632== <br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
This thesis tries to explain the visible images and invisible hands in the process of translation based on Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility. The inferior status of translation and improper techniques have rendered translators “invisible” in the past, however the improvement of the translator's status and the “cultural turn” in Translation Studies, have both served to make translators more “visible”. Thus the translator's subjectivity has received increasing recognition and status. Nonetheless, as a key point in translation studies, the translator's subjectivity should not be confined to the change from “invisibility” to “visibility”, but should be studied in all respects, and the challenges being faced should also be identified and dealt with.<br />
<br />
==='''Key Words'''===<br />
<br />
invisibility; visibility; Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory; Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility; the translator's subjectivity<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
论文基于勒弗菲尔韦努蒂提出的术语translator’s invisibility解读,翻译地位的提高以及翻译研究的"文化转向",促使译者"显形",译者主体性也随之受到重视;但值得注意的是,在当今崭新的翻译时代背景下,各种翻译技术的发展导致译者"忘形",从而使译者主体性面临挑战。译者主体性作为翻译研究的重点,不应拘泥于由忽视到重视的转变,而应以全面地眼光,发现并正视其现在所面临的挑战。 <br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
隐形；显形；劳伦斯韦努蒂；操纵理论；勒菲弗尔的操纵理论；韦努蒂《译者的隐形》<br />
<br />
==='''1. Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
====''''1.1 Introduction of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory '''===<br />
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====''''1.2 Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility '''====<br />
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==='''2. Study on the translator's subjectivity'''===<br />
<br />
===='''2.1 The Translator's Invisibility '''====<br />
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===='''2.2 Culture Turn: The Translator Change from Invisibility to invisibility'''====<br />
<br />
===='''2.3 The Translator's visibility '''====<br />
<br />
==='''3. Factors Influencing translator's subjectivity'''===<br />
<br />
===='''3.1 Interior Factors'''====<br />
<br />
===='''3.2 External Factors'''====<br />
<br />
In the early 1990s, Lefevere, a representative of the cultural school of translation studies and a well-known translation theorist, elaborated Manipulation Theory is his book Translation, rewriting and the Manipulation Literary Fame, in which he said: Translation is, of course, a rewriting of an original text. All rewritings, whatever their intention, reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and as such manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society. <br />
Lefevere, defines translation as a form of rewriting, thus treating translation as a form of creating another text image, just like literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, fiction, falsification of anthologies and reader’s guides. But it doesn’t mean that translation is rewriting. Lefevere thinks rewriting includes some other forms, for example, historiography, anthology,, criticism and editing. He ven emphasized that translation creates the literary and cultural image of the original text, the original author, and the original text. All rewriting, regardless of its intention, reflects a certain ideology and poetics. Therefore, translation is actually the manipulation of the translator to the text, which makes literature work with a certain way in a particular society. In any case, the understanding of translation as rewriting or manipulation of the original text deepens people’s understanding of translation to a great extent. <br />
In Lefevere’s view, there are three elements influencing the function of translation. The first one is professionals within the literary system, including critics, reviewers, teachers and translators who will affect the acceptance of translated works; the second is patronage outside of that system. Patronage here can be seen as the powers that can further or hinder the reading, writing, and rewriting of literature, and the third is the dominant poetics. <br />
Lefevere’s translation theory represents an important turning point in the history of translation study. He developed Zohar’s poly-system theory. And he studies translation in cultural approach. <br />
Before the “cultural turn”, translation was seen almost as an exclusively linguistic process, in which the translator was required to find the TL equivalent for a SL expression and which was not influenced by any other factors than linguistic ones. But in fact, Lefevere’s translation theory could instruct translation activities in many cases. Based on the understanding of three control factors, the translator will solve problems encountered in the process of translation, exploring changes of translation strategies under various factors, mainly including ideology, poetics and patronages, which will be introduced in the next chapter. <br />
<br />
Three control factors <br />
Lefevere points that all literature works should be placed in a certain social and cultural environment. Thus its meaning and value is influenced by these factors. The audience’s apprehension of the work also differs for these factors. He emphasizes three factors manipulating translation: ideology, poetic and patronage.<br />
Introduction of poetics <br />
According to Lefevere, a poetics includes two components. One is the literary method which consists of literary genres, prototypical characters and situations, motifs, symbols. The other is the concept of the literature function. <br />
As a theory about the study of poetry and their skills, poetics is also a theory of literature and art. After choosing some types of practice at a certain period, while excluding others, the poetics is codified. Then it will have tremendous influence on the further development of the literary system. Lefevere holds that the translation methods adopted by the translators are carried out under the guidance of certain strategies of certain poetic factors. It exerts on the choices of words, sentecnes, even the style and translation strategies of the whole article. Translation has greatly influenced the exchange of different literary systems, not only in introducing new literary methods into a certain poetics, but also in whether the image of a writer or a work can be successfully introduced into another literary system. In Lefevere’s view, as the manipulatin of a translator, rewriting should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence, because translators are bound to be influenced and constrained by different social and cultural factors in the process of translation. <br />
Rewriting under the guidance of poetics is an important part of the cultural system in which the rewriters produce works. Rewriters often adjust the original works to a certain extent to be in line with the dominant ideology and poetics of the period in which the rewriters lived, and to make the rewritten works accepted by as many audiences as possible. In order to adapt some famous works to the cultural background of various society and history, they have also been rewritten to varying degrees. As is mentioned above, works of the dominant poetics is what people called classics for future writers to follow. But “a poetics, any poetics, is a historical variable: it is not absolute.” For instance, poetics today differs from the dominant poetics of the Tang dynasty. In cater to the change of the dominant poetics, these canonized works will be adapted o rewritten. This is why some classical Greek works still have an impact on Western literature. Translators pay more and more attention on the poetic factors in translation, further developing translation theory. Poetics solve the problem of what literature should or can be, and deciding the role and influence of translation in the society to some extent. In the process of translation, emphasizing more on meaning and lesson poetic factors and literary component will make the poetic aesthetic sense of the original work disappear. <br />
Lefevere also points that any poetics transcend language, ethnic and political entities which is demonstrated by listing Multilanguage regions or various forms of social and political organizations in Africa share a common poetics. In his eyes, the poetics will not be adapted to any language, but the dominant poetics is dominated by the ideology. <br />
Introduction of ideology<br />
<br />
==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan==<br />
<br />
==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br />
==Translation Manipulated by Ideology 李泳珊 Li Yongshan==<br />
==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou==</div>Hu Huifanghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=109004History of Translation Studies 92020-12-09T03:01:19Z<p>Hu Huifang: /* Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
<br />
='''Comparative Studies'''=<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Bibliography'''===<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang==<br />
<br />
==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br />
关键词：生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
''The Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. <br />
Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China. As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials.<br />
In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. So, the Chinese-English translation is of great significance. And in recent years, the domestic scholars attach great importance to the translation of political words. Therefore, it has important functions and research values to study on the Chinese-English translation of Government Work Report from the prospective of eco-translatology.<br />
Cheng Zhenqiu(2003）reposed that the translation of political articles should focus on politics. Huang Youyi(2004) proposed The Three Principles of External Publicity Translation. Tong Xiaohua (2014) explores the English translation of the Government Work Report from different perspectives. Wang Gangyi（2014）also pointed out that the former absolute loyalty to the translation of political texts can no longer satisfy the changing society and readers. Linguistics emphasizes the equivalence of texts from different aspects, which is of great guiding significance for texts like the Government Work Report that emphasizes fidelity. Under the guidance of Nida's functional equivalence theory, Zhou Ji studied the economic and political terms in the report at the lexical and textual levels. In 2001, Joan Pinkham (2000:1) published a book and it is The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, in which it explores the Chinglish in political publicity from the angle of lexis and syntax. In her book, she suggested that translators should not only understand the subtle connotations of words and sentences clearly and use more idioms to express the meanings of the source text, but also pay special attention to the tone and short sentences of Chinese, and avoid the use of outdated, rigid terms, slang and colloquialisms. Compared with domestic studies, the number of relevant studies abroad is very small, and there are almost no relevant translation studies. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that foreign countries are more interested in the content of the report, that is, to describe the national policies, culture and social issues. <br />
This thesis focuses on translation of political publicity from the perspective of eco-translatology in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology. <br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction of Government Work Report'''===<br />
<br />
Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.<br />
===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br />
For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.<br />
====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br />
The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. <br />
====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br />
As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.<br />
====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br />
The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.<br />
===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br />
In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. <br />
Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br />
It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br />
===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br />
In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.<br />
====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br />
Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br />
Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) [1]<br />
“获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) [1]<br />
“增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) [1]'''=====<br />
Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br />
Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )[1]<br />
“在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)[1]<br />
“放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)[1] <br />
<br />
==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br />
===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br />
Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br />
====='''2.1.1 Previous Studies on Eco-translatology '''=====<br />
As a translation theory originated in China, eco-translatology has been gradually improved in the past two decades. In 2001, professor Hu Gengshen laid the foundation for the theory of adaptation and selection of translation. Since then, the first decade has been the period of constructing and expanding the theoretical framework. In the second decade, with the holding of the international symposium on eco-translatology and the practice of the theory of eco-translatology of the professors of various universities, the eco-translatology system has gradually become mature. Liu Yafeng wrote adaptation and selection of translators -- a study on the translation process of external publicity, pointing out that translators should play their role of “selection” and “adaptation” as the center in the translation process of external publicity, so as to realize the harmony and unity of the whole translation ecological environment. For three-dimensional adaptation and selection principles, Zhou Li wrote the multi-dimensional integration principle under the care of the political party and government discourse translation to demonstrate the dimensions of language, culture, and communication in the perspective of the Chinese party guiding significance of discourse translation. It further enlightens the translator for the use of a multi-dimensional integration technique and set up a bridge of communication between the original language and target language.<br />
====='''2.1.2 Application of Eco-translatology '''=====<br />
There are many types of text analysis related to eco-translatology. Specifically, it includes: first, the analysis of various classical translations, such as a dream of red mansions, etc. Scholars have analyzed the reasons for the success of these classic works from the perspective of the overall translation ecological environment and the principle of “three-dimensional” transformation, pointing out that translators can only translate good works if they adapt to the translation ecological environment. These analysis has been the focus of research, and can best prove the feasibility of the theory. Secondly, the text analysis of public signs points out the direction from a new perspective. Thirdly, the text analysis of film title and subtitle. Fourthly, the text analysis of news translation. Scholars have analyzed the phenomenon of news text translation from different perspectives of eco-translatology and provided theoretical guidance.<br />
===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br />
====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br />
The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”[2]. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.[2]<br />
====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br />
Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.<br />
Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.<br />
Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.<br />
In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br />
<br />
==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br />
From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br />
===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br />
The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br />
Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br />
“大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br />
Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br />
In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br />
Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br />
The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br />
===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br />
The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br />
Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br />
It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br />
Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br />
In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br />
Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br />
“筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br />
===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br />
From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br />
Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br />
For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br />
“保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br />
Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br />
In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br />
In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br />
Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br />
First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br />
However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br />
<br />
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Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003 (4): 283-291.<br />
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==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603==<br />
<center>欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling </center><br />
==='''Abstract:'''===<br />
Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words:'''===<br />
Nida, Cartford, equivalence theory, Linguistic theories<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br />
<br />
==='''摘要：'''===<br />
摘要：奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词：'''===<br />
<br />
奈达，卡特福德，对等理论，语言学理论<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
===='''1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence'''====<br />
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Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors. By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br />
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===='''1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence'''====<br />
Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br />
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==='''2.Similarities and Differences'''===<br />
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===='''2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories'''====<br />
As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br />
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====='''2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories'''=====<br />
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Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br />
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Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br />
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====='''2.1.2.The Approach to Achieve Equivalence'''=====<br />
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The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.<br />
His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br />
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The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br />
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===='''2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories'''====<br />
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Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers. Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages. By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence. And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br />
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====='''2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence'''=====<br />
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Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that which focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br />
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Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br />
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====='''2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence'''=====<br />
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Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence. These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text. By this dynamic equivalence theory Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation. Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br />
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In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br />
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====='''2.2.3.Different Research Approach''' =====<br />
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To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language. So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices. In another aspect, Nida held a view that "meaning is universal" and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br />
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By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br />
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==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao==<br />
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==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br />
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===摘要===<br />
尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of "dynamic equivalence", and Bassnett proposed the concept of "cultural equivalence". Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of "equivalence" or "equivalence" in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br />
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==='''Key Words'''=== <br />
Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek "Bible New Testament" studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society. In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is "Toward a Science of Translation" "The Theory and Practice of translation" etc. His "dynamic equivalence" translation theory and "reader's response theory" translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br />
Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of "cultural equivalence" and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br />
Nida's "dynamic equivalence" and Bassnett's "cultural equivalence" theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the "similarities" and "differences" of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br />
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==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
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Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及“信达雅”的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
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Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br />
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===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br />
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====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br />
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Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances (Vermeer, Hans J.1987a). <br />
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=====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br />
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The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br />
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(1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br />
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The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.<br />
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(2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br />
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Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.<br />
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(3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br />
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Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translational action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. <br />
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=====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br />
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There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br />
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“The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’ (Vermeer), which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina & Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation (Christiane Nord, 1997). The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. <br />
Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz, 1995). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. <br />
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The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. It means the skopos of target text should share identical views with the intention of original author. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose.<br />
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These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br />
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====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br />
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Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including ''Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays''. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.<br />
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=====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br />
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(1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br />
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The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in ''The Dhammapada sequence'' （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. The Biography of Yan Fu made a description that Yan Fu was stimulated by the utter failure of the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895 and then started to translate foreign works. The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into ''Yiliyan'' （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” In addition, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br />
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(2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br />
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Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main direction of this evolution.<br />
The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of this translation standard. While there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory. Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.<br />
Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made.<br />
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=====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br />
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Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor. There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. <br />
“Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”. In his translation, he regarded ancient Chinesean old language as a way of elegant expression. <br />
<br />
These three standards are integrated, but there is also differentiation between priority and others. In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and “Expressiveness” is the aim of translation. <br />
<br />
===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br />
<br />
====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br />
<br />
=====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br />
<br />
The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory. Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that the translator should respect both the original author and the reader in the translation process. The principle of translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work in the intion and in the relationship among the author of the original text, the person who initiated the translation, and the reader of the translated work. In other words, the translator is responsible not only to the reader but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. The fidelity rule in Skopos theory emphasizes being faithful to the original text. The degree and form of fidelity depends on the requirements of the purpose of the translation. In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text, including the full text, according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties.<br />
<br />
This coincides with Yan Fu's "Faithfulness". Because"faith" emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And "Faithfulness" is the premise and foundation of translation. In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. The translator acts as a bridge between the original text and the translated text.<br />
If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of "Faithfulness", as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of the original text.<br />
<br />
=====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br />
<br />
The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of the reader's receptivity and comprehension, so that the receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. Nord suggests that a translation work is meaningful only if it is understood by the recipients. Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, the translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that the reader can have a better understanding of the translation. <br />
<br />
This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, ''Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli'' : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, the translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br />
<br />
=====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br />
<br />
The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and "one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation". In his view, translation is "the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers. <br />
<br />
While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for the old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.1 Different Theory Systems=====<br />
<br />
Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture. It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules. In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action. Besides, there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to the translator the standards and principles that they should follow.<br />
<br />
But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that "Faithfulness" refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. In addition, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br />
<br />
Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the "faithfulness principle" as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. "Skopos" usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, "the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers". Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.<br />
<br />
In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated, with no clear distinction of priority. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is only abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. In addition, it is limited in translating literary works.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br />
<br />
For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of the translator and frees the translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) the translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten the reader), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He play a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, the translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity.<br />
<br />
However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of the translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to the readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of the translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br />
<br />
===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br />
<br />
====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
<br />
--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 06:53, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
='''Art of Translation'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Art and Science of Translation --Take the Literary Translation as an Example 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br />
<br />
--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 11:50, 8 December 2020 (UTC)==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 Liu Ou==<br />
<br />
Abstract<br />
<br />
Key words<br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
关键词<br />
<br />
2.1 The Abundant Resource of Hunan Scenic Spots <br />
<br />
2.2 The Meaning of View of Culture Translation<br />
<br />
2.3 The Existing English Translated Versions of Hunan Scenic Spots<br />
<br />
2.4 The Strategy of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation<br />
<br />
Conclusion<br />
<br />
Reference<br />
<br />
==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br />
<br />
==The Visible Images and Invisible Hands: An Analysis of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility 祝美梅 Zhu Meimei student no. 202070080632== <br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
This thesis tries to explain the visible images and invisible hands in the process of translation based on Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility. The inferior status of translation and improper techniques have rendered translators “invisible” in the past, however the improvement of the translator's status and the “cultural turn” in Translation Studies, have both served to make translators more “visible”. Thus the translator's subjectivity has received increasing recognition and status. Nonetheless, as a key point in translation studies, the translator's subjectivity should not be confined to the change from “invisibility” to “visibility”, but should be studied in all respects, and the challenges being faced should also be identified and dealt with.<br />
<br />
==='''Key Words'''===<br />
<br />
invisibility; visibility; Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory; Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility; the translator's subjectivity<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
论文基于勒弗菲尔韦努蒂提出的术语translator’s invisibility解读,翻译地位的提高以及翻译研究的"文化转向",促使译者"显形",译者主体性也随之受到重视;但值得注意的是,在当今崭新的翻译时代背景下,各种翻译技术的发展导致译者"忘形",从而使译者主体性面临挑战。译者主体性作为翻译研究的重点,不应拘泥于由忽视到重视的转变,而应以全面地眼光,发现并正视其现在所面临的挑战。 <br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
隐形；显形；劳伦斯韦努蒂；操纵理论；勒菲弗尔的操纵理论；韦努蒂《译者的隐形》<br />
<br />
==='''1. Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
====''''1.1 Introduction of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory '''===<br />
<br />
====''''1.2 Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility '''====<br />
<br />
==='''2. Study on the translator's subjectivity'''===<br />
<br />
===='''2.1 The Translator's Invisibility '''====<br />
<br />
===='''2.2 Culture Turn: The Translator Change from Invisibility to invisibility'''====<br />
<br />
===='''2.3 The Translator's visibility '''====<br />
<br />
==='''3. Factors Influencing translator's subjectivity'''===<br />
<br />
===='''3.1 Interior Factors'''====<br />
<br />
===='''3.2 External Factors'''====<br />
<br />
In the early 1990s, Lefevere, a representative of the cultural school of translation studies and a well-known translation theorist, elaborated Manipulation Theory is his book Translation, rewriting and the Manipulation Literary Fame, in which he said: Translation is, of course, a rewriting of an original text. All rewritings, whatever their intention, reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and as such manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society. <br />
Lefevere, defines translation as a form of rewriting, thus treating translation as a form of creating another text image, just like literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, fiction, falsification of anthologies and reader’s guides. But it doesn’t mean that translation is rewriting. Lefevere thinks rewriting includes some other forms, for example, historiography, anthology,, criticism and editing. He ven emphasized that translation creates the literary and cultural image of the original text, the original author, and the original text. All rewriting, regardless of its intention, reflects a certain ideology and poetics. Therefore, translation is actually the manipulation of the translator to the text, which makes literature work with a certain way in a particular society. In any case, the understanding of translation as rewriting or manipulation of the original text deepens people’s understanding of translation to a great extent. <br />
In Lefevere’s view, there are three elements influencing the function of translation. The first one is professionals within the literary system, including critics, reviewers, teachers and translators who will affect the acceptance of translated works; the second is patronage outside of that system. Patronage here can be seen as the powers that can further or hinder the reading, writing, and rewriting of literature, and the third is the dominant poetics. <br />
Lefevere’s translation theory represents an important turning point in the history of translation study. He developed Zohar’s poly-system theory. And he studies translation in cultural approach. <br />
Before the “cultural turn”, translation was seen almost as an exclusively linguistic process, in which the translator was required to find the TL equivalent for a SL expression and which was not influenced by any other factors than linguistic ones. But in fact, Lefevere’s translation theory could instruct translation activities in many cases. Based on the understanding of three control factors, the translator will solve problems encountered in the process of translation, exploring changes of translation strategies under various factors, mainly including ideology, poetics and patronages, which will be introduced in the next chapter. <br />
<br />
Three control factors <br />
Lefevere points that all literature works should be placed in a certain social and cultural environment. Thus its meaning and value is influenced by these factors. The audience’s apprehension of the work also differs for these factors. He emphasizes three factors manipulating translation: ideology, poetic and patronage.<br />
Introduction of poetics <br />
According to Lefevere, a poetics includes two components. One is the literary method which consists of literary genres, prototypical characters and situations, motifs, symbols. The other is the concept of the literature function. <br />
As a theory about the study of poetry and their skills, poetics is also a theory of literature and art. After choosing some types of practice at a certain period, while excluding others, the poetics is codified. Then it will have tremendous influence on the further development of the literary system. Lefevere holds that the translation methods adopted by the translators are carried out under the guidance of certain strategies of certain poetic factors. It exerts on the choices of words, sentecnes, even the style and translation strategies of the whole article. Translation has greatly influenced the exchange of different literary systems, not only in introducing new literary methods into a certain poetics, but also in whether the image of a writer or a work can be successfully introduced into another literary system. In Lefevere’s view, as the manipulatin of a translator, rewriting should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence, because translators are bound to be influenced and constrained by different social and cultural factors in the process of translation. <br />
Rewriting under the guidance of poetics is an important part of the cultural system in which the rewriters produce works. Rewriters often adjust the original works to a certain extent to be in line with the dominant ideology and poetics of the period in which the rewriters lived, and to make the rewritten works accepted by as many audiences as possible. In order to adapt some famous works to the cultural background of various society and history, they have also been rewritten to varying degrees. As is mentioned above, works of the dominant poetics is what people called classics for future writers to follow. But “a poetics, any poetics, is a historical variable: it is not absolute.” For instance, poetics today differs from the dominant poetics of the Tang dynasty. In cater to the change of the dominant poetics, these canonized works will be adapted o rewritten. This is why some classical Greek works still have an impact on Western literature. Translators pay more and more attention on the poetic factors in translation, further developing translation theory. Poetics solve the problem of what literature should or can be, and deciding the role and influence of translation in the society to some extent. In the process of translation, emphasizing more on meaning and lesson poetic factors and literary component will make the poetic aesthetic sense of the original work disappear. <br />
Lefevere also points that any poetics transcend language, ethnic and political entities which is demonstrated by listing Multilanguage regions or various forms of social and political organizations in Africa share a common poetics. In his eyes, the poetics will not be adapted to any language, but the dominant poetics is dominated by the ideology. <br />
Introduction of ideology<br />
<br />
==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan==<br />
<br />
==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br />
==Translation Manipulated by Ideology 李泳珊 Li Yongshan==<br />
==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou==</div>Hu Huifanghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=109003History of Translation Studies 92020-12-09T02:59:03Z<p>Hu Huifang: /* Abstract */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
<br />
='''Comparative Studies'''=<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Bibliography'''===<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang==<br />
<br />
==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br />
关键词：生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
''The Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. <br />
Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China. As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials.<br />
In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. So, the Chinese-English translation is of great significance. And in recent years, the domestic scholars attach great importance to the translation of political words. Therefore, it has important functions and research values to study on the Chinese-English translation of Government Work Report from the prospective of eco-translatology.<br />
Cheng Zhenqiu(2003）reposed that the translation of political articles should focus on politics. Huang Youyi(2004) proposed The Three Principles of External Publicity Translation. Tong Xiaohua (2014) explores the English translation of the Government Work Report from different perspectives. Wang Gangyi（2014）also pointed out that the former absolute loyalty to the translation of political texts can no longer satisfy the changing society and readers. Linguistics emphasizes the equivalence of texts from different aspects, which is of great guiding significance for texts like the Government Work Report that emphasizes fidelity. Under the guidance of Nida's functional equivalence theory, Zhou Ji studied the economic and political terms in the report at the lexical and textual levels. In 2001, Joan Pinkham (2000:1) published a book and it is The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, in which it explores the Chinglish in political publicity from the angle of lexis and syntax. In her book, she suggested that translators should not only understand the subtle connotations of words and sentences clearly and use more idioms to express the meanings of the source text, but also pay special attention to the tone and short sentences of Chinese, and avoid the use of outdated, rigid terms, slang and colloquialisms. Compared with domestic studies, the number of relevant studies abroad is very small, and there are almost no relevant translation studies. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that foreign countries are more interested in the content of the report, that is, to describe the national policies, culture and social issues. <br />
This thesis focuses on translation of political publicity from the perspective of eco-translatology in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology. <br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction of Government Work Report'''===<br />
<br />
Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.<br />
===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br />
For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.<br />
====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br />
The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. <br />
====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br />
As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.<br />
====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br />
The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.<br />
===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br />
In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. <br />
Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br />
It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br />
===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br />
In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.<br />
====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br />
Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br />
Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) [1]<br />
“获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) [1]<br />
“增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) [1]'''=====<br />
Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br />
Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )[1]<br />
“在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)[1]<br />
“放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)[1] <br />
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==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br />
<br />
Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br />
===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br />
Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br />
====='''2.1.1 Previous Studies on Eco-translatology '''=====<br />
As a translation theory originated in China, eco-translatology has been gradually improved in the past two decades. In 2001, professor Hu Gengshen laid the foundation for the theory of adaptation and selection of translation. Since then, the first decade has been the period of constructing and expanding the theoretical framework. In the second decade, with the holding of the international symposium on eco-translatology and the practice of the theory of eco-translatology of the professors of various universities, the eco-translatology system has gradually become mature. Liu Yafeng wrote adaptation and selection of translators -- a study on the translation process of external publicity, pointing out that translators should play their role of “selection” and “adaptation” as the center in the translation process of external publicity, so as to realize the harmony and unity of the whole translation ecological environment. For three-dimensional adaptation and selection principles, Zhou Li wrote the multi-dimensional integration principle under the care of the political party and government discourse translation to demonstrate the dimensions of language, culture, and communication in the perspective of the Chinese party guiding significance of discourse translation. It further enlightens the translator for the use of a multi-dimensional integration technique and set up a bridge of communication between the original language and target language.<br />
====='''2.1.2 Application of Eco-translatology '''=====<br />
There are many types of text analysis related to eco-translatology. Specifically, it includes: first, the analysis of various classical translations, such as a dream of red mansions, etc. Scholars have analyzed the reasons for the success of these classic works from the perspective of the overall translation ecological environment and the principle of “three-dimensional” transformation, pointing out that translators can only translate good works if they adapt to the translation ecological environment. These analysis has been the focus of research, and can best prove the feasibility of the theory. Secondly, the text analysis of public signs points out the direction from a new perspective. Thirdly, the text analysis of film title and subtitle. Fourthly, the text analysis of news translation. Scholars have analyzed the phenomenon of news text translation from different perspectives of eco-translatology and provided theoretical guidance.<br />
===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br />
====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br />
The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”[2]. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.[2]<br />
====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br />
Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.<br />
Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.<br />
Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.<br />
In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br />
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==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br />
From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br />
===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br />
The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br />
Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br />
“大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br />
Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br />
In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br />
Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br />
The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br />
===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br />
The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br />
Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br />
It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br />
Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br />
In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br />
Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br />
“筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br />
===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br />
From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br />
Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br />
For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br />
“保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br />
Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br />
In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br />
In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br />
Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br />
First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br />
However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br />
<br />
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==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603==<br />
<center>欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling </center><br />
==='''Abstract:'''===<br />
Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words:'''===<br />
Nida, Cartford, equivalence theory, Linguistic theories<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br />
<br />
==='''摘要：'''===<br />
摘要：奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br />
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==='''关键词：'''===<br />
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奈达，卡特福德，对等理论，语言学理论<br />
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==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
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===='''1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence'''====<br />
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Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors. By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br />
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===='''1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence'''====<br />
Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br />
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==='''2.Similarities and Differences'''===<br />
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===='''2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories'''====<br />
As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br />
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====='''2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories'''=====<br />
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Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br />
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Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br />
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====='''2.1.2.The Approach to Achieve Equivalence'''=====<br />
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The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.<br />
His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br />
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The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br />
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===='''2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories'''====<br />
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Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers. Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages. By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence. And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br />
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====='''2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence'''=====<br />
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Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that which focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br />
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Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br />
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====='''2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence'''=====<br />
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Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence. These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text. By this dynamic equivalence theory Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation. Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br />
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In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br />
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====='''2.2.3.Different Research Approach''' =====<br />
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To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language. So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices. In another aspect, Nida held a view that "meaning is universal" and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br />
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By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br />
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==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao==<br />
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==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br />
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===摘要===<br />
尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of "dynamic equivalence", and Bassnett proposed the concept of "cultural equivalence". Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of "equivalence" or "equivalence" in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br />
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==='''Key Words'''=== <br />
Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek "Bible New Testament" studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society. In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is "Toward a Science of Translation" "The Theory and Practice of translation" etc. His "dynamic equivalence" translation theory and "reader's response theory" translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br />
Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of "cultural equivalence" and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br />
Nida's "dynamic equivalence" and Bassnett's "cultural equivalence" theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the "similarities" and "differences" of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br />
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==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
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Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及“信达雅”的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
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Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br />
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===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br />
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====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br />
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Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances (Vermeer, Hans J.1987a). <br />
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=====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br />
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The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br />
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(1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br />
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The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.<br />
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(2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br />
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Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.<br />
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(3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br />
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Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translational action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. <br />
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=====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br />
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There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br />
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“The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’ (Vermeer), which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina & Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation (Christiane Nord, 1997). The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. <br />
Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz, 1995). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. <br />
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The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. It means the skopos of target text should share identical views with the intention of original author. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose.<br />
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These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br />
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====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br />
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Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including ''Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays''. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.<br />
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=====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br />
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(1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br />
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The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in ''The Dhammapada sequence'' （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. The Biography of Yan Fu made a description that Yan Fu was stimulated by the utter failure of the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895 and then started to translate foreign works. The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into ''Yiliyan'' （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” In addition, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br />
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(2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br />
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Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main direction of this evolution.<br />
The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of this translation standard. While there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory. Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.<br />
Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made.<br />
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=====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br />
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Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor. There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. <br />
“Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”. In his translation, he regarded ancient Chinesean old language as a way of elegant expression. <br />
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These three standards are integrated, but there is also differentiation between priority and others. In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and “Expressiveness” is the aim of translation. <br />
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===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br />
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====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br />
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Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br />
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=====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br />
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The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory. Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that the translator should respect both the original author and the reader in the translation process. The principle of translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work in the intion and in the relationship among the author of the original text, the person who initiated the translation, and the reader of the translated work. In other words, the translator is responsible not only to the reader but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. The fidelity rule in Skopos theory emphasizes being faithful to the original text. The degree and form of fidelity depends on the requirements of the purpose of the translation. In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text, including the full text, according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties.<br />
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This coincides with Yan Fu's "Faithfulness". Because"faith" emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And "Faithfulness" is the premise and foundation of translation. In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. The translator acts as a bridge between the original text and the translated text.<br />
If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of "Faithfulness", as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of the original text.<br />
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=====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br />
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The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of the reader's receptivity and comprehension, so that the receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. Nord suggests that a translation work is meaningful only if it is understood by the recipients. Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, the translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that the reader can have a better understanding of the translation. <br />
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This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, ''Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli'' : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, the translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br />
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=====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br />
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The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and "one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation". In his view, translation is "the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers. <br />
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While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for the old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br />
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====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br />
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Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge.<br />
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=====3.2.1 Different Theory Systems=====<br />
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Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture. It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules. In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action. Besides, there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to the translator the standards and principles that they should follow.<br />
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But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that "Faithfulness" refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. In addition, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.<br />
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Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br />
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=====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br />
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Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the "faithfulness principle" as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. "Skopos" usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, "the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers". Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.<br />
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In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated, with no clear distinction of priority. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is only abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. In addition, it is limited in translating literary works.<br />
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=====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br />
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For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of the translator and frees the translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) the translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten the reader), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He play a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, the translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity.<br />
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However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of the translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to the readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of the translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br />
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===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br />
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====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br />
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====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
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--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 06:53, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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='''Art of Translation'''=<br />
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==The Art and Science of Translation --Take the Literary Translation as an Example 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br />
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--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 11:50, 8 December 2020 (UTC)==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 Liu Ou==<br />
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Abstract<br />
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Key words<br />
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摘要<br />
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关键词<br />
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2.1 The Abundant Resource of Hunan Scenic Spots <br />
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2.2 The Meaning of View of Culture Translation<br />
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2.3 The Existing English Translated Versions of Hunan Scenic Spots<br />
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2.4 The Strategy of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation<br />
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Conclusion<br />
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Reference<br />
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==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br />
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==The Visible Images and Invisible Hands: An Analysis of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility 祝美梅 Zhu Meimei student no. 202070080632== <br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
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This thesis tries to explain the visible images and invisible hands in the process of translation based on Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility. The inferior status of translation and improper techniques have rendered translators “invisible” in the past, however the improvement of the translator's status and the “cultural turn” in Translation Studies, have both served to make translators more “visible”. Thus the translator's subjectivity has received increasing recognition and status. Nonetheless, as a key point in translation studies, the translator's subjectivity should not be confined to the change from “invisibility” to “visibility”, but should be studied in all respects, and the challenges being faced should also be identified and dealt with.<br />
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==='''Key Words'''===<br />
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invisibility; visibility; Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory; Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility; the translator's subjectivity<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
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论文基于勒弗菲尔韦努蒂提出的术语translator’s invisibility解读,翻译地位的提高以及翻译研究的"文化转向",促使译者"显形",译者主体性也随之受到重视;但值得注意的是,在当今崭新的翻译时代背景下,各种翻译技术的发展导致译者"忘形",从而使译者主体性面临挑战。译者主体性作为翻译研究的重点,不应拘泥于由忽视到重视的转变,而应以全面地眼光,发现并正视其现在所面临的挑战。 <br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
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隐形；显形；劳伦斯韦努蒂；操纵理论；勒菲弗尔的操纵理论；韦努蒂《译者的隐形》<br />
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==='''1. Introduction'''===<br />
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====''''1.1 Introduction of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory '''===<br />
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====''''1.2 Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility '''====<br />
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==='''2. Study on the translator's subjectivity'''===<br />
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===='''2.1 The Translator's Invisibility '''====<br />
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===='''2.2 Culture Turn: The Translator Change from Invisibility to invisibility'''====<br />
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===='''2.3 The Translator's visibility '''====<br />
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==='''3. Factors Influencing translator's subjectivity'''===<br />
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===='''3.1 Interior Factors'''====<br />
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===='''3.2 External Factors'''====<br />
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In the early 1990s, Lefevere, a representative of the cultural school of translation studies and a well-known translation theorist, elaborated Manipulation Theory is his book Translation, rewriting and the Manipulation Literary Fame, in which he said: Translation is, of course, a rewriting of an original text. All rewritings, whatever their intention, reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and as such manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society. <br />
Lefevere, defines translation as a form of rewriting, thus treating translation as a form of creating another text image, just like literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, fiction, falsification of anthologies and reader’s guides. But it doesn’t mean that translation is rewriting. Lefevere thinks rewriting includes some other forms, for example, historiography, anthology,, criticism and editing. He ven emphasized that translation creates the literary and cultural image of the original text, the original author, and the original text. All rewriting, regardless of its intention, reflects a certain ideology and poetics. Therefore, translation is actually the manipulation of the translator to the text, which makes literature work with a certain way in a particular society. In any case, the understanding of translation as rewriting or manipulation of the original text deepens people’s understanding of translation to a great extent. <br />
In Lefevere’s view, there are three elements influencing the function of translation. The first one is professionals within the literary system, including critics, reviewers, teachers and translators who will affect the acceptance of translated works; the second is patronage outside of that system. Patronage here can be seen as the powers that can further or hinder the reading, writing, and rewriting of literature, and the third is the dominant poetics. <br />
Lefevere’s translation theory represents an important turning point in the history of translation study. He developed Zohar’s poly-system theory. And he studies translation in cultural approach. <br />
Before the “cultural turn”, translation was seen almost as an exclusively linguistic process, in which the translator was required to find the TL equivalent for a SL expression and which was not influenced by any other factors than linguistic ones. But in fact, Lefevere’s translation theory could instruct translation activities in many cases. Based on the understanding of three control factors, the translator will solve problems encountered in the process of translation, exploring changes of translation strategies under various factors, mainly including ideology, poetics and patronages, which will be introduced in the next chapter. <br />
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Three control factors <br />
Lefevere points that all literature works should be placed in a certain social and cultural environment. Thus its meaning and value is influenced by these factors. The audience’s apprehension of the work also differs for these factors. He emphasizes three factors manipulating translation: ideology, poetic and patronage.<br />
Introduction of poetics <br />
According to Lefevere, a poetics includes two components. One is the literary method which consists of literary genres, prototypical characters and situations, motifs, symbols. The other is the concept of the literature function. <br />
As a theory about the study of poetry and their skills, poetics is also a theory of literature and art. After choosing some types of practice at a certain period, while excluding others, the poetics is codified. Then it will have tremendous influence on the further development of the literary system. Lefevere holds that the translation methods adopted by the translators are carried out under the guidance of certain strategies of certain poetic factors. It exerts on the choices of words, sentecnes, even the style and translation strategies of the whole article. Translation has greatly influenced the exchange of different literary systems, not only in introducing new literary methods into a certain poetics, but also in whether the image of a writer or a work can be successfully introduced into another literary system. In Lefevere’s view, as the manipulatin of a translator, rewriting should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence, because translators are bound to be influenced and constrained by different social and cultural factors in the process of translation. <br />
Rewriting under the guidance of poetics is an important part of the cultural system in which the rewriters produce works. Rewriters often adjust the original works to a certain extent to be in line with the dominant ideology and poetics of the period in which the rewriters lived, and to make the rewritten works accepted by as many audiences as possible. In order to adapt some famous works to the cultural background of various society and history, they have also been rewritten to varying degrees. As is mentioned above, works of the dominant poetics is what people called classics for future writers to follow. But “a poetics, any poetics, is a historical variable: it is not absolute.” For instance, poetics today differs from the dominant poetics of the Tang dynasty. In cater to the change of the dominant poetics, these canonized works will be adapted o rewritten. This is why some classical Greek works still have an impact on Western literature. Translators pay more and more attention on the poetic factors in translation, further developing translation theory. Poetics solve the problem of what literature should or can be, and deciding the role and influence of translation in the society to some extent. In the process of translation, emphasizing more on meaning and lesson poetic factors and literary component will make the poetic aesthetic sense of the original work disappear. <br />
Lefevere also points that any poetics transcend language, ethnic and political entities which is demonstrated by listing Multilanguage regions or various forms of social and political organizations in Africa share a common poetics. In his eyes, the poetics will not be adapted to any language, but the dominant poetics is dominated by the ideology. <br />
Introduction of ideology<br />
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==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan==<br />
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==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br />
==Translation Manipulated by Ideology 李泳珊 Li Yongshan==<br />
==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou==</div>Hu Huifanghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=109001History of Translation Studies 92020-12-09T02:55:04Z<p>Hu Huifang: /* Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
<br />
='''Comparative Studies'''=<br />
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==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
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==='''Key words'''===<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
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==='''Introduction'''===<br />
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==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
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==='''Bibliography'''===<br />
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==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang==<br />
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==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br />
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==='''Abstract'''=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br />
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==='''Key words'''=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br />
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==='''摘要'''===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br />
关键词：生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br />
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==='''Introduction'''===<br />
''The Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. <br />
Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China. As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials.<br />
In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. So, the Chinese-English translation is of great significance. And in recent years, the domestic scholars attach great importance to the translation of political words. Therefore, it has important functions and research values to study on the Chinese-English translation of Government Work Report from the prospective of eco-translatology.<br />
Cheng Zhenqiu(2003）reposed that the translation of political articles should focus on politics. Huang Youyi(2004) proposed The Three Principles of External Publicity Translation. Tong Xiaohua (2014) explores the English translation of the Government Work Report from different perspectives. Wang Gangyi（2014）also pointed out that the former absolute loyalty to the translation of political texts can no longer satisfy the changing society and readers. Linguistics emphasizes the equivalence of texts from different aspects, which is of great guiding significance for texts like the Government Work Report that emphasizes fidelity. Under the guidance of Nida's functional equivalence theory, Zhou Ji studied the economic and political terms in the report at the lexical and textual levels. In 2001, Joan Pinkham (2000:1) published a book and it is The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, in which it explores the Chinglish in political publicity from the angle of lexis and syntax. In her book, she suggested that translators should not only understand the subtle connotations of words and sentences clearly and use more idioms to express the meanings of the source text, but also pay special attention to the tone and short sentences of Chinese, and avoid the use of outdated, rigid terms, slang and colloquialisms. Compared with domestic studies, the number of relevant studies abroad is very small, and there are almost no relevant translation studies. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that foreign countries are more interested in the content of the report, that is, to describe the national policies, culture and social issues. <br />
This thesis focuses on translation of political publicity from the perspective of eco-translatology in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology. <br />
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==='''1.Introduction of Government Work Report'''===<br />
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Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.<br />
===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br />
For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.<br />
====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br />
The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. <br />
====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br />
As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.<br />
====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br />
The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.<br />
===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br />
In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. <br />
Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br />
It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br />
===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br />
In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.<br />
====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br />
Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br />
Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) [1]<br />
“获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) [1]<br />
“增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) [1]'''=====<br />
Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br />
Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )[1]<br />
“在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)[1]<br />
“放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)[1] <br />
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==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br />
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Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br />
===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br />
Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br />
====='''2.1.1 Previous Studies on Eco-translatology '''=====<br />
As a translation theory originated in China, eco-translatology has been gradually improved in the past two decades. In 2001, professor Hu Gengshen laid the foundation for the theory of adaptation and selection of translation. Since then, the first decade has been the period of constructing and expanding the theoretical framework. In the second decade, with the holding of the international symposium on eco-translatology and the practice of the theory of eco-translatology of the professors of various universities, the eco-translatology system has gradually become mature. Liu Yafeng wrote adaptation and selection of translators -- a study on the translation process of external publicity, pointing out that translators should play their role of “selection” and “adaptation” as the center in the translation process of external publicity, so as to realize the harmony and unity of the whole translation ecological environment. For three-dimensional adaptation and selection principles, Zhou Li wrote the multi-dimensional integration principle under the care of the political party and government discourse translation to demonstrate the dimensions of language, culture, and communication in the perspective of the Chinese party guiding significance of discourse translation. It further enlightens the translator for the use of a multi-dimensional integration technique and set up a bridge of communication between the original language and target language.<br />
====='''2.1.2 Application of Eco-translatology '''=====<br />
There are many types of text analysis related to eco-translatology. Specifically, it includes: first, the analysis of various classical translations, such as a dream of red mansions, etc. Scholars have analyzed the reasons for the success of these classic works from the perspective of the overall translation ecological environment and the principle of “three-dimensional” transformation, pointing out that translators can only translate good works if they adapt to the translation ecological environment. These analysis has been the focus of research, and can best prove the feasibility of the theory. Secondly, the text analysis of public signs points out the direction from a new perspective. Thirdly, the text analysis of film title and subtitle. Fourthly, the text analysis of news translation. Scholars have analyzed the phenomenon of news text translation from different perspectives of eco-translatology and provided theoretical guidance.<br />
===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br />
====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br />
The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”[2]. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.[2]<br />
====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br />
Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.<br />
Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.<br />
Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.<br />
In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br />
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==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br />
From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br />
===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br />
The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br />
Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br />
“大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br />
Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br />
In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br />
Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br />
The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br />
===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br />
The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br />
Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br />
It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br />
Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br />
In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br />
Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br />
“筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br />
===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br />
From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br />
Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br />
For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br />
“保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br />
Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br />
In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br />
In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
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During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br />
Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br />
First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br />
However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br />
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杨广,吉鑫悦. 生态视角下的政府工作报告英译解读[J]. 海外英语,2017(13):108-109<br />
中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br />
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==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603==<br />
<center>欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling </center><br />
==='''Abstract:'''===<br />
Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words:'''===<br />
Nida, Cartford, equivalence theory, Linguistic theories<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br />
<br />
==='''摘要：'''===<br />
摘要：奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br />
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==='''关键词：'''===<br />
<br />
奈达，卡特福德，对等理论，语言学理论<br />
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==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
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===='''1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence'''====<br />
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Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors. By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br />
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===='''1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence'''====<br />
Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br />
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==='''2.Similarities and Differences'''===<br />
<br />
===='''2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories'''====<br />
As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br />
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====='''2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories'''=====<br />
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Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br />
<br />
Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br />
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====='''2.1.2.The Approach to Achieve Equivalence'''=====<br />
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The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.<br />
His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br />
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The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br />
<br />
===='''2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories'''====<br />
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Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers. Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages. By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence. And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br />
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====='''2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence'''=====<br />
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Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that which focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br />
<br />
Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br />
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<br />
====='''2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence'''=====<br />
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Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence. These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text. By this dynamic equivalence theory Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation. Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br />
<br />
In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br />
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====='''2.2.3.Different Research Approach''' =====<br />
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To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language. So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices. In another aspect, Nida held a view that "meaning is universal" and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br />
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By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br />
<br />
==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao==<br />
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==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of "dynamic equivalence", and Bassnett proposed the concept of "cultural equivalence". Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of "equivalence" or "equivalence" in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br />
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Key Words : Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek "Bible New Testament" studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society. In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is "Toward a Science of Translation" "The Theory and Practice of translation" etc. His "dynamic equivalence" translation theory and "reader's response theory" translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br />
Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of "cultural equivalence" and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br />
Nida's "dynamic equivalence" and Bassnett's "cultural equivalence" theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the "similarities" and "differences" of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br />
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==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
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Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及“信达雅”的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
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目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
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Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br />
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===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br />
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====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br />
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Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances (Vermeer, Hans J.1987a). <br />
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=====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br />
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The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br />
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(1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br />
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The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.<br />
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(2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br />
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Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.<br />
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(3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br />
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Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translational action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. <br />
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=====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br />
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There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br />
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“The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’ (Vermeer), which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina & Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation (Christiane Nord, 1997). The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. <br />
Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz, 1995). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. <br />
<br />
The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. It means the skopos of target text should share identical views with the intention of original author. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose.<br />
<br />
These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br />
<br />
Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including ''Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays''. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br />
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(1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br />
<br />
The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in ''The Dhammapada sequence'' （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. The Biography of Yan Fu made a description that Yan Fu was stimulated by the utter failure of the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895 and then started to translate foreign works. The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into ''Yiliyan'' （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” In addition, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br />
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(2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br />
<br />
Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main direction of this evolution.<br />
The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of this translation standard. While there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory. Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.<br />
Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made.<br />
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=====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br />
<br />
Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor. There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. <br />
“Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”. In his translation, he regarded ancient Chinesean old language as a way of elegant expression. <br />
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These three standards are integrated, but there is also differentiation between priority and others. In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and “Expressiveness” is the aim of translation. <br />
<br />
===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br />
<br />
====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br />
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=====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br />
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The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory. Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that the translator should respect both the original author and the reader in the translation process. The principle of translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work in the intion and in the relationship among the author of the original text, the person who initiated the translation, and the reader of the translated work. In other words, the translator is responsible not only to the reader but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. The fidelity rule in Skopos theory emphasizes being faithful to the original text. The degree and form of fidelity depends on the requirements of the purpose of the translation. In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text, including the full text, according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties.<br />
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This coincides with Yan Fu's "Faithfulness". Because"faith" emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And "Faithfulness" is the premise and foundation of translation. In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. The translator acts as a bridge between the original text and the translated text.<br />
If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of "Faithfulness", as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of the original text.<br />
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=====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br />
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The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of the reader's receptivity and comprehension, so that the receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. Nord suggests that a translation work is meaningful only if it is understood by the recipients. Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, the translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that the reader can have a better understanding of the translation. <br />
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This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, ''Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli'' : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, the translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br />
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=====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br />
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The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and "one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation". In his view, translation is "the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers. <br />
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While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for the old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br />
<br />
====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br />
<br />
Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge.<br />
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=====3.2.1 Different Theory Systems=====<br />
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Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture. It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules. In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action. Besides, there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to the translator the standards and principles that they should follow.<br />
<br />
But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that "Faithfulness" refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. In addition, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br />
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=====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br />
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Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the "faithfulness principle" as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. "Skopos" usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, "the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers". Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.<br />
<br />
In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated, with no clear distinction of priority. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is only abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. In addition, it is limited in translating literary works.<br />
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=====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br />
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For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of the translator and frees the translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) the translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten the reader), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He play a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, the translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity.<br />
<br />
However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of the translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to the readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of the translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br />
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===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br />
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====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br />
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====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
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--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 06:53, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
='''Art of Translation'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Art and Science of Translation --Take the Literary Translation as an Example 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br />
<br />
--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 11:50, 8 December 2020 (UTC)==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 Liu Ou==<br />
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Abstract<br />
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Key words<br />
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摘要<br />
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关键词<br />
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2.1 The Abundant Resource of Hunan Scenic Spots <br />
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2.2 The Meaning of View of Culture Translation<br />
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2.3 The Existing English Translated Versions of Hunan Scenic Spots<br />
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2.4 The Strategy of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation<br />
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Conclusion<br />
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Reference<br />
<br />
==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br />
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==The Visible Images and Invisible Hands: An Analysis of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility 祝美梅 Zhu Meimei student no. 202070080632== <br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
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This thesis tries to explain the visible images and invisible hands in the process of translation based on Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility. The inferior status of translation and improper techniques have rendered translators “invisible” in the past, however the improvement of the translator's status and the “cultural turn” in Translation Studies, have both served to make translators more “visible”. Thus the translator's subjectivity has received increasing recognition and status. Nonetheless, as a key point in translation studies, the translator's subjectivity should not be confined to the change from “invisibility” to “visibility”, but should be studied in all respects, and the challenges being faced should also be identified and dealt with.<br />
<br />
==='''Key Words'''===<br />
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invisibility; visibility; Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory; Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility; the translator's subjectivity<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
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论文基于勒弗菲尔韦努蒂提出的术语translator’s invisibility解读,翻译地位的提高以及翻译研究的"文化转向",促使译者"显形",译者主体性也随之受到重视;但值得注意的是,在当今崭新的翻译时代背景下,各种翻译技术的发展导致译者"忘形",从而使译者主体性面临挑战。译者主体性作为翻译研究的重点,不应拘泥于由忽视到重视的转变,而应以全面地眼光,发现并正视其现在所面临的挑战。 <br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
隐形；显形；劳伦斯韦努蒂；操纵理论；勒菲弗尔的操纵理论；韦努蒂《译者的隐形》<br />
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==='''1. Introduction'''===<br />
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====''''1.1 Introduction of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory '''===<br />
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====''''1.2 Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility '''====<br />
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==='''2. Study on the translator's subjectivity'''===<br />
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===='''2.1 The Translator's Invisibility '''====<br />
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===='''2.2 Culture Turn: The Translator Change from Invisibility to invisibility'''====<br />
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===='''2.3 The Translator's visibility '''====<br />
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==='''3. Factors Influencing translator's subjectivity'''===<br />
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===='''3.1 Interior Factors'''====<br />
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===='''3.2 External Factors'''====<br />
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In the early 1990s, Lefevere, a representative of the cultural school of translation studies and a well-known translation theorist, elaborated Manipulation Theory is his book Translation, rewriting and the Manipulation Literary Fame, in which he said: Translation is, of course, a rewriting of an original text. All rewritings, whatever their intention, reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and as such manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society. <br />
Lefevere, defines translation as a form of rewriting, thus treating translation as a form of creating another text image, just like literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, fiction, falsification of anthologies and reader’s guides. But it doesn’t mean that translation is rewriting. Lefevere thinks rewriting includes some other forms, for example, historiography, anthology,, criticism and editing. He ven emphasized that translation creates the literary and cultural image of the original text, the original author, and the original text. All rewriting, regardless of its intention, reflects a certain ideology and poetics. Therefore, translation is actually the manipulation of the translator to the text, which makes literature work with a certain way in a particular society. In any case, the understanding of translation as rewriting or manipulation of the original text deepens people’s understanding of translation to a great extent. <br />
In Lefevere’s view, there are three elements influencing the function of translation. The first one is professionals within the literary system, including critics, reviewers, teachers and translators who will affect the acceptance of translated works; the second is patronage outside of that system. Patronage here can be seen as the powers that can further or hinder the reading, writing, and rewriting of literature, and the third is the dominant poetics. <br />
Lefevere’s translation theory represents an important turning point in the history of translation study. He developed Zohar’s poly-system theory. And he studies translation in cultural approach. <br />
Before the “cultural turn”, translation was seen almost as an exclusively linguistic process, in which the translator was required to find the TL equivalent for a SL expression and which was not influenced by any other factors than linguistic ones. But in fact, Lefevere’s translation theory could instruct translation activities in many cases. Based on the understanding of three control factors, the translator will solve problems encountered in the process of translation, exploring changes of translation strategies under various factors, mainly including ideology, poetics and patronages, which will be introduced in the next chapter. <br />
<br />
Three control factors <br />
Lefevere points that all literature works should be placed in a certain social and cultural environment. Thus its meaning and value is influenced by these factors. The audience’s apprehension of the work also differs for these factors. He emphasizes three factors manipulating translation: ideology, poetic and patronage.<br />
Introduction of poetics <br />
According to Lefevere, a poetics includes two components. One is the literary method which consists of literary genres, prototypical characters and situations, motifs, symbols. The other is the concept of the literature function. <br />
As a theory about the study of poetry and their skills, poetics is also a theory of literature and art. After choosing some types of practice at a certain period, while excluding others, the poetics is codified. Then it will have tremendous influence on the further development of the literary system. Lefevere holds that the translation methods adopted by the translators are carried out under the guidance of certain strategies of certain poetic factors. It exerts on the choices of words, sentecnes, even the style and translation strategies of the whole article. Translation has greatly influenced the exchange of different literary systems, not only in introducing new literary methods into a certain poetics, but also in whether the image of a writer or a work can be successfully introduced into another literary system. In Lefevere’s view, as the manipulatin of a translator, rewriting should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence, because translators are bound to be influenced and constrained by different social and cultural factors in the process of translation. <br />
Rewriting under the guidance of poetics is an important part of the cultural system in which the rewriters produce works. Rewriters often adjust the original works to a certain extent to be in line with the dominant ideology and poetics of the period in which the rewriters lived, and to make the rewritten works accepted by as many audiences as possible. In order to adapt some famous works to the cultural background of various society and history, they have also been rewritten to varying degrees. As is mentioned above, works of the dominant poetics is what people called classics for future writers to follow. But “a poetics, any poetics, is a historical variable: it is not absolute.” For instance, poetics today differs from the dominant poetics of the Tang dynasty. In cater to the change of the dominant poetics, these canonized works will be adapted o rewritten. This is why some classical Greek works still have an impact on Western literature. Translators pay more and more attention on the poetic factors in translation, further developing translation theory. Poetics solve the problem of what literature should or can be, and deciding the role and influence of translation in the society to some extent. In the process of translation, emphasizing more on meaning and lesson poetic factors and literary component will make the poetic aesthetic sense of the original work disappear. <br />
Lefevere also points that any poetics transcend language, ethnic and political entities which is demonstrated by listing Multilanguage regions or various forms of social and political organizations in Africa share a common poetics. In his eyes, the poetics will not be adapted to any language, but the dominant poetics is dominated by the ideology. <br />
Introduction of ideology<br />
<br />
==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan==<br />
<br />
==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br />
==Translation Manipulated by Ideology 李泳珊 Li Yongshan==<br />
==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou==</div>Hu Huifanghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201207_trans&diff=10721620201207 trans2020-12-04T06:52:14Z<p>Hu Huifang: /* Hu Huifang 胡慧芳 */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
The story plays with the analogy of zhang and mu. By infusing them into an imaginary “curtain,” the framed narrative engenders dialogic interplay between the narrator and the bridegroom, between the bride and the spectator, and between the public and private spaces. Zhang and mu mean different things, though they converge in the compound zhangmu. Traditionally, the word zhang denoted a canopy hung around a bed and was used to isolate an inner space in bedroom, so it can hardly be identical with the meaning of curtain. However, indirectly, it reached to the sense of “curtain” through a translation of Jerrold D. William’s (1803-57) Mrs. Caudle’s Curtain Lectures, a fiction of early nineteenth-century England. In 1915 Liu Bannong translated the title into “Zhangzhong shuofa” and published it in Zhonghua xiaoshuo jie.[ Liu Bannong, “Zhangzhong shuofa,” Zhonghua xiaoshuo jie, vol. 2, no.3 (March, 1915). Zhou should (June, 1922).] <br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
The “curtain lectures” refer to Mrs. Caudle’s poignant complaints and derision at her husband, mixed with familial trivialities and comic effects. <br />
<br />
However, the overlap of zhang and mu was crucially related to a widely circulated myth about the Chinese origins of cinema, which was perhaps invented by Zhou himself. When Western-style movie theaters began to appear in late-1900s Shanghai, he was one of the earliest moviegoers. Like other Chinese at his time he also regarded film as a kind of “shadow play” (yingxi), meaning the performance on a screen. According to Zhou, the origins of “shadow play” can be found in the famous story in the Han Dynasty (206-24, B.C.), which tells of the Emperor Wu watching lady Li, dancing and singing, through a semi-transparent curtain.<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
As the anecdote goes, to console his loss of the favorite lady, a sorcerer made a curtained room and asked the emperor to stay at a distance. In the night, called by the sorcerer, the spirit appears behind the curtain, amidst the candle-light, to perform as if she is alive.[ Zhou Shoujuan, “Tan yingxi” (On shadow play), in Ziluilan ji (Collections of violet) (Shanghai: Dadong shuju, 1922) 13-14. Its earlier version “Yingxi hua” appeared in the Free Talk (Ziyou tan), the literary page in Shenbao (June 20, 1919): 15.] Notwithstanding the historical merit of Zhou’s interpretation, what is significant here is that he reads history with a cinematic imagination, by which the terminology in everyday life changes - as occurred here the meaning of zhang (curtain) is substituted by that of mu (screen). <br />
<br />
In the mid-1910s Saturday and The Pastime (Youxi zazhi) magazines often appeared Zhou’s “film fiction” (yinxi xiaoshuo) - his accounts of what he had seen in the movie theaters. <br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
By the time he wrote this love confession, Zhou published a novella The Intimate Beauty (Hongyan zhiji), in which the hero recalls his lover on the “screen memory”: after he closes his eyes, he sees her beautiful image on a “snow-white screen” (xuebai de bumu) and hears her delicate voice; when he opens his eyes, they vanish and yet leaves a three-inch photograph in his heart.[ Zhou Shoujuan. Hongyan zhiji (Zhonghua tushuguan, 1917) 64.] However, “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” has no description of watching film, yet the narrative itself is framed by the curtain; what was shown on the “screen” was verbalized and the text was visualized. With both meanings of zhang and mu, the “curtain” can be changed into a “screen,” onto which is projected the inner space of a wedding chamber in which the author makes his confession.<br />
在他写这篇爱情告白的时候，周出版了中篇小说《亲密之美》(《红颜之记》)，在这部小说中，主人公在“屏幕记忆”中回忆起了他的爱人:他闭上眼睛，在“雪白的屏幕”上看到了她美丽的形象，听到了她柔美的声音;当他睁开眼睛时，它们消失了，却在他的心里留下了一张三英寸的照片。(周秀娟《红颜智记》(中华图舒观1917)。然而，《九花帘幕》并没有对看电影的描述，叙事本身却被帘幕框住了;“屏幕”上显示的是语言，文字是可视化的。“窗帘”可以变成“屏风”，在“屏风”上投射出婚房的内部空间，作者在这里坦白。<br />
<br />
写下这篇爱情告白时，周寿娟已出版了一篇小说《亲密的美人》(《鸿雁集》)，男主人公以 "屏风记忆 "的方式回忆爱人：闭上眼睛后，在 "雪白的屏风"上看到了她的美丽形象，听到了她的娇声；睁开眼睛时，这些形象消失了，却在心里留下了一张三寸照片。 [ 周寿娟.鸿雁志集（中华图画馆，1917）64.]然而，《九花帘里》没有看电影的描写，但叙事本身却被帘子框住了，"屏风 "上显示的东西被口头化了，文字也被视觉化了。有了 "张 "和 "亩 "两个意思，"幕 "就可以变成 "屏"，在 "屏 "上投射出作者告白的婚房内部空间。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 10:37, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
“In the Nine-Flower Curtain” was visually imagined and represented in terms of the spaces divided into the inside and the outside, with the beholder within the curtain and the imagined beholders without. When Zhou fulfills his promise to his friends that he will show them his “love talk” in the Pictorial Story magazine, he makes a written tableau in Diderot’s sense, in which the beholder is absent and yet always implied.[ Jay Caplan. Framed Narratives: Diderot’s Genealogy of the Beholder (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1985) 16. ] Here, we refer to the notion of “beholder” not only because of the visual nature of Zhou’s fiction, but also because it helps my imposition of the complex “subjectivity” in this paper.<br />
《九朵花的窗帘》以外部空间和内部空间的划分给人们视觉上的想象与呈现，旁观者在窗帘内，而想象中的旁观者则在窗帘外。周在兑现对其朋友承诺说他将会在《画报故事》杂志中给他们展示“爱情谈话”时，就按照狄德罗的感觉画了一幅画，在这幅画里没有旁观者，但却总是暗含其中。[杰伊·卡普兰。边框叙事：狄德罗的《旁观者的家谱》（明尼阿波利斯：明尼苏达大学出版社，1985年）16。]我们在这里提到周的小说中“旁观者”的概念，不仅仅是因为其视觉特点，也是因为它加深了我对这篇文章复杂的“主观性”的理解。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 01:09, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
At this juncture, if we look beyond this story merely as a signal of style change in Zhou’s love story from the tragic to comical, we might be curious at the positivity of the male voice as well as the brightness of the private space. In view of the erotic-sentimental tradition of the male gaze in private space, what does this love talk mean historically? Not only does it relate to the transformation of gender roles as well as the legitimacy of the private space in Chinese literature.<br />
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This transformation occurred when this male gaze is empowered ideologically and technologically. Ideologically, it is imbued with the Republican ideal of nationhood and selfhood; technologically, it is, in this case, facilitated by the structural optical perception linked to the modern inventions such as photography and cinema. <br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
While depicting a tableau by freezing a moment in the past, Diderot disturbs his narrative by arranging the beholder as a part of the tableau. As Jay Caplan interpreted, the beholder is presented for the “psychological reason”: he functions as compensation to the loss which the family suffers as portrayed in the tableau.[ Ibid., 20-37.] In Zhou’s case, the beholder is called for the moral reason as his presence is neutralized to legitimize his love discourse in the private space. Especially the term qinghua “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” can be traced back to his short story published in 1913. It describes a young couple meeting and then whispering at a public place, unaware of someone who takes a snapshot of their intimate scene.[ Zhou Shoujuan. “Qinghua” (Love talk), Youxi zazhi 5 (1913).] <br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
It reads like a joke, yet this reportage intriguingly justifies the privacy in the public space that is a controversy of the time. The beholder plays roles of witness, voyeurist, and more importantly, sympathizer. In portraying the photographic evidence with the story of the beholder, Zhou also becomes a sympathetic beholder. <br />
<br />
The dialogic characteristic of this love discourse lies not only in the consumerism of literary pleasure as the core of the Butterfly periodical culture, but also in the collective ethos of Butterfly community. In explicating how a bourgeois “love community” is born from the literature of intimate sphere in eighteenth-century England, Habermas says: “Subjectivity, as the innermost core of the private, was always already oriented to an audience.”[ Jürgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society. Trans. Thomas Burger with the Assistance of Frederick Lawrence (Cambridge and Mass.: The MIT Press, 1991) 49. ] <br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
Zhou’s pillow talk is more than a playful response to his friends’ voyeurist curiosity, it is fulfilled as a promise of love discourse. It might embody that “the ideas of freedom, love, and cultivation of the person that grew out of the experiences of the conjugal family’s private sphere were surely more than just ideology.”[ Ibid., 48. ]<br />
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As the pillow talk unfolds, a complex subjectivity emerges. Against its ideological and technological backdrop, it is rhetorically and aesthetically embodied by a double voice, the poetics of persuasion and linguistic theatricality. The latter part of the story talks more about his family history. “When I was six years old, I became an orphan.” With this pathological tone, Zhou narrates how his father dies at that time and how his widowed mother single-handedly rears up four children by her hard work as a seamstress.<br />
<br />
周瘦鹃的枕边私语不只是对他朋友们窥阴欲的一笑置之，还是他说给爱人的甜言蜜语。这表明男女私生活中反映出的自由观、爱情观和育人观不只是意识形态。[Ibid.,48]<br />
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随着枕边私语慢慢展开，一种复杂的主观性油然而生。考虑到其意识形态和技术背景，这些枕边话通过修辞和美学手段呈现出来，如二重唱、诗歌的劝说功能以及语言学理论。故事的后半部分谈到了周瘦鹃的家族史。他说“我六岁就成了孤儿。”周瘦鹃用一种凄凉的口吻讲述自己六岁丧父，母亲辛苦做针黹活，将四个孩子拉扯大。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 02:31, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
This family story is particularly heart-rending, yet it is more than that. He goes on, “When my father died, it happened in the year of 1900. The capital Beijing was totally in chaos, and thus, unexpectedly, the familial disaster and national humiliation fell on a boy of six years old.” A sense of tragic sublimation is effectively rendered as the boy is depicted as both victim and victor in these historical disasters, owing much to the rhetoric that makes the familial and national disasters “happen” to meet, and “thus” they “both” fall on the boy. The sentences sound as if it happened simultaneously when his father died and Beijing fell, and this narration enormously affects the reader. <br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
However, strictly speaking, there is some slippage between fact and fiction: according to Zhou’s chronicle, his father died 22 days after the fall of Beijing.[ Wang Zhiyi, ed., Zhou Shoujaun yanjiu zhiliao (Tianjin renmin chubanshe, 1993) 20.] The dramatic simultaneity not merely refers the narrative strategy mixed with sentimentalism and patriotism, it reflects his own trauma as projected onto the screen memory of his childhood. Compared with other versions about his father’s death, this expression is most theatrical. <br />
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Zhou’s childhood memory stores the collective traumatic experiences. The 1900 national catastrophe - the Boxers Uprising and the European Allies’ invasion in Beijing - becomes the emblem of national shame that had deeply imprinted on the Chinese minds. By such theatrical representation of his screen memory, Zhou’s love talk not merely appeals to his bride, the wedding chamber itself is transformed into a public space. <br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
Now the narrator is more aware of the presence of the public beholders. Aiming more at arousing collective pathos there inserts the scenario of his father’s death, which is also an intense moment for the author to test his rhetoric of theatricality. “When my father was dying, he was like a madman. Suddenly he jumped down from the bed and rushed out, raising his head toward heaven and shouting at the top of his lung, ‘My three sons, be heroes, join the army and fight!’ After these words, he returned to the bed and soon stopped breathing.” <br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
Permeated in the narrative of his family history are the characteristics of theatrical rhetoric: The period of his childhood is frozen, and his voice pretends to be childish; heavily emotionally charged words such as “tears,” “sorrow,” “bitter” are frequently appear between lines. Ordinary episodes are intensely represented with emphasis on the theatrical manners, gestures to deliver emotions at the highest pitch. The sentiments attached to the episodes tend to be collectively identified, such as his father’s death linked to the national calamity. There is excessive use of the adverbs to accumulate the force of persuasion and theatrical effect. No less noticeable is the role played by the narrator himself, who seems never hesitant to use the rhetoric of excess.<br />
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
Perhaps no modern readers would feel comfortable at the author’s praise of his mother for her traditional virtue; she twice cuts off a piece of flesh from her arm and cooks it as a medicine for her ill mother and husband. “From now on, we should remember what she did and do our best to be filial to her. We should erect, in our hearts, a stele for her filial piety, and a monument for her widowhood; by this means we can make her late life a happy one.” When he repeats this to his bride as a family legend and spiritual heritage, the use of rituals to enhance his language performativity nonetheless turn the persuasion into the grotesque. But we need to be cautious at the accusation of Zhou’s promotion of the “feudal rites” (fengjian lijiao), for the rituals are only used as symbolic value serving the new social structure and ideology in the early Republican era.<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
According to the author’s love gospel, love must be mutual; this idea is embodied here through the narrative process itself: the act of telling the bride about his past as a token of trust aims to ask her to understand and trust him. While informing her of his intellectual paths in order to invite her to embrace his spiritual world, the pillow talk reveals its cultural meaning. Among other things, the story reveals himself as a human being who is promising yet ordinary, enduring yet fragile, and at the same time his family economy as unstable as unpredictable, indicating that they live in a hard time. It means that while sharing his bitter past and hopeful future, she must take up her duty and responsibility for him and his family.<br />
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
Zhou’s rhetoric of persuasion also implies that the bride is also at the center of a nuclear family, who must be subject to the new ethics. As the narrator further describes how he becomes a nationally famous novelist, due to his talent, diligence and proliferation in the “time of fiction in its full swing.” His jubilant voice echoes that of the beginning of the story while talking about how his family economy is drastically improved and afterwards the Zhous moves from the shabby old city area to the decent French concession. The narrator continues: “Ah, my phoenix lady, I have fully told you about my past. Having heard of this, you can understand what I have achieved so far is due to my bloody struggles with the hardships and difficulties, not to mention my mother who experienced as harder as thousands times than mine.” <br />
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
The sentimental imploration conveys the bourgeois ethics no less than a “modern apocalypse”: this is a hard time yet it is promising and fair: everyone can get what he deserves by God’s gift as well as hard work. <br />
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Inscribed with such allegorized trauma, the pillow talk implies a fatal bond between the individual, family and country, and thence elicits the “community of love.” Under the persuasion she is more than a wife and a lover - she is treated at the same time as a citizen. By the device of double curtain stated above, the narrative space is imbued with the authorial anxiety before the private and public beholders, indicating that the private realm by no means becomes autonomous without being identified with peoplehood and nationhood.<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
A Republican subjectivity is embodied in this domestic space by a speech act of persuasion, and it is the sentimentalism that naturalizes all social relations, blurring the private and public boundaries, and it ultimately functions in identifying them with the nationhood. In a sense, this peculiar love talk using the first person genre amalgamates diary, love-letter, autobiography and confession and displays a particular revelation of the community of love.<br />
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Although the latter half of this monologue is basically dominated by historical references, Zhou’s strategy of using stylistic conventions such as verbal ornaments or rhythmic parallelism shifts to an appeal to cultural convention, such as ritual and tradition. Tradition is used as both value and form. Like the scars left on the mother’s arms, ritual is infused into the narrative to such an extent that the procedure of writing is culturally encoded. <br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
Compared to the characteristic of pursuing modern fashion in the first half of the story, here Zhou reveals more of his cultural conservatism. Rooted in the traditional “Teaching of Affection,” his love discourse aims at solving complex problems in a modern society; what separates Zhou from his contemporaries is that he does not intend to make his philosophy of love a perfect, unified one. In the “community of love” lies a paradox. Habermas says: “The jeopardy into which the idea of the community of love was thereby put, up to our own day, occupied the literature as the conflict between marriage for love and marriage for reason, that is, for economic and social considerations.”[ Habermas, 47.] <br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
As shown by Zhou’s own love story, he never forgot his first lover named “Violet,” and thus we come to realize that behind this pillow talk is the rueful truth: for him this is a “marriage for reason,” not a “marriage for love.” As he says to his bride, since he failed in the first love, he never had intention of making a family, and he married her in order to make his mother happy. Probably this loving experiment with baihua is a compromise for better communicating with the bride who is almost illiterate.<br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
'''Eileen Chang and the Modern Essay'''<br />
<br />
Nicole Huang<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
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In her preface to Honglou mengyan (Nightmare in the Red Chamber), Eileen Chang (1920-1995) recalls that the meanings of Liuyan, the title of her essay collection published in 1944 in the Japanese occupied city of Shanghai, derives from an English saying “written on water.” She further elaborates the implications of the metaphor: she does not expect her writing to endure-it should be like words written on water, or 'flowing words,' as 'liuyan' would mean literally, lingering momentarily and eventually elapsing; but she also hopes that her writing will be endowed with the spirit of 'rumors' or 'gossip'-a second literal meaning of the word 'liuyan'-flowing freely and swiftly, reaching a wide audience.<br />
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张爱玲及现代小说<br />
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黄群兰<br />
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摘要<br />
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在《红楼梦魇》的序言中，张爱玲（1920-1995）提到，1994年出版的《流言》的书名含义来自于英文谚语“written on water”。此后她还叙述了流言的深层含义：她并不希望自己的作品只是昙花一现，她想要自己的作品能够承载着“流言”的内涵，获得广泛受众。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:22, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
张爱玲及现代小说<br />
<br />
黄群兰<br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
在《红楼梦魇》的序言中，张爱玲（1920-1995）提到，1994年在日本侵占的上海出版的散文集《流言》的书名含义来自于英文谚语“written on water”。此后她还叙述了流言的深层隐喻：她并不希望自己的作品只是昙花一现，或者说流言的字面意义“飘走的话语”，她想要自己的作品能够承载着“流言”或“绯闻”的内涵——流言的第二个字面意义——自由自在地四处漂流，获得广泛受众。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:50, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
Chang's use of a language of self-reflexivity provides a window through which the curious reader/critic can look into the rather intimate process of a creative work in the making, so much so that the creative mentality of the woman author becomes a text which is first to be deciphered. The invention of the title is characteristic of Chang's long-term effort to negotiate the boundaries between different genres of writing, and in this case, it is the distinction between critical/academic writing and the personal essay that is being questioned. Here, the mechanism behind the naming of her writing is more than just a clever pun. The title not only suggests a new style of essay writing, it also indicates a corresponding way to highlight the generic identities of this reinvented literary form. <br />
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
While words are described as flowing like water, and the essay genre is compared to a fluid construction of 'gossip' or leisurely talks, Chang's naming of her own writing here offers more than just commentaries on the practice of literary writing. More importantly, the renaming of the essay genre should be understood as the woman writer's commentary on the state of cultural production during a particular time in modern Chinese history that is characterized by enormous turmoil and disruption which resulted from the war and the occupation. <br />
<br />
I argue that Chang's experience of the time, the space, and the particular historical milieu of occupied Shanghai is channeled into her attempts to redefine the generic identities of the modern essay. The choice of the essay form is central to Chang's aesthetic vision.<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
The writer's self-positioning in the realm of urban culture of 1940s Shanghai is exemplified in her appropriation of the genre. The essay is made into an important discursive site where the woman writer overtly challenges the literary conventions, searches for alternatives in both literary writing and practices of everyday life, and promotes herself as an important cultural figure. <br />
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The modern essay also serves to contribute concrete forms to a life that appears void of any structure; in other words, Eileen Chang uses the form of the modern essay to construct an intelligible universe where one's imagination and fantasy can anchor. Detailed descriptions of everyday experience, that is, representations of cultural meanings of the material world, manifests not only a dynamic inner life but also a new social identity in formation. <br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
My paper highlights two aspects of life that are conceptualized in Chang's essay writing, one is the space of a modern apartment as a liminal site in urban landscape, and the other is the discourse of fashion as a vital form of material consciousness. I argue that the essay genre not only becomes an open-ended and ongoing process for the woman writer in her entry into the existing order of the literary world, it also becomes the testing ground where the boundaries between the literary world and the larger social realm become unstable and ever-shifting. Not only life styles can be read as texts, a woman writer as an individual can become a concrete historical subject within the space allowed by the modern essay. Life is woven together with work, the boundaries between the private and the public are further blurred, and biographical contingencies become important textual devices in constructing a legend of a new era. <br />
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
In her perface to Honglou mengyan (Nightmare in the Red Chamber), Eileen Chang (1920-1995) recalls that the meaning of Liuyan, the title of her essay collection published in 1944 in the Japanese occupied city of Shanghai, derives from an English saying “written on water.” She further elaborates the implications of the metaphor: she does not expect her writing to endure – it should be like words written on water, or ‘flowing words,’ as ‘liuyan’ would mean literally, lingering momentarily and eventually elapsing; but she also hopes that her writing will be endowed with the spirit of ‘rumors’ or ‘gossip’ – a second literal meaning of the word ‘liuyan’ – flowing freely and swiftly, reaching a wide audience.[ See Chang, Nightmare in the Red Chamber (Taipei: Huangguan, 1977). The book, containing Chang’s essays on authorship, themes, structure, character portrayal, and linguistic construction of the most renowned vernacular narrative of pre-modern China Dream in the Red Chamber (Honglou meng), is representative of her literary and artistic pursuits during her American years (1955-1995).]<br />
<br />
张爱玲（1920-1995）在对《红楼梦》的演说中回想起流言的意思，这是她1944年在日本占领的上海发表的论文集的标题，源于英语谚语“写在水上。”她进一步阐述了这种隐喻的含义：她不希望自己的写作能忍受–就像在水面上写的单词或“流淌的单词”一样，“流言”的字面意思是暂时徘徊并最终流失。但她也希望她的写作能被赋予“谣言”或“八卦”的精神（流言的第二个字面意思），并能自由，迅速地传播，并引起广泛的听众。[参见Chang，Nightmare in the红楼（台北：皇馆，1977）。这本书包含了张的文章，涉及到《红楼梦》中前现代中国梦中最著名的白话叙事的作者身份，主题，结构，人物写照和语言结构，代表了她在文学和艺术上的追求。美国年（1955-1995）。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 06:52, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
Chang’s use of a language of self-reflexivity provides a window through which the curious reader/critic can look into the rather intimate process of a creative work in the making, so much so that the creative mentality of the woman author becomes a text which is first to be deciphered. The invention of the title is characteristic of Chang’s long-term effort to negotiate the boundaries between different genres of writing, and in this case, it is the distinction between critical/academic writing and the personal essay that is being questioned. Here, the mechanism behind the naming of her writing is more than just a clever pun. The title not only suggests a new style of essay writing, it also indicates a corresponding way to highlight the generic identities of this reinvented literary form.<br />
<br />
张爱玲对自我反省语言的运用为好奇的读者/批评家提供了一个窗口，让他们得以深入了解正在创作中的作品的内在过程，因此，女作家的创作心理成为首先被解读的文本。书名反映了，张爱玲通过长期努力在不同写作类型之间寻求界限，在这种情况下，批评/学术写作和个人论文之间的区别受到了质疑。在这里，她作品命名背后的机制不仅仅是一个巧妙的双关语。标题不仅代表了一种新的散文写作风格，也代表了一种突出这种再造文学形式一般身份的相应方式。<br />
<br />
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
During the writing process, the essay writer creates a structure of both containment (language captures the sentiments of a particular moment) and opening (language is unlimited because it lacks definite meaning or substance); and during the reading process, the immediacy and the transitoriness of the messages conveyed in these linguistic structures are first to be comprehended.<br />
<br />
While words are described as flowing like water, and the essay genre is compared to a fluid construction of ‘gossip’ or leisurely talks, Chang’s naming of her own writing here offers more than just commentaries on the practice of literary writing. More importantly, the renaming of the essay genre should be understood as the woman writer’s commentary on the state of cultural production during a particular time in modern Chinese history that is characterized by enormous turmoil and disruption which resulted from the war and the occupation.[ For a standard historical account of cultural activities in occupied Shanghai, see Ke Ling, Zhuzi shengya (My Writing Career) (Taiyuan: Shanxi renmin chubanshe, 1986); also see Poshek Fu, Passivity, Resistance, and Collaboration: Intellectual Choices in Occupied Shanghai, 1937-1945 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993).]<br />
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
Eileen Chang launched her writing career during the early 1940s, and her most important works, including the essays collected in Written on Water and the short stories collected in Chuanqi (Romances), were completed between 1943 and 45. Chang’s fictional writing has been subjected to abundant critical scrutiny since the late 1960s and early 1970s when scholars such as C.T. Hsia and Shui Jing started to reclaim the significance of Eileen Chang and promote her as one of the finest and the most original writers in the scene of twentieth century Chinese literature.[ See Shui Jing’s Paozhuan ji (Casting a Brick to Attract Jade) (Taipei: Sanmin shuju, 1969) and Zhang Ailing de xiaoshuo yishu (The Fictional Art of Eileen Chang ) (Taipei: Dadi chubanshe, 1973), as well as C. T. Hsia’s Aiqing, Shehui, Xiaoshuo (Love, Society, and Fiction) (Taipei: Chunwenxue chubanshe 1970), both published in Taipei. The three books were published in the midst of a renewed infatuation with the woman author shared by readers in Chinese-speaking communities outside of mainland China after 1949.] But the study of Chang’s essay writing is a different story. <br />
==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
Since the most popular essays by Chang were written during the same period as her fictional writing, namely, between 1942 and 45, and some of her essays conveniently provided the concrete historical and biographical background against which the plot in her fictional writing was possibly designed, Chang’s essay writing has so far been read as the best commentaries to her fictional writing, particularly to the short stories collected in the acclaimed Romances.[ Wu Fuhui, among many others, argues that Eileen Chang’s essays are only interesting when read together with her short stories. He uses the essay entitled ”Jingyu lu” (Stories from the Ashes) as an example, arguing that the essay should be read as providing the necessary historical context to our understanding of Chang’s highly acclaimed novella Qingcheng zhi lian (Romance Among the Ruins). I disagree with Wu because the emphasis of the essay clearly lies elsewhere: it presents a social gallery of figures – a group of female college students, all from different cultural and ethnic backgrounds, whose brilliance of personality is brought out by the war. The novella, however, focuses more on the falling apart and the reconstructing of the beauty legend. Here the generic distinctions between fiction and essay are instrumental in piecing together the meanings of these two literary texts. See Wu’s preface toZhang Ailing sanwen quanbian (A Complete Collection of Eileen Chang’s Essays) (Hangzhou: Zhejiang wenyi chubanshe, 1995).] While such an approach to Chang’s essays can provide a coherent discussion of Chang’s literary writing as an entirety, it may overlook the specificities of the essay genre in the Chinese context and may also downplay the cultural significance of such formalistic experiments.<br />
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
Chang’s experiments with the modern essay serve to position her at a critical moment of literary transformation in modern China. While women writers had actively participated in both fictional and poetic writing since the early decades of this century, the essay genre had been monopolized by male writers. Three major essay traditions had already been canonized when Eileen Chang took up the essay as a vital means of representation. The ‘minor essay’ (xiaopin wen) tradition, represented by Zhou Zuoren and Lin Yutang, is characterized by a light and relaxing tone, a simple and elegant diction, political disengagement, wit, and a leisurely mood. <br />
==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
The ‘miscellaneous essay’ (zawen) tradition, represented by Lu Xun and several generations of followers, including a group of leftist writers residing in Gudao (Isolated Island) Shanghai (1937-41), highlights intellectual sharpness and rhetoric eloquence, advocates active engagement with reality, and maintains the belief that literary writing should be employed as a powerful tool for social criticism and political intervention. And finally, the ‘refined essay’ (meiwen) tradition, represented by Zhu Ziqing and many writers from both the Literary Studies Circle (Wenxue yanjiu hui) and the Creation Society (Chuangzao she) since the 1920s, advocates linguistic experiments, whose goal is to create a language of refinement and elegance, and imageries that embody highly aesthetic and sensual qualities.[ Most standard literary histories published in China do not attempt to distinguish between different styles of modern essay writing. The zawen (the miscellaneous essay) tradition is often highlighted as the mainstream style for its definition of literature as social and political critique. These standard literary histories do acknowledge the lyrical qualities of xiaopin wen and meiwen but fail to situate the practice of these alternative essay writing styles in their cultural and intellectual contexts. See Wang Yao, Zhongguo xinwenxue shigao (History of the ”New Literature” in China), Tang Tao and Yan Jiayan, Zhongguo xiandai wenxueshi (Modern Chinese History), and Qian Liqun et al., Zhongguo xiandai wenxue sanshinian (Thirty Years of Modern Chinese Literature).]<br />
<br />
杂文派的代表人物有鲁迅及其几代追随者，包括一群上海孤岛时期（1937-41）的左翼作家。他们强调知识分子的敏锐和修辞口才，倡导积极接触现实，并坚持认为文学写作应用作社会批评和政治干预的有力工具。最后是美文派，诞生于20世纪20年代，代表人物是朱自清以及来自文学研究会和创造社的许多作家。他们倡导语言实验，旨在创造一种精致优雅的语言，以及体现高度审美和感官品质的意象。[中国出版的大多数标准文学史并不试图区分不同风格的现代散文作品。杂文经常被视作主流文体，因为它把文学定义为社会和政治批判。这些标准的文学史确实承认了小品文和美文的抒情品质，但未能将这些另类散文的写作风格实践置于他们的文化和知识背景中。参考王耀，《中国新文学史稿》，汤涛、严家炎，《中国现代文学史》，钱理群等，《中国现代文学三十年》。]--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:04, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
Most of the women writers in 1940s Shanghai experimented with essay writing. In fact, women produced a larger quantity of essays than any other literary genre. In addition to Eileen Chang, many women writers of the period, including Su Qing (1917-1982), Guan Lu (1908-1982), Pan Liudai (1922-?), and Shi Jimei (1920-1968), also discovered the generic fluidity embedded in the essay form. Compared to their experiments with other literary genres, such as fiction, drama, and poetry, it is in women’s essay writing of the period that the discourses of female gender and sexuality, issues of the domestic sphere, and the structures of social institutions such as marriage are most vigorously challenged and thoroughly reformulated. The essay genre is the most powerful literary form adopted by women writers such as Eileen Chang in their efforts to constantly redefine the boundaries between life and work, and to meticulously weave the space of private life together with the space provided by literary writing.<br />
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
In the following sections, I will argue that the woman writer’s experience of the time, the space, and the particular historical milieu of occupied Shanghai is not only mirrored in her representation of individual experiences of the war, the occupation, and the everyday, but also in her attempts to redefine the generic identities of the modern essay and to reinvent a kind of prose language that most vividly captures the transitional as well as eccentric nature of the essay genre. I will also argue that the choice of the essay form is central to Chang’s aesthetic vision.<br />
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
The female writer’s self-positioning in the realm of urban culture of 1940s Shanghai is exemplified in her appropriation of the genre. I will analyze Chang’s essay writing of the period to demonstrate how the genre was made into an important discursive site where the woman writer overtly challenged the literary conventions, searched for alternatives in both literary writing and practices of everyday life, and promoted herself as an important cultural figure. The uniqueness of this body of literary texts lies in the fact that it presents a version of women’s literature set within the context of the wartime occupation while interacting with urban commercial and print culture in 1940s Shanghai.<br />
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
'''Essay and the aesthetics of liminality'''<br />
<br />
How, then, does Eileen Chang write the experience of war and turbulence into the transformed form of the modern essay? While the sense of impending massive destruction is omnipresent in her essay writing of the 1940s, the representation of the specific historical situation is not delivered through any direct social and political reference to the immediate present; instead, the presence of history is often concealed under the masquerade of an aesthetic vision put together by a meditative inward gaze, an orchestra of city sounds, and an imagined border of the urban civilization endangered:<br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
Alone I sit next to a candle, thinking about the past and the present. What I have been busy doing for the last two years will probably be shattered soon. …… I should have a sense of it.<br />
<br />
I was alone on the dusky balcony after Su Qing left. Suddenly I saw a tall building far away, on whose edges hung a great swatch of rouge-like redness. At first I thought it was the reflection of the setting sun on the windows, but on second glance, I realized that it was a full moon, rising crimson above the city. I thought to myself, “so this is what they mean by turbulent times.” In the evening mist, the borders of Shanghai were gently rising and falling in the distance, resembling layered mountain peaks, although there are no mountains surrounding our city.<br />
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
I pondered the fate of many people, including myself. I began to have a melancholy sense of what we call destiny. Such intimations normally connote self-involvement and self-pity, but I now think that they might suggest something altogether more broad. When the peace and security of the future finally do arrive, they will no longer belong to us; at the present moment each of us can only strive to comfort ourselves……[ See ”Wo kan Su Qing” (The Way I Look at Su Qing), in Tiandi yuekan (Heaven and Earth Monthly) 19 (April, 1945).]<br />
<br />
This impressionistic silhouette of the city is none other than the dramatic presence of modern history itself. Here, history is visualized, flattened, and inevitably spatialized. The image of the city and the force of history intermingle into one performative moment, instantaneously captured by the ‘I,’ the woman writer, who sits on the balcony of her private home, looking out into the distance, watching the border of the city rise and fall, observing the currents of history come and go, as if the entire setting was a mere act in a long and winding chuanqi (romance) play. <br />
==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
History in Eileen Chang’s representation becomes a narrative which rejects any deep structure or profound meaning. Characterized by chaos and reversal, history appears to be no more than a shadowy presence in our consciousness:<br />
<br />
In this era, the old things are falling apart, while the new ones are still in formation. Before the high tide of the era arrives, all certainty is but an illusion. We feel that everything in our everyday life is out of order to a terrifying degree. An individual belongs to a certain historical era, but our present era is sinking like a shadow; therefore we feel we have been deserted. In order to prove our own existence, we want to grasp onto something that is real, something fundamental. We then seek help from our ancient memory, the memory of human beings who have lived through various times in history. <br />
==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
Looking back helps us regain more clarity and closeness than we might gazing far into the future. We then have a strange feeling about the reality that surrounds us. We begin to suspect that this is an absurd and antiquated world, gloomy and bright at the same time. Between memory and reality, there often arise unbearable discrepancies, resulting in a perplexing but subtle agitation, an intensified but indefinable struggle.[ See ”Ziji de wenzhang” (Writing of One’s Own), in Written on Water, 1944. This translation is based on an earlier version by David Wang. See Wang, ”Fin-de-siècle Grandeur: Contemporary Women Writers’ Vision of Taiwan,” Modern Chinese Literature 5.4 (1992) 45-65.]<br />
<br />
回首过去而不是遥望未来有助于我们重新获得更清晰、更亲近的感觉。然后我们对周围的现实有一种奇怪的感觉。我们开始怀疑这是一个荒诞而古老，阴暗而光明的世界。在记忆与现实之间，常常会产生难以忍受的差异，从而产生一种令人费解却又微妙的骚动，一种剧烈但难以言喻的斗争。[《写在水上》，1944年。此翻译是基于王大卫的早期版本。见王，“台湾当代女性作家的视野”，中国现代文学5.4（1992）45-65。]--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 05:15, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
回顾过去可以帮助我们重新获得比凝视遥远的未来更清晰和亲近的感觉。我们对周围的现实有一种奇怪的感觉。我们开始怀疑，这是一个荒谬而陈旧的世界，黑暗与光明同时并存。在记忆和现实之间，常常会出现难以忍受的差异，导致一种令人困惑但微妙的激动，一种加剧但难以定义的挣扎。参见《自己的写作》，载于《水上记》，1944年。这个译本是根据王大卫的早期版本翻译的。参见王，“世纪末的宏伟:台湾当代女作家的视野”，中国现代文学5.4(1992)45-65。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 12:02, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
Here, history is no longer presented as a linearly progressing course; instead, it is broken into numerous fragments which can be reorganized and attributed with fresh meanings. The passage quoted above demonstrates Eileen Chang’s fascination with various liminal sites, in time or in space. Throughout her writing career, Chang has created many liminal sites, such as the illusory realm between memory and reality, the brief moment between past and present, and the intersection between life and work, fiction and poetry, stage movements and everyday events. The best of Chang’s writing often captures these transitional moments or sites, and the subjectivity in question is often taken over by a deep sense of uncertainty:<br />
<br />
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
An individual can afford to wait, but an era is transient (''cangcu''). Things are being torn apart, and an even larger destruction is on its way. Someday our civilization, no matter how glorious, will become the past. I often use the word “desolation” (''huangliang'' 荒涼) because there is a premonition of impending danger underlying my thought. <br />
At such a ‘transient’ moment in history which will probably ‘sink’ like a ‘shadow’ in an instant, how, then, should an individual, in this case, a woman writer, position herself?<br />
Make yourself famous as early as possible! If success comes too late, it will not be as enjoyable. …… Hurry! Hurry! Otherwise it will be too late! Too late!<br />
<br />
一个人可以等待，一个时代却是仓促的。一切都在四分五裂，更大的毁灭即将到来。终有一天我们的文明，不论多么辉煌，都将成为过去。我经常使用“荒凉（desolation）”一词，因为我的思想中隐含着即将降临之危险的预感。在这样一个“仓促”的历史时刻——它可能会像一个“影子”般瞬间“沉没”，那么，在这种情况下，一个女性作家应该如何定位自己呢？让自己尽早出名！如果成功来得太迟，就不那么令人愉快了......快点！再快点！否则就太迟了！太迟了！--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:32, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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一个人或许等得起，但一个时代却是仓促的。一切都在四分五裂，更大的毁灭即将到来。终有一天，我们的文明不论曾经多么辉煌，都终将成为过去。我常使用“荒凉”一词，因为我的思想中隐含着危险的预感。在这样一个“仓促”的历史时刻——它可能会像一个“影子”般瞬间“沉没”，那么，在这种情况下，一个女性作家应该如何定位自己呢？让自己尽早出名！如果成功来得太迟，就不那么令人愉快了......快点！再快点！否则就太迟了！太迟了！--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:12, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
These short, choppy sentences deliver a sense of urgency. To choose to define oneself through writing is then related to the woman writer’s understanding of the particular historical situation in 1940s Shanghai. It is a sense that the era is only a transitional moment in human history – the end is imminent and a new historical landscape will take shape. The imperative to make oneself famous then has to do with an urgent need to “occupy” a space in a swiftly dimishing landscape and to hold on to a moment that is constantly slipping away. Eileen Chang’s writing then highlights a very personal moment at a time when any individual voice is likely to be shattered by the grips of the modern warfare and eventually engulfed by the ruins of history. <br />
<br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
Here the woman writer is going against her time by seeking an appropriate literary form and an adequate literary language to capture the essence of this fleeting moment in modern Chinese history. The new form and new language should be adequate to represent the dream-like world, the fragmented time, and the vanishing horizons of urban civilizations.<br />
<br />
Chang’s choice of the essay genre is then consistent with her unique vision of history and her fascination with what I would call ''the aesthetics of liminality''. One cannot find a more appropriate literary genre than the modern essay to capture the liminal qualities of that specific historical milieu. The essay is a genre that is positioned between the careful structuring of fiction and the free flow of poetry. The essence of essay writing lies exactly in its lack of essence or its eccentricity. The modern essay is a genre that is itself transitional.<br />
<br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
The liminal qualities of the modern essay are further enhanced in various textual strategies Chang uses to challenge generic identities in literary conventions. For instance, Chang’s essay entitled “Shuangsheng” (Duet) represents one of the most intrepid literary experiments undertaken during the period. The influence of the roundtable talk, a prominent genre in popular culture, had penetrated the realm of literary writing. In “Duet,” literary writing takes the form of a mini roundtable talk. At the beginning of the essay, like most of the roundtable talks recorded in popular journals of the time, the surroundings and the atmosphere are provided in a painstakingly descriptive language. The conversation takes place in a coffee shop, where Eileen Chang, the narrator, and Mo Meng (named Yan Ying elsewhere), Chang’s female companion, indulge themselves in coffee and pastry while starting their rambling chat about anything and everything:<br />
<br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
Having seated ourselves, we started chatting about a variety of things in great detail. When our topics became more weighty, she [Mo Meng] said: “You know what, this seems a lot like a roundtable discussion.”<br />
<br />
Within the space provided by the essay, the two women then continue to talk about a variety of topics: the language of love in both China and the West, the construction of romance in different cultural contexts, gender relationships inside and outside wedlock, fashions for women of different age groups, and the distinctiveness of the Japanese mentality. The fragmentary and all-inclusive qualities (''san'') of modern prose style (''sanwen'') had already been fully elaborated by Eileen Chang; the format of a roundtable talk coincides with the need to push the limit of modern prose style to its most eccentric, unrestrained, and far-ranging extreme.<br />
<br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
For a discussion of the roundtable talk as an important cultural genre in 1940s Shanghai, see Nicole Huang, ''Written in the Ruins: War and Domesticity in Shanghai Literature of the 1940s''. The roundtable talk became an instrumental cultural genre in 1940s Shanghai. It was a new form of showcasing women writers by placing words (voices) and images (descriptions of their presence, and photographs) all on display. Major newspapers and journals of the period all used this strategy to advertise their publication, promote their circles of new writers, and take part in the construction of an expanded community put together by publishers, editors, writers, artists, and readers.<br />
<br />
The structure of this essay also bears resemblance to that of a one-act play. The beginning passages can be viewed as stage descriptions. The action takes place in one quiet afternoon when two protagonists are engaged in a highly performative dialogue, and theatrical effect is enhanced when dramatic moments arise from time to time throughout the recorded conversation. <br />
<br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
“Wo kan Su Qing” (The Way I Look at Su Qing) presents Chang’s further effort to test the generic boundaries of the modern essay. The author effortlessly switches back and forth between her characterization of Su Qing and a close-up of the narrative self gazing inward. At one point in the essay, the author/narrative self pauses and admits that, in this essay devoted to Su Qing, she has actually devoted much more space to self-portrayal. Most of the time, the essay reads like an internal monologue: the narrative self is immersed in a constantly flowing display of numerous intimate moments. The free flowing of a sequence of random thoughts and the switch back and forth between different personas are fictional and theatrical devices used to further widen the representative capacities of the modern essay.<br />
<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
While “The Way I See Su Qing” imports fictional devices into the form ‘minor essay,’ an earlier essay entitled “Siyu” (Whispers) demonstrates an even more radical experiment, that is, to turn the genre into a new form of autobiographical writing. The title of the essay takes on double meanings: while ‘''siyu''’could mean ‘private talks,’ it could also mimic the lowered and fragmented voice used in talking about the most intimate moments in one’s private life. The narrative voice in the essay whispers, murmurs, and gossips. Nothing substantial is presented; instead, segments of life, tinted with the haziness of childhood memory, are organized in the re-invented prose form, like a stream of thoughts or a random layout of scenes. The technique used here closely resembles montage: segments of the past are presented like flashbacks, and moments of free-association further remind the reader of the constantly blurred boundaries between memory and reality, past and present. <br />
<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
The essay entitled “Tongyan wuji” (A Childish Discourse) presents another example of writing autobiography within the space of the modern essay. Sometimes the way that moments of childhood memory are narrated resembles the use of close-ups in film-making. The following episode even makes a direct reference to cinema:<br />
<br />
I stood in front of the mirror and watched my trembling face, with tears falling down in streams. My face looked like a close-up in a movie. I told myself, grinding my teeth: “I want revenge. One day I will take my revenge.”<br />
<br />
Each sub-section in this essay – ‘Money,’ ‘Fashion,’ ‘Food,’ ‘Gentleman,’ and ‘Brother’ – can be viewed as one filmic long take, and there is no direct connection between them. The entire essay is put together by a series of long takes. Within the space of the modern essay, there appear to be many of these extended fictional or cinematic moments. Sometimes, description of details of clothing, or simply the pattern on a piece of fabric, can contribute to the shaping of a dramatic moment, the formation of a narrative structure. The following passage from the same essay is a good example:<br />
<br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
Japanese printed fabrics. Each bolt is a work of art. Each time I bring one home, before handing it over to a tailor, I repeatedly unroll it and bask in the image. A small Burmese temple is half shielded by the leaves of a palm tree; rain is falling incessantly through the reddish brown haze of the tropics. A pond in early summer, the water coated with a layer of green scum, above which float duckweed and fallen lilac petals, purple and white. Seemingly a fitting scene for a song lyric set to the tune “Laments of the South of the Yang-tze” (Ai Jiangnan)……<br />
<br />
Reading some of these highly aesthetic moments in Chang’s essay writing, we might argue that it is within the space provided by the modern essay and by means of cinematic devices that the fragmentation of conventional fictional language becomes inevitable.<br />
<br />
日本的印花面料。每一根螺栓都是一件艺术品。每次带回家，在交给裁缝之前，我都会反复展开，沐浴在画面中。一座缅甸小庙被棕榈树叶半遮半掩，雨水透过热带的红褐色雾气，不停地落下。初夏的池塘，水面涂上一层绿色的水垢，上面漂浮着鸭舌草和落下的丁香花瓣，紫白相间。配上一首《哀江南赋》似乎很应景......<br />
<br />
解读张爱玲散文写作中的一些极具审美性的瞬间，我们可以说，正是在现代散文所提供的空间里，并且借助电影手段，传统小说语言的碎片化才成为必然。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 07:56, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
日本织锦。每一匹日本织锦都是一件艺术品。每当我将一匹日本织锦带回家，我会反复展开织锦，醉心于上面的图案，然后才会交给裁缝。一座缅甸小佛寺在棕榈树叶的遮蔽下若隐若现；热带地区红褐色的雾霭之中，细雨绵绵。初夏的一方池塘里覆盖着一层绿色水垢，上面漂浮着被风吹落的丁香花瓣，白的紫的都有。配上一首《哀江南赋》似乎很应景……<br />
<br />
阅读张爱玲的散文作品，尤其是其中一些极具审美性的瞬间，我们可以说，正是在现代散文提供的空间里，并借助电影手段，传统小说语言的断层化已成必然。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 06:10, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
'''Essay and the making of a new prose language'''<br />
<br />
Few writers in twentieth-century China are as persistent as Eileen Chang was in constantly experimenting with new literary language. In her essay entitled “Ziji de wenzhang” (Writing of One’s Own), Chang retrospectively remarks on her use of a new fictional language in the novella ''Lianhuantao'' (Linked Rings):<br />
<br />
I adopted the language from traditional fiction on many occasions when writing the novella ''Chain of Rings''. In the story, Cantonese people and foreigners who lived fifty years ago speak like figures walking out of [the world of] ''Plum in a Golden Vase'' (Jing Ping Mei), …… My original intention was: I already created a considerable distance in space by writing about a romanticized Hong Kong from the point of view of a Shanghainese; I also created a distance in time by writing about the Hong Kong of fifty years ago. Therefore I intentionally adopted an antiquated diction to represent such a doubled displacement (''shuangchong juli''). ……<br />
<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
To situate the story in both a remote time and a distancing space endows the writer with abundant freedom in her choice of language. By returning to traditional literature to search for imaginative inspiration and expressive resources, Eileen Chang has redefined, on the discursive level, the cultural as well as political connotations of the modern vernacular language. For a modern reader who has considerable knowledge of the May Fourth literature, Chang’s fictional language presents the reader with a remote system of referentiality by using diction and narrative tone characteristic of those used in classical Chinese novels such as ''Plum in a Golden Vase'' and ''Dream of the Red Chamber''. <br />
<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
What, then, are the characteristics of Chang’s linguistic experiments in her essay writing of the period? The titles of both the essay collection ''Written on Water'' and the essay “Whispers” can be viewed as the author’s own commentaries on the language she has chosen for the transformed essay genre. While literary language is compared to voices whispering, murmuring, or gossiping, and while words can eventually flow away just like water, the practice of writing then is a process of both embracing and breaking away from words, and the meanings that are presented no longer contribute to a system of enclosure. Chang’s naming highlights the indeterminacy of literary language and directs the reader’s attention to the uncertainty embodied in both the structure of the essay and the language that it employs.<br />
<br />
In the opening passage of the essay “Tan nüren” (Talking about Women), collected in ''Written on Water'', in a whimsical and relaxed tone, Eileen Chang cites a characterization of ‘women’ presented in a small pamphlet written by an English author:<br />
<br />
那么，张爱玲这一时期的散文创作在语言实验上有什么特点呢？ 散文集''写在水面上''和散文《私语》的标题都可以看作是作者自己对转型后的散文体裁所选择的语言的评论。 文学语言被比喻为声音的窃窃私语、喃喃自语或闲聊，虽然文字最终可以像水一样流走，但那时的写作实践是一个既拥抱文字又挣脱文字的过程，所呈现的意义不再有助于形成一个围合的体系。 张先生的命名突出了文学语言的不确定性，并引导读者注意到文章的结构和所采用的语言所体现的不确定性。<br />
<br />
张爱玲在《写在水面上》收录的《谈女人》一文的开篇，以一种异想天开的轻松语气，引用了一位英国作家写的小册子中对 "女人 "的描述。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 10:36, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
Westerners refer to sinister and cruel (''yinxian kebo'') women as ‘cats.’ I ran across a pamphlet recently, written in English, entitled ''Cats'', which does nothing else except condemn women. It is not that what is said in it has never been expressed by other people. Interesting remarks (''juanyu'') concerning women are scattered everywhere and it is just not easy to collect them all together. But here this pamphlet is really a compilation (''ji qi dacheng'') [of what has been said about women]. <br />
<br />
Chang then invites her readers to accompany as she glances through a group of quotes she has selected and translated from that pamphlet, much of which is a condemnation of women’s erotic potential. Not a single word of explicit judgment is offered throughout the essay by Chang, nor are the assumptions contained in this pamphlet about the gendered character of each individual expressly challenged. After reading Chang’s essay, a reader might wonder to what extent has the ‘real’ author behind the masquerade of the narrative internalized such an ‘othered’ male view? <br />
<br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
And to what extent is Chang’s translation ‘faithful’ to the original text? The original author’s name remains unmentioned in Chang’s essay, making it difficult to assess the extent to which the original ‘male’ narrative voice has been twisted or distorted by Chang’s rendition. The narrative voice appears to be a composite in those quotes and is even more so in the rest of her essay. One approach to reading Chang’s essay is then to regard the quotation as an integral part of the whole essay, to view it as Eileen Chang’s own linguistic construction, a construction which already contains her critique. Within these quotes, the message is complicated, and presented in several levels. Some of the quotes are reminiscent of an archetypal ‘male’ voice:<br />
<br />
<br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
This kind of fictional and temporal distance is also characteristic of Chang’s short stories written during the period. David Wang argues that the fictional world presented in the short stories in ''Romances'' points to a remote system of referentiality for modern readers by interweaving many ”unreal” elements such as the fantastic, the grotesque, the decadent, and the dark romanticist. See Wang, ”Nü zuojia de xiandai guihua: cong Zhang Ailing dao Su Weizhen” (Modern Ghost Narratives by Women Writers: from Eileen Chang to Su Weizhen), in ''Zhongsheng xuan-hua: sanshi yu bashi niandai de Zhongguo xiaoshuo'' (Heteroglossia: Chinese Fiction of 1930s and 1980s).<br />
<br />
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
“The physical construction of women is so exquisite; therefore, their spiritual construction is incomplete. This is predictable. We just cannot be over-critical of them [women].” <br />
<br />
“If you do not seduce a woman, she would say that you are not a man; if you do, she would say that you are not a man of the upper-class.” <br />
<br />
“The only difference between a woman and a dog is: a dog is not as spoiled as a woman is; a dog does not wear jewelry; and – thank God! – a dog does not speak!”<br />
<br />
The expected readers of the pamphlet ''Cats'' are married middle-class men. According to Eileen Chang, the original author admits that, “a man, after having just fought with his wife, would feel comforted if he reads this pamphlet before he goes to bed.” Functioning as a psychological therapy, the expected reading process should yield pleasure which soothes grievances and unhappiness in one’s ‘actual’ life. <br />
<br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
Within this reading process, through the mediation of a narrative language, the imagined male reader takes upon the implicit point of view built in the assumed male author’s account, manipulates and appropriates the construction of the female image, and displaces his sense of anger, repression, and alienation, or his frustrated desire for control and domination, onto such a constructed image. For a married man, the unsuccessful threats toward his wife in real life can then be successfully prosecuted on a textual level.<br />
<br />
Such a female erotic image depicted in a seemingly unambiguous male text could generate a variety of culturally coded specific meanings and gendered differences. However, the tone of Chang’s language seems to invalidate the possibilities of applying an ideologically charged critique of these messages. Her narrative tone is relaxed, whimsical, playful, humorous, and somewhat ironic. The message transmitted in these quotes is impure, it has been reworked, and already contains a ‘look.’ This ‘look’ is interwoven with a sense of irony. This is even more explicit in some of her other quotes:<br />
<br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
“A man can flirt with a bar waitress in the squalid bar without losing his reputation; yet an upper-class woman is not even allowed to blow a kiss at a postman from afar. We can then draw an inference that men are different from women – no matter how low they [men] bend their backs, it is never difficult for them to stand up straight again.” <br />
“Generally speaking, women do not need the variety of stimulants in their lives that men do. Therefore, we should tolerate a man if he transgresses boundaries during his leisure time, in order to enliven his weary body, [to expel] his worries, [and to accomplish] his unrealized aspirations.” <br />
<br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
These quotes should be understood as mainly Eileen Chang’s own rendition. Through the ironic tone, the message becomes twisted, distorted, highly dramatized, and thereby transformed into parody and ridicule. If Eileen Chang does seek to tease out this assumed male voice, such an attempt proceeds through the creation of a narrative distance, a sense of innuendo, a skillful rewording of the male voice, and not through any explicit charges or critiques. The reader is left to herself to read between the lines, to speculate about the hints, and to screen out the mixed messages.<br />
<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
Despite the absence of an explicit criticism toward this unambiguous male voice, Eileen Chang’s presentation has revealed the fact that the male denunciation of the public effects of a female eroticism is itself manifested in an eroticized form. Such an eroticized form has been dramatized to the extreme by Chang in her skillful rewording. A reader would ponder whether this male denunciation addresses the danger of the placing women in public display or is itself a public display of women as eroticized subjects? Eileen Chang’s appropriation of the male denunciation of female eroticism becomes a doubled affirmation of the much textualized eroticizing potential of female images, which makes it difficult to pin down the ‘femaleness’ of her use of literary language. <br />
<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
Perhaps, then, to examine the ‘femaleness’ of Chang’s language is not an appropriate approach. Nor can we confidently situate Eileen Chang into the female literary tradition of modern China, a tradition which is usually characterized by the May Fourth style of writing. Chang’s cultural marginality, her interest in irrelevant details and domesticity, and her teasing of patriarchs and of gender relations all tempt critics to label her work with various feminine qualities. But Eileen Chang’s voice cannot be simply categorized in a dichotomy of conventional and patriarchal speech on the one hand, and experimental and anti-patriarchal speech on the other. It is obviously impure; it is a kind of language that occupies the space of the liminal; it is a mixed voice, both ‘male’ as well as ‘female.’ In many instances, her language appears to be the so-called “protective language,” a “neutralizing middle tongue,” a language of concealment rather than revelation. The mixed voices prevent us from going on to ‘genderize’ the grammar, the expression, and the diction in her writing. Eileen Chang’s language is one of resisting the process of ‘genderizing,’ and of eliminating the possibilities of polarizing different identities. <br />
<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
In her recent study of Eileen Chang’s fictional writing, Rey Chow defines Eileen Chang’s ‘femininity’ as predominantly associated with ”irrelevant” details. In the picture painted by Chow, ‘detail’ carries a distinctively ‘feminine’ label and is defined as ”the sensuous, trivial, and superfluous textual presence that exists in an ambiguous relation with some larger ‘vision’ such as reform and revolution.” Chow argues that Eileen Chang constructs a different vision of modernity and history through ”a release of sensual details whose emotional backdrop is often that of entrapment, destruction, and desolation.” Eileen Chang’s understanding of culture, therefore, carries a ”powerfully negative affect.” See Rey Chow, Chapter III ”Modernity and Narration: in Feminine Detail” in her ''Woman and Chinese Modernity: The Politics of Reading Between West and East'' (Minnesota and Oxford: University of Minnesota Press, 1991) 85.<br />
<br />
Rey Chow’s emphasis on the intricately related history of details and the feminine in the Chinese case is certainly illuminating in the sense that she suggests a new perspective to define the significance of Eileen Chang’s writing and thus a new way of critiquing the construction of a history of modern Chinese literature as a whole. <br />
<br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
However, in Rey Chow’s categorization of Eileen Chang, a new type of femininity is classified, whose characteristics are intimate, domestic, sensuous, pre-rational, trivial, obsessed with its sexual being, yet embodying subversive strength and transgressive potentials. This seemingly fresh and autonomous femininity does take one thing for granted, that is the unproblematized association between the female, the domestic, and trivial details. Rey Chow’s emphasis on feminine detail may have endowed Eileen Chang’s writing with a critical power deriving from the marginal position that she is inscribed in; but to domesticate Chang, to enclose her within woman’s traditional domain of the home, could also lead to the draining of the heaviness and the other intellectual potentialities in Chang’s writing.<br />
<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
The terms ”protective language” and a ”neutralizing middle tongue” are lifted out of Catharine Stimpson in her discussion of Gertrude Stein’s writing. According to Stimpson, ”Stein’s coding of sexual activities becomes a privileged and a distinguished ‘anti-language’,” that is, a language of ”anti-societies.” Stimpson argues against some other critics’ attempts to ”adjectify” Stein’s work as ”female.” She suggests that Stein’s language is ultimately ”impure,” it is ”linear as well as pluridimensional,” it is ”male” as well as ”female.” Stimpson argues that Stein’s literary language is neither ”female,” nor ”an unmediated return to signifiers freely wheeling in maternal space.” See Stimpson, ”The Somagrams of Gertrude Stein,” in ''The Female Body in Western Culture: Contemporary Perspectives'', edited by Susan Rubin Suleiman.<br />
<br />
在讨论格特鲁格·斯坦因的著作时，“保护性语言”和“中立的中性语言”一词被从凯瑟琳·斯廷普森删除。斯廷普森认为，“斯坦因对性行为的编码成为一种特权和一种独特的'反语言'，即'反社会'的语言。斯廷普森反对其他一些批评家试图将斯坦因的作品“形容”为“女性”的说法。她认为斯坦的语言最终是“不纯正的”，既是“线性的又是多维度的”，既是“男性的”又是“女性的”。斯廷普森认为，斯坦因的文学语言既不是“女性的”，也不是指“无意中回归到指代者而自由地进入母体空间”。请参见苏珊·鲁滨·苏蕾曼编辑的《当代视角下西方文化中的女性身体形象》中格特鲁德·斯坦的躯体语言。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 11:10, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
<br />
在讨论格特鲁德·斯坦因的作品时，凯瑟琳·斯廷普森讨论了“保护性语言”和“中和性的中间语言”。根据斯廷普森的说法，“斯坦因对性行为的编码变成了一种特权和独特的‘反语言’”，也就是说，是一种“反社会”的语言。斯廷普森反对其他一些批评家试图将斯坦因的作品“形容为女性”。她认为斯坦因的语言最终是“有杂质的，“它是“线性也是多元维度的”，它是“男性”也是“女性”。斯廷普森认为，斯坦因的文学语言既不是“女性”，也不是“在母体空间中自由转动的能指的无中介回归”。参见斯廷普森德《当代视角下西方文化中的女性身体形象》中的格特鲁德·斯坦因的躯体语法，苏珊·鲁宾·苏莱曼主编。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 12:02, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
Julia Kristeva suggests that ”the very dichotomy man/woman as an opposition between two rival entities may be understood as belonging to metaphysics”; it must be dismantled through ”the demassification of the problem of difference, which would imply, in a first phase, an apparent de-dramatization of the ‘flight to the death’ between rival groups and thus between the sexes.” Kristeva refers to this as ”a strategy of disintegration.” This strategy is a ”true radicalism” in such attempts ”to undo given identities, to go beyond the policy of creating counter-identifications.” See ”Women’s Time” (translated by Alice Jardine and Harry Blake) in ''Signs'' (Autumn, 1981).<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
Perhaps, then, to examine the ‘femaleness’ of Chang’s language is not an appropriate approach. Nor can we confidently situate Eileen Chang into the female literary tradition of modern China, a tradition which is usually characterized by the May Fourth style of writing. Chang’s cultural marginality, her interest in irrelevant details and domesticity, and her teasing of patriarchs and of gender relations all tempt critics to label her work with various feminine qualities. But Eileen Chang’s voice cannot be simply categorized in a dichotomy of conventional and patriarchal speech on the one hand, and experimental and anti-patriarchal speech on the other. It is obviously impure; it is a kind of language that occupies the space of the liminal; it is a mixed voice, both ‘male’ as well as ‘female.’ In many instances, her language appears to be the so-called “protective language,” a “neutralizing middle tongue,” a language of concealment rather than revelation. The mixed voices prevent us from going on to ‘genderize’ the grammar, the expression, and the diction in her writing. Eileen Chang’s language is one of resisting the process of ‘genderizing,’ and of eliminating the possibilities of polarizing different identities.<br />
<br />
那么，分析张爱玲语言中的女性特征也许不是一种恰当的方法。我们无法十分肯定地说她的作品体现了近代中国文学中的女性传统，这一传统以五四文体为特征。张爱玲作品中的文化边缘性、对细枝末节的关注、蕴含的家庭特征以及对男性家长和性别关系的调侃无一不促使评论家将其打上女性特质的标签。但是我们不能将张爱玲的语言简单地划分为两个对立面：一方面是传统的父权话语，另一方面则是实验性的反父权话语，她的文学语言无疑是模糊的，是一种位于两种状态分界处之上的语言，是一种糅合了“男性”与“女性”与一身的语言。在很多情况下，她的语言都表现出一种所谓的“保护性”、“中性的口吻”，或者说是一种隐没而非彰显的语言。张爱玲的作品语言的复杂性让我们无法将其中的语法、表达以及用词性别化，这种语言正是一种抵制“性别化”过程的语言，消除了分化不同身份的可能性。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 03:40, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
In Eileen Chang’s essay writing, it is finally the narration itself that becomes a site where conflicting cultural discourses meet and interact. The narrative voice does not embody or point to any authoritative discourses: it is neither the passive receiver of a system of accomplished social customs and values containing stereotypes of passive femininity, nor a spokeswoman for a ‘progressive’ nationalist ideological agenda. While history is viewed as transitory and fragmented, the language used to account for this history is no longer something which is ideologically or rhetorically charged. It is not a language to account for truth and beliefs, it is a language of ‘paradox’ and ‘enigma’; it is a ‘counter-language.’ Chang’s use of language serves to recuperate a remote tradition that is incompatible to the present historical situation, and to restore a different set of voices which are inconsonant with the chorus of her time.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
Chang’s essay writing indicates that the coherence of a so-called women’s literary writing tradition in modern China is a mere fabrication. The linguistic constructions in Chang’s essay writing playfully appropriate male fantasies, turning them into props in the creation of a new literary space. By turning structures of male fantasies into narrative devices, and by transforming male voices to enhance the theatrical effect of essay writing, Eileen Chang has demonstrated a much more confident gesture in offering a critique of gendered constructions in both the larger social context and the sphere of literary writing.<br />
<br />
'''Essay and the Invention of Life in Wartime'''<br />
<br />
In the preface to her 1988 collection entitled '''Xuji''' (The Sequel), Eileen Chang confesses that she has been a “loyal believer” in Greta Garbo’s philosophy of life:<br />
张爱玲的散文著作揭示了这样一个事实，现代中国所谓的女性文学写作传统不过是对男性文学写作传统的伪造。她的散文著作中，语言结构巧妙地借用了男性的幻想思维，将其转换为创造新文学空间的支柱。张将男性幻想结构转换为叙述手法，并且转换男性的叙述口吻，以此提高散文写作所带来的戏剧影响，在广大的社会背景条件下和文学创作方面，提出了性别结构批评，对此，她信心满满。在其1988年出版的名为《战争时代的散文与发现》一书的前言中，张爱玲坦白说，她是葛嘉丽·宝格生活哲学的忠诚信仰者。--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 11:48, 3 December 2020 (UTC)pengjuan<br />
<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
For several decades, relying on make-up and acting skills, she [Garbo] lived the life of a recluse, seldom seen through by other people. Her life-time belief was that “I want to live by myself.” …… Why is it that writers also have a hard time preserving the privacy of their lives? <br />
<br />
These sentiments could not have been expressed back in the 1940s. The solitude of the latter half of Chang’s life, that is, the four decades since she came to America in the fall of 1955, forms a sharp contrast to the glorious moments during the first half of the 1940s, particularly the years of 1944 and 1945, when she and Su Qing emerged in the cultural scene of Shanghai simultaneously and became brighter stars than the most acclaimed movie actresses and popular singers. <br />
<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
As argued earlier, the most important players in this society-wide promotion of women intellectuals were none other than women writers themselves. And among all literary genres, it was the modern essay that became the most powerful form of expression in women writers’ self-promotion and myth-making. Essay served to contribute concrete forms to a life that was void of any structure; in other words, women writers such as Eileen Chang and Su Qing used the form of the modern essay to construct an intelligible universe where one’s imagination and fantasy could anchor. Detailed descriptions of everyday experience, that is, representations of cultural meanings of the material world, manifests not only a dynamic inner life but also a new social identity in formation. In this section I will highlight two aspects of life that are conceptualized in Chang’s essay writing, one is the space of a modern apartment as a liminal site in urban landscape, and the other is the discourse of fashion as a vital form of material consciousness.<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
'''Passage from apartment to street'''<br />
<br />
In her essay entitled “Gongyu shenghuo jiqu” (Interesting Moments in Apartment Life), Chang depicts a spatial construction which serves as the backdrop of the formation of a new urban persona:<br />
<br />
I would ride the wind, returning up there,<br />
but fear those marble domes and jade galleries<br />
the place so high, the cold is unbearable …… <br />
<br />
On reading these lines, residents who live on top floors of apartment buildings will more or less shiver with fear. The higher the apartment, the colder. Ever since the price of coal soared , radiators in apartments have become purely decorative. The “H” on the hot water faucet is indispensable in order to perfect the bathroom design; but if you turn on the hot water tap by mistake, a hollow but grievous rumble will burst out from the “Nine Springs” (''Jiu quan'') down below. It sounds like the very complicated and very capricious hot water pipe system in the apartment building has lost its temper. Even if we do not provoke it, the God of thunder still makes its power felt at any moment. <br />
<br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
Out of nowhere, it can set off a long and evil buzz followed by two blasting sounds, as if an airplane was circling above for a while and then dropped two bombs. Having been terror-stricken in wartime Hong Kong, this kind of noise would always make me panic when I first returned to Shanghai. At first the pipe was still working conscientiously; in much difficulty, it would carry some hot water all the way up to the sixth floor, accompanied by a gurgling sound. That was still acceptable, but now it is like deafening thunder followed only by drizzle, and worse yet, all we get are just two droplets of yellow rusty mud. But I dare not complain anymore; the unemployed can easily fly into a rage.<br />
<br />
What is most striking in this beginning episode of Chang’s essay is how the experience of the everyday is depicted as parallel to that of war. War makes its metaphorical presence in daily life of an apartment dweller, serving as a trope for the erratic rhythm of an urban life style. Chang’s depiction of the texture of an apartment life then can be read as a parable of war. <br />
<br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
This opening episode makes references to several archetypal war themes, including death (as in the reference to the “nine springs” or Jiu quan), the scarcity of necessities in life (such as the mentioning of high price of coal and deficiency of hot water in the apartment), and the threat of air-raid (as suggested by the narrator’s haunted memory from her years living in wartime Hong Kong). Themes of unemployment, social unrest, and economic instability are also represented in Chang’s depiction of an animated world where one’s private space is constantly intruded by outside forces. The author has invented a new sense of interiority in her attempt to come to terms with the topography of urban life during wartime. The essay gives textual testimonies to two most important categories of experience in occupied Shanghai – the urban and the war; and these two categories converge precisely within the constructed space of a modern apartment.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
See Chapter 2 for a discussion of the society-wide promotion of the two women and the women’s attempt in self-fashioning. Su and Chang were often showcased together with famous singers, dancers, and movie actresses at the time. See, for instance, ”Cui Chengxi wudao zuotan” (A Roundtable Discussion of Cui Chengxi’s Dance), where women writers were presented together with the Korean Dancer Cui Chengxi and a Chinese dancer named Wang Yuan. Published in ''The Miscellany Monthly'' 12. 2 (November, 1943). Another example is ”Nalianghui ji” (A Summer Gathering), where Eileen Chang was showcased together with the singer/movie actress Li Xianglan. In The ''Miscellany Monthly'' 15. 5 (August, 1945).<br />
<br />
Originally published in ''Heaven and Earth Monthly'' 3 (December, 1943).<br />
<br />
These are the lines in the Song dynasty poet Su Shi’s famous song lyric written to the tune ”Shuidiao getou” (Song for the Water Tune).<br />
<br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
This is the first time in the history of modern Chinese literature that the literary world of a woman author is so tenaciously associated with an urban life style characterized by routines in and out of a modern apartment. In other words, the spatial specificities of a modern apartment are essential to the construction of a vision of life in wartime in Eileen Chang’s writing. City offers many transitional territories such as hotels, stations, theaters, and cafes, which are spaces beyond the rigid categorization of inside or outside, private or public. In Chang’s writing, the space of an apartment is presented as such a transitional site. It is a self-contained private space, which enables a city dweller to escape the intensity of life outside the apartment when necessary. But more importantly, an apartment is also a locus point from which one can enter into various aspects of urban culture. <br />
<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
For Eileen Chang, who, between 1942 and 1945, spent most of her time in a flat on the top floor of a six-story apartment building not too far away from the Jing’an Temple, the modern interior space is like a picture frame, encircling the nights and days of an urban dweller who constantly looks out, from her own apartment windows, that is, a new vantage point, at the kaleidoscopic world of metropolitan Shanghai. Living in an apartment seems to have changed ways of seeing, hearing, smelling, and feeling: not only the cityscape is presented differently – now from a new height (the windows of an apartment on the sixth floor), even sounds in the city become more vivid with the elevation of height:<br />
<br />
I am often amazed at how street noises can be heard so clearly from the sixth floor, as if it was all happening right beneath one’s ears. The older we get, the farther we are separated from our childhood, and yet the memories of it and its many trivial details have gradually become more sweet and vivid. <br />
<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
Just like our present bears imprints of the past, an interior space is constantly permeated and reshaped by the every-changing outside world. This is a world (un)marked by blurred boundaries; liminality characterizes one’s own positioning within such an obscure realm. And yet senses simply become more acute, and thoughts are given fresh new patterns. Here, we are witnessing the formation a new metaphysics of the everyday:<br />
<br />
I like to listen to street sounds. Those who have more refined taste would rest on their pillows and listen to wind whistling in a pine grove or the roar of ocean waves. But it is the sound of a trolley that I must hear in order to fall asleep. On the hills in Hong Kong, only in winter when the north wind blew on the evergreens all night would it remind me of the charming sound of a trolley. People who have lived in an exciting city for many years do not realize what they must have in life until they have left the place. The thoughts of a city dweller are set against a curtain of striped pattern; the light-colored stripes are running trolleys. Like neatly paralleled currents of sounds, they continuously flow into our subconscious. <br />
<br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
For Eileen Chang, an apartment is truly the center of urban life. Like a train station, it serves as an initial starting point, always ready to transport one’s senses into many different directions. Chang’s aesthetics of life is then attributed with a concrete spatial form that is deeply rooted in the soil of the everyday of wartime. If the production of popular journals in occupied Shanghai symbolizes the shaping of an imagined space, the modern apartment is another important site on the mental map of a city under siege. The aggression of wartime occupation has disrupted cycles of life, routines in and out of one’s own home, but new urban spaces and experiences were also created. Here the presence of war intensifies one’s experience of the urban, crystallized in the shaping of a particular spatial form, that is, the modern apartment.<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
Many feminist scholars have suggested the importance of studying spatial constructions. They argue that by giving the inner world a form of concreteness, spatial symbols in literature are most illuminating in showing how personal experience intersects with specific cultural categories. The study of spatial construction is then important since it is the key point in understanding women’s literature: space often serves as a vehicle by which the female protagonists attempt to launch a journey of self-discovery, which constitutes the most important part of the female experience. See, for instance, Jessica Benjamin, ”A Desire of One’s Own: Psychoanalytic Feminism and Intersubjective Space,” in ''Feminist Studies/Critical Studies'', edited by Teresa de Lauretis (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986).<br />
<br />
For a discussion of other kinds of spatial constructions in 1940s Shanghai, see Wei Shaochang, ”Jiu Shanghai de tingzijian” (The Garret in Old Shanghai), published in ''Haishang wentan'' (March, 1994). Also see a photographic history in Tang Zhenchang, ed., ''Jindai Shanghai fanhua lu'' (Modern Shanghai: The Splendor) (Hong Kong: Shangwu yinshuguan 1993.)<br />
<br />
In ”Interesting Moments in Apartment Life.”<br />
<br />
Ibid.<br />
<br />
See Nicole Huang, ''Written In the Ruins''.<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
<br />
In Chang’s vision, this spatial experience is also gendered. The image of an apartment dweller is gendered, and often female. “It seems like only women can fully understand the advantages of life in an apartment,” Chang writes, since the household duties in an apartment are much more simplified. Therefore, a woman can much better appreciate the numerous trivial details in life; she can even start to appreciate the gorgeous colors of fresh vegetables displayed at morning markets, and enjoy the pleasures of cooking and cleaning. Chang’s reinvention of these daily trips is most forcefully presented in one essay entitled “Zhongguo de riye” (China: Days and Nights). <br />
<br />
In Chuanqi (extended edition) (Shanghai: Shanhe tushu gongsi, 1946).（注释）<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
<br />
In Chang’s own account, morning errands to the vegetable market seem to be her own tour through the part of the city that she is most attached to. Every morning she would take the elevator down from her sixth floor apartment, emerge onto the awakening streets, mingle with the morning crowd, and progress toward the world of the magnificent colors of the early market. Daily routines are not just bound duties that confine the everyday experiences of women; instead, they become forms of life choreographed in accordance with the distinctive rhythm of the city. Women can finally look at them as opportunities to explore a life that is wider, brighter, and more open to a variety of new possibilities.<br />
<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
<br />
Life in apartment is then presented with many layers in Chang’s essay writing. In “Daolu yi mu” (Views from the Streets), Eileen Chang also reminds the reader of the many levels of urban culture taking shape outside of the apartment, that is, on the streets. On one level, the street scene of Shanghai is most distinctively characterized by the window displays and neon lights on Avenue Joffre:<br />
<br />
Designing shop windows is a fascinating job, since there is motionless drama in each display. ……… [I remember] a mid-winter night four or five years ago when my cousin and I were strolling down the Avenue Joffre, looking at shop window displays. <br />
<br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
<br />
Under neon lights, the slanted faces of those wooden beauties under slanted hats, with feathers slanting down from atop the hats. I did not wear western suits, had no need of a hat, and did not want to buy one. And yet I still looked at them with admiring eyes…… <br />
<br />
This fascination with window displays and neon lights is staged at a moment that belongs to the past – “four of five years ago.” At the present time within the essay, a different layer of images are highlighted. We see various street corners scattered in less prestigious neighborhoods of the metropolis. Chang’s impressionistic depiction of the city of Shanghai contains numerous crisscrosses of small lanes and faces of ordinary people:<br />
<br />
”Views from the Streets,” in Heaven and Earth Monthly 4 (January, 1944). （注释）<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
<br />
There are many scenes on the streets that are worth another glance. At dusk, a rickshaw is parked by the roadside, a woman is leaning against the seat, a sack in her hand, some persimmons in the sack. The rickshaw man is squatting down on the ground, trying to light up an oil lamp. It is getting dark, and the lamp by the woman’s feet slowly brightens. <br />
<br />
Here, within the space of one essay, the images of a rickshaw man and a housewife on a small street are juxtaposed with the memory of two young women window-shopping on the extravagant Avenue Joffre. The subtle light of an oil lamp is placed against the bright and luring rats of neon signs.<br />
<br />
街道上有许多场景值得一看。 黄昏时，一辆人力车停在路边，一个女人靠在座位上，手里拿着一个麻袋，麻袋里放着一些柿子。 这辆人力车男子蹲在地上，试图点亮一盏油灯。 天快黑了，女人脚旁的灯慢慢变亮。<br />
<br />
在这篇论文的空间中，在一条小街上，一辆黄包车男子和一名家庭主妇的影像并置在一起，以纪念两名年轻女子在奢侈的Joffre大街上逛街。油灯的微弱光线被放置在明亮而诱人的霓虹灯招牌上。<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
<br />
And the warmth and intimacy of the present set off the coldness and vastness of a moment in the past. Here, even though there is no direct reference to the turbulent events taking place in the background of occupied Shanghai, we can nonetheless sense the presence of war in this contrast between the two time frames and the switch back and forth between different layers of urban space. Rapid movements, swift changes, drastic transformations, and the transience of a given moment, these themes of war are represented in a most subtle and yet vivid fashion.<br />
<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
<br />
To carry the argument further, Chang’s sense of modernity has extended from a modernist high culture to a culture of wartime quotidian life. The author is more interested in representing the tension between the ‘old’ and the ‘new’ surfacing in everyday routines of ordinary men and women in her city. The intrusion of war seems to have pushed the brilliance of Avenue Joffre back into one’s dusty memory. Here we can perceive how the experience of war and occupation has systematically changed the spatialization of modernity: modernity as a body of new urban sensibilities is now located somewhere between the grand avenue and the back alley.<br />
<br />
进一步说，张爱玲的现代性已经从现代主义的高等文化扩展到战时的日常生活文化。她更感兴趣的是表现在她的城市里普通男女日常生活中浮现的“旧”与“新”之间的张力。战争的入侵似乎把乔弗尔大道的辉煌推回到尘封的记忆中。在这里，我们可以看到战争和占领的经历是如何系统地改变现代性的空间化的:现代性作为一种新的城市情感体，现在位于大道和后街之间的某个地方。<br />
<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
<br />
– '''Fashion talk''' – <br />
To illustrate how material imagination is essential to Chang’s aesthetics of the everyday, I will now turn to her conceptualization of fashion as an invented form of life. Chang’s discussions of fashion demonstrate her fascination with an inner vision. By depicting a world of light, brilliant colors, unique lines and shapes, Chang has also suggested that literary writing can be the beginning of a cultural history of things.<br />
<br />
In Chang’s fictional writing, colors, lines, surfaces, and words are often combined to form a network of intricate meanings. Her writing is known for its meticulous attention to details, particularly clothes. <br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
<br />
For instance, in her novella “Jinsuo ji” (Chronicle of Gilded Fetters), through the clothes of female servants, a portrait of this old-style family is introduced. Clothes with bright colors are set in contrast to neutral tones of modern fashion; the former becomes a symbol of the ‘past,’ which gradually recedes into the background, gorgeous, amorous, dazzling, but helplessly decaying. Temporality of fashion serves to punctuate narrative rhythm in Chang’s fictional writing.<br />
<br />
It is in Chang’s essay writing that a discourse of fashion is passionately elaborated. Chang’s most important essay on fashion is entitled “Gengyi ji” (A Chronicle of Changing Clothes), in which one hundred years of Chinese history is acted out in Chang’s dramatic display of clothes in movements.<br />
<br />
In Chuanqi (Romances) (Shanghai: Za¬zhishe, 1944).（注释）<br />
<br />
In Past and Present Bi-weekly 34 (December, 1943). Originally written in English and published in the English language journal XXth Century.（注释）<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
<br />
In this world, the transformation of modern clothes can be read as a history of mentality that centers on a constant redefinition of notions such as femaleness, female beauty, and female proper conducts:<br />
<br />
Men have more freedom in their life than women do. Yet I do not want to become a man, only because they do not have freedom [in having a variety of clothing]. <br />
<br />
Chang goes on to tease out the absurdity of gendered assumptions in cultural discourses:<br />
<br />
Clothes seem trivial and not worth mentioning. Liu Bei once said: “Brothers are [important to each other] like hands to feet whereas their wives and children are [insignificant] like clothes.” But for women, it is much easier to cherish their clothes than their husbands. <br />
<br />
From ”A Chronicle of Changing Clothes.”<br />
<br />
Back in the 1920s, Zhang Jingsheng already highlighted the significance of the changes of clothes/fashion, which, according to him, reflects and shapes the present state of mentalities. See Zhang’s 1925 book entitled Mei de renshengguan (An Outlook on a Life of Beauty) as quoted in Peng Hsiao-yen, ”Sexual Enlightenment: ‘Dr. Sex’ Zhang Jingsheng and May Fourth First-Person （注释）<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
<br />
There was a Western writer (is it Bernard Shaw?) who once complained that when most women chose their husbands, they were not nearly as attentive and cautious as when they were selecting a hat for themselves. The most heartless woman would lament passionately when she began to talk about “that silk gown I had last year.”<br />
<br />
Never mind whether it was Bernard Shaw or some other Western writer who made these bizarre comments about women’s apparent “lack” of judgment in choosing their own destinies and their partiality for clothes and other seemingly trivial accessories in life, for Eileen Chang, these male voices were all spelling out the similarly absurd and “ancient” logic by Liu Bei of the Three Kingdoms era (third century A.D.).<br />
<br />
Narrative Fiction.” For Zhang Jingsheng, clothes are the extension of a female body and therefore are crucial elements in exploring female sexuality and inner psyche. This may serve as a mediation to explain the fascination with the female clothed bodies expressed in Eileen Chang’s writing of the 1940s.（注释）<br />
<br />
For a discussion of the correlation between clothes, gender discourses, and performance culture during the first two decades of the century, see an essay by Zhou Huiling (Katharine Hui-ling Chou) entitled ”Nü yanyuan, xieshi zhuyi, ‘xin nüxing’ lunshu: Wanqing dao Wusi shiqi Zhongguo xiandai juchang zhong de xingbie biaoyan” (Actresses, Realism, and Discourse of ”New Woman”: Gendered Performances in Modern Chinese Theater from Late Qing to the May Fourth), published in ''Jindai Zhongguo funüshi yanjiu'' (Studies of Women’s History of Modern China) 4 (August, 1996). Also see her dissertation entitled ''Staging Revolution: Actresses, Realism, and the New Woman Movement in Chinese Spoken Drama and Film, 1919-1949'' (New York University, 1997).（注释）<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
<br />
But the essay “A Chronicle of Changing Clothes” does much more than merely tease out the gendered categories embedded in fashion discourses. “We cannot really imagine the world of the past generations, so idle, so quiet, and so organized,” writes Eileen Chang, “during the three hundred years of Manchurian ruling of Qing dynasty, there was not even (jing) such a thing called women’s fashion!” The use of the adverb “jing” implies an astonishment: women did not even have fashion for three hundred years, and how could anyone have endured such a misfortune! The emphasis placed on women’s clothes seem to be a landmark that separates the modern era from the antiquated worlds.<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
<br />
From the point of view of Eileen Chang, the lack of changes in three hundred years of China’s fashion history forms a sharp contrast to the thirty or forty years of the most recent history which, for Chang, can be read as a fascinating narrative put together by rapidly shifting patterns of women’s fashion.<br />
<br />
Chang’s account then turns history into a stage presentation. Her impressionistic view of modern history highlights colors, lines, shapes, and moods, which are all crystallized in the changing faces of women’s clothes. Chang’s representation of modern history through the transformation of women’s clothes has the effect of a modern museum of human fantasies, or a gallery of artifacts constantly in motion. <br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
<br />
History is turned into a fictional narrative. More interestingly, there is no real human being moving in this narrative; shapes, colors, lines, and circles occupy the space. Through a personification of clothes, Chang has created an animation effect in her world of changing fashion. Clothes replace human voices; clothes become language itself.<br />
<br />
In “Views from the Streets,” Eileen Chang also describes fashion display as “motionless drama,” a notion that highlights the correlation between literature, performance art, and material culture. By using the notion of drama as a trope, Eileen Chang has indicated that fashion, like forms of fictional narrative, is a dramatization of life, a life presented on stage. <br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
<br />
A fashion image is a frozen historical moment, that is, a close-up of a historical moment intersecting with moments in one’s personal history. The clothed body of a modern urban woman thereby carries the burden of history, as well as the marks of our present time.<br />
<br />
In his essay on fashion and modernity written back in 1904, Georg Simmel has already theorized the cultural and social significance of fashion in modern life. He views fashion as a signifier of modernity and a theatricalization of social transformations. For Simmel, fashion consciousness is vital to our conceptualization of the modern and the urban. <br />
<br />
Georg Simmel, ”Fashion” (1904), in On Individuality and Social Forms: Selected Writings, edited and with an introduction by Donald N. Levine (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971) 294-323.（注释）<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
<br />
Simmel’s essay on fashion should be read side by side with his another crucial essay written a year earlier in 1903 entitled “The Metropolis and Mental Life,” which describes the heightened level of sensory stimulation associated with the construction of modern metropolis. Fashion responds most directly and instantaneously to these changes. Following is a frequently quoted passage from “The Metropolis and Mental Life,” which describes the essence of modern life from a physiological as well as psychological perspective:<br />
<br />
The psychological foundation, upon which the metropolitan individuality is erected, is the intensification of emotional life due to the swift and continuous shift of external and internal stimuli.<br />
<br />
西美尔那篇关于时尚的文章应该和他在1903年写的另一篇重要的文章并列阅读，那篇文章题为《大都市与精神生活》，描述了随着现代大都市的建设而提高的感官刺激水平。时尚界对这些变化的反应是最直接和即时的。下面是《都市与心理生活》中经常引用的一段话，它从生理和心理的角度描述了现代生活的本质:<br />
都市个性赖以建立的心理基础，是由于外部和内部刺激的迅速、持续的转移而强化的情感生活。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 09:10, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
<br />
Man is a creature whose existence is dependent on differences, i.e., his mind is stimulated by the difference between present impressions and those which have preceded. Lasting impressions, the slightness in their differences, the habituated regularity of their course and contrasts between them, consume, so to speak, less mental energy than the rapid telescoping of changing images, pronounced differences within what is grasped at a single glance, and the unexpectedness of violent stimuli. <br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
<br />
To the extent that the metropolis creates these psychological conditions – with every crossing of the street, with the tempo and multiplicity of economic, occupational and social life – it creates in the sensory foundations of mental life, and in the degree of awareness necessitated by our organization as creatures dependent on differences, a deep contrast with the slower, more habitual, more smoothly flowing rhythm of the sensory-mental phase of small town and rural existence. <br />
<br />
Simmel’s remarks can help illustrate how the discourse of fashion is situated at the center of Eileen Chang’s aesthetic vision. But Chang has gone well beyond Simmel. She incorporates urbanism, modernity, and femininity in her creation of fashion as a new cultural paradigm. <br />
<br />
See Simmel, ”The Metropolis and Mental Life” (1903), in On Individuality and Social Forms: Selected Writings, 325.（注释）<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
<br />
The fact that the power of designing such a new paradigm is in the hands of a woman makes it even more unique for her time. More importantly, Chang’s fashion stories can also be read as parables of war. Designing fashion and then writing about fashion are her ways to come to terms with the world at war and the city under siege. In a world where nothing is fixed, and scenes of the present are swiftly disappearing at the very next moment, the ever-changing women’s fashion ironically becomes something that is most stable and lucid, something that can be held on to.<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
<br />
In Chang’s account of wartime Hong Kong in an essay entitled “Jinyu lu” (Stories from the Ashes), she describes individual attentions to details of clothes at a critical moment when one’s own life can be smashed to pieces in no time:<br />
In Hong Kong, when we first heard the news that the war had broken out, a girl classmate in my dormitory started panicking. “What am I going to do? I have nothing appropriate to wear!” she cried. Her family were wealthy overseas Chinese. She had a different wardrobe for every social occasion. From a dance party on a yacht to a formal dinner, she was always sufficiently equipped. But she never imagined that there would be a war.<br />
<br />
张爱玲在其《烬余录》中对战时香港的记述中，她对个人服装的细节上这样描写使人对生活幻灭的重要时刻：在香港，当我们第一次听说战争爆发的新闻之时，我宿舍的一位女同学开始恐慌起来。“我该做什么？我没有合适的穿的衣服！”她哭着说。她的家人都远在海外。在各个社交场合她都有不同的服装搭配。从游艇上的舞会到正式的晚宴，她总是准备有充足的衣着。但她却从未想过这里会爆发战争。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 15:21, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
张爱玲在《烬余录》中讲述战时的香港时描绘到，一个人在性命攸关的时刻竟会对自己的服饰百般注意：<br />
在香港，当我们第一次听说战争爆发这个消息时，我宿舍的一个女同学开始慌张。她喊道，“我该怎么办？我都没有合适的衣服穿！”她们一家是富裕的华侨。她在不同的社交场合都有自己的服饰搭配，从游艇上的舞会到一场正式的晚宴，她的服装满满当当的。但她从没想过战争会爆发。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 02:33, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
<br />
She finally managed to get hold of a big black quilted jacket which probably would not attract any attention from the air force circling above. When it was time to flee we all went our separate ways. I saw her again when the war was over. She cut her hair short in the masculine Filipino style – the trend in Hong Kong at the time because a woman with that hair style could pass for a man. <br />
<br />
Indeed our different responses to the war are reflected in our choice of clothes. Take Suleika for example. A beauty from a remote town on the Malay peninsula, she was petite and dark, with dreamy eyes and slightly protruding teeth. <br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
<br />
Like most girls who had a convent education, she was naive to an embarrassing degree. She chose to major in medicine, which means that she had to learn to dissect human bodies. But did the corpses have clothes on or not? The question bothered her, so she was asking people about it. This had become quite a joke around our school. <br />
<br />
A bomb landed next to our dorm, so the warden had to convince us to flee down the hill. Even in such emergency, Suleika did not forget to pack up her most lavish clothes. Against the well meaning advice of many wise people, she somehow managed to transport, in the midst of the gunfire, a big heavy leather trunk of clothes down the hill.<br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
<br />
Suleika then joined the defense force, working as a substitute nurse for the Red Cross. She was often seen squatting on the ground, hacking firewood to light up a fire, wearing her copper red and dark green silk gown embroidered with the character “shou” (longevity). What a waste, but for her it was all worth it. This smart outfit endowed her with an unprecedented confidence; without that she would not have blended so well with her male colleagues. …… <br />
<br />
Here, Chang’s war stories are interwoven with talks of fashion.<br />
<br />
“Stories from the Ashes,” in ''Heaven and Earth Monthly 5'' (February, 1944).<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
<br />
Fashion is no longer a form of creative life that only occupies the space of leisure; rather, it becomes an essential medium through which an individual could finally comprehend the world that is otherwise incomprehensible, name the surroundings that are otherwise unnamable, and determine her own gender and ethnic identities that are otherwise indeterminate.<br />
<br />
The ending of the essay “A Chronicle of Changing Clothes” also consists of a parable:<br />
<br />
……an autumnal chill in approaching dusk as vendors at a vegetable market prepare to pack up and go home. Fish scraps and pale green corn husks litter the ground.<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
<br />
A child dashes over on his bike just to show off. He gives out a shout, lets go of the handlebars, and shoots away effortlessly, swaying back and forth all the while. At that split second, everyone on the street watches him with an indefinable admiration. Perhaps in this life that moment of letting go is the very loveliest? <br />
<br />
This scene seems detached from Chang’s detailed descriptions of the transformation of fashion trends, but it can be read a parable of how fashion actually functions in everyday life. It is exactly that moment of “letting go,” that is, the moment that one gains the power and freedom to go beyond immediate material and political conditions, that captures the essence of fashion in Chang’s world.<br />
<br />
Translated by Andrew F. Jones.（注释）<br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
<br />
Here the essay genre not only becomes an open-ended and ongoing process for women writers in their entry into the existing order of the literary world, it also becomes the testing ground where the boundaries between the literary world and the larger social realm become unstable and ever-shifting. Not only life styles can be read as texts, women writers as individuals can become concrete historical subjects within the space allowed by the modern essay. Life is woven together with work, the boundaries between the private and the public are further blurred, and biographical contingencies become important textual devices in constructing a legend of a new era.<br />
<br />
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
<br />
'''Perspectives on Ideology in the Essay'''<br />
<br />
'''Zhu Ziqing, Frantz Fanon, and the Fierce White Children'''<br />
<br />
''Daniel A. Fried''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
All genres contain political possibilities, but the essay seems entitled to a particularly strong claim on politics. In the Chinese modernist context, it should be clear that one cannot understand the development of nationalism without reference to the huge body of political essays published in decades of periodicals, and equally clear that one must take stock of nationalist writings in trying to understand the generic qualities of the essay. And within our international scholarly dialogue, it seems necessary to locate the modern Chinese essay with regard to the various postulates of postcolonial theory.<br />
<br />
“论文中的意识形态观点”<br />
<br />
“朱自清，弗朗茨·法农，和凶猛的白人孩子”<br />
<br />
“丹尼尔A.弗里德”<br />
<br />
“概要”<br />
<br />
所有体裁都包含政治可能性，但这篇文章似乎有权对政治提出特别强烈的主张。在中国现代主义环境中，我们应该清楚地看到，如果不参考几十年期刊上发表的大量政治文章，就无法理解民族主义的发展；同样，我们必须审视民族主义作品，试图理解这篇文章的共性。在我们的国际学术对话中，似乎有必要根据有关后殖民理论的各种假设来定位中国现代散文.<br />
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 11:25, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
<br />
This is not easy--the relation of Chinese materials to theory has of course been debated at length, with wide disagreements over the applicability of the standard models. Indeed, the applicability of postcolonialism to several literatures has been questioned as critiques of essentialized difference have been turned against the general conclusions of postcolonial discourse itself. While theoretical contextualization of Chinese political essays seems necessary, there is no critical consensus on what theories to apply.<br />
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This paper will attempt to contextualize by ignoring the oversimplified question of whether postcolonial theory is or is not applicable to Chinese modernist essays. <br />
<br />
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
<br />
Instead, it seeks to perform a case study in theoretical analysis of a Chinese essay which goes beyond the simple importation of “foreign” theory, to suggest the outlines of dialogue between scholars of Chinese and other anticolonial nationalisms. Specifically, it compares Zhu Ziqing's experience of a white childs gaze in the essay, “White People--God's Proud Children!” to a similar experience of Frantz Fanon recorded in his canonical ''Black Skin, White Masks''. Using the theme of the racial others gaze as a methodological allegory, it seeks to show how these two texts can be made to “gaze” at each other, to inform each other in ways which are theoretically suggestive while respecting local difference.<br />
<br />
==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
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While Zhus essay seems in many ways to perfectly invoke the most familiar tropes of “Western” theory, Zhu's reaction to the gaze is ultimately opposite to Fanon's, and demonstrates how anticolonial writing is enmeshed both in internationa lpsychological constants and local historical variables.<br />
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Scholarly investigation of the modern Chinese essay as a genre demands some attention to the questions posed by postcolonial theories. The same could be said of all genres of the period, but the essay has a special claim on postcolonialism. All genres were used politically, but the essay was usually seen in high modern China as the prime vehicle for explicit politics, the forum best suited for debate and rebuttal, and explication of specific political programs. <br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
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Of course, there is no scholarly consensus in the field as to the extent to which postcolonial theories can or cannot be applied to modern Chinese literature. For example, Rey Chow in her 1993 ''Writing Diaspora'' produced a well-known critique of the resistance to theory by scholars of Chinese literature, arguing that the claims of untheorizable Chinese particularity are merely reintroductions of an old Orientalist cultural essentialism. Last year, Leo Lee concluded his study of Shanghai urban culture by restating the very same arguments which Chow had dismissed, making the case that theory based on native internalization of the Western “othering” gaze was not directly applicable because the Western imperialist presence in China, even in the Shanghai concession zones, never gained the colonialist control over language and education that produced such psychic disruptions in other societies. <br />
<br />
Rey Chow, ''Writing Diaspora: Tactics of Intervention in Contemporary Cultural Studies''. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993).（注释）<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
<br />
We must stutter out some engagement with postcolonial theory, but how can one proceed without the safety of scholarly consensus? One could dive into polemics, but a decision that either theory is or isn't always applicable to Chinese literature assumes the existence of twin essentialized monoliths called “theory” and “Chinese literature.” We need more nuanced approaches. In fact, the terms of mainline postcolonial theory do furnish the conceptual tools with which one can derive one such approach. The very familiar discussions of the gaze of the imperial subject toward the colonized other can be employed as a metaphor for our own predicament. <br />
<br />
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
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One of the major variations on this theme, deriving from the writings of Frantz Fanon, should be familiar: by their imperial gaze, aggressor cultures try to lock their colonized subjects into a perpetual Otherdom, with the aggressor National Subject claiming for itself a transcendent metaphysical Selfhood; colonized individuals must view themselves as Other and therefore are alienated from themselves. The solutions the discourse has found are ways in which those individuals can subvert that Otherdom in order to reclaim for themselves a new or reconstituted Selfhood. The goal is not to fall into nativist atavism and rejection of the metropole, but to eliminate dominance and blur the margins of identity, allowing a more healthful parity in the identification dialectic between colonizer and colonized.<br />
弗朗兹·法农的作品中产生了这一主题的主要变题之一，大家应该对此都很熟悉：在帝国主义的视角下，侵略者文化尝试将殖民对象封锁进永恒的他者国度，只有侵略国家自称为超验的形而上学的自我：被殖民的人必须把自己当做他者因此只能异化。对于这一问题找到的答案便是通过推翻他者国度从而为自己重建一个自我。目的不在于陷入本土主义者的返祖主义，拒绝城市，而是削弱统治，使身份边界模糊化，让殖民者和被殖民者在身份的辩证识别上有更健康的对等。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 02:06, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
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If it is a common complaint that postcolonial theory is a creation of the metropole which should not be allowed to dominate local Chinese historical experience, the solution should not be nativist assertion of Chinese difference and superiority, with consequent ignoring of the varied experiences of imperialism from which the systems of theory have been derived. Rather, once we reject the notion that metropolitan theory has an omniscient gaze which alone possesses the right to define the meaning of Chinese texts, we are free to see how Chinese and non-Chinese experiences of imperialism can inform each other, through their mutual attractions and tensions which complicate questions of identity.<br />
<br />
如果人们普遍认为后殖民理论是大都市的创造，不应让其支配中国本土的历史经验，那么解决办法就不应是本土主义武断地主张中国的差异和优越性，一直忽视理论体系是从帝国主义的各种经验是衍生出来的。相反，一旦我们拒绝了大都市理论无所不能、只有它才有权定义中文文本的含义的观点，我们就可以自由地看到，中国和非中国的帝国主义经历是如何通过它们的相互吸引和紧张关系——这使身份问题复杂化——相互交流。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:39, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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如果人们普遍抱怨后殖民主义理论是大都会的产物，且不应允许它主导中国本土的历史经验，那么，解决的办法就不应是本土主义地宣称中国人的差异性和优越性，从而忽视理论体系所衍生的各种帝国主义的经验。相反，一旦我们摒弃了大都会理论的全知角度，那就是它独自拥有定义中国文本意义的权利，我们就可以看到中国人和非中国人的帝国主义经验如何通过他们的相互吸引和紧张关系来相互交流，而这使认知问题变得复杂。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 06:29, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
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As an example of how to do this sort of theoretical application, I propose in this paper to compare Frantz Fanon's “The Fact of Blackness” (a chapter of his canonical ''Black Skin, White Masks''), with a little-known essay by Zhu Ziqing, “White People-God's Proud Children!” Both pieces focus on the narrators' experiences of meeting the gazes of white children, and thus invoke classic themes which allow easy access to theoretical considerations even in the midst of a particularistic analysis. And because both describe politicized experience, they avoid the old Orientalist dichotomy of Western theory vs. native experience. Both Fanon and Zhu are equally theoretical and experiential, and they inform each other.<br />
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作为如何进行这类理论应用的例子，我在本文中拟将弗朗茨·法农的《黑的事实》（他的典籍《黑皮肤，白面具》中的一章）与朱自清的一篇鲜为人知的文章《白种人，上帝的骄子！》进行比较。这两篇作品都聚焦于叙述者与白人儿童目光交汇的经历，因此引用了经典的主题，即使在特殊主义的分析中，也能很容易进行理论思考。而且由于两者都描述了政治化的经验，因此避免了西方理论的老东方主义与本土经验的抉择。弗朗茨和朱自清都同样具有理论性和经验性，且互相借鉴。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:35, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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作为如何进行这类理论应用的一个例子，笔者拟在本文中对弗朗茨·法农的《黑人的事实》(他的经典《黑皮肤，白面具》中的一个章节)与朱自清鲜为人知的文章《白种人——上帝的骄子!》进行比较。这两篇文章都聚焦于叙述者与白人儿童目光相遇的经历，因此援引了经典主题，即使在进行具象分析中，也能很容易地进行理论思考。而且因为两者都描述了政治化的经验，他们避免了西方理论与本土经验的古老东方主义之争。法农和朱自清都具有同样的理论和经验，且相互借鉴。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 12:12, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
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“The Fact of Blackness” is Fanon's analysis of a black man's frustration in attempting to create a viable self-identity in the France of the 1950's. Analysis in the psychoanalytic sense, not the scientific-sociological one; or, better still, ''self-analysis'', for the chapter is cast in the form of a first-person narrative. Fanon writes a sort of psychoanalytically fueled prose poem. There are few objective assertions made about “the way it is”; the problem is seen from what appears to be the inside of a black man's head, what he feels and how he reacts to the shiftingly solid front of White France arrayed against him..<br />
<br />
Not necesssarily Fanon's. In his introduction, Fanon writes that in this chapter, “we observe the desperate struggles of a Negro who is driven to discover the meaning of black identity." Frantz Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks. Trans. Charles Lam Markmann (New York: Grove Press, 1967) 16. The wording here suggests a fictional narrator. Nonetheless, one guesses that it is a fictualized Fanon, and I will use “Fanon” as a convenience in place of “the narrator” for the remainder of this paper.（注释）<br />
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==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
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Some of the most striking and most quoted parts of this narrative are Fanon's attempts to deal with the intrusive voice of the white child who cries out in fear of him:<br />
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“Look, a Negro!” It was an external stimulus that flicked over me as I passed by. I made a tight smile.<br />
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“Look, a Negro!” It was true. It amused me.<br />
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“Look, a Negro!” The circle was drawing a bit tighter. I made no secret of my amusement.<br />
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“Mama, see the Negro! I'm frightened!” Frightened! Frightened! Now they were beginning to be afraid of me. I made up my mind to laugh myself to tears, but laughter had become impossible.<br />
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<br />
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这段叙述中最引人注目和引用最多的部分是 Fanon 试图处理白人儿童因害怕他而大声呼喊的侵扰性声音：<br />
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“看，一个黑人！”当我经过时，一种外在的刺激掠过我的心头。我笑得很紧。<br />
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“看，一个黑人！”是真的。我很开心。<br />
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“看，一个黑人！”圆圈越来越紧了。我毫不掩饰我的乐趣。<br />
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“妈妈，看那黑鬼！我吓坏了！”害怕！害怕！现在他们开始害怕我了。我下定决心要笑得流泪，但笑已经变得不可能了。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:18, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这段叙述中最引人注目和最常被引用的部分，是法侬试图处理那个白人孩子因为害怕他而大叫的侵扰声音:<br />
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“看,一个黑人!”这是一种外部刺激，当我经过时，它掠过我的头顶。我紧张地笑了笑。<br />
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“看,一个黑人!”这是真的。这太好笑了。<br />
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“看,一个黑人!”圆圈变得更紧了。我毫不掩饰自己的快乐。<br />
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“妈妈，你看那个黑人!我害怕!”吓!吓坏了!现在他们开始害怕我了。我决定笑得流泪，但笑已经变得不可能了。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 09:14, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这种叙述中一些最引人注目和被引用最多的部分是法农试图处理白人儿童因为害怕他而大声疾呼发出的侵扰声音：<br />
“看，一个黑人！”这是一种外部刺激，当我经过时，它掠过我。我紧张地笑了。<br />
“看，一个黑人！”这是真的。它逗乐了我。<br />
“看，一个黑人！”圆圈画的更紧了。我掩饰不住快乐。<br />
“妈妈，看黑人！我害怕！”害怕！害怕！现在他们开始害怕我了。我下定决心笑出眼泪，但笑声已经变得不可能了。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 11:41, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
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In this passage as elsewhere in the chapter, there are many voices accusing Fanon, yet the voice of the child has a special bluntness, one that hits Fanon harder. Beneath that voice, his attempt to defend himself through an ever-increasing amusement is undone; the child unmasks his anguish. He is for Fanon not just a historical boy, nor an empirical average of thousands of trembling boys, but a resonance of something deeper within Fanon's narrative. Fanon does not devote an inordinate amount of space to the child, and it would be an exaggeration to say that the appearances of this child constitute the thematic center of his chapter. <br />
<br />
==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
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Nonetheless, the white child does play a crucial role, as he is in fact a grotesque foil for Fanon's own exasperated narrative voice, which is a rewriting, for race, of narratives of developmental psychology. In particular, Jacques Lacan's famous theory of the “mirror stage” is clearly its primary inspiration. Even though Fanon never makes explicit reference to Lacan or “The Mirror Stage” in the chapter, such references are numerous in Black Skin, White Masks as a whole-there is no doubt that Fanon knew the paradigm well. And the structure of his narrative runs suspiciously parallel to Lacan's explications, so much that it might be fair to call “The Fact of Blackness” an ironic rewriting of “The Mirror Stage.”<br />
<br />
==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
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Lacan's theory is complex, moving in unexpected directions and drawing different sets of conclusions. But all are sourced in the moment of a baby before a mirror, fascinated to discover itself for the first time. The stage at which this critical fascination can occur lasts from the age of six to eighteen months, according to Lacan, and its primary importance is in providing the infant with a temporary shortcut to mature subjectivity. In his words, the mirror “precipitates” the child's I in a “primordial form, before it is objectified in the dialectic of identification with the other, and before language restores to it, in the universal, its function as subject.” <br />
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==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
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In contrast, Fanon only reaches his version of the mirror stage ''after'' passing through objectification and restoration to subjectivity. His “mirror stage” is precisely the quest for subjectivity narrated through the “plot” outlined above. But this plot is skewed¬-consider Lacan's discussion of the mirror stage itself:<br />
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The fact is that the total form of the body by which the subject anticipates in a mirage the maturation of his power is certainly more constituent than constituted, but in which it appears to him above all in a contrasting size (''un relief de stature'') that fixes it and in a symmetry that inverts it, in contrast with the turbulent movement that the subject feels are animating him. <br />
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==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
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Fanon's mirror is of course the White. In that mirror he is inverted, re-created as an image exactly opposite to his own reality, and it is only through that inversion, that ''perversion'' of his Self that he is allowed to know himself. And, moreover, that inversion is ''fixed'' in the mirror, as Fanon puts it, fixed as a chemical solution is fixed by a dye. No matter how Fanon questions, no matter what rhetorical tack he chooses to confront the mirror, it refuses to give back any other image. Does Fanon feel a universal, rational soul animating himself? Does he well up with the turbulence of an earth-poetry that takes him to the magic font of his humanity? It does not matter. The mirror is impervious and flat. His image is fixed.<br />
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==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
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Lacan tells us that the function of the mirror stage “is to establish a relation between the organism and its reality - or, as they say, between the ''Innenwelt'' and the ''Umwelt''.” For Lacan, it is the organism itself which determines and creates the relation, it creates its reality, but Fanon feels himself to be “overdetermined from without,” he is created by the White reality.<br />
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That relation is an average of many different species of dominance. But perhaps more than any other, it is the dominance of an adult over a child. Listen again to the voices which fix Fanon: “Understand, my dear ''boy'', color prejudice is something I find entirely foreign.” <br />
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==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
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“Gently, in the tone that one uses with a ''child'', they introduced me to the existence of a certain view that was held by certain people.” “now and then when we are worn out by our lives in big buildings, we will turn to you as we do to our ''children''-to the innocent, the ingenuous, the spontaneous. We will turn to you as to the ''childhood'' of the world.” (italics mine) The White mirror thus fixes Fanon as a perpetual infant, the Black “boy” who embodies youthful naiveté. He knows he is in the mirror stage, he is an infant who has already read Lacan, and he is desperate to find in the mirror the image which will allow him to realize his ''I'', but the mirror always gives him back his infant inverse. He cannot realize himself, he can never leave the mirror stage, he is ''fixed''.<br />
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==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
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The white child is thus a point of entry into the subsurface struggle of the text. The child is Fanon's parallel and his foil: “look, a nigger, it's cold, the nigger is shivering because he is cold, the little boy is trembling because he is afraid of the nigger, the nigger is shivering with cold, the cold that goes through your bones, the handsome little boy is trembling because he thinks that the nigger is quivering with rage, the little boy throws himself into his mother's arms: Mama, the nigger's going to eat me up.”[ Fanon, 114.] The boy mirrors Fanon, but ironically: his freedom to be afraid, his freedom even to see an Other that is not synonymous with the Self[ Fanon asserts thtat the black is not Other to the white, but his argument is that the white claims he does not need to go through identification with the black-as-Other in order to come to a realization of the Sel; on the contrary, White simply “is”; black is not-White. But though the white does not idenify through the black Other, this of course does not mean that Fanon is asserting that the white does not identify the black as Other.] is a mockery of the boyhood which Fanon cannot escape. One might even profitably read this mirroring as a form of mimicry. <br />
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==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
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In standard postcolonial discourse, “mimicry” refers to either a pseudo-imitation forced on the colonized by the colonizer who wants the colonized to “be like” the colonizing cultural model, but not identical to it; or it can refer to deliberate ironization of such models by the colonized. Either case results in what Homi Bhabha calls a “double vision which in disclosing the ambivalence of colonial discourse also disrupts its authority.”[ Homi Bhabha, The Location of Culture (New York: Routledge, 1994) 88.] However, as Diana Fuss notes, “the mimicry of subversion can find itself reinforcing conventional power relations rather than eroding them.”[ Diana Fuss, Identification Papers (New York: Routledge, 195*) 147.] Fanon's experience is just such a case - the mimicry is the white boy's, not Fanon's, and its effect is not at all disruptive, but reinforces the conventional power relations. <br />
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==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
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The boy thinks he is in danger of assault and trembles; in fact, it is Fanon who trembled first, who is the one really exposed to violence, and who is in fact ''being assaulted'' by the boy's unwitting mimicry of his weakness.<br />
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The white child is thus a cruel unwitting joker who offers Fanon seeming doors of rhetorical escape into maturity, then frustrates him, turns him back on himself, locks him into the image of “the childhood of the world.” And the most destructive part is that the child does not know he is the god's mask; he screams as an innocent and can leap to the mother's arms. Fanon screams, and the monstrous mirror stays silvery and cold: it inverts and it fixes, but it never recognizes.<br />
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“White People-God's Proud Children!” was written in direct response to (and less than three weeks after) the “May 30 Massacre.”<br />
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男孩认为自己有被攻击的危险，吓得发抖;事实上，首先颤抖的是法龙（Fanon），真正遭受暴力的是法龙，实际上也是法龙被男孩在不知情的情况下模仿自己的弱点所攻击。<br />
因此，这个白人孩子是一个残忍的、不知情的小丑，他为法农提供了看似可以逃避语言的大门，让他走向成熟，然后让他沮丧，让他回归自我，把他锁在“世界的童年”的形象中。最可怕的是，这个孩子不知道自己是上帝的面具;他像个无辜的孩子一样尖叫，然后跳到妈妈的怀里。法农尖叫了一声，巨大的魔镜依旧银光闪闪，冰冷冰冷:它颠倒着，固定着，但永远也认不出来。<br />
“白人——上帝的骄傲的孩子!”是对“5月30日大屠杀”(不到三周后)的直接回应。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 03:05, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
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In mid-May of 1925, factory workers at a Japanese plant in Shanghai went on strike, and then stormed the factory grounds, demanding back wages. The Japanese managers shot and killed the strike leader and injured several others, prompting more general strikes at other Japanese factories by 20,000 workers. Students soon joined the workers in protest, and several were arrested inside the foreign concessionary zone. On May 30, the date scheduled for the trial of those arrested, 2,000 students marched on the concessionary zone demanding the release of the students and workers. In response, British troops arrested a hundred of those assembled. News of the new arrests spread rapidly, and by later that day, several thousand Shanghainese of different levels of society had surrounded the Nanjing Road jail where the protesters were being held, demanding their release. At this point, the British opened fire, killing a dozen or so Chinese and wounding several dozen.<br />
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1925年5月中旬，上海一家日本工厂工人罢工，然后冲进工厂，要求讨回工资。工厂日本经理射杀了罢工领袖，打伤数名工人，导致其他日本工厂2,0000工人发起了更大规模的罢工。学生很快加入工人抗议，随后部分学生在租界遭到逮捕。5月30日原定是遭逮捕的工人和学生受审日子，2,000学生在租界游行示威，要求释放学生和工人。作为回应，英国士兵逮捕了数百名示威者。这一消息很快传开来，当天晚些时候，几千名上海社会人士包围了关押抗议者的南京路监狱，要求释放他们。鉴于此，英军开火，射杀了十几名中国人，打伤几十中国人。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 13:50, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
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Nationwide protests of various sorts erupted immediately, including several literary protests, two by Zhu: “Blood Song,” an incendiary poem composed on June 10, and “White People,” written nine days later.<br />
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The essay never refers explicitly to the May 30 incident; rather, it is the narration and explication of an incident which Zhu experienced on a Shanghai city trolley. After boarding and going to the first-class seats, Zhu sits down across from two white people, apparently a father and son. Zhu marvels at the lovely features of the boy, who looks eleven or twelve, and then goes into an explanation of how he has been fascinated with children ever since a friendship in elementary school with a shy younger boy named Liu Jun. He admits that he loves to stare at young children, and that he stared therefore at the white child. <br />
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==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
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Unlike most children, disturbed by his staring, the white child appears to take no notice, but then, when he and his father are about to get off the trolley, the child flashes a violent, mimicking stare back at Zhu. The author hears words in the stare: “There were words in his eyes: 'Hah! Yellow man, yellow chinaman, you-you go ahead and look! You are worthy of looking at me!” Zhu feels this stare as a physical assault, and feels first terrified, and then patriotically enraged. He then explains his desire for a nationality-trumping universalism, but also doubts its possibility, since such a young child had already been socialized into acceptance of racist categories. Yet he praises the child for exhibiting masculine forcefulness, and claims that this is “what makes whites white.” Finally, he declares himself conflicted on the subject of nationalism versus universalism, ending the essay unresolved.<br />
<br />
与大多数孩子不一样，这个白人小孩对于朱自清的打量毫不在意，但当白人小孩和他的父亲准备下电车时，那个孩子怒目回望了朱一眼。朱从该怒视里读出：“哈，黄种人，黄种中国人，你继续看吧！你也就配看着我的份了！”朱从中感到一种身体上的攻击，一开始觉得害怕，然后带有爱国主义的愤怒喷涌而出。他在文中解释道，这样一个年幼的孩子都已经为社会所同化，接受了种族主义的范畴，虽然自己渴望国籍优先的普遍主义，但同时也怀疑这个普遍主义的可能性。然而，他赞赏这个孩子表现出的男性之力量，同时也认为这点是“白人的典型特征”。最后，他对于民族主义和普遍主义的问题上产生了矛盾，直到文末该问题也悬而未决。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:33, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
<br />
Given the Fanon-inspired traditions of Western postcolonial invocations of the Other, one might from a Western perspective expect Zhu to react to the gaze of the child with a crisis of ''personal'' identity. This is, after all, Fanon's Odyssean quest in “The Fact of Blackness”: to negotiate or seize for himself a space for valued selfhood against the demeaning voices of White France which try to lock him into an Otherness to itself, to himself , to the possibility of humanity. Zhu's reaction certainly fits, in name, the Self-Other trope: he experiences the white child as very White and Other. And the incident deeply traumatic: “This sudden assault made me panic; my heart was void, on all sides there was a very heavy pressure, making me unable to breathe freely.” But the incident does not fit the mirror-stage model as transmitted by Fanon. <br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
<br />
There is no reference to psychical development, and therefore no hint that the quasi-colonialist aggression experienced through the gaze is constitutive, that it denies an authentic Chinese subjectivity to Zhu and replaces it with an ironclad Otherness to himself.<br />
Rather, it confirms Zhu's sense of self by provoking an immediate nationalistic response. After recovering from the shock of the gaze, he immediately “was filled with a pressing nationalistic feeling!” He then reflects on the child's face and action and straightaway abstracts them into a symptom of history:<br />
<br />
That which made me panic and feel terrified, was that this one lording it over me, trampling me, was no one but...a ten year-old white “child”! I always have felt that children belong to the world, and ought not to be of a single race, country, town, or family...<br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
<br />
But this ten year-old white child...had already understood the situation well enough to use racial advantage and national power to assault me with a thrust of his face. This assault was actually the small shadow of multiple assaults, and his face was the small-print version of a history of Chinese foreign relations.[ Zhu Ziqing, Zhu Ziqing Quanji, Vol. 1 (Jiangsu, Jiangsu Educational Press) 45.]<br />
<br />
Despite our Fanon-inspired suspicions about his psychology, Zhu insists that the shock he received, the pressure, the difficulty breathing, was the result of his ''theoretical'' realization that the child was not innocent but had already been corrupted into the fabric of violence from which Sino-Western relations had been cut. The normal, the psychological-these responses are leapt over, the incident is abstracted directly into a symptom of history. And, at least on the surface, this fact might seem to confirm the anti-theoretical position which claims that postcolonial criticism is irrelevant to China because China never sunk into full colonial status.<br />
<br />
但是这个十岁的白人孩子已经非常了解这种情况了，甚至可以利用种族优势和国家权力以他的面目攻击我。 这次袭击实际上是多次袭击的一个小阴影，而他的脸则是中国对外关系史的缩影。【朱自清，朱自清全集 卷1（江苏，江苏教育出版社）45.】<br />
<br />
尽管我们受到法农的影响进而对他的心理学表示怀疑，但朱坚称，他受到的震惊，压力，呼吸困难是他“理论上”意识到孩子不是无辜的，而是被中西关系断绝所产生的暴力侵蚀。<br />
正常的，这些心理的反应被跳过了，事件被直接抽象为历史的象征。 而且，至少从表面上看，这一事实似乎证实了反理论立场，该立场声称后殖民批评与中国无关，因为中国从未陷入完全的殖民地状态。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 15:36, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但是这个十岁的白人孩子……已经非常了解这种情况了，他可以利用种族优势和国家权力的面目攻击我。这次袭击实际上是数次袭击的影子，而他的脸则是中国对外关系史的缩影。【朱自清，朱自清全集 卷1（江苏，江苏教育出版社）45.】<br />
<br />
尽管我们受到法农的影响进而对他的心理学表示怀疑，朱坚称，他受到的震惊，压力和呼吸困难，是他从“理论上”认识到这个孩子不是无辜的，而是已经腐坏成中西关系已被割断的、暴力的结果。跳过正常的心理的反应，这个事件被抽象成历史的症状。而且，至少从表面上看，这一事实似乎证实了反理论立场，该主张声称后殖民批评与中国无关，因为中国从未陷入完全的殖民状况。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 03:42, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
<br />
One could easily derive a trajectory from comparative history to the differences in the two men's encounters with white children, a trajectory whose terms are familiar but worth rehearsing. Fanon's Martinique was almost totally cut off from racial history, national language, and cultural identity. Any nationalism that arose from such soil would have had to have been as a reconstruction of African identity from zero, an almost impossible task. Therefore, Fanon's text has to start from the postcolonial present, analyzing the continuing damage of racism on subjugated black communities. Most of China, despite the extreme cultural upheavals which it experienced in reaction to Western aggression, never sunk into full-fledged colonial status; and therefore this aggression remained for the most part an influential and traumatic margin to the mainstream development of Chinese historical identity. There was no slavery, no tabula rasa, not even in Hong Kong and Macao, or Taiwan and “Manchuria.” <br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
On the contrary, the experience of aggression undoubtedly strengthened national consciousness; and in modernist writings such as the one in question, it is rare to read a moment of experience of the Western Other as such which does not resort to some form of nationalism.<br />
<br />
Up to a point, this sort of analysis is useful. Certainly, it would be dangerous to move directly from historical sketches to windy declarations about the differences between African and Chinese literature. But the standard history does happen to match the particulars of these two authors' educational trajectories. The surface, then, of “White People” is simple and obvious in comparison with Fanon's text, forgoing psychological brooding to go straight to the main course of national pride. <br />
<br />
And yet, one wonders what lurks in the essay's depths, for this is a very unusual piece in Zhu's oeuvre.<br />
<br />
相反，侵略的经验无疑加强了民族意识；在现代主义的著作中，如有关的著作中，很少读到对西方他者这样的经验不诉诸某种形式的民族主义的时刻。<br />
<br />
在某种程度上，这种分析是有用的。当然，如果直接从历史素描转向关于非洲文学和中国文学差异的风马牛不相及的宣言，是很危险的。 但标准的历史确实恰好符合这两位作家教育轨迹的特殊性。 那么，与法农的文字相比，《白衣人》的表面是简单而明显的，放弃了心理上的沉思，直奔民族自豪感的主菜。 <br />
<br />
然而，人们不禁要问，这篇文章的深处到底潜藏着什么，因为这是朱的作品中很不寻常的一篇。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 10:54, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
相反，侵略的经验无疑增强了民族意识。 在诸如此类的现代主义著作中，很少有人会读到西方他人的经历，因为这种经历不诉诸某种形式的民族主义。<br />
到目前为止，这种分析是有用的。 当然，直接从历史速写转变为关于非洲和中国文学之间差异的风马牛不相及的宣言将是危险的。 但是，标准的历史确实与这两位作者的教育轨迹相吻合。 因此，“白人”的表述与法农的著作相比是简单而明显的，它放弃了对民族自豪感的直觉。<br />
然而，人们不禁要问，这篇文章的深处到底潜藏着什么，因为这是朱自清的作品中很不寻常的一篇。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:19, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
<br />
Normally, Zhu Ziqing is one of the last authors one associates with fiery nationalism; rather, he is usually preoccupied with just the sort of psychological introspection which characterizes Fanon's text. Furthermore, the essay was written more than a year after the original trolley ride-could the strangely quick transition from individual experience to nationalist reflection be at least partly created under the influence to retell the story in the light of the May 30 incident?<br />
<br />
If one willfully forgets about the May 30 context of the essay and focuses on the details of the incident as Zhu narrates them, then a second and separate level of interpretation opens in the essay, one much more pregnant with Fanon-like psychological trauma. The widest portal to the inside of this essay is also its obvious crux: i.e., the white child's stare. The key to this portal is that that stare, as it happened empirically, was complete unto itself. <br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
<br />
It was an act, an aggressive act, unaccompanied by words. When Zhu tells us that “there were words in his eyes,” he wants us to believe that the words came from the child himself, and in fact we can certainly believe that that is how Zhu experienced the stare, that he felt the hate speech jabbing out at him from those astonishing eyes. But yet the language admits its paternity: not the child, but Zhu himself. Zhu creates the meaning around the act of the stare, and his entire explication of the problem of racism is based, not upon what he hears, but upon what his unconscious hermeneutic tells him that he hears. Whereas Fanon lives in a shadowy world of little but voices shouting, “look, a Negro!” to Zhu there are no voices at all, only a reality of trolleys and white skin and violent stares to which he himself has to supply the verbal accompaniment.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
<br />
This is absolutely not to say that Zhu's experience of racism is imaginary, that he “shouldn't be so sensitive,” as racists say. No doubt, the child was acting racistly. But it is important to notice that the racism which Zhu attributes to the child is a simple one: the child is figured as a self-assured, mature, masculine aggressor; in fact all of these qualities which Zhu feels are surely exaggerated. He might have suspected that prepubescent white children are somehow super-matured macho-men, but hopefully we know better. For Zhu's stare was not the first the boy had received. Anyone who has had the experience of living as a racial minority in a non-pluralistic society knows what it is like to be stared at constantly; this is in fact the primary condition of Fanon's experience which makes “The Fact of Blackness” possible. <br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
<br />
Thus, in this regard, Fanon is perhaps closer to the boy than to Zhu; or if this is too strong, we could say that Fanon is split between the boy and Zhu, that Zhu shares with Fanon the experience of being dissected by the gaze of the aggressor culture, but that the boy shares with him the constancy of being stared at for being a racial minority. The boy's position in China was obviously much higher than that of Fanon's in France, and therefore the stares he would have received much less negative; yet the mere fact of the constant stare itself can exert an intense psychical pressure, especially on a boy at an age at which deep doubts about his self-identity are forming. This is not at all to excuse the real racist content of the boy's angry glare; but it does suggest that the glare was a lashing-out from a position of weakness and insecurity, rather than from the heel-grinding arrogance which Zhu assumes.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
<br />
Moreover, it is Zhu who initiated this discomforting dialogue of stares. Zhu's boy, like Fanon's, is a mimic, although his mimicry is just as problematic. As Homi Bhabha says, “the look of surveillance returns as the displacing gaze of the disciplined, where the observer becomes the observed and 'partial representation rearticulates the whole notion of ''identity ''and alienates it from essence,”[ Bhabha, 89.] but in this case the mimic gaze is the colonizer's , and it returns precisely as the establishment of racial boundaries. Certainly, Zhu felt this mimicry as an example of colonial aggression; it is only the boy who might have thought of the stare in Bhabha's terms, as his defense mechanism against a racially-motivated intrusion into his privacy.<br />
<br />
And Zhu's initiating stare is certainly racial (though not racist); he gloats over the boy's Caucasianness: “His white cheeks dashed with red and his long golden eyelashes revealed a peacefulness and elegance.”[ Zhu, 43.]<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
<br />
Zhu, of course, tries to cover this fact; this is the prime rhetorical function of the discussion of Liu Jun. Without that mini-narrative, Zhu would have had to go directly from a description of the boy's whiteness into the boy's violent reaction, thus allowing the reader to assume that Zhu's racial gaze is what produced that reaction, complicating the question of the child's aggression. Instead, Zhu asserts a different reason why he is staring: he simply likes children, he has ever since he used to play with that little Liu Jun boy. Zhu wants to figure his own gaze as mostly aracial and entirely beneficent, a happy celebration of innocence which is met by abrupt, mature, racist aggression, shocking him out of his reveries into a disturbed reflection on nationalism and interracial strife.<br />
<br />
Fine, so be it, Zhu's gaze is completely aracial, despite his gloating about pink cheeks and golden eyelashes. It is not therefore simple. Consider the bizarreness hidden in his self-justification:<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
I have always had the sort of temperament whereby if I saw an amusing little child, I would always want to be on intimate terms with him...When I was in the upper grades of elementary school, in the attached building for the middle grades there was a boy named Liu Jun with raven-black Western-style hair, who was truly docile, like a bird....his face was always that undisturbed and earnest, though under his skin there must have burned the fires of intimacy. Several times I invited him to my home, but he was never willing to go; afterwards I didn't see him for two years, and then he died. I cannot forget him! I had held his little hand, and rubbed his round chin. If I meet a young child for the first time, I naturally can't do that, that would be a little awkward; nevertheless, that's unimportant, I can look at him- once, twice, ten times, dozens of times!<br />
<br />
我向来有种癖气，见了有趣的小孩，总想和他亲热...在高等小学时，附设的初等里，有一个养着乌黑的西发的刘君，真是依人得像小鸟一般...他的脸老是那么幽静和真诚，皮下却烧着亲热的火把。我屡次让他到我家里来，他总不肯；后来两年不见，他便死了。我不能忘记他！我牵过他的小手，又摸过他的圆下巴。但若遇着陌生的小孩，我自然不能那么做，那可有些窘了；不过也不要紧，我可用我的眼睛看他——一回，两回，十回，几十回！--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 09:22, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
我向来有种癖气，见了有趣的小孩，总想和他亲热……。在高等小学时，附设的初等里，有一个养着乌黑的西发的刘君，真是依人得像小鸟一般……。他的脸老是那么幽静和真诚，皮下却烧着亲热的火把。我屡次让他到我家里来，他总不肯；后来两年不见，他便死了。我不能忘记他！我牵过他的小手，又摸过他的圆下巴。但若遇着陌生的小孩，我自然不能那么做，那可有些窘了；不过也不要紧，我可用我的眼睛看他——一回，两回，十回，几十回！--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:06, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
<br />
Any given child probably won't pay much attention to people's eyes, so one can look at him with total freedom; it is not at all like furtive, covered glances at women. I have in the past stared at many children I had just met, and they never once protested, at most they pulled on the hand of their mother next to them, or leant on her knee, or looked at her once or twice. Therefore I was very bold. This time on the trolley my old temperament came back, and I looked again and again at that white child, that young Westerner![ Zhu, 43.]<br />
<br />
''Sexuality! ''is the obvious cry which rises at the description of Liu Jun: the docility, the meekness, the holding and rubbing, the “fires of intimacy”--these elements conspire to suggest a nascent homosexuality. <br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
Little Liu is dead, now, but there are substitutes swirling all around Zhu; he cannot touch them as he touched Liu, that would be socially impossible, but as a substitute he can stare with impunity, “dozens of times.” And the children do not protest his stares, they are docile-at most they squirm uncomfortably beneath Zhu's visual intrusion into their world. Zhu's relationship with children is therefore predicated by his dominance of them. He says at the opening of the paragraph that he wants to be intimate with children, but it is an intimacy of power forcing itself upon them.[ The evidence for Zhu's child-fetish is strongly corroborated by his other work. Apart from the focus on childhood in works like the famous, “Back Silhouette” (beiying), in another essay of his, “Children,” he goes so far as to explicitly admit to physical child abuse. ]<br />
<br />
Given these strange admissions, one sees Zhu's reaction to the white child's stare as much more complicated. Zhu experiences the stare as racism, and probably rightly so; yet it seems clear that he is also shocked by the reversal of power involved. <br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
<br />
He normally enjoys the prerogative of a forced intimacy, dominating children through his gaze, and suddenly he finds, for the first time, a child that fights gaze with gaze, is able to dominate him and usurp Zhu's position as an adult, casting him down into the docility of the helpless child. When Zhu, flabbergasted, constructs a voice to put onto the child, he may be grabbing onto the real racism present in the situation to use as a defense mechanism, changing the subject to avoid the real source of the ego-crushing which is occurring. Zhu protests his amazement that he could be so disturbed by “just a ten year old white 'child'”; yet the entire scenario could never possibly have been played out with an adult.<br />
<br />
Fanon's child is a mirror to him, highlighting the Lacanian crisis of identification which life in France causes him.<br />
<br />
他通常享有强迫亲密的特权，通过他的目光支配孩子，突然，他发现，第一次有孩子和他对着凝视，这凝视能控制着他，篡夺朱作为一个成年人的地位，让他处于无助孩子的温顺中。当朱陷入惊讶地，想要对这孩子说话时，他可能是抓住现实的种族主义出现在这情况下，用作防御机制，改变主题，以避免正在发生的自我粉碎的真正来源。朱对只有一个十岁的白人孩子感到如此不安，他感到惊奇。但整个场景永远不可能与一个成年人一起进行。法农的孩子如同一面镜子，突出了他在法国的生活所造成的拉康认同危机。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 11:16, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
他通常享有强迫亲密的特权，通过眼色来支配孩子，他突然发现，第一次有孩子用眼神与他对视，篡夺了朱作为成年人的地位，让他处于无助孩子的温顺中。当朱陷入惊讶地，想要对这孩子说话时，他可能是抓住现实的种族主义出现在这情况下，用作防御机制、改变主题，以避免正在发生的自我粉碎的真正来源。朱对只有十岁的一个白人孩子感到如此不安，他感到惊奇。但整个场景永远不可能与一个成年人一起。对他来说，法农的孩子如同一面镜子，暴露出法国生活中拉康认同危机对他的影响。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 15:43, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
<br />
If we in turn take Fanon as a mirror for Zhu Ziqing, his Lacanian analysis throws up interesting images of the incident on the Shanghai trolley. Zhu's white boy is visually even more of a mirror image to him than Fanon's was. The man and the boy gaze at each other across the solid divide; they mutually stare along a joint axis of domination. Of course, Zhu does not have Fanon's psychoanalytic training: he had read some empiricist psychology, but less Freud and of course no Lacan. He cannot wander between psychological theory and personal experience in the same fashion Fanon did.<br />
如果我们反过来以法农为朱自清的镜子，他对拉卡尼亚主义的分析在上海电车上抛出有趣的事件图像。 在视觉上，朱自清的白人男孩比法农的更像是他的镜像。 男人和男孩在坚固的鸿沟上凝视着对方。 他们沿着共同的支配轴相互凝视。 当然，朱没有接受法农的心理分析训练：他读过一些经验主义者的心理学，但是很少读弗洛伊德，当然也没有拉康。 他无法像法农那样在心理理论和个人经历之间徘徊。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:29, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
如果我们反过来把法农当作朱自清的镜子，他的拉卡尼亚主义分析就会对上海电车事件抛出有趣的图像。 朱自清的白人男孩在视觉上甚至比法农的男孩更像他的镜像。 男人和男孩隔着坚实的鸿沟相互凝视，他们沿着共同的统治轴线相互凝视。 当然，朱德没有法农的精神分析训练：他读过一些经验主义心理学，但少读弗洛伊德，当然也没有拉卡尼亚。 他不能像法农那样在心理学理论和个人经验之间游走。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 10:57, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But a reading of Fanon forces us to ask to what extent Zhu's trauma is a crisis of delayed issues of developmental psychology. This is obviously a complex field which belongs properly to specialists, and one hardly feels there is enough material in this brief essay to make definitive conclusions.<br />
但是对法农的阅读迫使我们问朱自清的创伤在多大程度上是发展心理学迟缓问题的危机。 显然，这是一个复杂的领域，应该属于专家，并且几乎没有人认为这篇简短的文章中有足够的材料来得出明确的结论。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:29, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但对法农的解读，迫使我们要问，朱的创伤在多大程度上是发展心理学的延迟问题的危机。 这显然是一个复杂的领域，理应属于专家的范畴，在这篇简短的文章中，我们很难感觉到有足够的材料来做出明确的结论。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 10:57, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
不过，读了法农的书，我们不禁要问，朱自清的创伤究竟在多大程度上是发展心理学延迟问题的危机。这显然是一个完全属于专家研究的复杂领域。人们觉得，这篇简短的文章中没有足够的材料来让他们作出明确的结论。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 13:53, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
<br />
But the narrative is explicitly spun out of a story of childhood; Zhu himself derives his child-fetish from the loss of the intimate and passive Liu Jun. And Zhu's fascination with children and childhood in other essays should be an indication that something is up. Perhaps one could establish Zhu's relation to Fanon thus: that while Fanon's experience of racism is drawn into a network of theory that links his crisis of identity to an aborted mirror-stage, Zhu Ziqing sees in the mirror of his own white child a vision of himself as prematurely woven into the fabric of power. It is then only this sudden emergence of power in a half-nostalgic, half-sexual scopophilia which highlights the boy's whiteness and raises the questions of racial dominance and nationalist resistance.<br />
<br />
What makes Zhu feel nationalistic pride? It is not the boy's reaction, but his race.<br />
<br />
但故事是明确地从一个童年故事中衍生出来的;朱自清的儿童迷恋源于失去了亲密而消极的刘君。而朱自清在其他文章中对儿童和童年的迷恋，应该是表明有些事情发生了。也许可以建立朱自清与法农之间的关系:法农种族主义的经历卷入了理论之网，这将他的身份危机与流产镜像阶段连接起来, 朱自清从自己的白人孩子的镜子里看到了自己过早地融入权力的一面。正是在这种半怀旧、半性恋的恋物癖中，权力的突然出现，凸显了这个男孩的白人身份，并引发了种族统治和民族主义抵抗的问题。<br />
<br />
是什么让朱感到民族自豪感?不是男孩的反应，而是他的种族。<br />
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 11:43, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但这部小说的叙事显然是从一个童年故事中衍生出来的；朱自清本人从失去亲密无间、被动的刘俊身上获得了对儿童的迷恋，而他在其他散文中对儿童和童年的迷恋，应该是某种事情发生的迹象。也许有人可以这样确定朱自清与法农的关系：虽然法农的种族主义经历被纳入了一个理论网络，将他的身份危机与一个失败的镜像阶段联系起来，但朱自清在自己的白人孩子的镜子中看到了自己过早地编织在权力结构中的形象。正是在这种半怀旧、半性恋的恋物癖中，权力的突然出现，凸显了这个男孩的白人身份，并引发了种族统治和民族主义抵抗的问题。<br />
<br />
是什么让朱感到民族自豪感?不是男孩的反应，而是他的种族。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 03:19, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
<br />
Given the way Zhu sets up his narrative, given the description of his frequent and unimpeded voyeurism of children in public spaces, one assumes that any child who stared back mockingly at Zhu would have shocked him-this child was the first to do so. Had the child been Chinese and stared back, Zhu's experience might have been more obviously psycho-sexual in his own recounting. The real importance of the child's whiteness is to Zhu's rational reflections over the significance of the incident. To Zhu's mind, it was not the child's whiteness but his resistance that was disturbing; but he locates the whiteness as the source of the child's ability to resist and to then turn resistance into domination. He essentializes the incident: force is what makes whites white. A gaze on a bus becomes an allegory for the sweep of modern history.<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
<br />
On reflection, the appearance of nationalism here is far more abrupt than it would have seemed in the Shanghai journal culture following the May 30 Massacre. Is it really a defense mechanism against the revelations of his own psychology? Is it both a defense mechanism and an expression of conscious and justified outrage over colonialist presence in Shanghai? Is it a fiction “remembered” back onto the incident in the heat of the violent summer of 1925? I do not mean by any of these questions to imply that somehow Zhu's nationalism is fake, or secondary, or subordinate; to do that would be to write a justification of the murder of the students on Nanjing Road. But of all the essays and poems and short fiction published along with Zhu's essay in the two Literary Association journals (''Xiaoshuo yuebao and Wenxue zhoukan''), none but his strays so far from the event of the massacre itself in order to support the national cause. It is legitimate to ask why.<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
<br />
The bifurcations in Zhu's essay between experience and historiography, practice and theory thus are constituted in an odd mix of clarity and confusion. Patriotic messages are deeply worked into the fabric of the narration of the incident, and any division between Zhu's lived experience and the big picture view of imperialism were surely invisible to any reader in the context of the essay's production. They are invisible to us, as informed readers, but only on our first readings. The deeper explorations of Zhu's gaze, by suggesting the possible distance of ideological historiography form the original event, merely highlight a structural division between narration and theory which splits the text at “I was filled with a pressing nationalistic feeling!” The structural split is perfectly obvious; yet it is only after some thought about the nature of Zhu's project that it becomes noteworthy.<br />
<br />
因此，朱的文章中经验与史学，实践和理论之间的分歧是由清晰和混乱构成的。爱国主义的启示被深深地融入了事件的叙述之中，在这篇论文的撰写过程中，任何读者都肯定看不到朱的活生生的经验与帝国主义的大视野之间的任何分歧。作为知情的读者，它们对我们是不可见的，但仅在我们的初读时才可见。 通过暗示思想史学与原事件之间可能的距离，朱目光的更深层次的探索仅仅强调了叙事和理论之间的结构性划分，使文本分裂为“我充满了紧迫的民族主义情绪！”其中结构上的分裂非常明显； 然而，只有在对朱的项目的性质进行一些思考之后，它才值得关注。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 03:16, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
<br />
This is the Zhu Ziqing who declares himself a contradiction, and he can talk back to Fanon. His own textual complexes find their affinities in Fanon's text and the Fanonian textual systems that grew from it. It is impossible to forget, with Fanon, the wiles of language-his flourishes are too extravagant. Yet ''Black Skin, White Masks'' is filled with partial autobiographies. One knows one is reading theory, but it seems to be a theory grown organically from “Antillean experience,” even when we all know better. Though our study of Chinese literature might convince us that theory fits or does not fit Chinese experience, we should not assume that theory has a more natural and wholesome relationship with African or Indian experience, that the postcolonial debates were “derived” from fully colonial experience. Psychoanalytic theory created Fanon's experience, and the body of theory “derived” from Fanon has even more dramatically recreated him.<br />
<br />
这就是那个宣称自己自我矛盾的朱自清，他可以对法农进行反驳。他自身的文本情结在法农的文本和由其发展而来的法农文本体系中找到了相似之处。人们不可能忘记法农的语言诡计——他的华丽辞藻太过夸张。然而《黑皮肤，白面具》的一些部分充满了自传性质。一个人知道自己在阅读理论，甚至当我们更了解这理论时，但这理论似乎是一个有机地从“安的列斯经验”中成长起来的，虽然我们对中国文学的研究可能会让我们相信，理论是否符合中国的经验，但我们不应该假设理论与非洲或印度的经验有更自然和健康的关系，后殖民争论是“派生”自完全的殖民经验。精神分析理论创造了法农的经验，而从法农“衍生”出来的理论体则更戏剧性地重新塑造了他。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 11:54, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
The point of which is not to reassert the very tired discovery that theory is not experience and words not things, but to point out that the Chinese modernist friction against theory is not unique. Insofar as we need to continue to talk about postcolonial contexts when addressing Chinese modern literature, it would be helpful to keep in perspective Chinese's non-uniqueness; to do so may help us avoid the trap of either-or questions. Tension is healthy. If we must dismiss with a wave our continuing urgent desire for comparison of unmediated experience, and cannot give ourselves over to the mere nodding affirmation of sloganized thought-systems, then at least the comparative and cross-cultural analysis of tension is still available to us.<br />
<br />
The great frustration of the work of comparison is its inability to aspire to totalisms. However conscious we are of the danger of such aspirations, they are magnetic and insinuating.<br />
<br />
这里的重点并不是要重申这个老生常谈的发现，即理论不是经验，文字也不是事物，而是要指出中国现代主义与理论的摩擦并不是唯一的。在探讨中国现代文学时，如果我们需要继续探讨后殖民语境，那么审视中国的非独特性是有帮助的。这样做可以帮助我们避免陷入非此即彼的困境。对立是有益的的。如果我们必须以一种浪潮来驱散我们对未经调解的经验的比较的持续的迫切愿望，不能让我们自己沉溺于仅仅是表面肯定的口号的思想体系，那么至少对立比较和跨文化的分析对我们仍然是可用的。<br />
<br />
比较研究的不足在于它不能实现极权主义。虽然我们十分清楚这种想法的危险性，但还是会被吸引。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 07:00, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
<br />
The leap from text to context is satisfying; even if one is aware of the necessity of multiple contexts, because one can choose one's school and plant one's feet and make an argument (or ignore the need for argument) that one's chosen context is the most appropriate. The comparison of individual works requires resignation to pettiness. Any other permutation of works will produce different, perhaps contradictory, lessons. For example, comparing Zhu's essay with other May 30 protest essays, such as those by Mao Dun or Zheng Zhenduo, would vastly alter our evaluation of it. Among an infinite number of permutations of comparison, the importance of any one comparison becomes infinitesimal, and its authority to define the reception of the work shrinks commensurably. The infinitesimal still has the potential for informing other research, but only by miracles of typological allegory.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
<br />
'''Incongruous Lyricism: Liu Baiyu, Yang Shuo and sanwen in Chinese Socialist Culture<br />
'''<br />
Charles A. Laughlin<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
The popularity of both Republican period and post-Mao sanwen in contemporary Chinese literary markets indicates the importance of this genre in twentieth century Chinese literature. <br />
<br />
Less obvious, but no less significant, is its importance within the socialist cultural system of the Chinese Communist Party. Ever since Chinese cultural activists began to consciously promote specific literary practices as a way of contributing to “revolution” in the late 1920s, literary prose played an important role, but at first only in the form of reportage or baogao wenxue. Beginning in Yan’an during the War of Resistance Against Japan, however, young writers who received all or in part of their education or literary training in Communist institutions began to write prose texts that more closely resembled the xiaopin and suigan of the Republican period. Unlike reportage, these texts featured lyrical and humorous moments without being critical of the social environment, and they were not concerned with contemporary historical events and figures. <br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
<br />
Such writing achieved prominence in the first decade of the People’s Republic of China, and in this paper I examine three writers that exemplify the characteristic techniques and strategies of the socialist literary essay: Liu Baiyu, Qin Mu and Yang Shuo. Liu Baiyu exemplifies how the experience of war and revolution conditioned the emergence of lyricism in socialist culture, while Qin Mu and Yang Shuo embody the maturation of this socialist lyricism in a peacetime environment. Socialist ''sanwen'' differs from Republican period forms in its characteristically friendly yet didactic second-person rhetoric, and its tendency to build verbal monuments for national heroes. But traces of the conspicuous individuality of Republican period ''sanwen'' lived on in the essayists of the 1950s and 60s. This created a subtle dissonance in the texture of socialist culture that in my opinion contributed to the prominence and popularity of these writers, whose works were included in textbooks for later generations of mainland readers.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
<br />
When we think of the Chinese essay we usually think of the works of Republican period liberal humanists drawing upon both Western ideas and premodern Chinese style and diction to produce a new genre that represented the artistic epitome of lyrical, colloquial prose. Perhaps just as commonly, when we think of revolutionary literature and of writing under the Chinese communist regime, we think of realism, social critique, polemic and propaganda. Indeed in my study of the development of reportage literature in the Republican and early PRC periods, I associate the procedures of reportage with the culture of leftism in such a way as to render the very notion of lyrical leftist nonfiction discordant if not outright absurd. The problem is, as I was aware at the time, there are prominent authors in the PRC – Yang Shuo, Liu Baiyu, and Qin Mu, to name only a few – who made their names almost entirely through the writing of essays (sanwen). <br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
<br />
At that time, I dismissed this phenomenon in the usual way: these were communist lackeys simply parroting the ruling ideology at the bidding of culture czars.<br />
<br />
But even if they were, I could not account for the fact that such writing took on the form of sanwen, in many ways similar to the ''xiaopin wen'' popular the 1930s, while there was already in ''baogao wenxue'' a thriving literary nonfiction form that seemed to embody in its very form the communist vision of art and its place in society. To put it another way, there is nothing in the logic of socialist culture as I knew it that would call for the production of ''sanwen'' as written by these authors, and we know very well that authors under socialism are not at liberty to write what they please, so I had to attribute the persistence of the ''sanwen'' form in the PRC to something inherent about ''sanwen'' and Chinese literary modernity. <br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
<br />
My current project intends to approach this question by comparing Chinese literary nonfiction practice in a number of different historical and cultural scenarios from the late imperial period to the present, and this presentation concerns specifically the ''sanwen'' under Chinese socialism.<br />
<br />
'''Socialist ''sanwen'' emerged from Communist base area writing practice''' <br />
<br />
Usually in the form of reportage, literary prose of the Yan’an period was concerned with dramatizing the social and spiritual superiority of regimented, collectivized life under the leadership of the Communist Party. Such writing often relied on direct comparisons between aspects of life in ”the old society” and life in Yan’an, or the between checkered past of characters who had been rehabilitated by the Communists and their newfound belief in the socialist community and its leaders. Though often idealized, examples given are meant to be concrete and taken as factual, and names are often named of military leaders and model laborers depicted. In this respect reportage is the most direct precursor of the lyrical essays of the People’s Republic.[ The civil war of 1946-1949 so disrupted the socialist base areas that much less of this kind of writing was produced; war correspondence once again became the order of the day]</div>Hu Huifanghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201130_trans&diff=10593320201130 trans2020-11-27T03:56:56Z<p>Hu Huifang: /* Hu Huifang 胡慧芳 */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
A good example to illustrate this is the cuisine that is often still defined by national borders (but certainly also in even smaller regional units). The existence of Italian cuisine is undisputed, but you don't have to go to Italy to eat quite authentic Italian food. Of course, there have always been Europeanized variations of Chinese cuisine (e.g. with thickened sauces), and the Istanbul native who orders a kebab in Germany will be surprised that he is served flat bread and not a plate of cutlery.<br />
<br />
Eating habits, especially at breakfast, seem to be difficult to change, so that the author did not get used to the Chinese breakfast (rice soup with salty vegetable side dish) in China for years. <br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
When Italian spaghetti with bolognese sauce was announced one lunchtime in the cafeteria of Beijing University, the joy was great, at least until the dish could be tasted. Obviously only the outward appearance had been preserved here, the appearance of the spaghetti largely corresponded to that which one can see in cookbooks. However, in terms of taste it was a catastrophe, the tomatoes used had obviously been understood by the cook not as vegetables but as fruit and the noodles had been overcooked for an extra long time.<br />
<br />
Also with the enterprises there are such cultures, German enterprises are considered e.g. in many countries as well organized. Even manufacturing processes for the same products often differ from country to country, but are increasingly standardized worldwide, especially when a company has a patented process in several countries.<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
This can lead to interesting national solutions when the same task is set, namely to design a street cleaning vehicle:<br />
<br />
[[File:che1.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Street cleaning vehicle a) China<br />
<br />
[[File:che2.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Street cleaning vehicle b)<br />
<br />
Since the 1990s, the author has personally experienced the differences in working in a foreign Chinese software company in America (e.g. PC Express, later TwinBridge in Los Angeles), in a Chinese software company on the mainland (e.g. Suntendy, Beijing), in a German company in China and in a German-Chinese mixed company. These personal experiences flow into the present booklet.<br />
<br />
Thus, the term culture here is largely synonymous with tradition or philosophy, whereby tradition appears to be related to the past and philosophy often appears as reflected culture reduced to a few principles, and thus already consciously controlled and teleological. For these reasons, the author has chosen the term culture in the present context.<br />
<br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
Japanese production culture is known to us, the Chinese (here abbreviated CMPC) has hardly been investigated in literature, so this booklet has a pioneering character.<br />
<br />
In this booklet, the author draws on Geert Hofstede's comparative cultural model, which he discussed with him at the LMU in Munich on January 22, 2009, on fundamental observations on the Chinese economy from a macro perspective by Philip Huang, and on the results of a field study by Jianzhong Hong, Aino Pöyhönen, Kalevi Kyläheiku 1998-2000 (see bibliography). <br />
<br />
This booklet was prepared to be presented at the conference "Beyond Japan - Values and Attitudes of Asian Production Cultures" in autumn 2010. The author is grateful to Dirko Thomsen, AutoUni Wolfsburg, who invited the author to contribute to the conference.<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
'''Approaches/Perspectives'''<br />
<br />
The distinction between craftsman culture and trader culture has been established for some time. This means that in an economy, more emphasis is placed on developing products that are as perfect as possible, and constantly improving them. A dealer culture places more value on the profit that is made between the cheapest possible purchase and the most expensive possible sale. This distinction becomes clear when we examine a typical case of complaint: <br />
<br />
If a customer complains a product in a craftsman culture, then the salesman is concerned, offers an error free exchange product or a financial compensation and reports the product error further, sends the equipment possibly in, with the goal of letting the error, if it should occur e.g. at several devices, in principle of letting the development department eliminate the error. <br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
In a dealer culture the service and satisfaction of the customer is more important, here it is more important to see if the customer is angry and reacts accordingly to his complaint with apologies and compensation offers. Feedback to the manufacturer is of secondary importance. <br />
<br />
Here are some of the countries that fall under the relevant categories:<br />
<br />
Craftsmen's Culture Retailer Culture<br />
<br />
Germany, France Poland, USA, China, Korea<br />
<br />
Another distinction is made between production and design cultures. <br />
<br />
In the 19th and 20th centuries, a production culture developed in mechanical engineering in the USA, whereas in Germany a construction culture developed. <br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
The experience of rationalization in the U.S. with the pioneer Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915) was quickly received in Germany, among other things by establishing chairs of business administration in Berlin in 1904, Aachen in 1908 and Hanover in 1910. Accordingly, I follow Kunze in 2008 when he rejects Kothes' assertion that German production culture before 1914 is backward.<br />
<br />
In Germany as a culture of craftsmen, a diversification of products developed early on, which was made possible by constantly optimizing the product. Even in teams, the focus is still on the highly qualified individual who does his part of the teamwork independently and assumes responsibility.<br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
In the USA, the goal is rather the production of a cost-effective mass product. Responsibility was delegated to teams and budget control was introduced to control these teams. However, this is more in keeping with the lawnmower principle and does not apply to the appropriateness of the individual special product or the individual employee.<br />
<br />
This can be illustrated in an overview:<br />
<br />
[[File:233.jpg]]<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
'''The Japanese Production Culture''' <br />
<br />
After World War II, Japan did not have as many investments available as Germany, for example, through the Marshall Plan. Out of necessity, the Japanese economy therefore did what was possible, namely an optimization of existing machines, processes and personnel. This also resulted in the development of a special national production culture, the characteristics of which can be seen in an overview:<br />
<br />
[[File:566.jpg]]<br />
<br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
Today, the Japanese production philosophy is considered the pacemaker for new production technologies and the benchmark for modern industrial nations. Former Porsche boss Wendelin Wiedeking is an admirer and imitator of the Toyota Production System: "Toyota is synonymous with consistency". It is the international standard by which the modernity of a factory is measured.<br />
<br />
The basic idea of the Japanese model was that storage costs were incurred because more was produced than purchased. So technologies were developed which ensured that the product was only (re)produced when the customer bought the product (production on demand). The higher costs of producing a single item are more than compensated by the savings in intermediate storage (and, in the case of slow-moving items, final storage) of products. This procedure is successfully used today, for example, in book production.<br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
More important, however, is the idea that there should be as few production interruptions as possible, and if so, that these should be eliminated as quickly as possible. A typical phenomenon on the construction site is that work stops because a certain part / material to be installed has not been delivered on time. In production plants, a machine in the assembly line production breaks down and the whole production is stopped. This is where the Japanese philosophy comes into play, training the individual employee to the extent that he or she can repair minor defects on their own and assigning the responsibility to them to do so. For larger defects, a central team is available. <br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
This motivates them to ensure that these smaller defects do not occur in the first place and not only repairs the defect, but also thinks of a way to ensure that this defect does not occur in the future, i.e. they not only repair the defect, but also the cause of the defect.<br />
<br />
With production on demand, interruptions in production would also be conceivable if demand were to decline. Ideally, production then adjusts, i.e. it runs correspondingly slower or faster, depending on how strong demand is at the moment. The most important thing is that production is uninterrupted and trouble-free.<br />
<br />
这促使他们确保这些较小的缺陷不会先出现，除了修复缺陷，还要想出一种防范此缺陷发生的方法，即，他们不仅修复缺陷，而且根除缺陷。<br />
<br />
在按需生产的情况下，如果需求下降，生产也可能会中断。 理想情况下，生产会进行调整，即根据当前的需求量，生产速度相应地变慢或变快。最重要的是保证生产不间断且无故障。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 15:25, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
The Japanese reward system works in a similar way for innovations introduced by individual employees involved in the production process. Here, it is important that the person who had the idea receives a relevant sum of money immediately and unbureaucratically, long before the idea is implemented.<br />
<br />
Another element are the quality circles or Kaizen teams. These are smaller working groups that are responsible for a small part of the production. They should meet once at the beginning and then regularly at least once a week to openly discuss suggestions for improvement. <br />
<br />
Recently, other Japanese elements of production culture have also been mentioned, such as multi-divisional structures and decentralization. They are also found in the American production culture. <br />
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
The Japanese production culture, whose optimization was born out of necessity, proved to be more competitive than the cultures of other countries, which is why it quickly became the model, even the epitome, of modern production culture, and in the 1960s and 1970s it began a worldwide triumphal march.<br />
<br />
'''China - Factory of the world''' <br />
<br />
Today, however, China has replaced Japan and the other classic industrial nations as the factory of the world.<br />
<br />
[[File:fangjieling.jpg]]<br />
<br />
It also leads the emerging markets worldwide.<br />
<br />
In the projection of economic performance, Goldmann/ Sachs sees China ahead of the USA, India and Germany.<br />
<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
[[File:6.jpg]]<br />
<br />
So China is today again (after the period 0 A.D. until about 1200 A.D.) the leading economy in the world. One of the characteristics of the Chinese production culture is its continuity. For thousands of years, China has been producing products such as silk, tea, porcelain, etc. without interruption. Even though Chinese production was not a world leader in the period 1200 to 2000 A.D., it remained at a roughly constant level for a long time before it caught up with the Industrial Revolution in a rapid development. Such a long production culture is without equal worldwide.<br />
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
It is still important to bear in mind that China is once again growing to become the leading economic nation, but in this most populous country not all Chinese are yet benefiting equally from this leadership role. This is easy to see when comparing the absolute figures (e.g. GDP in country comparison or related to the growth of its own GDP) with the relative figures (GDP/capita). Here is one such comparison with the USA:<br />
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[[File:7.jpg]]<br />
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I would like to start my analysis of the importance of production culture with a few questions:<br />
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Does the production culture have anything to do with the rapid increase? Is it perhaps the cause of the increase? <br />
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Obviously, the Chinese production culture has not been an international model for modern production culture. Could the reason for this be the problem that the production culture is culture-specific? What other reasons could there be? Are these reasons justified?<br />
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In order to find clues to answer these questions, the Chinese production culture is examined and defined below.<br />
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==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
'''Genuity of Chinese production culture'''<br />
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The Silk Road has been documented since about the 5th century BCE, but gene analysis proves that it was used to trade domesticated plants and animals in both directions already about 10 millenia BCE. There is also proof of cultural exchange through this trade road. The following products manufactured in China were traded on it:<br />
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·Silk<br />
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·Tea<br />
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·Spices<br />
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·Ceramics/Porcellain<br />
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·Jade<br />
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·Bronze<br />
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·Lacquerware/Paints<br />
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·Iron<br />
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·Paper<br />
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·Gunpowder<br />
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·Furs etc. <br />
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The Silk Road was of course used in both directions, gold, precious stones and for a long time glass were imported into China. If the New Silk Road can be built with rail roads, it will lower the costs and time of shipping several times compared to the current maritime container shipping.<br />
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==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
With the world's largest merchant ships, junks, which could hold up to 4000 tons, China also dominated maritime trade for centuries. Already in the 3rd century B.C. the Emperor's Canal was built in China for inland navigation.<br />
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[[File:gdf.jpg]]<br />
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Previous picture: Chinese junk from the year 1804.[ John Barrow, „Travels in China: containing descriptions, observations, and comparisons, made and collected in the course of a short residence at the Imperial palace of Yuen-Min-Yuen, and on a subsequent journey through the country from Pekin to Canton“, Cambridge Scholars Publishing 12.1.2010, ISBN 9781153190947, 302 pp., p. 59.]<br />
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[[File:gdf2.jpg]]<br />
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Ming period junk (14th century).<br />
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In the period from the birth of Christ until 1200 A.D., China had the highest gross domestic product in the world. Only in 1200 was China overtaken by Western Europe.<br />
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==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
[[File:10.jpg]]<br />
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Between 1200 and about 2000, China lagged far behind the West and was considered a developing country. Nevertheless, from 1700 until today, China has experienced the same population explosion as America and Europe.<br />
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[[File:11.jpg]]<br />
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While Europe ensured the food supply of the larger population at the end of the 18th century with the Industrial Revolution, China slept through this development and caught up with it in fast motion from 1900 with its first factories, from 1950 with centrally planned larger production units and from 2000 with private enterprises, at first mainly joint ventures, which led to an uneven development in the country.<br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
The example of silk production in Japan and China already reveals the first differences in the production culture:<br />
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In Japan, a loom was introduced that was copied thousands of times without a license, thus ensuring a nationwide standard. Silk from Japan was always woven in the same way, and buyers could always rely on the same product quality.<br />
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In China there were various independent production facilities and regional traditions. So silk from China was of a variable quality.<br />
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Another aspect of Chinese production culture is the ethnic component: <br />
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·Western companies have better cards in China if they use Chinese middlemen. <br />
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·Chinese companies that are active in Africa export their entire business model including employees, cook, buildings. <br />
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==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
Nevertheless, today's Chinese production culture is no longer genuine, but is also more strongly influenced by history than the Japanese Western culture.<br />
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Even party schools at the beginning of the 21st century are commissioning business faculties of American universities to conduct management training.<br />
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'''Made in China'''<br />
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The label "Made in Germany" was originally a British origin label to distinguish itself from poor quality German goods. It was only later that the mark of Cain became a trademark due to the improvement in quality.<br />
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"Made in China" stands for cheap products, low wages, poor quality, mass production and plagiarism, hierarchical management and an "ant-like" workforce.<br />
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==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
But in fact this is only an impression that applied to the first mass products in China; in the meantime the picture has changed.<br />
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1 At the beginning of the 21st century, the labor market in China appears saturated for the first time. This is accompanied by extreme wage increases. In the meantime, one has to pay almost as much for a man-day of an engineer with comparable qualifications in China as for an engineer-man-day in western industrialized countries.<br />
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2. The previously most important productive sector is being replaced by the service sector as the most important economic sector.<br />
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3. Following the example of Western companies that have consistently introduced quality assurance in China, the proverbial poor quality of Chinese products is now a thing of the past. In many companies, quality assurance is now also practiced.<br />
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
4. apart from the reproduction of products developed in the West, the first high-tech products that have been further developed in China (cell phones, notebooks, etc.) are already available.<br />
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5. Chinese companies are now buying companies worldwide with the required know-how (notebook division of IBM => Lenovo, Volvo etc.).<br />
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6. with a real ravenous appetite, Chinese managers devour bestsellers that explain Western management principles and apply them with playful curiosity and great zeal, such as team meetings. Meetings in Chinese companies are now more common (5 meetings/day) than in Germany (1-2 meetings/day).<br />
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[[File:12.jpg]]<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
'''Characteristics of Chinese production culture'''<br />
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'''Hierarchy'''<br />
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Chinese companies are traditionally strictly hierarchical, with many levels. Authority gives face. As in other countries, functions are called together with the name as titles. According to Hofstede, the yardstick for hierarchy is the power distance index.<br />
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'''Appreciation of age''' <br />
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In addition to hierarchies based on professional positions, age also has a corresponding authority. Older people are seldom deported to retirement homes after their retirement, but live until death in the extended family, in which they fulfill tasks until the end. The neighborhood also takes care of the elderly people by involving them in work assignments (street cleaning, support for traffic regulation) depending on their readiness.<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
The older brother automatically has a more prestigious position than the younger one. In Chinese, kinship terms are strictly separated into "older" or "younger". The preceding adjective "alter" in the confidential form of address is an honorific. <br />
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In business life, too, older employees are respected because of their life experience (and possibly because of the large network of relationships to be expected). <br />
A positive side effect is that the experience remains in the company. New research also shows in the West: older employees are often underestimated, their experience must be used more and knowledge can be kept in the company.<br />
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'''Concept of Face'''<br />
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For the protection of the individual, there is the face concept, where everyone can preserve his or her honor, even if mistakes have been made or someone is inferior. For this purpose, unwritten rules (institutions) are observed in the company: No one criticizes the other person in front of others. If criticism must be exercised, then indirectly. A request is not rejected directly, there is no "No! The Chinese employees are particularly sensitive to the nuances, to the "maybe" and know how to classify it accordingly without being damaged.<br />
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
'''Incompetence of bosses leads to informal decision-making'''<br />
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Traditionally, the position of General Manager, or even senior positions in Chinese companies, is preferably filled with people who can be trusted by those making the appointments. The greatest trust is given by a family relationship, somewhat less so in the case of friendship between families or between individuals, or by shared periods of life, such as being born in the same village, attending the same school, the same club, etc. Of course, professional qualifications also help to build trust, but this is only of secondary importance. <br />
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The leadership positions of the largest state-owned enterprises in China are assigned by the party, and these positions are cobbled together with correspondingly deserving cadres. <br />
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One consequence of this appointment policy is the widespread incompetence of leaders.<br />
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老板的无能导致非正式的决策<br />
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传统上，总经理的职位，甚至中国公司的高级职位，最好是由可以任命的人所信任的人。 家庭关系给人最大的信任，家庭之间或个人之间的友情或家庭生活的共同点（例如在同一个村庄出生，在同一所学校，在同一家具乐部等）则给予最大的信任。 当然，专业资格也有助于建立信任，但这仅是次要的。<br />
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中国最大的国有企业的领导职务是由党派出的，这些职务与相应的应聘干部结合在一起。<br />
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这项任命政策的结果是领导人普遍无能。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 03:56, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
In economic terms, this too is an emergency situation, especially for the bosses concerned, who are surrounded by more competent subordinates. In combination with the facial concept, the bosses thus have to hide their incompetence on the one hand and on the other hand want to keep their position, i.e. they are under enormous pressure to make the right decisions. This has led to an informal decision-making system. The boss discusses possible alternatives informally with the experts. In the end, he has obtained a broad opinion and makes the decision that seems best to him alone. The fact that the laurels are actually due to others remains unspoken; it increases the intensity of the personal relationships (renqing) of the people involved. Once the boss has made a decision and communicated it, the employees will implement it without contradiction due to the hierarchical structures. <br />
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
If a superior's decision is not considered correct, the subordinate may not address the boss. Rather, when the hierarchical structures do not apply (joint leisure activities or similar), an opportunity must be sought to indirectly point out the wrong decision to the boss.<br />
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Meetings per day C > USA > D<br />
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The frequency of meetings is much higher in China than in Germany. In the country comparison of four selected countries/regions the following order results:<br />
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1. Hong Kong <br />
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2. China<br />
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3. USA<br />
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4. Germany<br />
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==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
'''Shapes of modern Chinese production culture and their causes'''<br />
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[[File:13.jpg]]<br />
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Modern Chinese production culture shows the following characteristics:<br />
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1. in the area of know-how China lags behind the western industrial nations and Japan, which causes feelings of shame. Many Chinese feel that they are on the defensive and regard their country's relationship with the USA and Japan as the David's against Goliath. This results in a subjective legitimacy for broad-based industrial espionage with national interest and know-how theft.<br />
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==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
'''2. Innovation'''<br />
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China is traditionally known as an empire of inventions, so letterpress printing, gunpowder, porcelain etc. were invented long before similar inventions were made elsewhere in the world. However, these inventions were often not brought to serial production and were produced in masses, as for example in Europe, where gunpowder led to the production of handguns and cannons. It can be exaggerated to say that gunpowder was used instead for New Year's fireworks by the nobility. This shows the Chinese characteristic of a capacity for innovation with a simultaneous lack of diffusion in the market.<br />
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The Industrial Revolution also largely passed China by. Since China, like Europe, was experiencing a population explosion due to better hygiene and medicine, but at the same time the automation of food production did not go beyond manufactories, China fell behind in its standard of living.<br />
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
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Traditionally, imitation has always been highly valued in China. A good copy was almost as important as the original. Thus, both the civil service examination system of previous centuries and today's school system were strongly oriented towards reproduction rather than creativity. One reason may be the enormous amount of characters that requires students to memorize for years.<br />
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自古以来，模仿对中国来说十分重要。好的模仿同原型几乎地位相等。因此，前几个世纪的公务员考试制度和如今的学校系统都着重指向再生产而非创造。其中一个原因可能是学生在多年里需要记忆大量的人物。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 01:53, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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从古至今，中国都十分重视效仿。好的副本与原本几乎同样重要。因此，先前世纪的公务员考试制度与现今学校系统都着重强调再生产而不是创新。其原因可能是学生们在几年里需要记的人物数不胜数。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 02:20, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
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The idea of copyright is also less rooted in China than in the West.<br />
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When the Chinese were awakened from their sleep by the cannon thunder of the 1st Opium War, there was great regret that they had not carried out their own research and development. Although physical violence was disregarded, the foreigners were envied their technical superiority and since then they have propagated the idea of learning technology from foreigners and reproducing it in order to be able to defend their own cultural values and sovereignty more effectively. This feeling of envy gave rise to an extreme motivation to both imitate the superiority of others and ultimately to outdo them.<br />
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中国的版权意识没有西方那么深刻。<br />
当中国人在第一次鸦片战争的炮声中惊醒时，他们非常遗憾没有自己的研发创造。国人虽然憎恨外国人的暴行，但仍旧羡慕他们的技术优势。从那以后，他们师夷长技，以便能够更有效地捍卫自己的文化价值观和国家主权。但这种嫉妒感催生了一种极端的动机，既模仿他人的优越感，最终在该方面又超越他人。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:40, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
'''3. Competition'''<br />
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The toughest competition worldwide is in China. Successful products immediately find numerous imitators. As soon as an imitator can produce the product at more favorable conditions, the client switches to him. Together with state arbitrariness, this has resulted in the emergence of a typical Chinese type of company: The financial holding company as a family-owned enterprise with involvement in various industries. This enables a company to survive even if the sales market for a product suddenly collapses. In hardly any other country in the world do companies have to be as vigilant as in China, adapting products to changing customer requirements within the shortest possible time and always being one step ahead of the competition. New trends have to be recognized early and capacities have to be built up or reduced flexibly.<br />
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Those who survive in this hard school are also prepared for more peaceful and fairer markets like those in Europe and America.<br />
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
'''4. State control'''<br />
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The reform and opening policy since 1978 has led to a predominance of foreign companies in China at the end of the 20th century. In order to protect their own industry, laws were introduced obliging companies to provide a certain percentage of their production in China locally. As a result, Chinese suppliers had to be sought who were able to contribute parts to the production chain. This promoted local industry and also the transfer of know-how. <br />
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At the same time, foreign suppliers were also forced to follow the large companies to China if they did not want to be replaced by a Chinese company. This accelerated the settlement of foreign companies in China.<br />
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
However, legislation (like the joint venture laws) and court decisions favoured domestic companies. Also, China has built up a state capitalism that sponsors industry, supports domestic industry on the world market and helps financing overseas investment. Also, copyright infringement and industrial espionage (including civil-military alliance) supports the Chinese economy. Under the Trump administration, the USA has responded with a protectionist “America first” strategy.<br />
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'''5. Legal system'''<br />
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The legal system in China is not independent. It acts at the behest of the state.<br />
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Western companies came to China with superior know-how and financial power. These companies were admired in China, but at the same time a feeling of disadvantage arose with regard to their own backward industry. <br />
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
As a counterbalance to this perceived weakness in relation to the large foreign corporations, the legislation was designed and the judiciary was urged to protect their own corporations.<br />
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This puts Chinese partners in a better position when joint ventures are dissolved (often the know-how and capital goes to the owner).<br />
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'''Necessity is the mother of invention'''<br />
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The reason for the increase in efficiency, known worldwide as Japanese management culture or production culture, was the lack of money for new machines in Japan after World War II.<br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
In China, another emergency situation is also the reason for developing a separate response to the challenges of the market: it is the professional incompetence of management personnel. This has grown historically. In China, management positions are primarily given to people who can be trusted. Traditionally, the most trustworthy people in China are family members or family members of old school friends, acquaintances who come from their own village and who have indulged in the same hobbies together (see Deng Xiaoping's Bridge round or the golf acquaintances in Western lobbying) etc. Loyalty to the party plays a secondary role. In principle, members of the Communist Party have it easier in business life, cadres even easier. Membership in the People's Liberation Army plays a similar role.<br />
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在中国，另一种紧急情况也是制定单独应对市场挑战的原因:管理人员的专业能力不足。这随历史的发展不断涌现。在中国，管理职位主要由可信赖的人担任。传统上最值得信赖的人是家庭成员或老同学的家庭成员，来自自己村庄的熟人，有共同爱好的熟人(比如邓小平的桥牌圈或西方游说中一起打的高尔夫熟人)等等。对党的忠诚是次要的。原则上，共产党员做生意很容易做起来，共产党员干部就更容易。中国人民解放军的战友也扮演着类似的角色。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 09:24, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
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在中国，另一种紧急情况也是制定单独应对市场挑战策略的原因:管理人员的专业能力不足。这种情况随历史的发展不断涌现。在中国，管理职位主要由可信赖的人担任。在中国传统中，最值得信赖的人是自己的或老同学的家人，同村的熟人和有共同爱好的熟人(比如邓小平的桥牌圈或在西方游说中一起打高尔夫的熟人)等等。对党的忠诚是次要的。原则上，共产党员很容易把生意做起来，共产党员干部就更容易。中国人民解放军的战友关系也起着类似的作用。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 15:54, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
Professional competence often plays no role at all. But here, too, a generational change has taken place; the highest leadership cadres in the Central Committee often had no education or training at all in the Soviet Union at the beginning, were replaced by technocrats in the 1980s, and at the beginning of the 21st century many have an American university degree. <br />
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In the business sector, the leadership positions of the largest Chinese state-owned enterprises are still awarded by the party to deserving cadres.<br />
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The professional incompetence of the bosses represents a plight that must be countered in daily work with a sophisticated strategy if one does not want to be replaced by a more professionally competent boss.<br />
==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
This strategy consists of the following:<br />
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·Avoiding the disclosure of own professional incompetence<br />
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·Informal consultation and coordination with the actual experts in the company before each decision process<br />
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·Announcement and representation of the decision by the boss alone, this decision may then also no longer be questioned<br />
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This informal participation in the decision-making process is organized in a network which, however, in contrast to the Japanese model, is not lived out in team discussions, but rather through several face-to-face meetings between the boss and a different expert in each case, since if the boss sought the advice of a first expert in the presence of a second expert, he would lose face with the second expert. This network character is therefore very personal and usually consists of direct two-person relationships. <br />
==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
However, it is also possible to contact a third person who knows the second person, whereby the second person then only establishes contact and then withdraws.<br />
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A further emergency in China is that due to the sleepy industrial revolution and the lack of information diffusion in the market, no research and development tradition of its own has been established to date. Instead of carrying out basic research for a long time, information about the state of the art of advanced competitors was obtained and attempts were made to copy and eventually outperform them. Only recently, due to enormous governmental support, e.g. in hybrid drive technology and electric motor technology, self-developed products have been created in China.<br />
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
'''Changes in the Chinese production culture'''<br />
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When the production site in China opened up to the global industry, the egalitarianism of the planned economy had already erased the tradition of quality assurance from the memory of the factory workers. In the decades before, they had been used to selling along with the scrap. The first factories, which produced goods in China due to the low labor costs, also delivered rejects accordingly. The foreign investors first had to reintroduce the quality assurance concept in China. Due to the strong competition in China and the orientation towards world market prices and standards, quality assurance has now been internalized in China.<br />
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“中国生产文化的变化”<br />
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当中国的生产基地向全球产业开放时，计划经济的平均主义使得工厂工人追求质量保证这一传统不复存在。在过去的几十年里，工人已经习惯了把废料一同出售。由于劳动力成本低廉，在中国生产商品的第一批工厂也相应地交付了废料。外国投资者须先重申质量保证的重要性，唤起中国生产商的重视。与此同时，由于中国市场的激烈竞争以及其对世界市场价格和标准的关注，质量保证在中国内部现已普及。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:28, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
The originally traditional lifelong relationship with the employer, as we also know it from Japan, has now been reversed. China currently has one of the highest employee turnover rates in the world, even higher than the already high rate in the USA.<br />
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In the period 1950 to 1980, the production culture was characterized by blind fulfillment of plans; since 1980, production has been oriented to the market.<br />
Today, management concepts are as en vogue in China as political campaigns were in the past. They are read and discussed, but often misunderstood due to the lack of foreign language skills and context/background knowledge.<br />
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通过日本我们可以知道，最初的传统终生雇佣关系现在已被颠覆。中国是目前世界上员工流动率最高的国家之一，甚至高于员工流动率本就很高的。<br />
在1950年至1980年期间，生产文化的特征是盲目地执行计划经济；自1980年以来，生产一直面向市场。 如今，管理理念在中国就像过去的政治运动一样流行。 它们被阅读和讨论，但由于缺乏外语技能和语境背景知识而常常被误解。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 07:59, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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通过日本我们也可以知道，最初的传统终身雇佣关系现已被颠覆。中国是目前世界上员工流动率最高的国家之一，甚至高于员工流动率已经很高的美国。<br />
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在20世纪50年代至80年代，生产文化的特点是盲目执行计划; 自1980年以来，生产一直面向市场。如今，在中国，管理理念就像过去的政治运动一样流行。他们被阅读和讨论，但常因为缺乏外语技能和背景知识而被误解。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:42, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
Similar to the campaigns, the concepts are introduced with an eternal claim, but only last as long as a seasonal fashion. This type of management, which is based on current trends in management strategies, could also be called guerrilla management, following Sebastian Heilmann's concept of "guerrilla politics".<br />
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In China, a culture of secrecy (ID badges, access restrictions), especially among high-tech companies, is prevalent, which is exactly the same as in America. In China, this culture was simply copied from the USA, certainly also due to the findings of Chinese industrial espionage abroad that know-how, e.g. in German companies, is often insufficiently protected against access by third parties.<br />
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==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
'''Roles in the Chinese production culture''' <br />
<br />
The central role in the Chinese production and management culture is played by the boss. This can also be seen in the comparatively high values of China's Power Distance Index.<br />
<br />
The specific behavior of the boss in the decision making process has already been explained above.<br />
<br />
In the following, the difference in the relationship between the boss and his subordinates in China and Germany will be described.<br />
<br />
The team member in Germany expects a target for the overall project and the specification of the assigned subarea within the project, feels responsible for the timely achievement of his own and the team goal and wants to find the way to this goal independently. <br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
It would like to be little supervised and communicates intensively with the other team members. The team leader in Germany is rather a primus inter pares, who has a small area of responsibility as a specialist and is responsible for coordination. The success is always a success of the team.<br />
<br />
In China, the boss has a much higher position than the other team members. He gives each team member the individual goal and the individual steps to reach this goal. He closely monitors the progress and cares for the team members, also regarding job satisfaction and in private matters. <br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
He expects a feedback only to him and no exchange of information between the team members. If the input of the first team member is a prerequisite for the work of the second team member, the boss himself forwards the intermediate / work results of the first to the second team member. <br />
<br />
The role of the employee in China is determined by the following characteristics: He cultivates a culture of error, in which it is important not to make any mistakes of his own, and in case mistakes are made, to correct them if possible without being noticed and in case they are noticed, to at least not immediately admit the guilt. <br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
In all these behaviours, the principle of face awareness applies.<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, the loyalty of employees to an employer in China is extremely low at the beginning of the 21st century. For a few yuan a month, workers change employers. Headhunters intercept employees at the factory gate, ask about the salary and offer correspondingly more. <br />
<br />
The paid passing on of information, especially about customers, suppliers, purchase prices and patents, is also considered a trivial offence. <br />
Chinese companies communicate less and employees are more demotivated. This is mainly due to the high production pressure, as case studies by Hong/Pöyhönen/Kyläheiku 2006 show (see list of literature in the appendix).<br />
<br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
'''The Intermezzo of Socialism from 1949-1979'''<br />
<br />
In the phase of socialism, the centrally planned economy applied in it blossomed as follows:<br />
<br />
When the news reached the top, there was a culture of whitewashing.<br />
<br />
The breakup of the unions made the culture of co-determination in companies even more informal.<br />
<br />
'''Gaming in the Chinese production culture'''<br />
<br />
In China, playful experimentation is a core element of the production culture. In this way, individual management elements, but also entire foreign production philosophies can be tried out in a playful way.<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
One of the main differences between young people in China and those in the West is that, even as young adults, they can still play hilariously without making themselves look ridiculous to others. The joy of playing is particularly unrestrained if the ambition is there to copy a foreign product as similar as possible or even to surpass it and also to implement, for example, a new management concept or a production philosophy. <br />
<br />
New rules of the game are accepted very quickly. The introduction of a reward system (''incentives'') for long service has led to a situation in China where it is always calculated when a change is worthwhile.<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
Sustainable concepts can only be introduced if the benefits of the concept are clear. Other concepts with no discernible added value, such as alignment with the American corporate philosophy on mergers and acquisitions, are forgotten just as quickly as they were introduced, and people return to old habits.<br />
<br />
'''Effects on the company''' <br />
<br />
In China today, we find a modern production culture that is international but has its Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
It has positive and negative effects on the company:<br />
<br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
'''Positive effects of the Chinese management and production culture (CMPC)'''<br />
<br />
·Networks<br />
<br />
·the preferential treatment of Chinese companies (e.g. in tenders, competition, within corporate groups such as joint ventures)<br />
<br />
·playful enthusiasm for technology<br />
<br />
·Brutality, which in turn promotes competition<br />
<br />
'''Negative effects of the Chinese management and production culture (CMPC)'''<br />
<br />
·through their distortion of competition <br />
<br />
·by promoting incompetence in management positions<br />
<br />
·through their priority of personal rather than non-cash benefits, which is fundamentally negative for the production culture <br />
<br />
·through rituals/conventions (face, criticism, status etc.)<br />
<br />
·intransparent state sponsoring and corruption<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
The fundamental difference of the free trade zone established by China, Japan, Australia and other Asian Pacific countries in 2020 from suggestions of free trade zones involving the US or the EU is, that state-sponsoring and corruption are not restricted. Therefore China benefits most of this new free trade zone.<br />
<br />
'''Where is modern Chinese management and production culture (CMPC) an international role model?'''<br />
<br />
[[File:lo]]<br />
<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
The Chinese management and production culture (CMPC), as explained in the previous chapters, has its own characteristics that distinguish it from, for example, the Japanese or American management and production culture. Nevertheless, the CMPC is successful and manages the world's largest production market. Elements of the Japanese production culture have been successfully used worldwide to modernize production facilities. Can Chinese elements also lead to global success?<br />
<br />
The following 5 elements appear at least compatible on the international market:<br />
<br />
'''1. informal decision making through horizontal and vertical network management'''<br />
<br />
In China, important and unimportant decisions are seldom made by competent committees or officials, but rather are investigated informally.<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
The hierarchical position in the company of those involved in the decision-making process is irrelevant, only their professional competence. Questioning the most competent is possible because this questioning is completely detached from the honor and reward system, but takes place in a parallel world, the so-called personal relationship system (Chinese: guanxi 关系). Due to this decoupling, the responsible decision-maker does not mind questioning other, not responsible but more competent colleagues/employees/outsiders. At the same time, the colleague/employee/external is motivated to give the best possible decision support, since he can score points in the parallel world.<br />
<br />
The results are well-founded and accepted decisions.<br />
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
'''2. playfully trying out new forms of production and management (attention: hermeneutics/sustainability)'''<br />
<br />
The play instinct in people up to old age is socially sanctioned. In phases when there is little to do in the office, a Mahjong or Go board or cards are taken out as a matter of course. Similarly, new methods, often imported from the West or Japan, are tried out with playful zeal. An incentive system, for example, challenges colleagues to earn as much capital as possible in the form of incentives in as short a time as possible. It is not unusual for hit lists to be posted in the office, so that colleagues encourage each other. <br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
But it is important to pay attention to three aspects:<br />
<br />
1. the actual goals should be achieved without neglecting other aspects of the work or even worsening the overall result, because the colleagues are addicted to the urge to play. The introduction of new management or production strategies is nothing new for Chinese employees, they know this from political or education-oriented campaigns (e.g. traffic education). <br />
<br />
The second aspect that must be kept in mind is the understanding of the corresponding philosophies. For this it is important, for example, when importing Western management culture into China, that the correct Chinese term is first found for the fashionable e.g. English expression. <br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
Terms that are translated incorrectly or not at all lead to success messages that a new system has been introduced, with what was understood by it being introduced instead. <br />
<br />
A third aspect that must be considered in this context is sustainability. Many new concepts that have been introduced are forgotten after a few weeks and the old rut has returned. Only individual, often senior employees still remember the newly introduced things and occasionally refer back to them without being able to enforce them on their employees. <br />
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
A process description system that is integrated into the daily work routine (e.g. daily used computer work surface) is useful here, where the employees make or execute decisions and processes in the given paths.<br />
<br />
All in all, the playful approach reduces fear of contact with new things, the daily work routine is varied and the employees gain further qualifications.<br />
<br />
'''3. speed and flexibility in product development'''<br />
<br />
One of the hallmarks of the Chinese manufacturing industry is the speed at which products are cribbed and developed further, or at which they react to changing customer requirements or market conditions.<br />
<br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
The ambition that Chinese product developers put into developing solutions for specific requirements is comparable to the play instinct described above.<br />
<br />
他希望中国的产品开发人员为特定需求开发解决方案，这一雄心壮志与上述游戏本能不相上下。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:37, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This high speed and flexibility strengthens the competitiveness of Chinese companies. Western companies can learn these qualities by locating in China and thus benefit from these experiences in the comparatively sluggish production location in their home countries.<br />
<br />
这种高速和灵活性增强了中国企业的竞争力。西方企业可以在中国开公司来学习这些品质，从经验中获益，与本国相对迟缓的生产环境来说。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:37, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''4. focusing on personal competence instead of things or functions'''<br />
<br />
4注重个人能力而不是事物或职能--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:37, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Interesting and certainly typical Chinese is the fixation on people instead of the thing.<br />
<br />
有趣的是，中国人是典型的对人不对事。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:37, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
有趣无疑的是，大凡中国人都对人不对事。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 11:50, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
<br />
[[File:majuan]]<br />
An original feature is the logistics. As this picture illustrates, existing primitive means are exploited to the utmost. Admirable is the matter-of-course way in which the extremes are mastered.<br />
<br />
For a long time, production capacity in China grew faster than logistics. Only at the beginning of the 21st century are delivery services and infrastructure (highways, high-speed train connections, etc.) catching up.<br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
'''The Freedom of Intellectual Exchange'''<br />
<br />
Starting to work on the modern Chinese literary essay in the 1990s, I published my Ph.D. thesis ''The History of the Chinese Essay'' in 1998. Because it was written in German, I hoped since then to raise interest in this subject in the anglophone world, too. With this volume in hand, this wish has become true. Some of the topics I dealt with in my thesis like the development of the genre, biblio-biographies of several essayists etc., are elaborated here extensively by my collegues in English and more detailed than I could do it in my first ground work in German. <br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
Moreover, this collection documents the lively discussion, which started among sinologists in the last years of the 20th century.<br />
<br />
I remember quite clearly, how the idea of the conference was born during a meal at the Boston AAS conference hotel with King-Fai Tam. Leo Ou-fan Lee had helped to bring both of us together, knowing that we shared a seemingly specialized hobby, the modern Chinese essay. King-Fai was preparing two collection of essay translations, one with essays from mainland China and one from Taiwan. The first is scheduled for publication. I prepared another collection of essays with both, Chinese original and English translation, published by The University Press Bochum half a year ago. The common intention of both of us is to make more Chinese essays available in English translations. <br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
King-Fai Tam and me are both fascinated of the idea of promoting this long time neglected genre and to find out more about its characteristics and the reasons of its success in the 1920s and 1930s as well as in the 1980s and 1990s. On a napkin, we outlined an AAS panel, an international conference and a volume with essays on the essay. All of these ideas are now becoming real more or less in the way we planned it: The AAS panel became an NEAAS panel at Yale, the conference took place in August 25-27, 2000 at the Academy of Euro-Asian Economy and Culture in Achern, in the Black Forest, Germany. <br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
14 scholars of Chinese literature, from the States, Taiwan, the United Kingdom and Germany took part. All of them share the fascination of the phenomenon of the essay. Language was no barrier: The conference was conducted in English with the exception of a few papers in Chinese with English abstracts.<br />
<br />
The collection of essays on the essay are the conference proceedings in hand, this book contains extended versions of the conference papers. It was published by The University Press Bochum in December 2000. More important is the fact, that through this opportunity, we now have lively email discussions and a website with updated information on the Chinese essay.<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
Here I would like to take the opportunity to thank the members of the organizing committee Charles Laughlin, Xinmin Liu, King-Fai Tam, and Alexandra Wagner for their great help. I very much enjoyed the discussions via email.<br />
<br />
A common philosophy stands behind the whole project: We want to share information, help each other and do not care about language barriers. Everybody can contribute in English or Chinese, some of us like me being non-native English speakers.<br />
<br />
We encourage the reader to make use of the large margins for personal notes in the awareness of pursuing a tradition dating back to the very origins of essay writing. <br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
Having most of the conference papers in hand with this book, everybody is welcomed to give a feed back. This kind of free intellectual exchange I first experienced in the States when Leo Ou-fan Lee invited me to stay from 1998-1999 as a visiting scholar at the Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations at Harvard University.<br />
<br />
The contributors to this volume can only introduce and draw the attention of the readers to this Chinese genre, the joy of reading remains to the reader himself.<br />
<br />
M.W.<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
''The Flourishing of the Chinese Essay''<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler<br />
<br />
The flourishing of essay publication in the periods of accelerated modernization, the Western-influenced one (1920s/30s) and the one of liberated economical actors (1980/90s), was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines and book series that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists. The emergence of this media show a clear trend: the essay is a genre of overwhelming and increasing interest among Chinese authors and readers.<br />
<br />
There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s: <br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
·The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ Donald Hall, The Contemporary Essay (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1984) xiii. In this textbook, Hall has chosen a wide range of contemporary American essayists. In his introduction, Hall applies for clear writing, and active reading.]; <br />
<br />
·the increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br />
<br />
·a revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br />
Because of its increasing importance, the essay can now be assigned its proper place in the canon of contemporary genres and in the history of literature.<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
In the last two decades of the 20th century, the essay has been the main communication medium between the discourse of the intelligentsia and the mass of readers of daily newspapers. Therefore we have a genre which transports ideas of the elite in small pieces and common language and functions as the link between mass and elite culture.<br />
<br />
December 2000<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
'''Keynote: “Let us Assign the Essay its Proper Place in Chinese Literature!”'''<br />
<br />
''Martin Woesler''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. We are used to the established narratives of C.T. Hsia, Průšek, and Anderson, which let Chinese literature appear overshadowed by its elder brother, fiction. The latter has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularization of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement.<br />
<br />
Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly: <br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
•The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history. The impact of the essay genre, with its direct language, its connection to life, and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers, was larger than the indirect effects of fiction or poetry.<br />
<br />
•The essay also reflects trends in society better than poetry and fiction. Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem, which is limited in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
•The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, and does not require the large amount of time spent on reading novels. The essay itself is a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.<br />
<br />
•The volume of essay production exceeds the volume of xiaoshuo production.<br />
<br />
Can the picture of Chinese literature remain unchanged if we take the essay into consideration? As stated above, there is a large contrast between the true value and the current valuing of the essay. Let us assign the essay its proper place!<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
'''The unknown genre'''<br />
<br />
The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90); whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
Two times in the 20th century the Chinese essay was flourishing, first in the 1920s and 1930s, then in the 1980s and 1990s. <br />
<br />
Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'', see works of Laughlin, Klaschka). The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文丛书 (essay bookseries). <br />
<br />
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.<br />
<br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging ''xiangtu'' literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.<br />
<br />
Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:<br />
<br />
The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political ''zawen'' of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). <br />
<br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996 (see Denton). The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.<br />
<br />
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of ''novel'' and ''opera'' in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.<br />
<br />
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.<br />
<br />
- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lives, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.<br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
-The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao, etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his zawen), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang'' lu derived).<br />
<br />
Let us assign the essay its proper place<br />
The consequence which must be derived from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! <br />
<br />
Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature<br />
I will name a few points to illustrate what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Pršek and Anderson.<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the yuanyang hudie pai played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century. The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
In the following, I will name two aspects (chronologically sorted by past, and modern times) to promote the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.<br />
<br />
1. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned<br />
How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay both in China and the West are notes written in the margins of books, as well as letters and travel notes saved. These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality and subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber.''<br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference[ This is older than the ones referred to in Morohashi, 5:529a / sequential page counting 5167a, and in the The Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language, vol. 73c / s.p.c. 6137c.] this far for the term sanwen that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù. 詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatells, is limited. Luo Dajing 14:Baihai:1). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
<br />
In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge. The reorganization originated from the observations of Copernicus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Ages.<br />
<br />
In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of ''san'' 散 as to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''. Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises.<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
<br />
They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.<br />
<br />
During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written in the paper margins originated the ''biji'' 筆記 (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming dynasty. The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as ''a genre of its own'' originated in China not before the Qing 清 dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
<br />
Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences. Until now, the Chinese pre-''Honglou meng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.<br />
<br />
Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the “Eight legged essay” as as appealing and intoxicating as the “pleasure of doing opium.” (Zhou Zuoren 1932c, 148).<br />
<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
<br />
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, 71).<br />
<br />
Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''wen yi zai dao'' 文以載道 (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.<br />
<br />
Liang Qichao developed a ''xin wenti'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.<br />
<br />
但他也认为这是一种在现代作品中流行的体裁，如洋八股和党八股（吴志辉，71）。<br />
理学强调文以载道。如果从体裁的角度重新解读这一措辞，我们可以说，当时的散文已被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。<br />
梁启超受西方语言的影响，发展了一种新文体，但这种文体在报纸成为大众传媒之前就开始流行起来，语言也变成了白话。<br />
--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 12:40, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但他也认为这是一种在现代作品中流行的体裁，如洋八股和党八股（吴志辉，71）。<br />
理学强调文以载道。如果从体裁的角度重新解读这一措辞，我们可以说，当时的散文已被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。<br />
受西方语言的影响，梁启超发展了一种新文体，但这种文体在报纸成为大众传媒媒介之前就流行起来，新文体的语言也变成了白话。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:25, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
<br />
'''2. The essay as the medium of modernity'''<br />
<br />
The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. It was short, dealt with reality, there was no limitation regarding the contents, therefore it was also capable of documenting and spreading the ideas about the best form of society. It was simply the best form to transport the thoughts of the intellectual leaders of the time to the public and to create a public sphere. Imagine the May Fourth Movement without essays! Most of Lu Xun's work consists out of essays!<br />
<br />
Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming “needs” of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
<br />
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is “a genre of self-reflection”. Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art. <br />
<br />
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays.<br />
<br />
I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).(文献 无需翻译)<br />
<br />
但是从本质上说，这篇论文在形式和内容上设定了新的界限，因此不仅脱离了意识形态限制，而且在其中建立了自己的批判亚文化。这篇文章不仅是我们今天讨论的媒介和社会政治背景的记录，还是关于作家在不断变化的环境中寻找定位的个人奋斗的记录，因为这篇文章是“反思类型”。有些文章甚至像左派意识形态之一一样破坏了主叙述，通常只是将其与主观经验，现实或艺术联系起来去面对。<br />
<br />
如果我们考虑论文的话，会对文学的整体理解发生了变化，如果我们既看作者的小说诗歌作品，又看他们的论文的话，对单一作者的观点也会改变。<br />
<br />
我想提到文学的另一种立场，强调文学对生活的影响，特别是在革命前夕对生活的影响。按照这种观点，所有文学都是政治性的（詹姆森）。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:17, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
<br />
'''The Aesthetic of Marginalism and the Impact of the West on the Chinese Essay'''<br />
''Martin Woesler''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
Chinese and Western essays derived from the notes in the margins of books. With this step from the private to the public sphere, we find the impact of subjectivity and individualism on literature. The origin of the essay has influenced the later essay tradition in its ephemeral, subjective, marginal character; its claim for understatement; the conversational and colloquial style of expression; and its eclecticism. The essay itself often deals with one subject, but this topic is looked on from different perspectives.<br />
<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
<br />
The aesthetic of marginalism, invented by Schlette in 1977 and further developed by Pfeiffer and others in 1996, proves helpful for understanding the character of the essay. Following its methodological perspective, marginalism grants the essayist a distant view of the text body itself from the margins of the book. This enables the essayist to think unorthodoxly, the condition ''sine qua non'' of critique and protest. <br />
<br />
In my paper, I use the concept of marginalism to explain the rhetorical means of digression in Lu Xun's essays. Lu Xun seems to digress: 1) on purpose for rhetorical effects; 2) going off-target for arts’ sake; 3) as an experiment; 4) for its own sake with socio-critical side blows; 5) as understatement with surprising effects. Further I will show marginalism in the founder of Western essayism, Montaigne, and the Chinese scholar Qian Zhongshu.<br />
<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
<br />
As for the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, both traditions are relevant: The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations, starting from 1907. From this, there first developed a Chinese essay tradition which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology. Later, the Chinese essay’s own proponents succumbed to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history alone. The legendary authors of the May Fourth movement considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition.<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
<br />
Wherever on earth human beings developed a high culture, the written language was its essence. Early traces we find in the pictograms of the Near East, Latin America and China. The more the characters remind of the ontological world, the more the written language itself was an object of cult. From the Chinese we know the use of characters in the tortoise shell oracles, from the Germans in sacrificial stones. Later, with the improvement of writing material, the first rolls were created, either from papyrus (Egypt), pergament (Europe) or bamboo (China). Due to the expensive material, written rolls were reserved to wealthier people. The texts were reduced to the documentation of important things.<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
<br />
For the first time, it was possible not only to document events and therefore to extend the human mind and memory, but to communicate complex information from one author to another or more readers. At this stage, the first reading notes were written. Due to the lack of the precious writing material, the margins of the rolls were used. Still today we find these notes as well as on early European (for example ancient Greek) rolls as well as on Chinese ones. These notes were personal thoughts about the text, explanations of places and events maybe unknown to third readers, interpretations of unclear text passages, alternatives to seemingly miswritten characters, sometimes only marks for structuring the texts, which were used as school textsoles to teach reading, too. <br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
<br />
Some notes were intended for other readers, and from this in Europe and China the tradition of commentary developed. Other notes were of a private nature, personal comments to the text, not written down for other people. And both, in Europe as in China, the same evolution took place, when the authors of the notes discovered, that the notes were worth collecting. From these collections of notes they compiled short essays. These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality and subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
<br />
The names given to these essays reminded of their origin. In Europe they were called “marginal notes,” “marginalia,” in China “brush notes” (''biji'' 筆記, or occasional notes). They were flourishing in the Ming dynasty. They could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as ''a genre of its own'' originated in China not before the Qing 清 dynasty, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.<br />
<br />
All these terms for the essay, and also the term “essay” itself, which means “try, attempt,” invented by Montaigne, reflect the ephemeral, subjective, marginal character of the essay. The term itself carried the claim for understatement, which is substantial especially when you want to express subjective, individual thoughts, in order not to seem schoolmasterly to the reader. <br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
<br />
From this origin, different characteristics of the essay came, which are still valid for essays today. One is the conversational style of expression, which comes while you create the sentences from the notes the very moment you are writing them down. From Greek philosophers we know that they sat relaxed in the yard, while one person was reading them their notes from the margins of the books which the philosopher transformed into sentences orally, while another person wrote it down. This also explains the colloquial character of the essays. In fact, the whole development of ideas was based on a conversation in mind with the author of the original role, and many Greek philosophical schools knew about the importance of dialogues for the development of thoughts.<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
<br />
Another characteristic of the essay is its eclecticism. While reading an original text, the educated scholar constantly thinks of quotations and links to other works. Therefore many notes consist out of references to other works. The essay itself therefore often deals with one subject, but is looked on from different perspectives.<br />
<br />
In 1977 Heinz Robert Schlette developed the aesthetic of marginalism, in 1996 Klaus-Peter Pfeiffer developed this concept further. It proves helpful for the understanding of the character of the essay. In its methodological understanding, marginalism grants the essayist a distant view from the margins of the book to the text body itself. Following Schlette, marginalism is only possible where dissident thinking is possible. Marginalism is the private sphere left to the reader during the reading process.<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
<br />
It is the condition sine qua non of critique and protest. A marginalist reader is one, who reads a text critically. Also Montaigne saw himself as a marginalist (Ulke, 31 - 38).<br />
<br />
Let us now use the concept of marginalism to look on the 20th century Chinese essay. I choose here the example of Lu Xuns' essays. One of Lu Xun's rhethorical means in his essays is the digression. The digression is closely related to marginalism and essayism: <br />
<br />
In some of his essays, Lu Xun digresses from his actual subject. This phenomenon increases in his later work. Following Wilpert, digression is one possible expression of conscious scepticism and a warning signal, that something is wrong.<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
<br />
Walf 1996 in his article “Marginalism in the Daoism” portrays the margi¬na¬lis¬m as an aesthetic, which in China are linked close to the tradition of scepticism of Wang Chong (27 - 97). As a youth, Lu Xun was optimistic about the impact of literature on society. He soon lost this optimism, as documented in “Preface to ‘Call to Arms’” (Lu Xun 1922b). Finally, he became a sceptic regarding the possibilities of literature to change society.<br />
<br />
1, digression on purpose<br />
<br />
In 1926, in his essay on “Wuchang, the Ghost of Perishable Life” (Lu Xun 1926b) Lu Xun digressed to contemporary critic on his contemporary Chen Xiying. In “Illustrations of 24 Examples of Children Piety” (Lu Xun 1926a), he protested against the slogan “Down with the colloquial language”. Lu Xun uses here historiographical and autobio¬gra¬phical essays for appeals of daily-political value.<br />
<br />
沃夫1996年在他的文章《道家的边缘主义》中将边缘主义描绘为一种美学，这在中国与王充(27 - 97)的怀疑主义传统密切相关。青年时期，鲁迅对文学和社会的影响持乐观态度。他很快就失去了这种乐观，正如鲁迅在他的《呐喊》序言中所描述的那样。最后，他对文学改变社会的可能性产生了怀疑。<br />
1.故意离题<br />
1926年，鲁迅在他的文章《武昌，生命的幽灵》(鲁迅1926b)中转移了对他同时代的陈希英的当代批评。在《24个孩子虔诚的例子的插图》(鲁迅1926a)中，他抗议“打倒白话”的口号。鲁迅在这里使用史学和自传体散文来呼吁日常政治的价值。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 08:57, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1996年沃夫在他的文章《道家的边缘主义》中将边缘主义描绘为一种美学，在中国，这种边缘主义与王充(27 - 97)的怀疑主义传统密切相关。青年时期，鲁迅对文学和社会的影响持乐观态度。但这种乐观很快就消失不见，，正如鲁迅在他的《呐喊》序言中所描述的那样。最后，他对文学能否改变社会产生了怀疑。<br />
1.故意离题<br />
1926年，鲁迅在他的文章《武昌，生命的幽灵》(鲁迅1926b)中改变了对他同时代的陈希英的当代批评。在《24个孩子虔诚的例子的插图》(鲁迅1926a)中，他抗议“打倒白话”的口号。鲁迅在这里使用史学和自传体散文来呼吁日常政治的价值.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:51, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
<br />
2, not targeted digression<br />
<br />
In May 1927, Lu Xun starts his “Morning Blossoms Picked at Dusk - Afterword,” continues to write it until July 11 (Lu Xun 1928b). It becomes a full-length essay, which again describes historiographically the character of the servant of the underworld Huo Wuchang and Si Youfen. <br />
<br />
3, Marginalism as experiment<br />
In the essay “What the Youth Should Read” (Lu Xun 1919), the actual essay does not appear in the text body, but in the footnote. On a questionnaire Lu Xun answers the question about recommended literature shortly, that he never paid attention to this and therefore could not recommend anything. But he makes a footnote, where he starts writing freely. The subject of the questionnaire with the essay in the footnote corresponds parodistically to the classical “discussion” of a “subject”.<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
<br />
4, Marginalismus for its own sake with sociocritical side blows<br />
<br />
In 1924, Lu Xun writes the consciously trivial essay “My Moustache” (Lu Xun 1924). In this essay, he makes fun of the things, other people are interpreting into the shape of his moustache. After that, he writes the even more trivial essay “From the Moustache to the Teeth” (Lu Xun 1925a), where he mocks about the fact, that the readers are reproaching him with banality.<br />
<br />
5, Marginalism as understatement with surprising effect<br />
<br />
Montaigne, too, consciously introduces his essays with understatement. Lu Xun wraps explosive contents into essays, which are titled with marginal headers: In the essay “Idle Thoughts at the End of Spring” he compares the paralyzing effect of Confucianism with the poison of a dangerous wasp (Lu Xun 1925b).<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
<br />
In “Casual Remarks under the Shine of a Lamp” he assumes the Chinese people, that they wanted to be slaves forever, in history as well as in the future (Lu Xun 1925c). In the autobiographical essay “Lightweight Reminiscences” he explains his decision to go to study in Japan (Lu Xun 1926c).<br />
<br />
Another example for the awareness of the origin of the essay is Qian Zhongshu's essay collection ''Marginalia of Life'', Shanghai 1941. In it, Qian mocks about human failures, like hypocrisy, humorlessness and groups of people like guards of morality, charlatans, literary reviewers, etc. (see Ba Ping, 1168 - 1173).<br />
<br />
'''Questioning the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''<br />
<br />
散文起源认识的另一例子是1941年钱锺书在上海发表的“围城”散文集。文中，他嘲讽人类的失败，比如伪善，缺乏幽默感，以及一群如道德卫士，江湖骗子和文学评论员等的人。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 09:45, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在《灯光下的随评》中，他认为中国人想成为永远的奴隶，不论是在过去还是在未来(Lu Xun 1925c)。在自传体散文《轻量回忆》中，鲁迅表明他决意去日本学习(Lu Xun 1926c)。关于这种意识的起源在文章中的体现，另一例子是1941年钱锺书在上海发表的散文集《写在人生边上》。文中，他嘲讽人类的失败，如伪善，缺乏幽默感，以及一群人如道德卫士、江湖骗子、文学批评家等等。(see Ba Ping, 1168 - 1173) 质疑中文文章的真实性--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:24, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
<br />
To solve the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Washington Irving's essays by Lin Shu 1907, Joseph Addison's by Ma/Gan 1911). The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations (for Chinese translations of English essays in the 1980s and 1990s see appendix). First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only.<br />
<br />
为了解决有关中国文论是起源于本土传统还是受西方翻译影响的争议，人们认为这两种传统有相通之处：从1907年开始，西方翻译就通过中文翻译引入文学改革运动的作家们的文论，（1907年林纾翻译的华盛顿欧文的文论，1911年马/甘翻译的约瑟夫·艾迪生的文论）。 该类型的当前形式主要是基于西方文论翻译的影响（有关20世纪80年代和90年代英语论文的中文翻译，请参见附录）。 首先发展了中国散文传统，有意识地在语言，形式和术语上依赖西方模式，其拥护者很快屈从于仅从中国历史中继承中国文论传统的诱惑。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 01:00, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
<br />
A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).<br />
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Pršek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition. <br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
<br />
Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition: for example, Lu Xun with his theory “'Zhankai' shuo yu 'mengya' lun “展開”說與“萌芽”論” (Theory of “Starting” and “Blossoming”) came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin Dynasty (265-420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the biji (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his “Gonganpai yu Yingguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合 成”論” (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the Engli¬sh Essay). <br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
<br />
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1934, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1932].<br />
<br />
Wang Zengqi in 1993 regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays. The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
<br />
'''Formation of Modern Subjectivity and Essay:''' <br />
<br />
'''Zhou Shoujuan’s “In the Nine-Flower Curtain”'''<br />
<br />
'''Jianhua Chen'''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
How to define the modern Chinese essay? Is it modern because of using ''baihua''? Does it start from its naming of ''sanwen''? While scholars identified its origins with May Fourth literature, the complicated trends of literary modernity in the first two decades of the 20th century was neglected. Relating Zhou Shoujuan, a major figure in the Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies school, to his contribution to the formation of modern Chinese essay has to encounter the problems of literary canons in modern China. <br />
<br />
Zhou Shoujuan’s “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” (''Jiuhua zhang li'') reveals that this 1917 vernacular “pillow talk” (''qinghua'') in the wedding night came out of chaotic conditions of literary genre before the generic system of poetry, fiction, prose, and drama is established in the May Fourth period.<br />
<br />
如何界定现代汉语散文?是因为使用了“百花”才变得现代吗?它是从“三文”的名字开始的吗?虽然学者们将其根源归结为五四文学，但20世纪头20年文学现代性的复杂趋势却被忽视了。把鸳鸯蝴蝶派的主要人物周瘦娟与他对中国现代散文形成的贡献联系起来，必然会遇到中国现代文学经典的问题。<br />
<br />
周瘦娟的《九花帘》揭示了这段1917年《新婚之夜》中的白话“枕边话”（“清华”）是在“五四”时期诗歌、小说、散文、戏剧的通俗体系建立之前，从文学体裁的混乱状态中走出来的。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 11:01, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
如何界定中国现代散文?是因为使用了“白话”才成为现代散文吗?“散文”这一名字出现就有了现代散文吗?当学者们将其根源归结于五四文学，便忽视了20世纪前20年文学现代化的复杂趋势。鸳鸯蝴蝶派的重要人物周瘦娟对中国现代散文的形成作出了重要贡献，但仍面临着现代中国文学经典的问题。<br />
周寿鹃的《九花帐里》揭示了在五四时期诗歌、小说、散文、戏剧等整体体系尚未建立之前，1917年出版的《新婚夜》中的白话“情话”是在文学体裁混乱的情况下产生的。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 12:56, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
<br />
Obsessed with first person narratives it hybridizes diary, love-letter, autobiography, and journalist reportage. I will argue that this Butterflies obsession with subjective genres in the early 20th-century lays a foundation for the growth of modern Chinese essay. <br />
<br />
The theatrical devices used in this work create a double self in the narrative space - the self as a performer and the self in the beholders’ gaze. This paper emphasizes that the rhetoric of theatricality is indebted to the repertoires of traditional poetry and drama, which become unavailable when the New Literature triumphs in the 1920s. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, I will elaborate how the theatricality helps to construct an early Republican subjectivity based on the divisions between the individual, family and nation-building.<br />
<br />
痴迷于第一人称叙事，它杂糅了日记、情书、自传和记者报道。我将认为，《蝴蝶》在20世纪初对主观文体的这种痴迷，为中国现代散文的成长奠定了基础。<br />
这部作品所使用的戏剧手段在叙事空间中创造了一个双重的自我--作为表演者的自我和观看者目光中的自我。本文强调，戏剧性的修辞是依赖于传统诗歌和戏剧的剧目，而当新文学在20世纪20年代取得胜利时，这些剧目就变得不可用了。<br />
此外，我还将阐述戏剧性如何帮助建构一种基于个人、家庭和国家建设之间划分的早期民国主体性。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:10, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
<br />
''Twilight is that moment of the day that foreshadows''<br />
<br />
''the night of forgetting, but that seems to slow time itself,''<br />
<br />
''an in-between state in which the last light of the day may''<br />
<br />
''still play out its ultimate marvels.'' <br />
<br />
Andreas Huyssen. ''Twilight Memories''<br />
<br />
By way of tackling the origins of modern Chinese ''sanwen'', this paper opens up a zone of “twilight memories” of literary modernity early in the twentieth century, which has recently haunted the field of modern Chinese literature. In terms of modern Chinese ''essay'' or ''prose'', how do we define this genre? Is it modern because it uses ''baihua''? Does its ''modern'' start from being called ''sanwen''? How was the May Fourth generic system established? And what were its consequences to literary history? <br />
<br />
Andreas Huyssen, Twilight Memories: Making Time in a Culture of Amnesia (New York and London: Routledge, 1995) 3（文献 无需翻译）<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, searching for Chinese literary modernities other than May Fourth have continued with rigor. In this vital current of scholarly reflections on Chinese literary modernities, prominent are Milena Dolezelova-Velingerova’s emphasis on late Qing origins of modern Chinese literature (“The Origins of Modern Chinese Literature,” in Merle Goldman, ed., Modern Chinese Literature in the May Fourth Era (Cambridge and Mass.: Harvard University Press 1977) 17-36; The Turn of the Century Novel (Toronto University Press, 1981), Perry Link’s path-breaking study of the Mandarin ducks and Butterflies fiction (Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies: Popular Fiction in Early Twentieth Century China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981)), Liu Ts’un-yan’s advocacy of “Middle-blow Fiction” (Chinese Middle-blow Fiction: From the Ch’ing and Early Republican Era (Hong Kong: The Chinese University, 1984)), and recently David Wang’s exciting and sophisticate interpretation of late 19th-century novels (Fin-de-Siecle Splendor: Repressed Modernities of Late Qing Fiction, 1848-1911 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997)). In a larger context, approximately in the same period, this basically north American academia has interacted the rapidly changed literary criticism in China - from the theories and practices of “rewriting literary history” with a revision of “twentieth-century Chinese literature” (Chen Guoqiu, ed., Zhongguo wenxueshi de xingsi (Reflections on the history of Chinese literature) (Hong Kong: Sanlian shudian, 1993).（文献，无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
<br />
With these questions, our inquiry into the formation of modern sanwen is inevitably engaged with a process of canon formation, and perhaps this is the appropriate genre by which we can trace the birth of modern subjectivity. In analyiss of Zhou Shoujuan’s (1894-1968) “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” (Jiuhua zhang li), a vernacular autobiographical fiction published in 1917, I will reveal no more than a historical chaos of literature in which a subjectivity was constructed with complex strands in fusion and contestation. This subjectivity owed much to first person narratives Zhou had intensely experimented in his earlier writings; its double voice was not only helped by the traditional theatricality and poetics, but also linked to the modern spatial perception of cinematic representation.<br />
<br />
有了这些问题，我们对现代散文形成的探究就必然涉及到一个经典形成的过程，也许这正是我们追溯现代主体性诞生的合适体裁。通过对周寿娟（1894-1968）1917年出版的白话自传体小说《九花帘幕》的分析，我将揭示一场文学的历史混沌，在这种混沌中，用融合和争鸣的复杂线索建构了一种主体性。这种主观性在很大程度上得益于周作人在早期作品中所做的大量实验，它的双重声音不仅得益于传统的戏剧性和诗学，而且与现代电影表现的空间感知有关。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 07:57, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
随着这些问题的出现，我们对现代散文形成的探究就必然涉及到一个经典形成的过程，也许这正是我们追溯现代主体性诞生的合适体裁。通过对周瘦娟（1894-1968）1917年出版的白话自传体小说《九花帘幕》的分析，我将揭示的不过是一场文学的历史混乱，在这种混乱中，主体性是由复杂的线在融合和争鸣中建构起来的。这种主观性在很大程度上得益于周作人在早期作品中所做的大量实验，它的双重声音不仅得益于传统的戏剧性和诗学，而且与现代电影表现的空间感知有关。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 11:27, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
<br />
To set the terms from the outset, the ''sanwen'' will be treated historically as a canonical category grown out of the May Fourth literature. The term ''xiaoshuo'' (fiction, small talk) by which Zhou’s work was categorized will also be historicized. Immune from the modern generic system, it was transitionally intertwined with prose, fiction, drama, and other subgenres in the repertoire of traditional literature. My analysis of the work in question aims at revealing literary modernity of the period in its own terms, rather than redeem Zhou, a key figure of the so-called “Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies school” (''Yuanyang hudie pai''), for his contribution to the birth of modern essay. Nor will I provide a generic definition of modern essay other than open up a new terrain to inquire different genealogies of literary modernity.<br />
<br />
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
<br />
'''Literary Modernization: Generic and Canonical'''<br />
<br />
One of the spectacles in the literary arena of late 1990s China was the revival of the Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies (hereafter Butterfly) literature. Along with countless reprints of Butterfly fiction commercially catering to the post-socialist urban readers, there were sympathetic academic reappraisals that apparently challenged the May Fourth canon. Since the 1980s, the rapidly changed landscape of literary criticism marked a transformation of the critical codes from “revolutionary literature” to “literary modernity.” “Pure literature” (''chun wenxue''), a core value of literary modernity, was developed by a new generation of literary critics and academics and was ambiguously engaged with the post-socialist conditions: on the one hand, literary criticism was academically institutionalized and practiced with certain intellectual authorities; on the other hand, the “pure literature” was suspicious of its modernist poetics which implied a subversive force to the status quo.<br />
<br />
In recent few years around a dozen of scholarly-edited series of Butterfly literature appeared, not to mention other numerous compilations for commercial purpose. To mention a few: Fan Boqun, ed., Zhongguo jin xiandai tongsu zuojia pingzhuan congshu (Nanjing: Nanjing chubanshe, 1994); Fan Boqun and Fan Zijiang, eds., Yuanyang hudie-Libailiu pai jingdian xiaoshuo wenku (Nanjing: Jiangsu wenyi chubanshe, 1996); Wei Shaochang, ed., Yuanyang hudie pai libai liu xiaoshuo. (Tianjin: Chunfeng wenyi chubanshe, 1997); Yu Runqi, ed., Qingmo minchu xiaoshuo shuxi (Beijing: Zhongguo wenlian chuban gongsi, 1997). （文献，无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
<br />
Today, the difference between May Fourth and Butterfly was not discussed in terms of “revolutionary vs. reactionary” or “progressive vs. backward,” but rather in terms of ''ya'' (elitism, elegance) vs. ''su'' (populism, commonality). While the Butterfly scholarship carved out a critical space in the name of “popular,” the price was high: their proteges can only be canonized through the codes of May Fourth literary modernity. If what underlay the literary modernity, - the premises of progressive history or of national literature - remained unquestionable, then Butterflies can only be considered inferior.<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
<br />
For example, in his recent reevaluation of ''Yuanyang hudie pai'', Wei Shaochang, whose pathbreaking bibliography of Butterfly published in the early 1960s made a study of this school possible, affectionately called this term “a beautiful cap” (''meili de maozi''). Yet this metaphor implies a re-justification of the “cap” imposed on it by the May Fourth writers. Accordingly, Wei maintained that even the best Butterfly works, despite their accomplishments, fail to compete with Lu Xun, Mao Dun and other modern literary giants in terms of intellectual and aesthetic qualities. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, until recently scholarly interests in Butterfly never went beyond fiction.<br />
<br />
See Wei Shaochang, Wo kan Yuanyang hudie pai (My view of the Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies literature) (Taiwan: Commercial Press, 1992) 1-11. One month ago, the first international conference on Butterfly school was held at Suzhou University, China, and one of its designed events was to celebrate the publication of A History of Modern Chinese Popular Literature, an enormous and enduring project fulfilled by the Chinese department of the host university. With a massive masquerade of Butterfly literature from the late Qing to Republican era (1,500,000 characters), this book boldly claims a new theory that the modern Chinese literature is constituted by a “pair of wings” - May Fourth and Butterfly. In this revision, the literary histories heretofore are invalid since they missed the other half - the popular literature. Thus, a new correct history of modern Chinese literature was called for. Impressively, this theory was unanimously accepted by all the participants, including notable May Fourth scholars Jia Zhifang, Yan Jiayan, and Qian Gurong. Nevertheless, this acceptance seemed more theoretical than practical, more sympathetic than critical. The problem remained unsolved and more crucial to the future of Butterfly scholarship: How to evaluate Butterfly in terms of aesthetic values? During the conference, the debates over the term “tongsu” (popular), by which the Butterfly was labeled, revealed certain anxiety. This anxiety had some reason: if Butterfly is limited to the popular, it would be inferior to the “pure literature” (chun wenxue), and, of course, ultimately it would be subject to the elite - May Fourth. In other words, if this popular “wing” is not strong enough, the double wing theory itself would hardly hold. The hidden core of the debates is that the May Fourth canon continues to dominate the field of literary criticism.(文献，无需翻译)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
<br />
In 1997, a new claim for Butterfly essay arose when an eight-volume series ''The Compendium of Essays by Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies school'' (Yuanyang hudie pai sanwen daxi) was published. Implicitly, by the term ''daxi'' in the title, this series contended with the May Fourth canon, as it reminded one of the well-known ''Zhongguo xin wenxue daxi'' (The Compendium of Modern Chinese Literature) in ten volumes published in 1935, which became a monumental for the May Fourth literature. In his introduction, Yuan Jin, chief-editor of this ''Compendium of Butterfly Essay'', asserts that prior to the May Fourth period Butterflies had greatly achieved in essay writings. <br />
<br />
Yuan Jin, Yuanyang hudie pai sanwen daxi: 1909-1949 (Shanghai: Dongfang chuban zhongxin, 1997) 3-4. （文献，无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
<br />
Although after the 1920s most of them gradually accepted the new concept of ''sanwen'' used by May Fourth writers, they wrote in both vernacular and classical, and their essays still inherited the traditional literature, specifically the styles of ''xiaopin'' and ''biji''. Emphatic on their thematic and aesthetic characteristics as “representing quotidian life, the private feelings and tastes,” Yuan suggests that the Butterfly essay has its own literary and cultural roots. <br />
<br />
The ''Compendium of New Literature'' serves a linkage ''par excellence'', for it displays how a canon is formed by defining a genre. <br />
<br />
==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
<br />
As the view that the form of modern Chinese essay was born from May Fourth literary movement was still prevailing, it is necessary to see how this modern myth was made. At least, a kind of authentic definition of modern essay was explicated by Yu Dafu (1896-1945) and Zhou Zuoren (1885-1968) in their introductions to the ''sanwen'' anthologies they separately compiled for the ''Compendium''.<br />
<br />
At the time, almost two decades had elapsed since the May Fourth movement. And the New Culture, as incessantly embracing diverse isms from the West on the one hand and tortured by national and intellectual crises on the other, became more ideologically charged and consequently split into antagonistic camps.<br />
<br />
For example, Fan Peisong. Zhongguo xiandai sanwen shi (A History of Modern Chinese Essay) (Nanjing: Jiangsu jiaoyu chubanshe, 1993) 3. The first sentence: “The history of modern Chinese essay opened its curtain when the May Fourth new cultural movement started.”（文献，无需翻译）<br />
<br />
有观点任务中国现代散文的形式诞生于五四文学运动，这一观点仍然盛行，该现代迷思是如何产生的值得一看。至少，郁达夫（1896-1945）和周作人（1885-1968）在他们各自为《纲要》编撰的“散文”选集时，于引言部分给予了现代散文一个真正的定义。<br />
<br />
当时，五四运动已经过去了近二十年。新文化运动一方面不断地接受来自西方的各种主义，另一方面又受到民族和知识危机的折磨，更受意识形态的控制，并因此分裂成对立的阵营。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 08:26, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
<br />
As for these invited editors, their relationships (for example, between Hu Shi and Lu Xun, or between Mao Dun and Yu Dafu) were ruined by political arguments, or by personal quarrels and insults. All these, however, did not prevent them from being together to make a new literary myth. It was unlikely that they would return to the old days, yet this tremendous project certainly offered each of them a role of literary master in reshaping the May Fourth history.<br />
<br />
==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
<br />
Compromises were necessary, yet, as a matter of fact, the ''Compendium'' cannot be easily assessed as a whole, for all the works included were miscellaneous and conflicted in content and form. As most editors claimed, using ''baihua'' is the hallmark for the new literature, but there was some flaw in their consensus of excluding the Butterfly School and the Shanghai School (''haipai''), for both schools also wrote in ''baihua''; rather, the exclusions implied moral bias against urbanism. It was no wonder that a great collective effort was made to reconstruct the conception of new, which itself was authoritative, at least theoretically, inbred with the ideas of progressive history, humanistic universality, and the utopian future.<br />
<br />
==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
<br />
Thus, traced back to the moment of revolutionary departure, the new literature was portrayed as a myth of rootless origins, a timeless creation, isolated from the past; accordingly, the series presented their self-portraits as literary revolutionaries and cultural iconoclasts. In defining the modern essay, Yu Dafu can hardly figure out where the term ''sanwen'' comes from, left with a vague notion that it probably comes from the translation of the English term “prose.”<br />
<br />
As Yu stressed in his introduction, the greatest contribution the ''sanwen'' genre makes to May Fourth literature is the free expression of individualism.<br />
<br />
<br />
因此，追溯到革命离开的那一刻，新文学被描绘成一个无根起源的神话，一个与过去隔离的永恒的创造；在此基础上，以文学革命者和文化偶像派的形象展现了他们的自我形象 .在界定现代散文时，郁达夫很难找出“三文”这个词的来源，留下了一个模糊的概念，即它可能来自于英语“散文”这个词的翻译。<br />
<br />
正如余在导言中强调的那样，“三文”体裁对五四文学的最大贡献就是个人主义的自由表达。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:55, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
因此，追溯到革命离开的那一刻，新文学被描绘成一个无根源的神话，一个与过去隔绝的永恒的创造；因此，这一系列作品呈现了他们作为文学革命者和文化偶像破坏者的自画像。郁达夫在定义现代散文时，很难弄清楚“三文”这个词的来源，只留下一个模糊的概念，认为它可能来自英语“散文”一词的翻译 <br />
<br />
正如俞正声在引言中所强调的那样，“三文”体裁对五四文学的最大贡献就是个人主义的自由表达。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:43, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
<br />
He is fascinated by this new and independent genre, with its multiple modes of representation and creative linguistic capacities distinct from those of fiction, poetry and drama. It is no accident that as a novelist well known for his autobiographical fiction displaying his sentimental, decadent and masochist personae, Yu believes that the essay should be a kind of self-writing in nature. In the same vein, Zhou Zuoren asserts that the modern essay was born from the linguistic shift from ''wenyan'' to ''baihua'', which of course should be attributed to the May Fourth literary achievement. He also gives the highest credit to this genre for its casualty, fluidity and flexibility - its specific capabilities of expressing the author’s own material and spiritual world.<br />
<br />
他着迷于这一新的独立的文体，其多样的表现方式和创造性的语言能力不同于小说、诗歌和戏剧。作为一个以表现自己感伤、颓废、受虐倾向的自传体小说而闻名的小说家，自然而然地，郁达夫会认为散文本质上应该是一种自我的书写。周作人同样认为，现代散文是在“文言”向“白话”的语言转换中诞生的，这当然要归功于“五四”的文学成就。他还高度赞扬了这一体裁的随意性、流动性和灵活性——这些特质可以表达出作者的物质和精神世界。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 12:11, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
他着迷于这一新的独立文体，其具有不同于小说、诗歌和戏剧的多种表现方式和创造性的语言能力。绝非偶然，作为一个以自传体小说表现自己多愁善感、颓废和受虐倾向而著称的小说家，郁达夫认为，散文在本质上应该是一种自我的书写。同样，周作人断言，现代散文诞生于从“文言文”到“白话文”的转变，这当然应该归功于五四文学的成就。他还对这一文体的随意性、流动性和灵活性--表达作者自身物质世界和精神世界的特殊能力给予了最高的评价。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 01:42, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
<br />
In exalting the sanwen for its charismatic power, both Zhou and Yu exhibit a kind of anxiety, symbolically related to their status not only as masters of modern essay but, more interestingly, as spokesmen of May Fourth individualism. Their anxiety were charged with different motivation and rhetoric, however, for in the mid-1930s, their political and cultural stands were in stark contrast. More pessimistic to China’s internal and external crises, Zhou retreated from the revolutionary frontier of New Culture and turned to cultural conservatism. On the other hand, Yu was more inclined toward the Left Wing radicalism to redeem himself from his early decadent proclivity.<br />
<br />
在赞扬散文的魅力时，周作人和郁达夫都表现出一种焦虑，这是由于他们不仅是现代散文大师，更有趣的是，他们是五四个人主义的发言人。 然而，他们的焦虑来源于不同的动机和言辞，因为在20世纪30年代中期，他们的政治和文化立场形成了鲜明的对比。周作人对中国内忧外患更加悲观，因此他从新文化革命的前沿退隐，转向文化保守主义。另一方面，郁达夫为了弥补自己早期的颓废倾向，所以更倾向于左翼激进主义。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 01:33, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
周瑜在提升三文的魅力时，表现出一种焦虑，象征着他们不仅是现代散文的大师，更有趣的是，他们是五四个人主义的代言人。他们的焦虑带有不同的动机和言辞，但在 1930 年代中期，他们的政治和文化立场形成了鲜明的对比。对中国的内外危机更加悲观的是，周从新文化的革命前沿退缩，转向文化保守主义。另一方面，余更倾向于左翼激进主义，以弥补自己早期的堕落倾向。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:57, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在赞扬散文的魅力力量时，周和郁都表现出一种焦虑，这象征着他们不仅是现代散文大师，更有趣的是，他们是“五四”个人主义的代言人。然而，他们的焦虑被归咎于不同的动机和言辞，因为在20世纪30年代中期，他们的政治和文化立场形成了鲜明的对比。周对中国内忧外患更加悲观，从新文化革命的前沿退隐，转向文化保守主义。另一方面，为了弥补自己早期的颓废倾向，俞正声更倾向于左翼激进主义。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 09:03, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
<br />
While characterizing the modern essay in social and ideological context, Yu emphasized the essayists’ responsibility to search for a harmony between the individual, nature and society. Moreover, he pointed out that May Fourth writers have endured an intellectual ordeal as they had first embraced the individuality and finally discovered the necessity to connect it to society and collectivity thanks to their moral conscience awakened by the bloody May Thirtieth incident. In contrast, Zhou showed a strong tendency of aestheticism and nihilism when claiming that he dislikes discussing ''sanwen'' in terms of history, political partisanship or any new isms.<br />
<br />
Yu Dafu. “Daoyan,” in Zhongguo xin wenxue daxi - Sanwen er ji (Shanghai: Liangyou tushu chuban gongsi, 1935) 1-19.（文献，无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
<br />
Despite their different views, they actually shared the historical perspective in discussing the development and characteristics of modern essay, and neither of them could see beyond their own historical limits. In their reinterpreting the ''new'' literature, the history of form was encoded by the new ideology. First of all, integral with the canonical codes and process, the Compendium definitively presented the modern generic division of ''xiaoshuo'', ''shige'', ''xiju'', and ''sanwen''. Lydia Liu called this four-way division a “self-colonizing project” as these terms were perfectly translatable into “fiction,” “poetry,” “drama,” and “familiar essay,” respectively, in English. Historically, as she pointed out, the canonization of these “translated” norms of literary form radically subverted the classical canon as the legitimate source of meaning for Chinese culture and literature.<br />
<br />
尽管他们意见分歧，但在讨论现代论文的发展和其特点时，他们历史观点其实一样的，他们都无法超越自己的历史束缚。 在他们重新解释“新”文学时，形式的历史是由新意识形态编码的。 首先，与规范代码和过程集成在一起，该纲要明确地提出了“小说”，“诗歌”，“戏局”和“散文”的现代通用划分。 吕迪亚·刘（Lydia Liu）将此四分方式称为“自我殖民化项目”，因为这些术语完美地翻译成英语中的“小说”，“诗歌”，“戏剧”和“熟悉的论文”。 正如她所指出的那样，从历史上看，对这些文学形式“已译”规范的规范化从根本上颠覆了经典规范作为中国文化和文学意义的合法来源。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:45, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
尽管意见存在分歧，但在讨论现代论文的发展和其特点时，他们历史观点其实一样的，这些文章都无法超越自身的历史束缚。 他们在重新解释“新”文学时指出，形式的历史是由新意识形态编码而成的。 首先，该纲要将规范代码和过程融合在一起，明确地提出了“小说”，“诗歌”，“戏局”和“散文”的现代通用划分。 吕迪亚·刘（Lydia Liu）将这四种方式称为“自我殖民化项目”，这是因为这些术语能完美对应英语中的“小说”，“诗歌”，“戏剧”和“熟悉的论文”。 正如她所指出的那样，从历史上看，对这些文学形式的翻译标准规范化从根本上颠覆了经典规范作为中国文化和文学意义的合法来源。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:50, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
<br />
Both Yu and Zhou took this modernized generic system for granted. The genre of essay, according to Zhou, represents the finest achievement of New Literature thanks to its capacities to represent widest scopes of life and individual emotions and reflections, with multiple, sophisticate techniques and styles, yet it is succeeded lastly compared to fiction and drama. Zhou’s discontent can be heard when he traced the tradition of modern essay back to the late Ming ''xiaopin wen'', a move showing his pro-tradition revision that was arguable within the May Fourth camp. But he treated ''sanwen'' as an integral part in the system of four genres, and his discussion of formal problems was restricted by this systemic framework.<br />
郁达夫和周作人都视这种现代化的通用体系为理所当然。在周看来，散文这种文体代表着新文学的最好成就。因为散文能够以多样的，复杂的技巧和风格体现广阔的生活视野和个人的情感与思考，它最终与小说和戏剧相比也是成功的。周的不满可以从他追溯现代散文传统到晚明时期的小品文的中寻迹。此举表明了他对传统的修正，也引发了五四阵营中的争论。但他将散文视为四种文体体系中的一个重要组成部分，对形式问题的探讨就受到了这一体系框架的制约。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 10:55, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
<br />
It was with this canon of modernized generic division that both Zhou and Yu described sanwen in rational terms, defining its linguistic and literary features in order to assert its superiority to other genres. This assertion was grounded on the legitimacy of the generic system and ultimately verified the system as a scientific and organic whole. In characterizing ''sanwen''’s representational capacities, Zhou used three terms: narrating, reasoning, and expressing emotions. More elaborate was Yu’s characterization with four terms, each of which was matched with an English equivalent in parenthesis – “description,” “narration,” “exposition,” and “persuasion” or “argumentation.” A slightly variant explication was allowed when he at the same time showed his favor to other categorical terms such as the reasoning, lyricism, description, and narration.<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
<br />
Here Zhou’s notion of ''meiwen'' (beautiful essay) invites our special attention as it is involved with his historical speculation of the genre, which nonetheless suggests something else. Citing his published articles in chronological order, Zhou shows how he had tirelessly explored ''sanwen'' as a new form and at the same time elaborated his own theory of the genre. As he says he still cherishes his original idea that essay should be as perfect as ''meiwen'', which he had advocated as early as the late 1910s. This historical tracing seemed not only to review his insights from the mirror of history, as a matter of fact it aimed at reshaping his politics of “aesthetic essay” in the new cultural situation.<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, Zhou’s historicity in the 1935 introduction might reveal more about his painstaking search for the ideal concept of literature if he had drawn deeper from his memory. As early as 1908, he wrote a long essay, whose importance was manifested by its title “On the Significance and Mission of Writing and the Mistakes in Recent Chinese Literary Criticism” (Lun wenzhang zhi yiyi ji qi shiming, yin ji Zhongguo jinshi lunwen zhi deshi). It reveals his initial idea of ''meiwen'' as he had already talked about it, yet the fact that it was neglected by Zhou in 1935 might be more revelatory, for in 1908 what he really argued for was the term ''wenzhang'' (literature) rather than ''meiwen''. In other words, the excavation of Zhou’s literary past repressed by himself opens up a zone of “twilight memories” to serve my purpose.<br />
<br />
==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
<br />
The essay shows how he intensely seeks a legitimate idea of literature between the terms of ''wenzhang, wenxue, and xiaoshuo'', or in a sense it epitomizes a battlefield of naming literature at the time. While sharing the contemporary intellectual consensus that literary discourse is one of the most viable medium to reshape national spirit, Zhou attempts to construct a system of literature by glorifying the idea of ''wenzhang'' which he identifies with the Latin word ''literature''. The ideal of wenzhang is embodied by artistic and affectionate expressions in archaic style (no wonder this essay was written in classical language). In order to enthrone his concept of ''wenzhang'' as a kind of new authentic classicism, he annotates the term by deriving from Western literary theories on the one hand, and on the other he combatively denounces other influential terms such as ''wenxue'' or ''xiaoshuo''.<br />
<br />
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
<br />
Paradoxically, Zhou criticizes Liang Qichao’s notion of ''xiaoshuo'' for its utilitarian bent, yet he embraces it to such an extent that he equates it with the ''wenzhang'', lest it should be furnished with true sincerity in describing reality so as to move human emotions. The terms ''sanwen'' and ''meiwen'' do appear, once for each, and yet were casually treated; the former means trivial and lack of aesthetic quality, and the latter is less than a concept.<br />
<br />
Lydia Liu, Translingual Practice: Literature, National Culture, and Translated Modernity China, 1900-1937 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995) 235.<br />
<br />
Charles A. Laughlin excellently analyzed Zhou Zuoren's advocacy of late Ming xiaopin and its tension within the May Fourth literary theory in his paper "Legacies of Leisure: Late Imperial Influences on the 20th Century Chinese Essay" held at the essay conference in Achern (Germany) in August 25-27, 2000.<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren, “Daoyan”, in Zhongguo xin wenxue daxi, Sanwen yi ji (Shanghai: Liangyou tushu gongsi, 1935) 1-14.<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren, “Lun wenzhang zhi yiyi ji qi shiming, yin ji Zhongguo jinshi lunwen zhi deshi.” In Wang Yunxi, Wu Guoping, and Huang Lin, eds., Zhongguo wenlun xuan, jindai juan (Selections of Chinese literary criticism, The modern period) (Nanjing: Jiangsu wenyi chubanshe, 1996) 689-725.<br />
（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
Obviously, the text, with his idea and style, looked outmoded by 1935. He had lost the battle of naming. The contestation of these terms resulted in the establishment of literary hierarchy consisted by the concepts of ''wenxue'' that meant literature in general sense, and the genres of ''xiaoshuo'' and ''sanwen'' as its major constituents. While forgetting his past as a neo-classicist, Zhou’s memory was effected by the canonical process of modern division of genres. Nevertheless, dimly echoing his early neo-classical vision he rebelled against the literary division while identifying the “beautiful essay” with late Ming ''xiaopin wen'', though in the end he must remain as a modern master essayist, filled with agony and nostalgia.<br />
<br />
显然，1935年时，再回首他的这篇文章，从思想和风格来看，都已经过时了。周作人已经输掉了这场命名之战。关于这些术语的论战，直接促成了文学分层。而文学分层主要是由“文学”概念构成，并且还主要包含“小说”和“散文”这两个体裁。周作人虽然业已忘却他身为新古典主义作家的过去，不过他的思维还是受到了现代体裁划分的经典过程影响。不过，在用明朝晚期的“小品文”来判别“优美的散文”同时，简单地重复周作人反对文学层次划分的早期新古典主义思想，他也还是满腹悲伤与思乡，哪怕最终他必须捍卫自己现代散文大师的身份。<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
<br />
'''Search for New Form and Subject'''<br />
<br />
While the Poetry Revolution (''shijie geming''), Prose Revolution (''wenjie geming'') and Fiction Revolution (''xiaoshuojie geming''), launched by Liang Qichao from 1899 to 1902, signified that Chinese literature entered the modern epoch, the division of literary genres emerged. The most influential and controversial was the Fiction Revolution, for it was traditionally despised yet directly linked with the mass politics that loomed at the threshold of the century. In his famous essay “On the Relationship Between Fiction and the Government of the People” (Lun xiaoshuo yu qunzhi zhi guanxi), Liang claimed that “fiction is the crowning glory of literature,” and that the “new fiction” should embody a new national soul. This intellectual subservience to populism was not whimsical, rather the subversion of poetic reign within the hierarchy of traditional genres served a metaphor for the collapse of traditional value system.<br />
<br />
==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
As Ted Huters explicated, the transformation of prose theories in late Qing period resulted in the ascendancy of the status of “writing” (''wen'') that is closer to the modern conception of “literature” (''wenxue''). Yet, the Fiction Revolution changed the generic course drastically. Widely anticipated for its superiority in mass education, the concept of xiaoshuo was elevated to the ontological level, as important as that of ''wen''. Although the Prose Revolution carried with it the power of “new prose style” (''xin wenti'') invented by Liang himself, it could hardly compete with the Fiction Revolution. While the “new prose style” was limited in its modes of expression, the literary contours were more vibrant with the movement of ''xiaoshuo''. Put it simply, in this period, what determined the formation of modern essay were the theory and practice of ''xiaoshuo'' rather than those of ''wen''.<br />
<br />
正如胡志德（Ted Huters）所阐明的那样，清末时期的散文理论导致“文”地位的上升，更接近于现代的“文学”概念。然而，小说革命彻底改变了通用路线。由于小说在大众教育的地位显著，小说的概念已提升到本体论的水平，与“文”的地位同等重要。虽然散文革命有梁启超提出的“新文体”，但其地位还是难以与小说革命相媲美。“新文体”在表达方式上受限，但其文学轮廓比小说革命更加鲜明。简而言之，在这个时期，决定现代散文形成的原因是小说的理论和实践，而非“文”的理论和实践。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
<br />
As a matter of fact, literary tradition was reinvented by the notion of new fiction. Contrary to Liang’s expectation, ''xin xiaoshuo'' was still entangled with its tradition; selected and combined by new rules, the tradition offered ''new fiction'' possibilities to adopt literary techniques from the West. Perhaps Liang and his followers created this ambiguity, as the ''xiaoshuo'' came from the Japanese translation of Western “fiction” or “novel” and at the same time it was mixed with traditional popular genres of drama and ''tanci'' (musical and performing story-telling). Ironically, while claiming for its capacities to represent the human realms with “complexity, penetration, vividness, and thoroughness” (''quzhe touda, linli jingzhi''), it was also offered with almost a full range of traditional literary genres for choice. <br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
<br />
There was a tension within the “new fiction” between its lofty mission to save China and its tradition of “small talk” - fiction for popular desires. The pendulum did not go back to the “small talk” until the mid-1910s when a new wave of urban periodicals surged, this time catering to intimate space and individual pleasure. This was the time of despair and expectation, of reshaping the public and private spheres, full of conflicts between tradition and modernity in terms of social norms of love, marriage and family. New interests in romances were accompanied with the aspiration for first person narratives from the West, such as memoir, love-letter, diary, and confession. It was no accident that popular magazines and newspapers were saturated with the sad love stories, among which Xu Zhenya’s (1889-1937) ''Yu li hun'' (Jade Pearl Spirit) became a bestseller in 1914. <br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
<br />
This weird combination - a tragic romance interwoven with the author’s memory of youth and the style of archaic parallelism - seemed to attract more the refined reading public. Wu Shuangre (1884-1934), a writer also known for tragic romance, redefined the ''xiaoshuo'' as the “opposite to the big discourse (''dashuo''),” his emphasis on the ''smallness'' of fiction was urged by new desire and social needs. <br />
<br />
==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
<br />
Zhou’s intellectual background behind his critique of Liang Qichao and Lin Shu should not be ignored. Influenced by Zhang Taiyan whom Zhou and his brother Zhou Shuren (later Lu Xun) followed during their stay in Japan, Zhou’s archaic vision of literature was based on the conviction that learning from the West by deriving from the Chinese past with deeper and wider scopes can prevent from the danger of populism and mass politics. <br />
<br />
Liang Qichao, “On the Relationship Between Fiction and the Government of the People.” Trans. Gek Nai Cheng, in Kirk Denton, ed., Modern Chinese Literary Thought, 74-81.<br />
<br />
Theodore Huters, “From Writing to Literature: The Development of Late Qing Theories of Prose.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 47 (1987) 51-90.<br />
（参考文献不用翻译）<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
<br />
See, “Zhongguo weiyi zhi wenxue bao Xin xiaoshuo” (The only literary magazine New Fiction in China). Xinmin congbao 14 (1902). When the New Fiction magazine was inaugurated in 1902, Liang and his colleagues lent its representational capacities the widest scopes of lifeworld and the richest literary resources, though in the name of “Western fiction.” The genres include popular song, rhythmic expressions such as drama and musicala storytelling.<br />
<br />
<br />
参见《中国文学史》。（中国唯一的文学杂志《新小说》）。 新民同保14（1902）。 1902年，《新小说》（New Fiction）杂志发行时，梁和他的同事们以“西方小说”的名义，将其代表能力赋予了世界最广泛的领域和最丰富的文学资源。 种类包括流行歌曲，有节奏的表现形式，例如戏剧和音乐剧故事。<br />
<br />
参见《中国唯意志文学报新小说》。（中国唯一的文学杂志《新小说》）。 新民从报14（1902）。 1902年，《新小说》（New Fiction）杂志创刊时，梁启超和他的同事们虽然打着 "西洋小说 "的旗号，将其代表能力赋予了全世界最广泛的领域和最丰富的文学资源。体裁包括流行歌曲、戏剧等韵律性的表现形式和音乐剧故事。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:12, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
<br />
Zhou meticulously experimented with first person narratives in the mid-1910s. In the wake of collapse of traditional values, literature became a vent for repressed psychology, and meanwhile functioned in reordering the structures of feelings and perceptions that purported to pave a way to rebuilding national spirituality. Therefore, intellectual anxiety was attached to seeking new literary genres. At the time, Zhou was spotlighted on the literary arena with ''Saturday'' (Libailiu), a weekly popular magazine aimed to entertain and educate urban readers mainly by the principles of literary pleasure aimed to articulate and regulate desires of everyday life and consumer psychology. This boom of urban print culture signified an inversion to the previous Fiction Revolution devoted to patriotism and national ethos; its representations focused more on the private realms and individuals, revealing a clearer character of the “small talk.” In this sense, Zhou’s intense uses of first person narratives were a necessity for him to represent a kind of the autonomous individual in urban space as an integral part of the periodical culture.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
<br />
“In the Nine-Flower Curtain” appeared in 1917, in the ''Pictorial Story'' (Xiaoshuo huabao) edited by Bao Tianxiao, who announced from the outset that this monthly fiction magazine aims to promote the ''baihua'' fiction. In a history of Chinese literature published in late-1950s, this story was picked out as a typical Butterfly work: “[it is] empty and poor in its content, full of meaningless words and sentences.” However, this biased criticism neglected the fact that this short story was a pioneering ''baihua'' fiction, which appeared in a fiction magazine, which advocated the ''baihua'' prior to the May Fourth movement! 、<br />
<br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
<br />
Indeed, “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” was labeled as ''xiaoshuo'', but the notion of ''xiaoshuo'' in the teens ambiguously crossed the boundaries of old and new, and Zhou had barely the idea of modern ''sanwen''. Rather, shown by the story mixed with the elements of poetry, prose and drama, his understanding of ''xiaoshuo'' was conventional and transitional. Interestingly, some critic conceived that the notion of ''sanwen'' was stemmed from ''xiaoshuo''. In 1914, Cheng Zhi’s essay “Miscellaneous Remarks on Fiction” (Xiaoshuo conghua) holds that nowadays only ''xiaoshuo'' can do what literature can do; it is so important and enchanting that it can fulfill the task of literature while artistically expressing human emotions and aesthetic thoughts. Since all literary expressions, according to him, appeal to optic and audio perceptions, ''xiaoshuo'' contains both ''sanwen'' (prosaic) and ''yunwen'' (rhythmic) texts. The former can be the vernacular or literary language; the latter includes romance drama and rhythmic story-telling. As the chart intricately shows, the ''sanwen'' is sandwiched: on one side it grows out of the trunk of ''xiaoshuo'', and on other side it bifurcates its own branches of literary and vernacular languages. We cannot decide to what extent this concept of ''sanwen'' can be related to that of the May Fourth generic system, yet its connotations were still valid in the Butterfly use after the 1920s. <br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
<br />
The chaotic conditions of literary genres opened up new possibilities, and “In the Nine-Flower Curtain,” as a kind of self-representation, exhibited Zhou’s obsession with subjective writings, blended with the elements of dairy, love-letter, confession, and fictional autobiography. Here, I only briefly show Zhou’s devotion to two kinds of the first person narratives - autobiography and lover-letter. These forms adopted by Zhou, no matter it belongs to the concept of ''xiaoshuo'' at the time or more to the ''sanwen'' in today’s standard, had a specific charm of lyricism and sensuality that most appealed to him. One type referred to the subgenre of autobiography - amorous memoirs - a colorful branch in Ming-Qing erotic-sentimental tradition, represented by Mao Xiang’s ''Memoirs of the Plum Shadow Studio'' (Ying mei an yiyu) and Jiang Tan’s ''Reminiscences of the Autumn Lamp'' (Qiu deng suoyi). These texts were included in an anthology titled ''Selections of Memoirs'' (Yiyu xuan) Zhou edited and published in 1920s. <br />
<br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
<br />
Another inspiration came from Washington Irving, whom Zhou considered a literary genius. He highly praised Irving’s ''Sketch-Book'' for its “creativity and uniqueness”; he appreciated most “Westminster Abbey,” “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow,” “The Broken Heart” and “RipVan Winkle.” Interestingly, Zhou understoods Irving through the window of Chinese literary past. He translated the ''Sketch-Book'' into the form of ''biji'', with his comments saturated with the classical poetics: “His writings are secluded and flagrant, limped and stretching far (''youxin danyuan''), like violets in flower-shrubes; they are also delicate and charming, drifting aloof (''qingqian piaoyi''), like a pen thrown into the sky becomes a capricious dragon.” <br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
<br />
Zhou’s mania for love-letters evinces his pursuit of the fashion, chic and commercial, in contrast to his literati personality immersed in the erotic-sentimental poetics. Raoul Findeisen rightly pointed out that the genre of love-letter enhances to codify the heterosexual love in modern Chinese literature. This form was introduced into China hand in hand with the assimilation of Western-style customs and the idea of free communication between man and woman. At least in 1911, ''qingshu'' as a translated term for “love-letter” appeared in a funny essay “Ji qingshu zhi xinfa” (A new way to send a love-letter) in ''Shenbao''. As a piece of passionate ''qinghua'', “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” should be connected to Zhou’s “Qingshu hua” (On love-letter), a series of essays he contributed to ''Shenbao'' in 1919. These essays talk about the world famous love stories of Napoleon, Byron, Hugo, and many others, and specifically about how they wrote love-letters. For example, amidst wars Napoleon never forgot to write to Josephine; Zhou translated his words: “I am begging you to receive my thousand kisses, and don’t give me back any of your’s, otherwise my blood will boil.” Also with great zeal he talks about how Hugo wrote 120 letters to his fiancee Adele Forcher. <br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
<br />
Known as master of the “sad love story” in the mid-1910s, he wrote numerous short stories which appeared in around a dozen periodicals and newspapers; among them a number of first person narratives were in best quality. While breaking with the traditional love discourse and modes of romance, his love stories depicted new urban subjects in newly formed public spaces such as the public park, tramcar, medical clinic, and movie theater. Most noticeable is his ''Short Stories from Famous European and American Writers'' (Oumei mingjia dianpian xiaoshuo congkan) published in 1917, revealing his ways of dealing with the personal pronounces under chaotic conditions. Among fifty stories included, twenty-six stories belong to first person narrative. Interestingly, in all the eight vernacular texts the first person pronoun is ''wo'', and in the rest eighteen stories in classical language, the first person pronouns are variantly used between ''yu'', ''yu'' and ''wu''. <br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
<br />
This selection of ''wo'' for the vernacular seemed identical to the establishment of “I” as the male subjectivity in May Fourth literature, but they bore different logic of modernity. Perhaps there was another kind of “translated modernity” in Zhou: the vernacular ''wo'' is not the absolute in the whole anthology. Zhou’s selected uses of the personal pronouns include not only the first person pronouns but the second and third person pronouns, showing a chaotic state of literary subject. He is more plural and playful while experimenting with both the vernacular and the classical, and one is not subject to the other. Fascinated by multiple possibilities in the new literary situations, he was more concerned with ways of using different first person pronouns to suit different modes and styles of representations, in accordance with his own linguistic sensitivity and capability. <br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
Fan Boqun pointed out that Zhou contributed to modern literature in its early phase by experimenting with psychological forms such as diary, epistoral fiction, and that his creative writings were indebted to his translation. See, “Zhu, bian, yi jie jing de ‘wenzi laogong’: Zhou Shoujuan pingzhuan” (A literary laboror in his refined achievements of writing, editing and translating: A biography of Zhou Shoujuan), in Fan Boqun, ed., Zhongguo jin xiandai tongsu zuojia pingzhuan congshu (A series of modern Chinese popular writers) vol. 4, 177. If this was a late credit to Zhou, there had been another one about his 1917 translation of Famous European and American Short Stories. In the early 1960s he wrote to his daughter revealing the fact that his 1917 translation was praised by Lu Xun and awarded by the Republican Education Bureau, and that he did not know this until he had read Zhou Zuoren’s memoir in the early 1950s. This information was revealed after his literary career was criticized as a reactionary current against the new literature.<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
<br />
Lydia Liu deals with the use of first person pronoun wo that designates “I” as a central issue of “translated modernity” in modern Chinese literature. Along with wo becoming the only victor in the contests of first person pronouns through heavy traffic of transnational cultures, the male vernacular subjectivity is established (see Lydia Liu, 154-55).<br />
<br />
The Poetics of Persuasion“In the Nine-Flower Curtain” was the author’s “love talk” (''qinghua'') to his bride in the first night of marriage, a passionate confession of his bitter past, with sentiment and self-esteem, and meanwhile he expresses his love and hope for their conjugal life in the future. The narrative begins with a third person account of how the author’s wedding ceremony was held in ''Yeshiyuan'', one of famous public parks in the city, and how in the night his friends gathered in the wedding chamber making fun of the new couple.<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
<br />
This brief opening is like the “prologue” in premodern vernacular stories, a device originated from thirteen-century drama. By this convention a stage is set for the drama of the pillow talk, predicting his theatricality. Nevertheless, with the phrase “Zhou Shoujuan says” at the very beginning, the tradition is inverted, for in old days, fiction writing is not a respectful job and the author’s name never appeared. While the vernacular storytellers were too humble to claim his authorship, literati were too proud to do so. Perhaps it was Lin Shu who self-consciously broke with the tradition as he signed his name on the novels he translated.<br />
<br />
这种简短的开场白就像前现代白话故事中的 "序幕"，这种手法源于十三世纪的戏剧。通过这个惯例，为枕边话的戏剧性搭建了一个舞台，预示着他的戏剧性。不过，一开始就用“周守娟说”这句话来颠覆了传统，因为在旧社会，写小说并不是什么尊贵的工作，作者的名字从来没有出现过。白话故事家谦虚得不敢宣称自己的作者身份，但文人却为之骄傲。也许是林纾自觉地打破了传统，他在自己翻译的小说上签上了自己的名字。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:04, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这种简短的开场白就像前现代白话故事中的 "序幕"，这种手法源于十三世纪的戏剧。通过这个惯例，为枕边话的戏剧性搭建了一个舞台，预示着他的戏剧性。不过，有了开头的 "周寿娟说 "这句话，这个传统就被颠覆了，因为在旧社会，写小说并不是什么尊贵的工作，作者的名字从来没有出现过。白话故事家谦虚得不敢宣称自己的作者身份，文人却骄傲得不敢。也许是林纾自觉地打破了传统，他在自己翻译的小说上签上了自己的名字。<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
<br />
This self-referential information at the outset is more than a self-promotion: it sets a tone of respectfulness and expectation, evoking a blissful and jubilant atmosphere for what follows. Moreover, the voice from a famous writer suggests new semantics of love and new ways of expressing love. Of course, the marriage is a new chapter in his life; it was the fashion to have a Western-style wedding (''wenming jiehun'') in a public park. The guests are celebrities, novelist, journalists and print entrepreneurs, such as Bao Tianxiao, Chen Diexian, Ding Song, indicative of a newly born social stratum recognized by the urban public.<br />
<br />
这种自我参照的信息在一开始就不仅仅是自我推销:它设定了尊重和期待的基调，为接下来的事情唤起一种幸福和欢乐的氛围。此外，一位著名作家的声音暗示了爱的新语义和表达爱的新方式。当然，婚姻是他人生的新篇章;在公园举行西式婚礼是当时的时尚。受邀的嘉宾有名人、小说家、记者和报业大亨，如鲍天晓、陈蝶仙、丁松等，他们代表着城市公认的新生社会阶层。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
<br />
When Zhou promises to satisfy his friends’ curiosity about what he said to the bride “inside the curtain” in the first night, he deliberately shifts the scene from the backdrop to the main tableau - the curtain. His wedding, albeit part of his private life, was already exposed by Bao Tianxiao and Chen Diexian who, as Zhou mentioned, had written about this event and published them in newspapers. And Zhou himself announced that his own pillow talk would appear in the ''Pictorial Story''. Aware of his privacy under the public gaze, Zhou spotlighted the “curtain” as center stage, namely in the innermost space of the chamber; this is bold and unconventional. Of the marriage rituals and symbols familiar to the Chinese, those descriptions related to the wedding chamber are most erogenous and mysterious, arousing their erotic and voyeurist desire.<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
<br />
In ''Six records of a floating life'' (Fusheng liu ji), a classical autobiography, Shen Fu (1763-?) vividly depicts, “I saw by the light of our wedding candles that Yun’s figure was as slim as before. When her veil was lifted we smiled at each other. And we had shared the ceremonial cup of wine and sat down together for the wedding banquet, I secretly took her small hand under the table. It was warm and it was soft, and my heart beat uncontrollably.” However, readers might be disappointed as there is no such details they expected. Yet to great writers, dealing with the first wedding night is a moment to play with readers’ expectation. For example, in one of Li Yu’s stories, after the bridegroom undresses the bride, he is shocked by the fact that she is a “stone woman” who lacks the sexual organ! In ''Dream of the Red Chamber'', when Baoyu lifts the bride’s veil, he finds Baocai instead Daiyu - he is cheated by his family seniors who makes the substitute; thus the dark side of traditional marriage system is unveiled and the tragic theme of the novel reaches its climax. <br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
<br />
The narrator’s loving voice begins with: “My Phoenix Lady: This is the first night of our marriage, the first day to raise the curtain of our family life. Whether our chamber will be paradise or hell, the drama opens from the present; whether our life will be sad or happy, we will open our theater today.” The long and passionate pillow talk is lyrical and decorative in style, with verbal and imagery rhetorical devices such as the poetic couplets and parallel sentences, metaphors, and repetitions, blending the classical and Western-style vocabulary and grammar. The bridegroom says: <br />
<br />
From now on, you become a member of my family; your name Hu Fengjun is crowned with the surname Zhou. Since you stepped into the door of Zhou, naturally you will do something for his family. The domestic duty falls on us with weight; we should carry it together: the half of it is on my shoulder, the other half on your’s. We should become one heart in order to overcome innumerable difficulties ahead of us. My old mother needs your good service, the multiple household needs your great care. If sometimes I am worried, you should understand me, and care about me.<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
<br />
The most important word for husband and wife is “love,” which comes from their mutual understanding and mutual care. If we love each other until the last day of our life, we will spend our whole life in a wonderland with flower and the moon. Every second of our time is gilded with honey and sugar; everywhere in this world is as beautiful as rose. At our ears we often hear the singing birds; before our eyes we often see the flowers in smile. In four seasons, we always have bright and fantastic landscapes around us; the sky looks embroidered, even from cruel storm and frost there grows out the splendid Spring.<br />
<br />
Therefore it is truly important for a couple to love each other, and nothing else is so important. If you have a plenty of money but no love, if you are so tightly fastened by the “red string” that you cannot escape from it, then although you are still husband and wife, how can you feel any happy? Since the ancient time, countless virtuous women were victimized as such. In this first day of our marriage, we should think of a way to make our love forever: each day we should let our hearts meet and mirror each other.<br />
<br />
夫妻之间最重要的词是“爱”，它来自于彼此的理解和关心。如果我们相爱直到生命的最后一天，我们将在一个有花有月的仙境度过我们的一生。我们的每一秒都充满了甜蜜与糖;世界上任何地方都像玫瑰一样美丽。我们经常听到鸟儿在耳边歌唱;我们经常看到微笑的花朵出现在眼前。在四季中，总是有明亮的和奇妙的风景在我们周围;天空看起来像绣了花一样，即使是残酷的风暴和霜冻也会带来灿烂的春天。<br />
<br />
因此，夫妻彼此相爱是非常重要的，没有什么比这更重要了。如果你们有很多钱却没有爱情，如果你们被那根“红线”拴得死死的，那么即使你们还是夫妻，你们怎么能感到幸福呢? 自古以来，有无数贤惠的妇女成为这样的受害者。在我们结婚的第一天，我们应该想办法让我们的爱永远:每一天我们应该让我们的心相遇，彼此关照。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 09:57, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
A reader of modern taste may frown at the rhetoric of excess and hyperbole, the naive self-indulgence, and the Chauvinist male voice in this early ''baihua'' prattle. But in this early modern phase, what most fascinates the contemporaries are its novelty and hybridity of diverse images and grammars; i.e. the unfamiliar is within the familiar, the modern within the traditional. Perry Link asserted that Butterfly fiction provides “psychological comfort” to the urban readers who feel the pressure of modernity. Yet, “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” provides something more positive than the “psychological comfort”: the narrator’s persuasive voice throughout this pillow talk.<br />
<br />
具有现代品味的读者可能会对早期的白话闲聊中过分夸张的修辞、幼稚的自我放纵和沙文主义的男性声音感到不适。但在这个早期的现代阶段，最吸引同时代人的是它新奇和混杂的意象和语法;也就是说，熟悉之中带有陌生感，传统之中带有现代感。佩里·林克认为，蝴蝶小说为感到现代化压力的城市读者提供了“心理安慰”。然而，《九花帘幕》提供了比“心理安慰”更积极的东西：带有劝慰性的叙述者的语言贯穿了整个枕边谈话。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:40, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
<br />
Embedded in a kind of love philosophy mixed with late Ming discourse of passion (''qing'') and the Romantic influence from the West, this love talk asserts that true love is primarily based on mutual understanding and mutual compassion. A persuasive tone, rather than the didactic or authoritative, prevails the text, and when the persuasion itself it a crucial way to reach and fulfill true love and compassion, its effect depends on refined speech and aesthetic values. For instance, the use of rhythmic repetitions aims to be chantable and enchanting; this audio characteristic is discernibly linked to traditional poetry and drama. The variations of the parallel sentences, poetic couplet, idiomatic phrase and resonant words display the author’s grasp of the repertoire of traditional literature. The sentences “My old mother needs your good service, the multiple household needs your great care” resemble the “four-six” parallelism; the pair of colloquial phrase ''haohao'er'' (well, greatly) comes from vernacular drama or fiction. A contemporary reader might be excited by this Western-style couplet, “You are like the warm sunshine in the summer; I am the bright moon in the autumn.” Or readers may be fascinated by the fresh expression such as “We a pair of mandarin ducks were hit by the Cupiter’s arrow.”<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
<br />
Narrative strategies are organized around the poetics of persuasion. By the resonant repetitions and variations the narrator changes his manners and tones to make his linguistic performances most persuasive. The nuanced tones range from the stronger “you should,” to the milder “naturally you will” and to the asking “do you understand.” Apart from the prosaic sentences that function in describing things or reasoning the love sermon, the parallel sentences are divided into two kinds: one addresses melodiously to the bride and the other describes lyrically the fantastic scenes.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
<br />
In order to set role models for the bride, a gallery of world-famous women are introduced to add another dimension of the persuasive, mixed with eroticism and ethics, literary references of the East and West. Mrs. Tolstoy helps her husbands devote to and achieve in writing. Liang Hongyu, a legendary heroine who joins her husband to defeat the foreign invaders in thirteenth-century China. It is a persuasive way for a cultural balance in transnational traffic: while the latter a local patriot is internationalized, the former is internalized a la traditional “virtuous wife and good mother.” <br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
<br />
So far the kind of masculine persuasion is tinged with pedagogy and the sublime, what follows turns to be sweet and flattery. The narrator says he received a letter from his friend, in which the bride is likened to the beautiful Spring Goddess of Greek mythology, to the sweet Julie and the noble Botia, the heroines in Shakespeare’s plays. This symbolic showcase of female world celebrities, whether it be factual or imaginary, articulate to circulate and assimilate not only modern knowledge but refined taste for urban readers; at the same time, the author shows off his familiarity with the Western novelties necessarily acquired by this fashionable writing. Also noticeable is the intertextual traffic in the circulation and assimilation of cultural information occurred in everyday urban space. While the Julia and Botia are transplanted from Lin Shu’s classical translations onto his writing, Zhou popularizes the Western classics and meanwhile elevates the vernacular. One more tricky detail: all about these foreign literary women, as the narrator says, are from his friend’s letter in English, which adds this pillow talk a savor of exoticism and universality. By this Zhou plays out the fancy and fashion with a fashionable style in this fiction.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
<br />
Cinematic Representation and Republican Subjectivity<br />
In this story, the ''curtain'' crucially serves thematic and formal purposes. It is a piece of furniture that is decorative and ritualistic in the innermost space of the conjugal life, yet by infusing this interior curtain with a cinematic curtain, the narrator creates an illusion of a double curtain, which facilitated his double voice. His self is represented as an individual and collective being, and at the same time speaks to the private and public audience.<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
<br />
The phrases “raising the curtain” (''kaimu'') and “opening our theater” (''kaichang'') are cliches for something to start, but the term ''mu'' referring to the theatrical or cinematic curtain was new, after the oral drama and film were introduced from the West at the turn of the twentieth century. Zhou’s pronouncement of opening a theater addressed to the bride sounds happy for pronouncing their new family life; also it is theatrical as the narrator consequently conjures up a “paradise” within the curtain, where birds sing and flowers smile in the spring. Nevertheless, the repetition of theater at the outset of this ''qinghua'' addresses not only to his bride - the exclusive beholder inside the curtain, but also to an audience, namely this curtain faces the implied beholders. Readers are already aware from the prologue that the author predicts to show this pillow talk to his friends. The visual characteristic of the text is inscribed by the imagery title “In the Nine-Flower Curtain,” and by the metaphor of curtain the intimate space is turned into a theater under the public watch. Against a larger cultural canvas, as a kind of imported cultural material, the curtain was applied as a new decorum in urban spaces, such as art studio, or photograph studio. Consequently, it functioned in shaping modern perception about the relations between space, life-world and work of art.<br />
<br />
“拉开帷幕”（开幕）和“开放剧场”（开场）是老生常谈的话题，但“幕”指的是戏剧或电影的帷幕，是二十世纪初从西方引进话剧和电影之后的新词。周先生说要给新娘开戏院，这听起来像是在宣告他们新家生活的幸福，同时也是戏剧性的，因为叙述者由此在幕布内想象出一个“天堂”，在那里鸟语花香，春意盎然。然而，这段情话一开始就重复的桥段不仅是给新娘即帘子里的专属看客看的，也是给观众看的，换句话说这帘子面对的是隐含的看客。读者从序言中已经知道，作者预言要把这番枕边话给朋友看。文本的视觉特征是通过意象标题“九花帘中”来刻画的，通过帘子的隐喻，私密空间变成了公众注视下的剧场。在更大的文化背景下，幕布作为一种舶来的文化材料，以一种新的装饰品被应用于城市空间，如艺术工作室，或摄影工作室。因此，幕布在塑造现代人对空间、生活世界和艺术作品之间关系的认知方面发挥了作用。--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 03:35, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu</div>Hu Huifanghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201123_trans&diff=10484520201123 trans2020-11-19T09:13:18Z<p>Hu Huifang: /* Hu Huifang 胡慧芳 */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
History of Chinese Studies <br />
<br />
国际汉学史<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler 吳漠汀 (Witten/Herdecke University, Peking Normal University 德國維籐大學，中國北京師範大學)<br />
<br />
Abstract: The roots of Chinese Studies lie as early as Chinese people started to reflect on parts of Chinese culture, which was as early as Chinese culture emerged. Especially foreign people defined Chinese culture distinctly in separation of their own culture, like ancient Greek philosophers and early delegations from the Roman Empire.<br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
From the very beginning, Western Scholars of Chinese Studies were closely cooperating with Chinese partners, so that Chinese Studies cannot be limited to Overseas Chinese Studies. Merchants went beyond their trade business and created travel reports and first translations of Chinese literature. Missionaries for the first time studied systematically the Chinese language and culture, translated the Chinese Classics and Four Books into Latin.<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
Their idealized descriptions of China stimulated the Chinoisérie and the positive reception of China among philosophers of the enlightenment, which saw China as a secular empire. Then, the China-image turned to the worse with Western scholars ascribing China a static nature creating the so-called “Great Divergence”. <br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
This narrative was challenged in the early 1980s with the start of the Opening and Reform Policy. Finally colleges and professorships were established first in the West and then in China. Today, Chinese Studies in the West and in China are enriching each other and are inseparably connected.<br />
<br />
Key Words: Chinese Studies, Sinology, Hanxue, Guoxue, delegations, philosophers, merchants, travel reports, translations, missionaries, enlightenment, Chinoisérie, Great Divergence<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
Definition 定義<br />
<br />
Chinese Studies, also called Sinology (in German: Sinologie) or China Studies (in German: Chinawissenschaften, Chinakunde), is the academic discipline to study China in its geography, history, society, culture(s), language(s), literature(s) etc. It is mainly divided into the study of ancient and premodern China and of modern and contemporary China.<br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
In the Chinese language, internationally the term “Hanxue” is used (first used in Japan as kangaku漢學/汉学, parallely to the term “Hanyu” 漢語/汉语 for Chinese). The term is not meant discriminative against non-Han minorities, since we have terms like “Hanyu” or “Germanic Studies” (the Germans were an ethnic tribe of many in todays Deutschland). In Chinese, domestically more often the terms “guoxue” 國學/国学 or “Zhongguo xue” 中國學 etc. are used. <br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
There is a trend to divide Chinese Studies in sub disciplines dealing with traditional or modern China, while the term “Sinology” is more often applied to the traditional part. In quantity, scholars dealing with traditional China become less and those dealing with modern or contemporary China more. Of course, there are other exotic terms for phenomena related to China or Chinese people, like the term “Tang People Street” 唐人街 for Chinatowns. <br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
Some Chinese scholars interpret the term “Hanxue” as reserved for the study of China by foreigners, implying often that the real “guoxue” could only be conducted by Chinese scholars, arguing you need to grow up in China in order to understand it. However, confronted with the case of overseas Chinese scholars or Western scholars growing up and working in China, the limitation of this racist distinction becomes obvious. <br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
Although in history we have rare examples of foreigners who were able to study China without Chinese partners (starting with language teachers) or without visiting the country, and Chinese Studies today often is conducted by mixed teams of domestic and foreign scholars.<br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
The discipline itself, as established at universities, had a natural focus on language and literature (philology). Today, we have a broad range of sub disciplines like Chinese literature [epigraphy], language, culture, philosophy/ethics/aesthetics, history, political science, sociology, economy) 中国文学[金石学]，语言，文化，哲学、伦理学、美学、历史、政治学、社会学、经济学<br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
Emergence<br />
Although the first university professorships as we know them today were established only in the 1814, we find the origins of Chinese Studies in early descriptions of China by philosophers. That the empires knew early about each other is proven by delegations, exchanged even two thousand years ago between the Roman Empire and China.<br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
Later we have records and first translations of travelling merchants (Marco Polo lived in the 13th century and travelled on land and by ship) and then by missionaries (starting with the 16th century). Later we have western philosophers (like Leibniz) and reports in journals dedicated to China.<br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
The first scholarly view on China had the Christian missionaries, who studied Chinese language and culture in China. Therefore, the first translations of Chinese classics were done into Latin. The term “sinology” since the Latin term “sina” for China seems to point to the Qin Dynastie since 221 BCE. The main purpose of the missionaries was to baptize and therefore they also translated the bible into Chinese and reported on the so far mostly unknown China to Europe, reports which met a huge interest and demand in Europe.<br />
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
Resources 资源<br />
<br />
There are a lot of national histories of Chinese Studies so far, but no detailed international or global history (see references).<br />
The Overseas Chinese Studies Center 海外漢學研究中心 at Peking Foreign Language University 北京外語大學 under the leadership of Zhang Xiping張西平 has been renamed in the 2010s to Research Center for the Study of Chinese Culture 中國文化研究中心#. Here a list of works on the History of Sinology:<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
First contacts: Trade (without written documents)<br />
<br />
Genetic evidence shows that there were trade relations from Mesopotamia to Europe and China as early as 11000 BCE (cows, horses) and 10000 BCE (crops). <br />
China very early became an export region, as we can trace the genes of animals back to China 10000 BCE (pigs), 8000 BCE (chicken), and of silk cloth 5000 BCE.<br />
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
The Emergence of Chinese Studies: Philosophers<br />
Aristotle (384-322 BC) writes in the 4th century BC: “Those who live in a cold climate and in Europe are full of spirit, but wanting in intelligence and skill; and therefore they retain comparative freedom, but have no political organization, and are incapable of ruling over others. Whereas the natives of Asia are intelligent and inventive, but they are wanting in spirit, and therefore they are always in a state of subjection and slavery.”[ Aristoteles: Politeia, Book VII, Part VII, translated by Benjamin Jowett, http://evans-experientialism. freewebspace.com/aristotle_politics07.htm, last visited Dec 5, 2010. In German: „Die Völkerschaften nämlich, welche innerhalb der kalten Gegenden in Europa wohnen, sind zwar voll Muth, aber weniger mit Geist und Kunstfertigkeit begabt. Daher behaupten sie zwar leichter ihre Freiheit, aber sie sind zur Bildung staatsbürgerlicher Gemeinwesen untüchtig [...]. Die Völkerschaften Asiens dagegen sind klugen und kunstfertigen Geistes, aber ohne Muth. Daher leben sie in Unterwürfigkeit und Sklaverei.“, from: Aristoteles: Werke. Griechisch und Deutsch, vol. 6, ed. by Franz Susemihl, Aalen 1978 (Reprint of the edition Leipzig 1879), p. 409.]<br />
亚里士多德（公元前384年-公元前322年）在公元前4世纪写到：“那些生活在欧洲寒冷气候里的人们，他们充满灵感但是缺乏智慧和技巧；所以虽然他们保留了相对的自由，但却没有政治组织，也没有能力管理其他人。然而，亚洲人聪明而善于发明，但是他们缺乏勇气，所以他们总是顺从和被奴役。” [ 亚里士多德：《政治学》，第七卷，第七部分，由本杰明·乔伊特翻译，http://evans-experientialism. freewebspace.com/aristotle_politics07.htm，访问日期2010年12月5日。德语原文为： „Die Völkerschaften nämlich, welche innerhalb der kalten Gegenden in Europa wohnen, sind zwar voll Muth, aber weniger mit Geist und Kunstfertigkeit begabt. Daher behaupten sie zwar leichter ihre Freiheit, aber sie sind zur Bildung staatsbürgerlicher Gemeinwesen untüchtig [...]. Die Völkerschaften Asiens dagegen sind klugen und kunstfertigen Geistes, aber ohne Muth. Daher leben sie in Unterwürfigkeit und Sklaverei.“，引自：《亚里士多德作品集-希腊人和德国人》，第六卷，由Franz Susemihl, Aalen在1978年出版（1879年在莱比锡再版），第409页。]<br />
<br />
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
The Emergence of Religious Missions with the Study of China as a by-product<br />
Between 1593-1607 the Spanish Dominican mission in Manila operated a press and produced 4 books on Christian belief. <br />
<br />
1593-1607西班牙多明我会使团在马尼拉经营的出版社出版了4本基于基督教信仰的书<br />
<br />
In 1583 the influential Jesuit Matteo Ricci arrived in Canton and spent the rest of his life in China.<br />
<br />
1583利玛窦（耶稣会会士）抵达广州，在中国度过余生。<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
Interest by European emperors in the beginning of the 18th century<br />
In France, the study of China and the Chinese language began with the patronage of Louis XIV. In 1711, he appointed a young Chinese, Arcadio Huang to catalog the royal collection of Chinese texts. Huang was assisted by Étienne Fourmont, who published a Chinese grammar in 1742.<br />
<br />
在法国，对中国和中国语言的研究始于路易十四的赞助。在1711，他任命了一位年轻的中国人Arcadio Huang对皇家藏书的中文文本进行目录整理。黄的助手艾蒂安Fourmont，在1742年发表了一本中国语法书。<br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
In 1732 a missionary priest of the Sacred Congregation "De propaganda fide" from the kingdom of Naples, Matteo Ripa (1692–1746), created in Naples the first Sinology School of the European Continent: the "Chinese Institute", the first nucleus of what would become today's Università degli studi di Napoli L'Orientale, or Naples Eastern University. Ripa had worked as a painter and copper-engraver at the imperial court of the Kangxi Emperor between 1711 and 1723. Ripa returned to Naples from China with four young Chinese Christians, all teachers of their native language and formed the Institute sanctioned by Pope Clement XII to teach Chinese to missionaries and thus advance the propagation of Christianity in China.<br />
<br />
1732年，来自那不勒斯的传布信仰圣部的传教牧师Matteo Ripa马国贤（1692–1746），在那不勒斯创建了欧洲大陆的第一个汉学学校：“中国学院”，它后来成为了今天的那不勒斯东方大学。马国贤曾在1711和1723之间担任康熙皇帝的宫廷画家和雕刻师。马国贤从中国回到那不勒斯时，带回了四个年轻的中国基督徒。他们都是汉语教师，组建了学院，在教皇克莱门特十二世的批准下向牧师们教授中文，从而推进了基督教在中国的传播。<br />
<br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
Chinoiserie<br />
<br />
Chinese objects of art as symbols of Chinese cultural tradition early spread to Europe, reaching the peak in the 18th century during the period of Chinoisérie“中国风”. Fascinated Collectors saved several artefacts for following generations. Their selection criteria allow to approach the guiding aesthetic principles behind their fascination. European imitations of these artefacts show in their similarities and differences to the originals and to the own cultural traditions the principles they followed to catch the reason for the experienced exoticism during the consumption of the cultural goods. Imitated imitated Chinese-style architecture, imitated Chinese paintings and imitated characters in paintings, tattoos and design, reveal what principles Westerners believed to guide Chinese traditional art.<br />
<br />
作为中国传统文化象征的中国艺术品很早就传播到了欧洲，在“中国风”时期达到了顶峰。对此十分着迷的收藏家们为后人保存了几件文物。他们的选择标准很接近他们所欣赏的指导性美学原则。欧洲的工艺模仿品表明了他们自己的文化传统和原型的相似性和差异性，他们遵循的原则符合在文化商品的消费过程中对异国情调的体验。在绘画、纹身和设计方面的模仿特点、模仿中国风格的建筑和仿作的中国画，揭示了西方人眼里的中国传统艺术的指导原则。<br />
<br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
Europe: Enlightened Philosophers end of the 18th century 欧洲：第18世紀末的启蒙哲学家<br />
<br />
During the enlightenment process in Europe, philosophers in their search for a vision of a world without religious control, discovered China and wanted to understand it as a secular ideal alternative to Europe. (Leibniz: Novissima Sinica, The Orphan of Zhao, Voltaire: wrote play “L'orphelin de la Chine” portrait of Confucius, Giambattista Vico.<br />
<br />
启蒙哲学家在欧洲汉学（莱布尼茨：《中国近事》，伏尔泰：《赵氏孤儿》、孔子肖像，维柯。<br />
<br />
1789-… Enlightened philosophers: Saw China as an enlightened kingdom with ethics instead of church and religion<br />
<br />
1789…启蒙哲学家：看到中国作为一个有伦理的开明王国而不是教会和宗教伦理<br />
<br />
一个不受宗教控制的世界时<br />
<br />
在欧洲的启蒙运动中，哲学家们在寻找一个不受宗教控制的世界时，了解到了中国这一国度，并将其视为欧洲脱离世俗的替代品。（莱尼兹：诺威西玛·辛尼卡，《赵氏孤儿》，伏尔泰：写下孔子朱安·巴蒂斯塔·维柯的剧本《中国的左撇子》。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
一个不受宗教控制的世界时<br />
在欧洲启蒙运动的进程中，哲学家们在寻找一个不受宗教控制的世界时，发现了中国，并希望可以将其视为欧洲脱离世俗理想替代品。莱尼兹：诺威西玛·辛尼卡，《赵氏孤儿》，伏尔泰：写下孔子朱安·巴蒂斯塔·维柯的剧本《中国的左撇子》 --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 09:10, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
Europe: Professorships<br />
<br />
The study of Assyriology and Egyptology developed before the serious study of China because of their connections to the Bible; the study of Indology represented a breakthrough in the development of linguistics. Chinese texts, perhaps because they did not have these connections, were the last to be studied in European universities until around 1860 except in France (Zurndorfer, China Bibliography 1999 p. 6, quoted from Wikipedia “Sinology”, August 6, 2018).<br />
<br />
由于和圣经的紧密联系，亚述学、埃及学的研究在正规的中国研究前发展充分；印度学研究代表了语言学发展的突破口。可能是因为中国文本和它们没有联系，所以直到1860左右，它才成为除了法国外的欧洲大学最后的研究对象。<br />
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
The first college to study Chinese was established in Italy. At the Academy in St. Petersburg in Russia, on March 23, 1741, the lecturer 伊拉利昂·罗索欣 started to teach Chinese Studies. He was also part of a mission sent to emperor Kangxi in Qing Dynasty.<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
On December 11, 1814, the first Professorship of Chinese and Manchu was established at the Collège de France, the sinologist 雷慕莎 Jean-Pierre Abel-Rémusat, who taught himself Chinese, filled the position, becoming the first professor of Chinese in Europe. By then the first Russian Sinologist, Nikita Bichurin, had been living in Beijing for ten years. <br />
<br />
1814年，研究中国和满族的讲学席位在法国的大学成立。雷慕莎自学了中文，占据了这一位置，成为了欧洲第一个汉学教授。而之后的第一个俄罗斯汉学家尼基塔·比丘林则曾在北京生活了十年。<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
Abel-Rémusat's counterparts in England and Germany were Samuel Kidd (1797–1843) and Wilhelm Schott (1807–1889) respectively, though the first important secular sinologists in these two countries were James Legge and Hans Georg Conon von der Gabelentz. Scholars like Legge often relied on the work of ethnic Chinese scholars such as Wang Tao (Zurndorfer, China Bibliography 1999 p. 8-14, quoted from Wikipedia “Sinology”, August 6, 2018).<br />
<br />
雷慕莎的同仁分别有英国的Samuel Kidd（1797–1843）和德国的Wilhelm Schott（1807–1889），虽然在这两个国家头等重要的世俗汉学家是理雅各和加贝伦茨。理雅各等学者常常依靠华人学者如王韬等人的作品。<br />
<br />
<br />
阿贝尔·雷穆萨在英国和德国的同行分别是塞缪尔·基德（Samuel Kidd，1797-1843）和威廉·肖特（Wilhelm Schott，1807-1889），不过这两个国家最早出现的重要世俗汉学家是詹姆斯·莱格和汉斯·格奥尔格·科农·冯·德加布伦茨。像莱格这样的学者经常依赖于像王韬这样的华裔学者的作品。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 03:08, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
Stanislas Julien served as the Chair of Chinese at the Collège de France for over 40 years, starting his studies with Rémusat and succeeding him in 1833. not only of classical texts but also works of vernacular literature, and for his knowledge of Manchu. Édouard Chavannes succeeded to the position after the death of Marquis d'Hervey-Saint-Denys in 1893. Chavannes pursued broad interests in history as well as language (Zurndorfer, China Bibliography 1999 p. 8-14, quoted from Wikipedia “Sinology”, August 6, 2018).<br />
<br />
儒莲担任法兰西学院的汉学教授超过40年，他与雷慕莎一起开始他的研究，并在1833年继承了雷慕莎的工作。他以不仅针对古典文学、而且涉猎白话文学作品的翻译工作和和对满族的了解而闻名。沙畹在德理文于1893去世后继承了他的位置，沙畹在历史和语言领域上兴趣广泛。<br />
<br />
斯塔尼斯拉斯·朱利安（Stanislas Julien）在法兰西学院（Collègede France）担任中文主席40多年，从雷穆萨（Rémusat）开始学习，并于1833年继任。他不仅学习古典文学作品，还学习白话文学作品，并了解满族。 爱德华·沙畹在1893年侯爵·圣赫尔·圣丹尼斯（Marquis d'Hervey-Saint-Denys）去世后继任。沙畹追求历史和语言的广泛利益（Zurndorfer，中国参考书目1999年第8-14页，引自Wikipedia“ Sinology”， 2018年8月6日）。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 09:13, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Rulian served as a professor of Sinology at the French Academy for more than 40 years. He started his research with Remusa and inherited Remusa's work in 1833. He is famous for his translation work not only for classical literature, but also for vernacular literary works and his understanding of Manchu. Chavannes inherited his position after De Liwen died in 1893. Chavannes has a wide range of interests in history and language. --[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 09:13, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
After the Opium war 1840, the Department of Oriental Studies at Cambridge University and the SOAS/London University were established.<br />
<br />
In 1875, Leiden University in the Netherlands started and in 1890 the sinologist 考狄 founded the first academic journal by Westerners on China, the Toung Pao 通报.<br />
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
In 1912, Richard Wilhelm, who had lived in China for about 30 years, taught at the Friedrich Wilhelm University in Frankfurt and established a Chinese Seminar “中国学社” and together with Beiping’s Furen University the journal华裔学志.<br />
<br />
At the end of the 19th century, in Sweden the University of Gotheburg established East Asian Language and Culture Seminar, starting with Sven Hedin, who explored Western China, followed by the the Chinese linguist 高本汉.<br />
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
The image of China as an essentially Confucian society conveyed by Jesuit scholars dominated Western thought in these times. While some in Europe learned to speak Chinese, most studied written classical Chinese. These scholars were in what is called the “commentarial tradition” through critical annotated translation. <br />
<br />
在那个时候，中国在西方的形象在本质上是以耶稣会学者传达的儒家社会为主。在欧洲，有些人学学习说中文，大多数人则学写书面文言文。这些学者们通过批判的注释性翻译处在了所谓的“注释传统”。<br />
==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
This emphasis on translating classical texts inhibited the use of social science methodology or comparing these texts of other traditions. One scholar described this type of sinology as “philological hairsplitting” preoccupied with marginal or curious aspects (Zurndorfer, China Bibliography 1999 p. 14-15, quoted from Wikipedia “Sinology”, August 6, 2018). Secular scholars gradually came to outnumber missionaries, and in the 20th century sinology slowly gained a substantial presence in Western universities.<br />
<br />
这种强调翻译经典文本的做法阻碍了社会科学方法论的使用或与其他传统的文本的比较。有学者称这类汉学描述为专注于边缘或好奇方面的“语言学上的吹毛求疵”。世俗学者逐渐多于传教士，并在西方大学为20世纪的汉学慢慢积累了实质性存在。<br />
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
Sinology in Germany 德国的汉学<br />
<br />
Today, in Germany there are about 30 universities and universities of applied sciences with Chinese Studies..<br />
<br />
Since the beginning of the 19th century, people started to conduct research on China. In 1829–1831, the orientalist Carl Friedrich Neumann bought 12,000 Chinese books in Canton, which he shipped to Munich and which became the foundation of the East Asian Collection of the Bavarian State Library as well as the Berlin State Library. Since 1833 Wilhelm Schott taught Chinese and Chinese philosophy in Berlin. <br />
==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
Pioneering research on China were the geological-geographical research trips by Ferdinand von Richthofen since the early 1860s. In 1887 the first Chinese language classes and sinological classes started at the Seminar for Oriental languages in Berlin. In 1889, the first German Chair of Sinology was established at the University of Leipzig, the first full professor was Hans Georg Conon von der Gabelentz. In 1912 the 2nd chair was established in Berlin with J. J. M. de Groot and in 1914 at the Colonial Institute in Hamburg with Otto Franke.<br />
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
During colonial times, in which the German Empire held the Chinese colony “Kiautschou”, the interest in Chinese culture grew. The exile of many Chinese scientists in the period of National Socialism harmed the German Sinology sustainably. Since the opening up of the People's Republic of China in the 1980s, Sinology in Germany is no longer among the orchid subjects and new students of Sinology have good job prospects. <br />
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
The change of attitude among early China experts with the example of the early reception of the Red Chamber Dreams<br />
<br />
The Red Chamber Dreams shortly after publication in 1791 spread fast among the foreigners’ community including Robert Morrison (who incorporated parts of it into his language teaching material and dictionary already by 1813-1815).<br />
<br />
早期中国专家态度的转变-以早期接受《红楼梦》为例<br />
《红楼梦》在1791年出版后不久，就在国外迅速传播包括罗伯特·莫里森（Robert Morrison）。罗伯特·莫里森（Robert Morrison）早在1813年至1815年就将其部分内容纳入了他的语言教材和词典中。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 08:59, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
The novel also was made known in partial translation both in English and French (by John Francis Davis) in Europe in 1819. However, for a few decades, the Western reviews of the book were mostly negative, revealing an ethnocentric approach, valuing Chinese literature below Western literature. <br />
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
It took almost a century to get to know each other better, to change attitudes from ethnocentric to dialectical, to stop exploiting the novel and to come to the insight that Chinese literature with Dream as one of its masterpieces was not only comparable to other world literatures but also could bring value to Western readers (Mayers 1867).<br />
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经过几乎一个世纪，双方增进了解，并从“民族中心主义”的优越感向辩证思想转变，停止利用小说互相攻击，开始深入了解中国文学，不仅将《红楼梦》这类杰作与其他世界文学相比较，而且，更重要的是将价值观带给西方读者。（梅辉立(Mayers) 1867年）。<br />
<br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
Main Controversies<br />
<br />
a) The Great Divergence<br />
<br />
One of the main controversies in Chinese Studies is that for a long time China appeared economically backward (compared to Western European nations). Sociologists (Marx), philosophers (Hegel), economists (Kenneth Pomeranz: The Great Divergence) and sinologists tried to explain this with the static nature of Chinese economy due to Confucianism. <br />
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
Scholars have questioned this: Angus Maddison suggested that China was leading (rotating ranks with India) by GDP from 0 to 1550 so that the current development was a return to old status. Philipp C.C. Huang concentrated on rural developments and argued that only the concentration of production capibilities during the socialist reforms laid the foundation for today’s Chinese economical miracle. Today, sinologists argue that Confucianism is one of the main reasons for the economical miracle.<br />
==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
“The Chinese have as a general characteristic, a remarkable skill in imitation, which is exercised not merely in daily life, but also in art. They have not yet succeeded in representing the beautiful, as beautiful; for in their painting, perspective and shadow are wanting.<br />
<br />
“总之，这个民族有种罕见的模仿能力，这不仅体现在他们的日常生活中，也用运到了艺术创作当中。美作为美的事物去展示对于这个民族来说并不成功，因为在绘画中缺少了透视和阴影。<br />
<br />
中国人有一个总体特征，那就是其超凡脱俗的模仿能力。这不仅体现在他们的日常生活中，也运用到了艺术创作当中。由于其绘画中缺乏透视法和阴影，他们无法淋漓尽致地表现出事物的美。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 14:28, 18 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
And although a Chinese painter copies European pictures (as the Chinese do everything else) correctly; although he observes accurately how many scales a carp has; how many indentations there are in the leaves of a tree; what is the form of various trees, and how the branches bend; - the Exalted, the Ideal and Beautiful is not the domain of his art and skill. The Chinese are, on the other hand, too proud to learn anything from Europeans, although they must often recognize their superiority.” <br />
Hegel, The Philosophy of History (transl. J. Sibree, p. 155)<br />
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即使中国画家原封不动地模仿欧洲的绘画，如若他知道鲤鱼有多少鳞片……，崇高的、理想的、美的事物也不是他的艺术土壤和擅长之处。” 黑格爾，《历史哲学讲演录》<br />
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
b) Chinese and Western scholarship<br />
<br />
Traditional Chinese education (focusing on self development and social harmony) differed much from Western scholarship (search for truth and universal human values). Chinese scholars of guoxue often do not recognize Western scholars of Hanxue as their colleagues. Today there are trends to return to Confucian education, teaching and scholarship in China, taking the Hanlin academy as example (see: Hong Kong College).<br />
<br />
b）中西学问<br />
<br />
中西方在传统教育方面又很大不同，前者侧重于追求自我发展和社会和谐，后者寻求真理和普世价值观。中国国学学者通常不把西方汉学学者当作同行。如今，儒家教育以及儒学研究在中国如火如荼，以翰林书院为例（见：香港大学）。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 07:19, 18 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
b）中西学术<br />
中国传统教育（注重自我发展和社会和谐）与西方学术（追求真理和普遍的人类价值）有很大不同。中国国学学者往往不承认西方汉学学者是他们的同僚。今天，中国教育有向儒学教育回归的趋势，以翰林院为例（参见：香港大学）。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 03:17, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
Also Traditional Chinese Medicine has continued to be an alternative to Western medicine, although the general grouping into Yin and Yang has been proven to be arbitrary since objects/organs etc. historically were assigned to Yang for a time and to Yin at other times. However, acupuncture has been recognized by Western medicine to be effective. Western reproach towards Chinese scholarship is that it is not conducted in a free environment.<br />
<br />
==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
From Ethnocentrism and Exoticism to Universalism and Dialogue: <br />
the General Trend of Chinese Studies in the West - <br />
A Case Study of the Early Western Reception of Red Chamber Dreams<br />
<br />
从种族中心主义和异国主义到普遍主义和对话：<br />
西方中国学之总趋势——以《红楼梦》早期西方接受为例<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler <br />
(Witten/Herdecke University, Peking Normal University, Nanking Normal University)<br />
<br />
Abstract<br />
“Chinese Studies” (Sinology, Chinakunde, Études Chinoises etc.) in general from its origins until today sees a main trend from ethnocentrism and exoticism to universalism and dialogue. Undergoing historical periods of Chinoisérie and then China-bashing during imperialist and colonialist times, Chinese Studies at universities and in associations like the German China Association has established a more objective view on China. <br />
摘要<br />
“汉学” （又名“国学”、“中国学” 等等）自起源至今，大体上经过这样一条发展主线：从种族中心主义和追求异域风情发展至普世主义和对话机制。在经过中国风(Chinoisérie)时代，到批判和抨击中国（China-bashing）的帝国主义和殖民主义时代之后，汉学在大学和学术协会（如德中协会）里建立了一个对中国更为客观的看法。<br />
<br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
Ethnocentrism is still existing among Western sinologists today and has to be fought. Still, the contemporary trends globalization, digitalization and travel freedom offer the current generation of sinologists so far unseen possibilities of international cooperation, promising extremely fruitful especially between distant cultures like China and the West. <br />
但是，在当代西方汉学家中间仍然还存在民族中心主义，我们需要为此而抗争。随着全球化、数字化和“出境自由行”这三种当代趋向的出现，新一代汉学家获得了前所未见的国际合作可能，特别像是中西间如此大跨度的文化差异，其国际合作的前景和潜力更是无可估量。<br />
<br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
Key words<br />
Ethnocentrism, Exoticism, Universalism, Chinese Studies, German China Association, universal values, Gregor Paul, cooperation, China and the West<br />
<br />
關鍵詞<br />
宗族中心主義、異國主義、普遍主義、漢學/中國學、德中協會、普遍價值觀、Gregor Paul、合作、中國與西方<br />
<br />
When we define an academic category like “Chinese Studies”, we pay respect to the fact that the world historically has developed differently in different regions. <br />
<br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
Of course the world was far less connected than today, with slow carriers like horses and ships and often bad or risky infrastructure like roads. Therefore it appears on first sight that these regions have developed their culture, their civilization and even first written languages on their own, independently. <br />
<br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
The oldest evidence of written civilizations, dating back around 3500 years BC, we find in the fertile crescent Mesopotamia with the clay tablets of the Sumerer. A little bit later there is evidence in Ancient Egypt, then in Proto-India and finally also in China. <br />
<br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
But the more we explore history, the more fascinating evidence comes to light that these seemingly independently developing regions have had more trade relations and exchange of ideas than seems likely bearing in mind mobility: The Silk Road is not only rediscovered and reevaluated historically, but also rebuilt as a political agenda today. We today find early evidence of European civilizations in America and Asia as well as the Chinese civilization also in America and Europe. <br />
<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
Cultural Science is more influenced by its subject than other sciences, since we are part of it and cannot leave it to examine it. The history of cultural science has developed from the first times of intercultural encounters to today’s life, in which cultures are mixed and people understand each other as being part of different cultures simultaneously.<br />
<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
However, there will always be differentiation between cultures, simply because the trends of integration and separation occur at the same time.<br />
<br />
When there is different cultures, there is an interest in comparing these. This medal has two sides. As soon as you start to compare, you may value. Cultural encounters happened before there were experts or a whole discipline.<br />
<br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
So the first comparisons between cultures were ethnocentric: You compared whatever you encountered as “other”, “foreign” or “alien”, to your own culture. This was often accompanied with feelings. There was both, the feeling of fear of the unknown and curiosness in the exotic.<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
You may categorize civilizations into so-called “high civilizations” and “low civilizations”, into “developed” and “underdeveloped” cultures. This was an ethnocentric approach in the age of cultural relativism. Today in the age of post-growth economy and after tragic experiences of colonialization and missionization, we know that each culture is equal and cannot be ranked to be higher or lower, of more or less value than the other.<br />
<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
While very early there were historians collecting knowledge from travel reports or official delegations visiting foreign cultures, in the middle ages handbooks collected the knowledge to describe different cultures. Even the Romans had words for the Chinese (Seres in the North and Sinae in the South) and attributed to Asian-looking people certain characteristics of behaviour, attitudes, value systems, beliefs, morals and character. <br />
<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
The first in-depth analysis of the Chinese culture through Western people came not with the merchants, but with the Jesuits. How few was known about China can be seen from the fact, that only the Jesuits managed to clarify, that the myth of the two empires, Tartary and Kitai/Cathay, in fact both were the same (China). <br />
<br />
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
However, the Jesuit’s approach was still ethnocentric and cultural relativist, because by portraying (like Du Halde) China as a seemingly ideal state suitable for mission work, they contributed to subjective views on China. <br />
<br />
Around 1720 presumably the French Jesuit Jean-François Noëlas even translated the Dao de jing into Latin.[ Collani, Claudia von, Harald Holz, Konrad Wegmann eds. Uroffenbarung und Daoismus: jesuitische Missionshermeneutik des Daoismus. Europ. University Press, 2008. [Partial retranslation Chinese-Latin-German.]] <br />
<br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
The translation turns out to deviate from the original in the way that we suddenly find the Christian trinity god in it.<br />
<br />
This is the starting point of an ethnocentric tradition to read the self and the own into the other and the alien, instead of respecting the other as a value by itself and allowing it to even challenge the own beliefs. <br />
<br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
Even the German Christian missionary and sinologist Richard Wilhelm used a Christian language (belief, heavens’ doors, life after death etc.) in his influential 1919 Taoteking translation and in 1925 he translated “god” into the Analects of Confucius.<br />
<br />
The missionaries baptized the seemingly “backward” aborigines in several continents, sometimes supported by the sword.<br />
<br />
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
A lot of cultures, considered less “developed”, were heavily influenced or even destroyed and extinguished. Earlier, the “Warriors of the Cross” even fought wars and devastated complete regions.<br />
<br />
The other aspect, the exotization of the other was expressed by the way the first Chinese people who came to Europe were received: They were passed on at tea meetings and gazed at like animals.<br />
<br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
Soon Chinese goods became the symbol of the exotic. Chinese porcellain and nick-nacks, even Chinese-style buildings were recreated in Europe. The fever-like admiration of a China image, which certainly was not the true China, is called Chinoiserie. The Chinoiserie even involved European philosophers like Voltaire and Leibniz, who compared China to an ideal country without religion and still moral values, represented by a wise emperor. <br />
<br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
In Europe, the first experts on Chinese culture were entrusted with the task to explain the Chinese culture no longer from the ethnocentric viewpoint, but from a scientific one: Professorships at universities were established. Their early translations show traces of admiration of the exotic. Chinoiserie was also countered by Européerie in China. <br />
<br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
However, this phase did only last as long as it fit to European politics. As soon as the import of colonial goods (and resources) became an economic factor, the (wrong) image of the ideal China changed into a negative one (similarly wrong). Not only mission and belief were motifs to look down on the Chinese culture, but also the comparison of economic development and living standards. <br />
<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
Hegel continued the ethnocentric view on China with his ranking of cultures. Although Confucius already had developed a “Golden Rule” principle comparable to Kant’s “Categorical Imperative”, Hegel declared Chinese philosophy as inferior to European philosophy, and even saw a geographical step by step development from Confucius over Buddha, Zarathustra, the ancient Greek and the Roman philosophy, leading to the European philosophy.<br />
<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
A ladder only second by the Arab philosophy. At the turn from the 19th to the 20th century, China was suddenly considered as static, as “the sick man of Asia”. Actually semi-colonialism in China helped to hinder development there. <br />
<br />
Rereading the reviews of Chinese literature in contemporary Western journals, it is astonishing, how disrespectful even men of letters treated Chinese literature, even during a time, when it was not yet available in translation, so that it is save to say that ethnocentric attitude prevailed over knowledge.<br />
<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
This can be proven by the many mistakes you can find in the reviews (Morrison: the book was of low literary quality, but written in Peking dialect and therefore useful as language learning material; Gützlaff: the protagonist Baoyu is a petulant woman; Giles: the words “Red Chamber Dreams do not appear in the book” etc.).<br />
<br />
错误百出的评论可以证明这一点（马礼逊：这本书没什么文采，但由于它是用北京方言所写，因而可以作为语言学习材料；居茨拉夫：主角宝玉真是一个爱耍小性子的女人；贾尔斯：“红楼梦没有在书中出现过”等等。）。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 14:17, 18 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
Also, the tradition of the title translation as “Dream of the Red Chamber” can be traced back to the origins of the better translation as “Red Chamber Dreams”, sacrificed by Francis Davis finally in favor of the powerful tool of Morrison’s dictionary calling it “Dream of the Red Chamber”.<br />
<br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
Here, the exotic was used to make fun of China. Barrow introduces an excerpt, describing the outward appearance of Baoyu and Xifeng, translated by Francis Davis into English, explicitely for the reason to “amuse the beaux and belles”. Francis Davis himself picks two poems from the novel for translation, but not for its own sake, but to use them as a proof for his own (minority) opinion that the Chinese poetry knew a certain, “descriptive” function of poems in novels. <br />
<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
In 1815 Macao Reverend Robert Morrison (1782-1834) coined the Western translation of the novel’s title by mentioning it in his Dictionary of the Chinese Language as “dreams of the red chamber.”[ He explained the character “妙” as in the novel’s character “妙玉 Meaou yǔh [Miao Yu]” as “the admirable gem, name of one of the female characters in the novel called 紅樓夢 the dreams of the red chamber”, see Robert Morrison: A Dictionary of the Chinese language in three parts, Macao: East India Company Press 1815, vol. I., 930 pp., here p. 614, left column. 24 years after the print edition was published, this is the first mention and translation of the novel’s title into a Western language known so far. If no earlier occurrence is found it means that Morrison created a translation which has lasted until today almost unchanged.] He chose the plural, which was quite reasonable as there are many dreams in the novel. It appears that 27 years later the plural “dreams” was turned into the singular “dream,” which sounds a bit more general and is therefore also a reasonable translation. <br />
<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
''Red Chamber Dreams'' is the most common translation in English and, in its variations, in all Western languages so far.<br />
<br />
In 1817 Rev. Robert Morrison published a book for studying Chinese,[ Robert Morrison, A view of China for philological purposes: containing a sketch of Chinese Chronology, Geography, Government, Religion & Customs, designed for the use of persons who study the Chinese language, Macao: East Asia Company Press, 1817, 141 S., hier S. 120-121.] in which he recommended “''Dreams of the Red Chamber''” as beginner readings, together with the novel Hao qiu zhuan, which was available mostly in English and partly in Portuguese by 1719, and fully in English by 1761. Both were written in colloquial style.<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
Morrison claims that ''Dream'' was written in Peking dialect. This does not hold true, since the author’s family Cao came from the South and many people in the novel have Nanking dialect sprinkles. In fact, the highly artful and intentional switch of dialects and sociolects contributed to the later fame of the novel. Morrison’s mistake developed its own tradition.[ Even in 1995, you could read that the ''Dreams'' is written in Peking dialect, cf. Shu Changshan, Die Rezeption Thomas Manns in China, 1995, Frankfurt: Lang, 326 pp. At least Tong Yao, Die Vielfältigkeit der Literatur, 2006 mentions both Peking and Nanking dialects.]<br />
<br />
马礼逊称《红楼梦》是用北京方言写的，但他的说法并不属实，因为书的作者曹雪芹其实是南方人，书中很多角色有时候还会说南京方言。实际上，书中地方方言和社会方言的切换十分巧妙，也是作者有意而为之，这也是此作品之后享有盛名的原因之一。马礼逊的这一错误还持续了很长一段时间。[ 甚至到了1995年仍有人说《红楼梦》是用北京方言写成。]--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 11:07, 18 November 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
马礼逊认为，《红楼梦》是用北京方言写的，但他的说法并不属实，《红楼梦》的作者曹雪芹其实是南方人，书中很多角色在某些场合甚至还会说南京方言。实际上，书中地方方言和社会方言的切换十分巧妙，这是作者有意而为之，也是《红楼梦》在后来享有盛名的原因之一。马礼逊的这一错误还持续了很长一段时间。[ 甚至到了1995年时，仍有人认为《红楼梦》是用北京方言写成。]--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:22, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
Barrow mentioned the title “[...] a Chinese novel called Hung-low-Mung, or, The Red Chamber Dreams” on June 4, 1819, in the Quarterly Review. He inserted this （导言）reference into a review[ My own findings, so far not discussed in 20th century hongxue, and published first in October 2010. John Barrow, “Art. IV Narrative of a Journey in the Interior of China, and of a Voyage to and from that Country, in the Years 1816 and 1817; containing an Account of the most interesting Transactions of Lord Amherst's Embassy to the Court of Pekin, and Observations on the Countries which it visited. By Clarke Abel F.L.S. London 1818”, in: William Gifford ed., Quarterly Review 21:41 (January 1819) S. 67-91, hier S. 79-80. This edition appeared (only by) June 4, 1819 with 13,000 copies. The author follows here the argumentation of the assignment to the author Barrow due to the following indications: “Gentleman's Magazine (Mar. 1844), 246-47. The article's author refers to #415 and #438 (including a specific reference), both of which are on the same topic and are by Barrow. Cf. also the discussion of infanticide (p.76) and Raffles's account of Java reviewed by Barrow in #422. In his Q[uarterly] R[eview] articles, it was Barrow's signature practice to refer to his own works, see “Quarterly Review Archive” http:// www.rc.umd.edu/reference/qr/index/41.html, last visited Dec 5, 2010.] of Clarke Abel’s report of a journey through China.[ Clarke Abel, Narrative of a Journey in the Interior of China, and of a Voyage to and from that Country, in the Years 1816 and 1817; containing an Account of the most interesting Transactions of Lord Amherst's Embassy to the Court of Pekin, and Observations on the Countries which it visited, F.L.S. London 1818.] He interrupted his review with an excursus on the uniform appearance and static nature of the Chinese, in line with the contemporary China-bashing of Herder and Hegel. <br />
<br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
For contemporary Europeans, the Chinese appeared abnormally uniform and simple in their clothes and appearance. They would not be subordinated to the tyranny of fashion; their culture was static. In order to entertain the “belles and beaux of Great Britain,” Barrow provides a foil to this general impression by quoting the descriptions of the garments and anatomy of two characters, Wang Xifeng and Jia Baoyu, from chapter 3 of J. Davis’ translation of Dream. <br />
<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
In fact the graphic comparisons given in these descriptions were simply strange to Europeans of that time, since they apparently did not correspond to the European’s own ideal of beauty.<br />
<br />
Even in 1842 Gützlaff criticized: “the author [makes] many protestations of his inability to do justice to the subject, which indeed is the only truth in the book […] the style is without any art […] whosoever wishes to familiarize himself with the manner of speaking the northern court dialect, may peruse this work with advantage”[ “Amongst the novels of the Chinese, this work holds a decidedly high rank. The author, after making many protestations of his inability to do justice to the subject, which indeed is the only truth in the book […] Having brought this tedious story to a conclusion, in expressing our opinion about the literary merits of the performance, we may say that the style is without any art, being literally the spoken language of the higher classes in the northern provinces. Some words that are used in a sense different from that in ordinary writings, and others are formed for the occasion, to express provincial sounds. But after reading one volume the sense is easily understood, and whosoever wishes to familiarize himself with the manner of speaking the northern court dialect, may peruse this work with advantage.” ibid., p. 273.]<br />
<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
In 1867, 78 years after the first Chinese printed edition, we find a first real in-depth review of two pages by William Frederick Mayers:[ William Frederick Mayers, in: Notes and Queries (Dec 31, 1867) pp. 167-168, here p. 167. Mayers was Chinese secretary of the British Legation at Peking. He gives also short extracts in translation: <br />
“Vast as is Heaven above or Earth below – <br />
Sighs may such limits fill for passion vainly past <br />
Grieve for the senseless youth, the hapless maiden’s woe ! <br />
Not oft is love’s light pledge redeem’ed at last ! ” (p. 167) […] <br />
Vain to be soft in temper, mild in ways, <br />
Fair as the fairest … (p. 168) <br />
[…] <br />
Not often shines <br />
thy longings too are vain ! ” (p. 168)].]<br />
<br />
“If it be lawful to avow a feeling approaching to enthusiasm for any Chinese production, The Hung Low Mêng 紅樓夢 or ‘Dreams of the Red Chamber’ is beyond possibility of cavil the work for which genuine admiration may be expressed.<br />
<br />
1867年，即第一本中文印刷版出版78年之后，我们对梅辉立的两页进行了首次真正的深入回顾：[梅辉立，在：中日释疑（1867年12月31日）,第167-168页，此处第167页。梅辉立曾担任英国使馆驻北京的中国秘书。他还给出了一些翻译中的简要摘录：<br />
“Vast as is Heaven above or Earth below – <br />
Sighs may such limits fill for passion vainly past <br />
Grieve for the senseless youth, the hapless maiden’s woe ! <br />
Not oft is love’s light pledge redeem’ed at last ! ” (p. 167) […] <br />
Vain to be soft in temper, mild in ways, <br />
Fair as the fairest … (p. 168) <br />
[…] <br />
Not often shines <br />
thy longings too are vain ! ” (p. 168)].]<br />
<br />
<br />
“如果公然宣称对任一中国作品充满热情的感觉是合法的，那么要对红楼梦或‘Dreams of the Red Chamber’的无端指摘表示真正的钦佩是不可能的。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 01:21, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
What, in English literature, the writings of Thackeray and Bulwer are in comparison with the wearisome and unskilful productions of previous generations, such is the Hung Low Mêng when compared with the works of fiction that have emanated from other Chinese authors. <br />
<br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
Human character in its complex variety of shades, the intricacies of family relations, the force of passion and the torture of disappointed yearnings after love are pourtrayed with a degree of skill and knowledge such as in truth suggests a resemblance with the two great master-spirits of English romance; <br />
<br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
whilst, as in Nature's own drama of existence, the reflections of storm and sunshine are closely interlaced, and the lighter thread of comedy runs side by side with the dark main-strand of a story which opens with the omens of sorrow and is conducted to a tearful end.<br />
<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
If, at the same time, a faint – a very faint – tinge of the supernatural is allowed to show itself in the conception of the tale, this is not only in full accord with the inclinations of the people for whom the work is written, but is also far less obtrusive than the similar element which pervades more than one of our own most celebrated fictions. […]”<br />
<br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
Reading through almost 80 years of reviews, during which more and more chapters of the novel became available, the ethnocentric attitude gradually changes to the scientific one and finally, with Mayr’s review of 1867 to a dialectic one, not only admitting that the Chinese novel was a piece of world literature, but even leaving open the possibility that it surpassed literary achievements of the own culture.<br />
<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
This process certainly has been brought to a good end with the establishment of further diversified Chinese Studies in Europe and the USA, with the role of overseas Chinese at American universities, with further translations especially through Franz Kuhn in the 1930s and with the establishment of the German China Association in the 1950s. <br />
<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
<br />
During its 60 years of history, the German China Association (next to the developing chairs of Chinese Studies at universities and next to other organizations dealing with China like friendship associations and Confucius Institutes) has helped to overcome prejudices, cultural relativism with diversity and tolerance. This is especially challenging, because the cultures and languages are quite distant and German media and internet community tends to bash China.<br />
<br />
During the last 20 years, the German China Association was shaped through its prolific president, Gregor Paul, who has shaped the prestige of the Association with his sharp and precise analysis of a common logic in China and the West as well as universal values, including human rights, worth to strive for both in the West and in China. <br />
<br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
<br />
His entertaining and informative lectures used a rhethoric often referring to persuasive conventional wisdom, e.g. that differences often come from different opinions instead of a difference of the nature of the things, as can be seen from a quarrel with his wife about what both remembered had happened the day before. Paul is a consequent logician and a real universalist and he has added to Germany’s international reputation as “the land of poets and thinkers”.<br />
<br />
The process of doing more justice to China today culminates in the cooperation between Chinese and Western scholars at international conferences, in research projects or international book projects like “A Harvard Literary History of Modern China”.<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
<br />
Europeans (and later US-Americans) have made a contribution to Chinese Studies in general. They were influenced heavily by the idealizers (Jesuits, European philosophers of the enlightenment) and by China-bashers (Hegel, the German emperor...). It took 100 years for a Chinese piece of world literature to be recognized as such in Europe. But today, Chinese literature and culture is recognized with the Nobel Prize and Confucius Institutes do successful work in the whole work promoting and exporting Chinese culture abroad.<br />
<br />
However, we should not overestimate the European contribution. There are still examples of ethnocentrism, even of religiously motivated reading of things into Chinese literature. One of these examples is the 10 volume ''History of Chinese Literature'' published in Bonn. <br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
<br />
In two volumes, the one about the origins of Chinese literature and the one on Chinese poetry, a German sinologist, who formerly was a priest, defines, that the origin of Chinese literature lies in the dialogue of the author with god. This reminds us again of the Jesuit reading of things into Chinese texts, it reminds us of the attempts, to impose your own culture on other seemingly backward cultures, in this case even the try to impose the Western god on the Chinese culture of a time, when China had a totally different understanding of the world and of heaven than that of a Christian god. The emergence of Chinese literature comes from songs, speeches and paintings, from the wish to document events, family etc., but not from an encounter with god.<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
<br />
The same German sinologist retranslated the Analects, attributed to Confucius, and translated some of the more than 50 occurrences of “heaven” or “demon/ghost” with the term “god”. <br />
<br />
Experts on Confucius also quote the few passages, where Confucius addresses the question of the supranatural like ghosts etc. and analyze that Confucius may have been at best not interested or even negative about the belief in ghosts, while he was positive about the social stability and peace rituals brought for the people.<br />
<br />
This reminds us of the fact, that it is to us to make sure that ethnocentrism is still existing today and that science is a field that needs to be aware of and cautious about it. And it needs courage to speak out against it.<br />
<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
<br />
“We were wrong” – Coming to terms <br />
with failed master narratives of Chinese Studies<br />
“我们错了”——汉学应对主流叙事传统<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler 吴漠汀<br />
<br />
Abstract<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
We, the international scholars of Chinese Studies, apologize for two main misinterpretations of China. 1. The master narrative of Jesuits and others who tried to proof the Western Christian god in ancient Chinese texts. As a tool, they used a distortion of the Chinese texts by manipulated translation. <br />
<br />
我们是中国研究的国际学者，对中国的两个主要误解道歉。 1.耶稣会士和其他人在古代中国文本中试图证明西方基督教之神的主要叙事。作为一种工具，他们通过操纵翻译来歪曲中文文本。 <br />
<br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
<br />
2. The master narrative of the stagnation of China, sometimes claimed to be inherent and systemic, often reasoned with Confucianism. This narrative was a dogma for 150 years between 1830 and 1980. The disruptive economic development since 1978 has proven this narrative wrong, Confucianism is seen as one reason for the economic miracle. <br />
<br />
2.关于中国停滞的主要叙述，有时被称为固有的和系统性的，常常用儒家思想来推理。这种叙述是1830年至1980年间150年的教条。自1978年以来的破坏性经济发展证明了这种叙事错误，儒家思想被视为经济奇迹的一个原因。<br />
<br />
2.中国停滞的主要叙述有时是内在的、系统的，通常由儒家思想所论证。这种叙述是1830年至1980年间150年的教条。自1978年以来的破坏性经济发展证明了这种叙述是错误的，而儒家思想被视为经济奇迹的原因之一。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 01:31, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
<br />
3. The master narrative of the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution as a successful Communist reform. During the 1970s, Western sinologists abandoned basic principles of neutrality, distance and fact-seeking and, based on propaganda, enthusiastically celebrated the Cultural Revolution and became dedicated followers of Mao Zedong, holding up the Little Red Book.<br />
<br />
无产阶级文化大革命的主要叙事是成功的共产主义改革。在20世纪70年代，西方汉学家放弃了中立，距离和事实寻求的基本原则，并在宣传的基础上，热烈地庆祝文化大革命，成为毛泽东的忠实粉丝，举起小红皮书。相信中国宣传的意愿部分是出于将中国理想化为一种模式的愿望，这种模式可以为西方社会的改革指明方向。<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
<br />
The readiness to believe in the Chinese propaganda was partly motivated by the wish to idealize China into a model which could show the way for a reform of Western societies.<br />
<br />
相信中国宣传的意愿部分是出于将中国理想化为一种模式的愿望，这种模式可以为西方社会的改革指明方向。<br />
<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
<br />
Key words<br />
<br />
关键词<br />
<br />
Apology, errors, mistakes, manipulation, ethnocentrism, eurocentrism, master narratives, Chinese Studies, sinology, coming to terms with the past<br />
<br />
道歉，错误，错误，操纵，种族中心主义，欧洲中心主义，大师叙事，中国研究，汉学，与过去达成协议<br />
<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
<br />
1. God in China上帝在中国<br />
<br />
Human beings develop ancestor worship, complemented by natural religions. The natural religions established a layer of shamans who interpreted the will of the natural gods. <br />
<br />
人类发展祖先崇拜，辅以自然宗教。自然宗教建立了一套解释自然神灵意志的法则。<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
<br />
In India, the layer of priests of the Vedan religion alienated from the people, because the religious texts of Vedan religion brought a conservating effect to language, texts were canonized and finally not understood by ordinary people any more. <br />
<br />
在印度，Vedan宗教的神职人员与人民疏远，因为Vedan宗教的宗教文本对语言产生了保护作用，文本被册封，最后不再为普通人所理解。<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
<br />
Finally, only the Vedan priests could understand the Vedan texts any more. This was the start of the so-called “anti-religious” start of Buddishm.<br />
<br />
最后，只有Vedan牧师才能理解Vedan文本。这是Buddishm所谓的“反宗教”起源的开始。<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
<br />
Due to the alienation of people and the religious texts and its priests, Buddha was able to establish Buddhism. He claimed that every individual was able to find his or her own way to self-perception and spiritual liberation (nirvana). <br />
<br />
由于人与宗教文本及其祭司的异化，佛陀能够建立佛教。他声称每个人都能找到自己的自我认知和精神解放的方式（涅槃）。<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
<br />
Although Buddha did not abandon priests, he established the new tradition that masters would have their disciples and these could overcome their masters. Also, Buddha destroyed the perfectionism of the almighty god by claiming that the life of imperfect men simply was much more interesting. <br />
<br />
虽然佛陀没有放弃传教者，但他建立了新的传统，即主人会有他们的门徒，这些人可以推翻他们的主人。此外，佛陀通过声称不完美男人的生活更加有趣，摧毁了全能神的完美主义。<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
<br />
In China, ancestor worship has kept its dominant role until today. Although there was the age of shamans, since several millenia every family clan had its own tradition of ancestor worship. It was believed that the ancestors in heaven watched over and influenced the lives of their descendants on earth. <br />
<br />
在中国，祖先崇拜一直保持其主导地位，直到今天。虽然萨满有年龄，由于几千年来每个家族都有自己的祖先崇拜传统。据信，天上的祖先观看并影响了他们在地球上的后代的生活。<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
<br />
So the most important unit were family clans. Even rulers used fire cracks and characters inscribed in turtle shells or cattle bones to communicate with the ancestors and to predict the future. <br />
<br />
所以最重要的单位是家族。甚至统治者也使用火龟纹和龟壳或牛骨上的字符来与祖先交流并预测未来。<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
<br />
However, when the dynasty changed and a new ethnic group took over, they could not claim the ancestors to be their relatives any more, so the shangdi concept was replaced by heaven (tian) and related understandings like “son of heaven”, “mandate of heaven” etc., supllying them with legitimization of power. <br />
<br />
然而，当王朝改变并且一个新的族群接管时，他们不能再宣称祖先是他们的亲戚，所以上帝的概念被天堂（天）和相关的理解所取代，如“天堂之子”，“任务”天国等等，用权力合法化来贬低他们。<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
<br />
Although there were mythical divine creatures, the understanding of gods was not developed as distinct and authoritative as in Europe and Egypt. Egypt and Europe both further developed from multi theism to mono theism.<br />
<br />
虽然有神话般的神圣生物，但对神的理解并没有像欧洲和埃及那样发展出独特和权威。埃及和欧洲都从多神论到单一神论进一步发展。<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
<br />
Theism established a layer of priests, occupying the role of mediators between god and men. Since every uncontrolled authority abuses its power, these mediators gained earthly wealth and took advantage of their control over people by abuse of their work force and even sexual abuse. <br />
<br />
有神论建立了一套祭祀法则，成为了神与人之间调解者的角色。由于每个不受控制的权威都滥用权力，这些调解人获得了人间的财富，并利用他们对工作人员的滥用甚至性虐待来控制他们。<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
<br />
In Europe, the power was divided among the rulers and the church, represented by the pope, the cardinals, the bishops and the priests. <br />
<br />
在欧洲，权力在统治者和教会之间分配，由教皇，红衣主教，主教和神父代表。<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
<br />
Since religion in general claims to be valid for all of menkind, when new territories were discovered in East Asia and Africa, the missionaries tried to enlarge the territorium under their control by forcing locals to accept European religions and societal development models like modernization and economical development. <br />
<br />
由于宗教一般声称对所有人都有效，当在东亚和非洲发现新的领土时，传教士试图通过迫使当地人接受欧洲宗教和现代化和经济发展等社会发展模式，来扩大其控制下的领土。<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
<br />
After the first missionaries arrived in China and saw that the exchange was positive for both sides, they also developed a motivation to keep the missionaries alive, which was a second motivation for them. <br />
<br />
在第一批传教士抵达中国，并看到双方的交流是积极的之后，他们也发展了一种让传教士活动的动力，这是他们的第二个动机。 <br />
<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
<br />
Since the Christian religion is a religion revealed in divine texts, the missionaries had a strong motivation to find evidence in the classical Chinese texts that the Christian god also existed there. So among the first texts, they selected, translated and sorted were the canonized texts. A good example is the Daodejing which they translated in a distorted way, allowing them to proof the existence of the Christian god in China.<br />
<br />
由于基督教是一种神圣文本中所揭示的宗教，传教士有强烈的动机在中国古典文本中找到证据，证明基督教的神也存在于那里。 因此，在第一批文本中，他们选择、翻译和排序的是册封文本。一个很好的例子就是《道德经》，他们以扭曲的方式翻译，使他们能够证明中国基督教神的存在。<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
<br />
This was the first major mistake, the attitude of Europeans to find evidence of their European god in Chinese roots. This attidtude lead to translation practises abandoning the basic rules of the profession: <br />
<br />
这是第一个重大错误，即欧洲人在中国人根源中找到欧洲神的证据的态度。这种原因导致翻译实践放弃了专业的基本规则：<br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
<br />
Terms, concepts and ideas sounding familiar were forcibly changed into the original European meaning. However, the published translations did only show a slight influence of this practise, the main translations, e.g. of the Daodejing first were not published, but discussed internally. <br />
<br />
熟悉的术语、概念和想法被强制改变，具有原欧洲意义。但是，已发表的翻译并没有受太大影响，主要翻译，例如最初没有发表的《道德经》，在内部进行了讨论。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 03:25, 19 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
<br />
The outcome of the discussion was that the deviations in the translations would have to go too far and ultimately that there was no proof of the Christian god in ancient Chinese texts. <br />
<br />
讨论的结果是，翻译中的偏差必须走得太远，最终在中国古代文本中没有基督教之神的证据。<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
<br />
Nonetheless, since then several missionaries, priests (Richard Wilhelm) and sinologists (Wolfgang Kubin) still tend to translate the Chinese concept of “heaven” into concepts familiar to Europeans like “god”. <br />
<br />
尽管如此，从那时起，几位传教士，牧师（理查德威廉）和汉学家（顾彬）仍然倾向于将中国的“天堂”概念翻译成欧洲人熟悉的概念，如“上帝”。<br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
<br />
This is wrong and we as sinologists, apologize to the Chinese citizens for this eurocentric approach. We hope to overcome this historical mistake by cooperation with our Chinese colleagues.<br />
<br />
这是错误的，我们作为汉学家，为这种以欧洲为中心的方法向中国公民道歉。我们希望通过与中国同事的合作修正这一历史错误。<br />
<br />
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
<br />
All institutionalization develops inertia, the Chinese society was very instituionalized, therefore the Christianization in general failed. However, he secondary aims of the missions, to bring the European understanding of societal development (development of economy, health, education bringing about progress and modernization) were a success.<br />
<br />
所有制度化都发展了惯性，中国社会非常机构化，因此基督教化总体上失败了。 然而，他的使命的次要目标，使欧洲对社会发展的理解（经济、健康、教育带来进步和现代化）的成功是成功的。<br />
<br />
==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
<br />
The missionaries translated European books of knowledge into Chinese and therefore practically performed a knowledge transfer. Also the learning of foreign languages enhanced.<br />
<br />
传教士将欧洲知识书籍翻译成中文，因此实际上执行了知识 传递。 外语学习也得到了加强。<br />
<br />
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
<br />
During history, the authoritarian rule was replaced by democracies. In China, this was the case with the establishment of the Republic of China in 1912. During history, the power of the church was also restrained with protestant reformism.<br />
<br />
在历史上，专制统治被民主取代。 在中国，1912年中华民国成立就是这种情况。在历史上，教会的权力也受到新教改良主义的制约。<br />
<br />
==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
<br />
Religions are more or less tolerant regarding people believing in different religions or regarding atheists. Islam in average is less tolerant the Christianity. <br />
<br />
宗教对于相信不同宗教或无神论者的人或多或少都是宽容的。平均而言，伊斯兰教对基督教的宽容度较低。<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
<br />
Since two millenia, Europe has been dominated by Christianity and China mostly by ancestor worship, with a huge tolerance towards Buddhism, Daoism and other forms of religious practises. <br />
<br />
自两千年以来，欧洲一直由基督教和中国主导，主要是祖先崇拜，对佛教、道教和其他形式的宗教活动有着巨大的容忍。<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
<br />
2. Stagnant China停滞的中国<br />
<br />
Times when international China watchers (scholars, philosophers) and China experts (merchants, missionaries, members of delegations, scholars) idealized China (Chinoiserie) and when they demonized her (stagnation, Yellow peril) followed each other. <br />
<br />
国际中国观察家（学者、哲学家）和中国专家（商人、传教士、代表团成员、学者）理想化中国（中国风）以及妖魔化她（停滞、黄祸）的时代相互依存。<br />
<br />
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
<br />
Western Sinology has long declared the "stagnation" in China as being “without an alternative” and as “being caused by Confucianism”. However, China showed a disruptive economical development since 1978, which proves this narrative wrong. Now also the Chinese "economic miracle" is explained by the Western sinologists with Confucianism. <br />
<br />
西方汉学早就宣称中国的“停滞”是“没有其他选择”和“由儒学引起的”。 然而，自1978年以来，中国显示出飞速的经济发展，证明这种说法是错误的。 现在中国的“经济奇迹”也被西方汉学家用儒学解释了。<br />
<br />
==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
<br />
Now is the time for Western Sinology to admit its historical mistake and to overcome the eurocentric and racist dogma of “stagnation” by diversification. The exchange with Chinese colleagues like here at the congress offers a good opportunity to do so.<br />
<br />
现在是西方汉学承认其历史错误、克服多元化“停滞”的欧洲中心和种族主义教条的时候了。在这里与大会上的中国同事交流提供了一个很好的机会。<br />
<br />
==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
<br />
With the overall turn from admiring China to demonizing China, also Hegel started to judge on China as a “stagnant” empire. <br />
<br />
随着从钦佩中国到妖魔化中国的整体转变，黑格尔也开始判断中国是一个“停滞不前”的帝国。<br />
<br />
==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
<br />
Although he found evidence that Confucius had invented the Golden Rule, he described China as the lowest stage of a stairways to the world Geist# with Berlin at the top. His condemnation of China was taken over by Marx who condemned China too. <br />
<br />
尽管他发现了孔子发明黄金法则的证据，但他将中国描述为通往世界精神阶梯的最低阶段，而柏林位居榜首。他对中国的谴责也被谴责中国的马克思所接管。<br />
<br />
==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
<br />
There were several narratives establishing a Great Divergence or arguing for little divergences during the early stage of globalization. However, new rediscoveries of ancient Chinese translations of Western books of knowledge and new statistics of sugar consumption (which was for the most time higher in China than in Europe) question these narratives today.<br />
<br />
在全球化的早期阶段，有几种叙述形成了一种大分歧或争论很少的分歧。 然而，中国古代西方知识翻译的新发现以及食糖消费的新统计数据（这在中国的时间比欧洲最高）在今天质疑这些叙述。<br />
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==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
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==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
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==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
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==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
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==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
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==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
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==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
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==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
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==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
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==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
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==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
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==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
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==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
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==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
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==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
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==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
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==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
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==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
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==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
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==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
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==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
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==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
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==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
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==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
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==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
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==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
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==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
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==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
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==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
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==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
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==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
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==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
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==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
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==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
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==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
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==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
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==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
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==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
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==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
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==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==</div>Hu Huifanghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=File:Translation_and_Style.docx&diff=104783File:Translation and Style.docx2020-11-18T13:08:20Z<p>Hu Huifang: </p>
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<div></div>Hu Huifanghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201116_trans&diff=10421820201116 trans2020-11-14T02:19:50Z<p>Hu Huifang: /* Hu Huifang 胡慧芳 */</p>
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<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
'''WOESLER, Martin'''<br />
<br />
'''Prof. Dr. Martin Woesler (University Rome III/Witten University)'''<br />
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'''The Waves of the Stone –''' <br />
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'''Early Reception Between Instrumentalization and Exoticization'''<br />
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'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
The fame of the ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' spread quickly not across Asia, but also to Europe and the USA. This paper introduces the roles and motifs of different actors in the early distribution, like merchants, Western embassies, Chinese teachers of Western missionaries, missionaries themselves, translators, early Sinologists as well as literary critics. I introduce judgements on the novel before it was available in translation.<br />
<br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
<br />
As motifs I identify exoticization (joy of otherness of fashion and dressing, customs), universalization (world literature), the instrumentalization of the novel as evidence for own hypotheses on literature (Davis’ poetry), the instrumentalization for language learning etc. I show a change of motifs over time from exoticization and instrumentalization for proving inferiority to Western novels to accepting the novel as part of world literature and a masterpiece of Chinese culture with a special value in documenting Chinese society. Of special interest are misunderstandings (Gützlaff) and deviations from the original (Kuhn, Minford).<br />
<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
<br />
Dream of the Red Chamber, Western translation, Western dissemination, Western reception, instrumentalization, exotization, deviation<br />
<br />
'''First (unproven) experiences of young Cao Xueqin with foreign literature'''<br />
<br />
In 1947 the graduate student Huang Long from then Jinling University quoted the following passage from the book Dragon's Imperial Kingdom, which he claimed to have borrowed from the Central Library (today’s Nanking Library), in which William Winston ‘remembers’ an encounter of his grandfather Philip Winston with Cao Xueqin:<br />
<br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
<br />
"The imperial kingdom was symbolized by a five-clawed golden dragon, a legendary reptile nonexistent since Creation. Of her indigenous produces shantung commanded the broadest popularity. This rendered her to merit the credit ‚Land of Silk’ in the Orient. There has been cherished as our precious heirloom a piece of home-spun fabric with an ornamental pattern of "dragon and phoenix" manufactured at Kiangning Textile Mill. It survived fires and swords. During my grandfather Philip's sojourn in China for trade in textiles, he contracted an acquaintance with Mr. Tsao Fu, the then Superintendent of Kiangning Textile Mill, and at the latter's request served as an initiator of textile technology.<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
<br />
The host was hospitality incarnate and oftentimes indited extempore verses in token of rapport. As a reply, my grandfather delivered Biblical sermons and gave a graphic narration of Shakespeare's dramas. For audience he had merely those other than the juvenile and feminine. On the score of eavesdropping, Tsao’s pampered son suffered a lashing and castigation".[ Philip Winston: Dragon's Imperial Kingdom, Douglas 1874, p. 53. Quoted from: 吴新雷, 黄进德《曹雪芹江南家世考》，福建人民出版社, 1983, 304 pp., here pp. 103-104. See also:馬幼垣（Yau-Woon Ma）《實事與構想: 中國小說史論釋》，聯經出版事業股份有限公司, 2007年，384页。See also: 周汝昌《曹雪芹新传》外文出版社(1992)²1997, 353pp., here p. 101.]<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
<br />
If this encounter has been made up, it shows how much effort Redology invested to come to new findings, if not, it may explain some of the special characteristics of the novel never seen in Chinese literature before.<br />
<br />
'''Status of the book before its publication'''<br />
<br />
Between 1754 and 1771 we have one new manuscript version per year in average and almost each manuscript carries new comments mostly from 脂砚斋 or from 畸笏叟. The author died on Feb 1, 1764, which did not end the commenting on the manuscripts.<br />
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==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The book was not officially published, but that did not prevented it from dissemination, as manuscript fragments were handed around since the 1750s and the novel was known to many scholars before its publication in 1791.<br />
<br />
The preface to the 2nd edition in 1792 also points to the fact, that there had been a “long” tradition of scholarly research of the book and comments. These comments had not been taken over for the 1st and 2nd edition.<br />
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==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
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'''From inofficial manuscript versions to the printed book'''<br />
<br />
One of the reasons why the book was not printed was that it was (wrongly) considered either sexually explicite literature (淫书) or against Confucianism, which could only passed on in manuscript versions. <br />
<br />
Gao E claims in his preface of 1791, that he had heared before 1771 from this novel and that he checked whether it was against Confucianism, but could not find anything like this in it, so that it could be published.<br />
<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
<br />
“One of the best works of fiction in Chinese literature was supposed to have been written by a member of this sect, and was suppressed by the Emperor because of offensive references to the reigning family contained in it. It was called the ‘Hung Lou Meng,’ or ‘Dream of the Red Chamber,’ and it resembles a large number of fairy tales threaded together rather than a modern novel. By an ingenious substitution of false characters, words, occasionally throughout certain portions of the work—something like incorrect spelling —the imperial interdict was evaded, and it has continued in print and popularity down to the present day. Foreign students of Chinese commonly read a portion of it, the smooth and excellent style making it an invaluable text-book.”[ See: He Tianyue 何天爵: ''The real Chinese question'' (真正的中国问题), New York: Dodd，Mead & Co. 1900, 386 pp., here p. 109.]<br />
<br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
<br />
'''Preparations of the 1st book edition'''<br />
<br />
Gao E worked with Cheng Weiyuan, who ran the publishing house Suzhou Cuiwen Press (苏州萃文书屋). <br />
<br />
According to the preface to the 1791 edition by Cheng Weiyuan, different 80 chapter manuscript versions were already circulating, some were sold for a high price at the Temple Market, others were copied by readers. Since the 80 chapter manuscript versions already contained content lists with 120 chapter headlines, he searched for and found (as he pretended) the 120 chapters.<br />
<br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
<br />
In the preface to the first printed edition he already refers to an existing number of readers, who share the love of the book with him. Also his description that some readers took over the effort to copy the book by handwriting shows that an early fan culture existed even before the printed version appeared.<br />
<br />
Also, Cheng Weiyuan keeps the question of the authorship open, but points directly to Cao Xueqin, who claimed to have worked 10 years on the novel and rewritten it five times. The rewriting may refer to the production of new manuscript versions reflecting the ideas of the commentators.<br />
<br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
<br />
'''1st Book edition 1791:''' 程甲本 Cheng A edition<br />
<br />
According to the preface to the 2nd edition 1792, these early fans were called collectors and the 1st edition was produced with movable characters, which was faster than the woodblock print. The book contained 99 illustrations and more than 100 copies were printed. The first edition might have been printed in Peking at the end of 1791, the 2nd in early 1792 in Suzhou, leaving 72 days between the two editions, which may show that the Peking edition was sold out immediately. The 1791 edition was also soon translated into Mongolian: 蒙古王府本 Menggu ben.<br />
<br />
'''1791年第一版:''' 程甲本 <br />
<br />
根据1792年第二版的序言，这些早期的粉丝被称为收藏家。第一版采用可移动的字符制作，这比木刻版画要快。 该书包含99幅插图，被印刷了一百多本。 第一版可能于1791年底在北京印刷，第二版于1792年初在苏州印刷。两版之间相隔72天，这或许表明北京印刷版立即被抢购一空。 1791年版也很快被译成蒙古文：蒙古王府本。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:18, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''1791年第一版:''' 程甲本 <br />
<br />
根据1792年第二版的序言，这些早期的粉丝被称为收藏家。第一版采用活字印刷制作，这比木刻印刷要快。 该书包含99幅插图，印刷了一百多本。 第一版可能于1791年底在北京印刷，第二版于1792年初在苏州印刷。两版之间相隔72天，这或许表明北京的这一版一经印刷立即被抢购一空。 1791年版也很快被译成蒙古文：蒙古王府本。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 05:32, 13 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
<br />
'''2nd Book edition in 1792:''' 程乙本 Cheng B edition<br />
<br />
A second edition, with ‘corrections’ some consider mistakes today, was published in 1792 in Suzhou and sold well too. The 2nd edition claims to have removed many mistakes of the 1st edition.[ For an overview of the comparison of the two editions please refer to: 《《红楼梦》程乙本版本研究综述》，王丽敏，河南教育学院学报 (哲学社会科学版) Vol．33.] One of the differences is that the 程乙本 Cheng B edition changed expressions in ancient wenyan to more contemporary ones, like “索” was turned into “要”, “趁” into “赶”, “题” into “写”, “端” into “头”, “闻得” into “听见”, “记挂” into “惦记”, “殊不知” into “那里知道” etc., but not in every case. Altogether they changed roughly 20,000 characters.<br />
<br />
1792年第二版：程乙本<br />
<br />
第二版于1792年在苏州出版，也取得了很好的销量。在第二版当中，做出了一些修正，尽管这些修正在如今被认为是错误的。第二版声称修正了第一版中的诸多错误。[关于两个版本比较的概述，请参阅：《《红楼梦》程乙本版本研究综述》，王丽敏，河南教育学院学报 (哲学社会科学版) Vol．33.]不同点之一是程乙本将一些古文言文表达转化为了更为现代的表达，比如将“索”改成了“要”，“趁”改成了“赶”，“题”改成了“写”，“端”改成了“头”，“闻得”改成了“听见”，“记挂”改成了“惦记”，“殊不知”改成了“那里知道”等,但它并没有对所有的表达进行修改。修改字数总计约达20000。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:40, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
<br />
There is also a change of the list of confiscated goods. What might have been the reason in this particular case to change the list of confiscated goods for the Cheng B edition? The list in the Jiaben is a documentation of richness and therefore lets the confiscation seem to be justified because of unjustified enrichment. In the Yiben, the list starts with mostly religious items like, Buddha statues, this lets the confiscation appear unjustified and shifts the sympathies of the reader towards the family. In the late 18th century, there was a turn towards Buddhism.<br />
<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
<br />
Many umlegitimized copies appeared. The book was delivered to Korea and shipped to Japan, where it was read in its original language.<br />
<br />
The novel created a wave of interest in China comparable to the one of ''The Sorrows of the Young Werther'' in Europe since 1774. The first edition, printed in 1791 in Peking in a small number of copies (estimates range between 4 and 400) was soon sold out.<br />
<br />
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
<br />
Some scholars assume a suicide wave among readers who identified with Lin Daiyu. Many readers discussed whether they identified more with Lin Daiyu or with Xue Baochai, a discussion that lasts until today. <br />
<br />
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
<br />
'''Spreading to Japan and Korea'''<br />
<br />
Captain王开泰 Wang Kaitai delivered 18 copies of a 9-volume edition of the Dream on December 9, 1793 to Japan, as we can prove in a store list of a Nanking ship arriving in长崎港Nagasaki (which started on November 3 in 乍浦 Zhapu): „红楼梦 九部十八套“.[ From 发货账本, quoted from: 《红楼梦 》在日本.] We know of an early mentioning of the Dream by the Korean author ''Lee'', ''Kyu-Kyung''李圭景 ( 1788- ? 李圭景(이규경)) in the 1830s.[ From 《五洲衍文长笺散稿》卷七《小说 辩证说》, quoted from: 《红楼梦》在韩国的流传和翻译.]<br />
<br />
There were early (partial) translations of the novel into Manchurian.<br />
<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
<br />
'''Early Western notions of the book'''<br />
<br />
The novel also caught the attention of Europeans living in China, like the missionaries, who started to translate parts of it into Western languages, as well as the British embassies to China, who collected also Chinese literature, brought it back to Europe or engaged in translation or dissemination. <br />
<br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
<br />
The book seems to have run out of stock often and needed to be purchased from other cities, whereever it was available, like in about 1812 in Canton: Robert Morrison, a missionary who worked in Macao, may have been pointed by his Chinese tutor to the novel. In 1816 he published a dialogue between a student (maybe himself) and his Chinese tutor pointing to the time before December 1812, when he translated parts of the novel and therefore had a copy: <br />
<br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
<br />
Student: “What is the best book for students to read?” – [...suggestion of ''Daxue''.] Tutor: [...] to read the Hung-low-mung will do very well. – Student: I have not seen the Hung-low-mung, have you seen it? – Tutor: I have not brought it with me, but if you wish to see it, I will write to Canton, and present it to you. Student: “Very good. I will trouble you to write for it.” – Tutor: “I will do so.” – Student: “How many volumes are there in the Hung-low-mung?” – Tutor: “Twenty volumes in all. In this book, the phraseology is entirely that of Peking.”[ From: “Dialogue V”, in: 《中文对话与单句》''Dialogues and Detached Sentences in the Chinese Language, with a free and verbal translation in English, collected from various sources'', Macao: East India Company Press 1816. [Chinese parts left out in this quotation.]] <br />
<br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
<br />
Between December 1812 and February 1813, Robert Morrison translated parts of chapter 4 and send it to Great Britain. He published entries about the Dream in his dictionary, of which the first volume appeared in 1815[ 《华英字典》''A Dictionary of the Chinese language in three parts'', Macao: East India Company Press 1815, vol. I 930 pp., the novel title is mentioned in volume I:614.] and more translation excerpts, e.g. from chapters 4 and 39, in his 1816 textbook edition.[ 《中文对话与单句》''Dialogues and Detached Sentences in the Chinese Language, with a free and verbal translation in English, collected from various sources'', Macao: East India Company Press 1816, e.g. pp. 194-200.] <br />
<br />
==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
<br />
Only 23 years of its publication, the novel already was part of the canonized Chinese literature of fiction and Robert Morrison used excerpts of it for his text books to teach Westerners Chinese, as well as expressions from it for his dictionary and sent letters with excerpt translations to Europe, for an intended 2nd vol. of his ''Horæ Sinicæ'' which never was realized.<br />
<br />
The first British Embassies to China (among them especially Charles Bowra, John Francis Davies) also collected literature and among it the ''Dream of the Red Chamber''. <br />
<br />
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
<br />
'''Early translation history in the West'''<br />
<br />
In 1819, the first excerpt translations were published in Europe, in English (by John Francis Davis) and in French (by Davis, further translated by Bruguière). Significantly, they were published hidden in other larger works, in the English case, it was a Travel Report by Clarke Abel,[ 约翰．巴罗（John Barrow）：“Art. IV Narrative of a Journey in the Interior of China, and of a Voyage to and from that Country, in the Years 1816 and 1817; containing an Account of the most interesting Transactions of Lord Amherst's Embassy to the Court of Peking, and Observations on the Countries which it visited. By Clarke Abel F.L.S. London 1818”，见：William Gifford（主编）, Quarterly Review 21:41 (1819年1月) 见第67-91页，特见第79-80页。这份期刊于1819年6月4号发行，总发行量13000份。笔者在这里参照了以下的索引并最终确定作者: „Gentleman's Magazine (Mar. 1844), 246-47. The article's author refers to #415 and #438 (including a specific reference), both of which are on the same topic and are by Barrow. Cf. also the discussion of infanticide (p. 76) and Raffles's account of Java reviewed by Barrow in #422. In his QR articles, it was Barrow's signature practice to refer to his own works.“, 参考„Quarterly Review Archive“ http://www.rc.umd.edu/reference/qr/index/41.html。] and in the French case, it was a Chinese drama, La-song-euil.[ “Rêves de la Chambre rouge”, 见：»Avant-propos du traducteur francais«, 见: 安托萬．安德烈．包儒略(Antoine-André Bruguière), ''Lao-seng-eul'' [老生兒], ''Comédie Chinoise, suivie de San-iu-leou, ou Les trois étages consacrés, conte moral ; Traduits du chinois en anglais, par J. F. Davis de la factorerie de Canlon ; et de l'anglais en français, par A. Bruguière de Sorsum; avec additions du traducteur'', 巴黎: Rey et Gravier / 伦敦 A. B. Dulau & Co. 1819 年, 227 页, 第141-164页, 见第150-151页。]<br />
<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
<br />
These excerpt translations were done by John Francis Davis, he translated excerpts from chapter 3 and they were published by John Barrow in Great Britain and by Bruguière in France, both in 1819. Further translations were in 1846 by Robert Thom, excerpts of chapter 6, in 1868-69 Edward Charles Bowra chapters 1-8, in 1892-93 Henry Bencraft Joly chapters 1-56, in 1927 Liang-Chih Wang chapters 1-95, in 1929/1958 Wang Chi-chen an abridged full version, in 1958 Florence McHugh & Isabel McHugh a further translation from the abridged German version of 1938 by Franz Kuhn. <br />
<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
<br />
Regarding these translations, both the translation quality as well as the quality of the English used did not reach the status of world literature. Regarding full translations, we have in the 1960s Bramwell Seaton Bonsall, in 1973-1986 Hawkes/Minford and in 1978-1980 Yang/Yang. Among all the translators who embarked on this endeavour, only Hawkes (1923-2009) and Minford (1946-) achieved the goal to produce a translation which clearly falls into the categorization of world literature, the others, as Gladys Yang stated, “were a poor shadow of the original”.[ Yang 1980 3:621-622.]<br />
<br />
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
<br />
'''Early Misunderstandings'''<br />
<br />
Before the novel was available in translation, we find a lot of misunderstandings and negative judgements on the novel: Morrison considered the novel to have been written in “Peking Dialect”, this mistake developed its own tradition.[ Even in 1995, you could read that the Dreams is written in Peking dialect, cf. Shu Changshan, Die Rezeption Thomas Manns in China, 1995, Frankfurt: Lang, 326 pp. At least Tong Yao, Die Vielfältigkeit der Literatur, 2006 mentions both Peking and Nanking dialects.] In 1842 Gützlaff[ “''Dreams in the Red Chamber''”, Friedrich August Gützlaff (1803-1851), “《紅樓夢》Hung Lau Mung, or Dreams in the Red Chamber; a novel. 20 vols. Noticed by a Correspondent”, in: ''Chinese Repository'', issue 11 (1842) 266-273.] introduced the protagonist as „the lady Páuyu“ (p. 268), even “a very petulant woman” (p. 270) and “busy lady” (p. 272), and took Jia Yucun贾雨村 (instead of Jia Zheng 贾政) as Baoyu’s father.<br />
<br />
在小说被翻译出版之前，我们发现了很多关于小说的误解和负面判断：莫里森认为小说是用“北京话”写的，这个错误发展了它自己的传统。[即使在1995年，您也可以阅读 梦是用北京话写的，参见 舒常山，《死神的托马斯·曼斯》，中国，1995年，法兰克福：郎，326页。至少通瑶（《文学之路》，2006年）同时提到了北京方言和南京话。 弗里德里希·奥古斯特·古兹拉夫（Friedrich AugustGützlaff，1803-1851年），《《红楼梦》》 一本小说。 20卷 通讯员注意到”，在：中国资料库，第11版（1842）266-273。]中将主角介绍为“夫人帕尤”（第268页），甚至是“一个非常挑剔的女人”（第270页），以及“ （第272页），并以贾雨村贾雨村（而不是贾政贾政）为宝玉的父亲。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 02:19, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
<br />
Also his overall judgement is “in expressing our opinion about the literary merits of the performance, we may say that the style is without any art, being literally the spoken language of the higher classes in the northern provinces.” and he recommends it for language learning (p. 273). Even in 1900, Herbert Allen Giles introduced the novel as have been written in “Peking dialect” and attributed to Cao Xueqin “of the 17th cent.”[ “HUNG-LOU-MENG: 紅樓夢 A famous Chinese novel in the Peking dialect, popularly known as the Dream of the Red Chamber, dealing chiefly with events of domestic life which are very graphically described, and attributed to Ts'ao Hsiieh-ch'in of the 17th cent.” See: Herbert Allen Giles, ''A glossary of reference on subjects connected with the Far East'', 1900, pp. 127-128]<br />
<br />
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
<br />
Also he claimed that the title “红楼梦” would be “a term which is not found anywhere in the text”,[ Giles 1885.] therefore was figurative and should be translated as “A Vision of Wealth and Power”. Actually the expression is found several times in the text, even in the title of chapter 25 and Baoyu actually very often falls asleep and dreams in the red bed-chambers of his female relatives and friends.<br />
<br />
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
<br />
'''Early Reception of the novel in the West'''<br />
<br />
We first must credit pioneers like J. Davis, who not only tried to systematize Chinese poetry with examples from the ''Red Chamber Dreams'', but also sent the first translations of the novel out in the world and made it known in America and Europe just a decade after it has been published in China. Some sinologists used the story simply as a good example for learning Chinese (Morrison, Thom).<br />
<br />
==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
<br />
One can conclude that the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' transported a differentiated image of China, of fashion, of hair and clothes (Barrow, Bruguière, Goldsmith), of human relations (Goldsmith), and of a highly developed language. In this language, some poetical expressions were only understandable to those who had a broad knowledge of Chinese culture. The finesse of the differentiated use of the dialects according to the respective characters in the novel was simply overlooked (Morrison, Gützlaff, Thom) and only discovered much later. <br />
<br />
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
<br />
The first phase of the Western reception was ethnocentric, partially due to the China-bashing of philosophers like Montesquieu, Herder, Hegel and to the imperialist spirit of contemporary Europe. The judgments on the novel are mostly driven by argumentation strategies; that is, the novel is used as a tool to prove one’s own existing attitudes. The novel is exploited to argue for: <br />
<br />
==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
<br />
- exoticism (J. Davis, Barrow, Bruguière)<br />
<br />
- the inferiority of Chinese literature (Gützlaff, Langdon Davies, Harte, Giles, Headland)<br />
<br />
- polarization by confronting opposite conceptions like ideal of beauty etc. (Goldsmith)<br />
<br />
- to proof own hypotheses, like a self-made categorization of Chinese poetry (J. Davis)<br />
<br />
<br />
In this beginning phase, most comparisons were done within Chinese literature (Gützlaff: best of Chinese literature but inferior to Western literature, later: best of Chinese literature).<br />
<br />
- 异国情调（J.戴维斯，巴罗，布鲁基耶）<br />
<br />
- 中国文学的劣势（古兹拉夫，兰登戴维斯，哈特，贾尔斯，海德兰）<br />
<br />
- 通过对立的概念实现两极分化，如理想之美。（戈尔登史密斯）<br />
<br />
- 证明自己的假设，就像中国诗歌的自我分类（J.戴维斯）<br />
<br />
在最开始的阶段，大多数的比较都是关于中国文学的。（古兹拉夫：最好的中国文学，但不及西方文学，后来:最好的中国文学）--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 15:01, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
-异国情调（J.戴维斯，巴罗，布鲁基耶）<br />
<br />
-中国文学的劣势（古茨拉夫，兰登·戴维斯，哈特，吉尔斯，海德兰）<br />
<br />
-通过概念的对立来实现两极分化，如理想之美等。（戈德史密斯）<br />
<br />
-证明自己的假设，例如对中国诗歌的自我归类（J.戴维斯）<br />
<br />
<br />
在这个开始阶段，大多数比较都是在中国文学中进行的（古茨拉夫：中国文学最好，但次于西方文学，后来：中国文学最好）。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 00:57, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
<br />
However, when Herder revised his China perception, and when the still inadequate perception of China called for a more differentiated image, the first translated extracts of this rich novel of manners helped to change the perception of China.<br />
<br />
Finally ''Dream'' was compared to Western literature (Erkes, Wilhelm), was enshrined in the temple of world literature and was assigned attributes that added value to the Western reading experience (Clemons: “slowing down”).<br />
<br />
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
<br />
'''Motifs for judgements'''<br />
<br />
As motifs for the early judgements mentioned above, I identify exoticization (joy of otherness of fashion and dressing, customs), universalization (world literature), the instrumentalization of the novel as evidence for own hypotheses on literature (Davis’ poetry), the instrumentalization for language learning etc.<br />
<br />
There is a change of motifs over time from exoticization and instrumentalization for proving inferiority to Western novels to accepting the novel as part of world literature and a masterpiece of Chinese culture with a special value in documenting Chinese society.<br />
判断的主题<br />
作为上述提及的早期判断的主题，我确定了小说的异国化（时尚和穿着的别样喜乐，习俗），普遍化（世界文学），小说的工具化作为文学假设的证据（如戴维斯的诗歌），以及小说的工具化用于语言学习等。<br />
随着时间的推移，小说主题也发生了变化，从异国化和工具化证明西方小说的劣势，到接受小说作为世界文学的一部分以及可以记录中国社会的具有独特价值的中国文化杰作。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 13:06, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
<br />
'''The novel title'''<br />
<br />
The book title changed from the first translations as “Red Chamber Dreams” to singular “Dream” in 1843 by德明 (А. И. Коваńко / A. I. Kovańko)[ „Traumgesicht auf dem rothen Thurm“, see> 德明 А. И. Коваńко (1808-1870, trans.): „''Chun-lou-men'' (‚Traumgesicht auf dem rothen Thurm‘) oder ‚Geschichte des Steins‘（《石头记》）. Tschen-schi-in erfährt im Traume die Wiederbelebung des Steins; Zja-jui-zun verliebt sich in seiner Armuth in eine schöne Magd.“ , in: ''Das Ausland'', Munich 26 (1843) 198-199, 201-203.] and in 1846 by Robert Thom[ Robert Thom 羅伯聃, “Extract from the Hung-low-mung, chapter VI”, in: Robert Thom, 《正音撮要》 The Chinese speaker. Extracts from works written in the Mandarin language, as spoken at Peking. Compiled for the use of students, by Robert Thom, Esq., H. M. Consul at Ningpo. Part I, Ningpo: Presbyterian Mission Press 1846, pp. 62-89].<br />
<br />
<br />
'''小说名'''<br />
<br />
书名刚开始翻译为“红楼梦”（Red Chamber Dreams），1843年德明将其译成了单数“梦”（Dream）。1846年，羅伯聃也将其译为单数形式。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 11:33, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
<br />
Many scholars have discussed the question if it was more appropriate to call the novel “Story of the Stone” instead of “Dream of the Red Chamber”. Arguments for the latter are that the first printed edition and most of the printed editions afterwards carried this title, so that it reached its fame and was read under this title until today, there was also at least one 120-chapter manuscript copy, the 《乾隆抄本百二十回紅樓夢》Qianlong 120 chapter manuscript; with this title circulating before. However, e.g. the Hawkes/Minford translation and the German Schwarz/Woesler translation use both titles with “also called” in between.<br />
<br />
许多学者都讨论过这样一个问题，即这部小说是否应该叫 "石头的故事 "而不是 "红楼梦 "更合适。支持后者的论点是，第一版印刷版和之后的大部分印刷版都使用这个书名，所以它有了自己的名气，直到今天还用这个书名，至少还有一个120章的手抄本，即乾隆抄本百二十回红楼梦；之前流传着这个书名。不过，如霍克斯/明福译本和德国施瓦兹/沃斯勒译本都使用这两个书名，中间有 "也叫"。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:02, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
许多学者都讨论过一个问题，即把这部小说起名为《石头记》 相比《红楼梦》而言是否更为合适。支持后者的人认为，第一版和之后的大多数印刷版已经有《红楼梦》这个名字了，所以名气传播开来，直至今日人们读到的还是这个书名，至少还有一个一百二十回的手抄稿，即《乾隆抄本百二十回红楼梦》，之前就流传这个书名。不过，在霍克斯/明福译本和德国施瓦茨/沃斯勒译本中，两个书名都用到了，之间含有“亦称”两字。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:16, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
<br />
Some scholars argue that the German title ''Traum der Roten Kammer'' was grammatically and logically not correct in German, but you need more than a grammar teacher’s imagination to find the answer why this title prevailed: A book title, especially a poetic one of a work of literature, does not at all have to be grammatically correct or logical, the title is simply assigned with the first translations and translators and then naturally develops in the cultural field over time.<br />
<br />
一些学者认为,德译版本《红楼梦》的标题“Traum der Roten Kammer”在德语中的语法和逻辑不正确,但是要找到这个标题为什么盛行，光靠语法老师的想象力是不够的:书名,尤其是像诗歌文学作品,并不需要一定在语法或逻辑上正确,标题只是简单地由最初翻译版本和译者指定的，然后随着时间的推移自然地在文化领域发展。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 03:50, 13 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
<br />
一些学者认为，《红楼梦》标题的德版译文Traum der Roten Kammer在德语的语法和逻辑上是不正确的，但想到找到这个标题为什么流行的答案，光拥有跟语法老师一样的想象力是不够的:书名，尤其是文学作品充满诗意的书名，根本不需要语法正确或有逻辑，标题只是简单地由最初的译文和译者定下来，然后自然而然地随着时间的推移在文化领域发展。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 07:05, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
一些学者认为,德译版本《红楼梦》的标题“Traum der Roten Kammer”在德语的语法和逻辑方面有误，,但是要找到这个标题为什么盛行的原因，光靠语法老师的想象力是不够的:书名,尤其是像诗歌文学作品的书名,不必在语法或逻辑上正确,因为标题由最初翻译版本和译者指定的，然后随着时间的推移自然地在文化领域发展。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 11:31, 13 November 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
<br />
Language development exactly works like this: New, seemingly incorrect forms of expressions come into existence, and become correct and a part of language simply because they are used. All translation decisions need to be balanced: They do not have to adhere only to a word-by-word translation, or to logic or grammar, but to what is a common expression or broadly accepted. <br />
<br />
==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
<br />
There are historical settings which influence these historical decisions, like the existence of the English translation title “Dream of the Red Chamber” at that time. Other reasons are that “Traum der” is simply shorter than “Träume im/vom roten Anwesen”, while the reader will still associate the logically correct meaning behind it. The word “Kammer” at the time when the novel was first published in Chinese was linked to luxurious rooms e.g. in castles, so very much appropriate. And the “red” is a leitmotiv.<br />
有一些历史背景影响着这些历史决定，比如当时英译本《红楼梦》的存在。另一个原因是“Traum der”比“Träume im/vom roten Anwesen”短，而读者会联想到其背后逻辑上正确的含义。当该小说第一次以中文出版时，“坎默”一词指豪华的房间（如城堡），非常恰当。“红色”是主旨。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 11:20, 13 November 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
有一些历史背景会影响这些历史决定，例如当时“红楼梦”标题的英文翻译。另一原因是“ Traum der”短于“Träumeim / vom roten Anwesen”，而读者仍会联想到其背后逻辑上正确的含义。当小说首次以中文出版时，“ Kammer”一词指豪华的房间（如城堡），这是非常恰当的，因为“红色”是主旨。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 13:17, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
<br />
To pay tribute to historical developments of becoming a well-known expression, in the German edition, the mentioning of “rote Kammer” was capitalized into “Rote Kammer” in the new edition, very much alike “Red Chamber” in English at the very beginning of the English translation history.<br />
<br />
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
<br />
'''80 or 120 chapters'''<br />
<br />
The First European Conference on the Dream of the Red Chamber in Bonn 1992 agreed that the 120 chapter version was the authoritative one because it was simply the version under which the novel reached its fame and is best known among readers. Publishing houses argue that a fragment is harder to sell. Also, the part of Cao Xueqin in the last 40 chapters is not finally enligthened, and I always recommend to stick to the editors claims until falsification, therefore we should at least assume Cao’s authorship of the last 40 chapter titles and maybe even some parts of the text.<br />
<br />
“80章还是120章”<br />
<br />
第一届以红楼梦为主题的欧洲会议于1992年在波恩举行，会议上，专家们一致认为120章的版本更具权威性。原因是这个版本在世界上广为流传，在读者中广为人知。出版社认为，单独把书的某几个章节拎出来是很难出售的。此外，曹雪芹撰写的最后40章中部分内容并没有被最终确定下来，因此我始终建议坚持编者的主张，直到被篡改为止。基于此，我们至少应承认曹雪芹拥有最后40章甚至是部分文本的著作权。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 09:37, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''80章还是120章'''<br />
<br />
第一届以红楼梦为主题的欧洲会坛于1992年在波恩举办。与会者一致认为120章的版本是权威版本，因为这个版本使红楼梦声名远扬、广为人知。出版社认为取其中几章出版成书，销量会更惨淡。曹雪芹撰写的最后40章是否出版最终也没有确定。我会一直坚持编者的观点，直到这本小说被改动后出版。因此，我们至少应该承认曹雪芹对于最后40章甚至是部分文本的著作权。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 12:09, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
<br />
How far other contributors have come close to or deviated from Cao’s original intent for the last 40 chapters may stay object of research. However, they seem to have been successful, because the 120-chapter has prevailed historically, also in its translations, and found the acceptance of the readership.<br />
<br />
'''Deviations from the original'''<br />
<br />
Kuhn, successful and critizised, with his Adapting and Foreignizing, very pleasing but ever-the-same-style translations of so different novels like Shuihuzhuan, Xiyouji and Hongloumeng is history and today one among many translations and more and more readers are able to read the Hongloumeng in other languages like English or even in Chinese.<br />
<br />
==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
<br />
Kuhn mentions to have used two specific copies of the original work. There are scholars who doubted that he really used the copies he indicated, because they could not be found. I see no reason to doubt Kuhn’s statement, it is more likely that he used grey editions which are not registered and maybe cannot be found any more.<br />
<br />
'''1st deviation by Minford: The explicit episode about the human-ghostly intercourse, chapter 102'''<br />
<br />
This episode is a black humour one, where Wu Gui’s wife has “a little bit a cold”, takes the wrong medicine and dies.<br />
<br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
<br />
At this passage, it looks like we have the opposite case as in the second example: In the Chinese original the whole sentence “enjoyed her at inordinate length” is missing.<br />
<br />
程甲本: 那媳妇子本有些感冒着了，日间吃错了药，晚上吴贵到家，已死在炕上。外面的人因那媳妇子不妥当，便都说妖怪爬过墙吸了精去死的。<br />
<br />
程乙本: 那媳妇子本有些感冒着了，日间吃错了药，晚上吴贵到家，已死在炕上。外面的人因那媳妇子不大妥当，便说妖怪爬过墙来吸了精去死的。<br />
<br />
Minford: Because of her reputation for promiscuity, other members of the household staff concluded that a spirit must have climbed over the Garden wall, enjoyed her at inordinate length, and finally sucked the sap' out of her.<br />
<br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
<br />
The sentence seems to be made up by John Minford. It is the explicit report of a sexual intercourse between a ghost and a woman, which ended, when the ghost sucked the lifeblood out of her. Minford does not only extend this brief report about the death of a woman by adding a sexual intercourse between a human and a non-human, which is inappropriate or abnormal by itself, but stresses the abnormality even by characterizing this intercourse in more detail, as taking “inordinate” long. <br />
<br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
<br />
Originally, Cao/Gao had only very briefly reported on Wu Gui’s wife’s death. They mentioned the natural cause of death, that she had taken the wrong medicine. However, since most of the strokes of fate in this novel are explained as to be motivated through moral retaliation, Cao/Gao describe her as “promiscuous”. In the logic of moral retaliation, she earns to die. The ghost then would be the executor. But still he only is described as climbing over the wall and sucking the lifeblood out of her.<br />
<br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
<br />
Minford adds an action, which leads further than Cao/Gao wrote. This action still is connected to the story, it even drives its authority from Wu Gui’s wife’s promiscuous way of living. The scene might have stimulated the readers’ fantasy, but not necessarily in the direction of Minfords account. Did Minford simply give his fancy full scope? He might also have been encouraged to interpret this scene the way he did because of the parallel scene with the mirror in chapter 12, where Jia Rui also has inordinate often sexual intercourse with the ghost of Xifeng, and gradually loses his lifeblood until he dies on a large patch of semen.<br />
<br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
<br />
After Minford had altered the original, the original ending of that scene did not fit any more: The action of killing her by sucking the lifeblood out of her comes too abrupt. In one subordinate clause they enjoy their sex and even inappropriately long, and in the next he kills her, which is by itself also outrageous. So Minford had to step into the original text sentence and add the adverb “finally” in order to bring it into a chronological and resultative relation.<br />
<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
<br />
Kuhn and Schwartz/Woesler have translated this passage without these additions and did not elaborate possible fantasies.<br />
<br />
The effect of Minfords addition is, that the episode becomes more interesting, scandalous and sexually explicit.<br />
<br />
In order to find out, what made Minford add this information, we should consider not only the original, but also a then existing translation. Minford in his preface thanked Yang Xianyi for his help with his own translation Hawkes/Minford 4:30. When we look at the Yang/Yang translation, we find the adding already there: <br />
<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
<br />
Yang/Yang: Outsiders, knowing her bad reputation, claimed that a monster had climbed over the wall to enjoy her until she died of exhaustion.<br />
<br />
This translation in many respects is not so accurate. The couple Yang/Yang uses more general words, leaving out the causal conjunction “because” [she was known for promiscuity]. For 不[大]妥当 (promiscuity) they even use the more general “bad reputation”, and maybe in order to compensate for the lacking sexual connotation in this, they added “to enjoy her”, which we do not find in the Chinese original text.<br />
<br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
<br />
And they already prepare the way for Minford’s “finally” by adding the “until”. As the whole Yang/Yang translation uses simpler words, 妖怪 is translated as “monster” instead of “ghost”. Since immediately before this episode the garden is described as being the home of ghosts, he latter might have been the better expression. Also the “death of exhaustion” is an interpretation, the Chinese text only reads “sucked the lifeblood out of her”.<br />
<br />
他们也将闵福德的“finally”(最后)一词改为“until”(直到)。杨戴夫妇的整个译文用的都是相对简单的词，如“妖怪”译成“monster”(怪兽)而不是“ghost”(幽灵)。在上一个片段中，杨戴夫妇将花园描述成幽灵的家，所以用后者(ghost)表达或许更好。同样，“死于精疲力竭”只是一种解释，在中文文本中只解作“吸干她的生命之血”。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 09:17, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
他们也将闵福德的“finally”(最后)一词改为“until”(直到)。杨戴夫妇的整个译文用的都是相对简单的词，如“妖怪”译成“monster”(怪兽)而不是“ghost”(幽灵)。但就在上一个片段中，花园描述为幽灵的家，所以用后者(ghost)表达或许更好。同样，“死于精疲力竭”只是一种解释，在中文文本中只解作“吸干她的生命之血”。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 15:07, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
<br />
So it seems that Minford has decided to keep the deviation of Yang/Yang, which is disloyal to the original and therefore falls under category c. However it may protect the Yang/Yang translation from discovery of its same deviation, since only people fluent in both languages will be able to discover it. Was Minford’s disloyalty to the original and his loyalty to his fellow translators a conspiracy? Or did Minford not directly translate from the Chinese, but simply improve the Yang/Yang translation? Since he uses “spirit” instead of “monster”, he still seems to have been conscious about everything and seems to have consciously decided to keep the Yang/Yang deviation for the mentioned possible reasons.<br />
<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
<br />
'''2nd deviation by Minford: The explicit episode on the first attempt of the rape of the nun Miaoyu, chapter 111'''<br />
<br />
In chapter 111, we find another anecdote, where thieves invade Rongguofu and steal chests of treasures. On their way, they discover the appealing nun Miaoyu and start a first attempt to rape her. The exact passage reads in both editions:<br />
<br />
程甲本and程乙本: 又欺上屋俱是女人，且又畏惧，正要踹进门去，因听外面有人进来追赶，所以贼众上房。<br />
<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
<br />
Yang/Yang: The thieves had known that there were no men in the house. While in Hsi-Chun’s courtyard they had peeped through the window and been inflamed by the sight of a ravishing nun. As there were only terrified women inside, they were about to kick down the door when they heard the night-watch rushing in after them and promptly climbed up the roof.<br />
<br />
Minford: After the main part of their mission was accomplished, the thieves, knowing how unprotected the Jia mansion was, had been casually snooping around in Xi-chun's courtyard, and had caught a glimpse there of a very attractive young nun, which had put all sorts of mischievous ideas into their heads.<br />
<br />
杨/阳:贼人早知屋内没有男人。在熙春的院子里时，他们曾从窗外偷看，看到一个淫荡的尼姑，就被激怒了。由于里面只有被吓坏的女人，他们正要踹门，却听到守夜人跟着冲进来，于是立即爬上屋顶。<br />
<br />
明福:在完成了主要部分的任务后，盗贼们知道贾府是多么的没有防范，就在熙春的院子里随意地窥探，在那里瞥见了一个很有魅力的年轻尼姑，这让他们产生了各种恶作剧的想法。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:02, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
<br />
They knew that the apartment was unguarded save by a handful of scared old women, and were about to kick the door in and put an abrupt end to Adamantina's meditations when they heard the sound of footsteps corning from outside and escaped onto the roof-top.<br />
<br />
Minford has added a sentence here. We see that the original did not contain this sexually explicit clause, therefore the deviation does not fall under category a. We can also exclude the possibility that Minford used an earlier edition which might have been censored in the more prudish socialist era, since we have the original Cheng-Gao edition from 1791/1792.<br />
<br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
<br />
Minford’s extra sentence also does not exist in the translations Yang/Yang, Kuhn, nor in the later Schwartz/Woesler.<br />
<br />
In the Chinese original, the emerging sexual tension, stimulating the readers fantasy of a rape, is stopped immediately, when the kicking in of the door already at the beginning of this sentence is relieved by the wording “正要” were just about to… <br />
<br />
We can also exclude the category b. here, because it is not possible to read one subordinate clause more into the original.<br />
<br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
<br />
Might it have been a necessary explanation, which Minford did not want to explain in an annotation and therefore had to integrate into the text? This, we can also exclude, since from the context it is explicitly clear why they wanted to kick in the door. <br />
<br />
In order to understand Minford’s intention, we should ask what effect this wilful addition of this sentence has on the reader? First, this sexually arousing scene becomes longer. This gives the reader more time to develop fantasies, what might happen. Minford adds a sentence which expresses exactly these fantasies: When the men enter the room, Miaoyu will stop her meditation.<br />
<br />
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
<br />
The shifting of the perspective to the woman adds to the sexual tension. Both, the active men and the so far passive woman are now mentioned and can act in the fantasies of the reader. Even the end of passivity of the woman is associated, when Minford explicitly states that the meditation will end. And he stresses again the brutal aspect of this scene, using the word “abrupt”.<br />
<br />
The novel is mostly very implicit and connotative, it uses metaphors like “wind and rain game” for describing sexual intercourse. Having explored the effects, Minford achieved with his deviation, one might guess, that the intention was to make this episode more explicit, to sexually arouse the readers.<br />
<br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
<br />
This can be seen as disloyal to the original and its author, and it maybe seen as loyal to the profit of the press and the royalties.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Sequels'''<br />
<br />
Many other authors also were inspired by the author and wrote a sequel to the novel. Soon, the novel was broadly accepted as another novel of the format of “四大奇书 Si da qi shu” and, since times became more strict regarding pornographic literature, replaced the ''Jin Ping Mei''. Already three years after the appearance, the Suoyin-School was founded and speculations began about the author and if the story had a real background. Please refer to the table of sequels in the attachment.<br />
<br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
<br />
'''Spreading of the novel to Russia'''<br />
<br />
In 1832, a member of the Russian Orthodox Mission in China (俄国驻北京宗教使团学员) brought a manuscript copy of the Story of the Stone back to Russia. It had 35 vols. (currently in the St. Petersburg branch of the Russian Scientific Oriental Institute). Another member of the Mission, А. И. Коваńко, used the pen name 德明 to introduce part of the first chapter to the West. <br />
<br />
'''Reevaluation in Late Qing and status in the Cultural Revolution'''<br />
<br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
<br />
Wang Guowei improved the status of the novel since 1885, he saw it as one of the most important pieces of Chinese literature, and the discussions of Hu Shi and Yu Pingbo. <br />
<br />
During the Cultural Revolution, the Dream of the Red Chamber was forbidden again.<br />
<br />
'''Spreading in Germany'''<br />
<br />
The total number of copies published between 1932 and 1977 is 89335 volumes, the ''Jin Ping Mei'' 《金瓶梅》 reached between 1930 and 1977 175000 vols. Der Traum der Roten Kammer rangiert auf Platz 4 der Welt-Bestsellerliste. <br />
<br />
'''References'''<br />
<br />
[Please refer to the full bibliographic references in the footnotes for now.]<br />
<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
<br />
'''Report'''<br />
<br />
'''3rd International Dream of the Red Chamber Conference in Europe'''<br />
<br />
''Martin Woesler''<br />
<br />
On November 7-8, 2015, the in¬ter¬national conference “Celebrating Cao Xue¬qin’s 300th anniversary - 3rd International ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' Conference Europe” was hosted at Folkwang University of Arts, Essen/Germany and organized by Martin Woesler. The Cao Xueqin Society (Peking) and the European Dream of the Red Chamber Society (Bochum) invited 30 speakers from the USA, Australia, Asia (Hong Kong, Taiwan, Korea), Europe (Germany, Hungary, Norway, Slovakia, Switzerland) and China (from the cities of Peking, Shanghai, Chengdu). Sponsor was the Beijing Cao Xueqin Culture Development Foundation. <br />
<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
<br />
In the greetings, Cultural Attaché Chinese Embassy Berlin Chen Ping, Essen Folkwang University of Arts’ chancellor Michael Fricke and Essen mayor Thomas Kufen expressed their gratitude and their feelings of great honor to host this 3rd international conference in Europe on Cao and his novel after the first two conferences in Bonn/Germany 1992 and Olomouc/Czech Republic 2014. Vice Minister Hu Deping, president of the Peking Cao Xueqin Society, said this conference offered the rare opportunity of sharing findings among experts from China and experts from the rest of the world, opening opportunities for further cooperation.<br />
<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler welcomed the participants in his function as president of the European Dream of the Red Chamber Society. He expressed his satisfaction with the high quality of the contributions submitted from all over the world, including 10 written contributions, a selection of which would be published in the ''European Journal of Sinology''. Duan Jiangli announced that a selection of the Chinese papers will be published in the ''Cao Xueqin Research''.<br />
<br />
作为欧洲红学会的主席，吴漠汀热烈欢迎所有参会者。他非常满意对来自世界各地的10篇高质量的书面稿件，其中一部分将在《欧洲汉学杂志》上发表。段江力宣布，中国论文选集将在《曹雪芹研究》上发表。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:26, 13 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
作为欧洲红学会的主席，吴漠汀热烈欢迎所有参会者。对于来自世界各地的10篇高质量的书面稿件，他表示十分满意，其中一部分将在《欧洲汉学杂志》上发表。段江力宣布，精选的中国论文将会在《曹雪芹研究》上发表。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 15:20, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
<br />
Hu Deping opened the first panel on studies on the author (Caoxue) with a discussion of the banner identity of Cao Xueqin, he stressed the imperial proximity of his even plain white banner and his high social status. Hu sees descriptions of Cao asking to put drinks on his tab as a proof of his trustworthiness due to his steady imperial stipend. Fan Zhibin in his contribution interpreted Cao’s status lower. Hu Deping expressed his skepticism towards the authenticity of any findings of cultural relicts after the 1970s attributed to Cao. But he pointed at the fact, that two places in the Old Summer Palace are called like the Daguan yuan itself (‘Daguan’) or like a place in it.<br />
<br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
<br />
Ellen B. Widmer (Wellesley College) analyzed the characterization of Cao as a dramatic character in the sequel ''Hou Honglou meng''. Zhang Shucai (Peking) explained further the findings on social status of aristocratic families and banner people close to the imperial court, with an analysis of the Han and Manchu heritages. Zhan Song (Peking) also reflected on the ethnic identity, when he introduced ''Honglou meng''-critics among Qing Eight Banner people. Duan Qiming (Peking) approached the family history from Cao Yin’s “''Beihong fuji''”, showing connections to author and novel. <br />
<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
<br />
Ling Hon Lam (Berkeley) opened the 2nd panel “Studies on the novel” with an analysis of the difference of the reading culture in the novel and its sequels. Since the habit of ‘reading silently’ changed at the beginning of Qing to ‘reading aloud’, the silent reading is prominent in the novel and the out loud reading is prominent in the sequels as well as in the last 40 chapters. Duan Jiangli (Peking) introduced the different handwritten comments in the manuscript versions and stressed the importance of the early Zhi Yanzhai commentary. Zhou Wenye (Peking) presented a tool to compare and analyze the different manuscript versions including comments and the different print versions of the novel.<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
<br />
Up to three versions can be displayed simultaneously with the differences highlighted. He demonstrated how to prove which kind of relation certain versions had and what suggested that, in certain cases, there must still exist a missing edition. He favored the Cheng B edition over the Cheng A edition, since the corrections were mostly improvements. He also argued that there were many intermediate editions, even between Cheng A and B, since all surplus printed pages were used for later editions. Zhang Hui (Hong Kong) introduced the novel in a different media form, the drama, focusing on one example of a drama adaption.<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
<br />
Marina Čarnogurská (Slovakia), translator of the Slovakian full translation, argued that the last 40 chapters were authored not by Gao E, but maybe even by Cao Xueqin. General consent among the participants was that Gao might have had a more editorial function and some parts of the last 40 chapters might have been written by Cao.<br />
<br />
In the 3rd panel “Interdisciplinary/Intertextual Approaches”, Shang Wei (Columbia University/USA) presented insights into visual culture in Qing dynasty and argued that there was a strong European influence in the Manchu court, which is traceable in the novel and influenced Cao Xueqin.<br />
<br />
玛丽娜·乔阿诺古尔斯卡（斯洛伐克）是斯洛伐克语译本的译者，她认为书的后四十章的作者不是高鹗，而是曹雪芹。参会人员也一致同意，高鹗更多的只是负责编写，后四十章的创作实际是曹雪芹完成的。<br />
<br />
在第三场主题为“跨学科/跨文本方法”的座谈会上，尚伟（美国哥伦比亚大学）提出了关于清朝时期视觉文化的一些观点，他认为满洲朝廷受欧洲文化影响颇深，这种影响在曹雪芹的小说中也有迹可循。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 06:27, 13 November 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
玛丽娜·乔阿诺古尔斯卡Marina Čarnogurská(斯洛伐克)认为，最后40章的作者不是高鄂，甚至可能是曹雪芹。与会代表普遍认为，高娥可能有更多的编辑功能，最后40章的部分内容可能是曹雪芹写的。<br />
<br />
在第三板块 "跨学科/跨文本方法 "中，尚伟（美国哥伦比亚大学）提出了对清代视觉文化的见解，认为满族宫廷中存在着强烈的欧洲影响，这在小说中是有迹可循的，并影响了曹雪芹。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:04, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
<br />
Kam Louie (Hong Kong) compared the novel with Three Kingdoms in regard to masculinity, homo-sociality and class, arguing how Jia Baoyu’s homo-erotic friendships were perceived differently depending on times and lenses. Louise P. Edwards (Australia) explored an aestheticized masculinity in clothing, dress and decoration as described in the novel. Karl-Heinz Pohl (Trier/Ger¬many) analyzed Buddhist thoughts in the novel with the example of several wisdoms from the “Heart Sutra”, he showed pro¬xi¬mi¬ty between Buddhist and Daoist thoughts. Harro von Senger (Frei¬burg/ Ger¬¬many) compared supraplanning (in China traditionally ‘''moulüe''’) in the novel and the German family tragedy ‘Nibelun¬gen¬lied’.<br />
<br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
<br />
Zhu Ping (Peking) introduced the historical background of drama culture at the time of Kangxi, Yongzheng (the time the novel was written), and Qianlong. Kristina Schröder (Zurich/Switzerland) ex¬plained references of early illustrations of the novel with the ‘Romance of the West Chamber’ with the example of Wang Xilian ordering flowers to blossom. Stefan Mess¬mann (Budapest/Hungary) asked from the legal perspective, if the Marxist dream of equality had been achieved. Laura Bing Han (Trier) compared the novel and the ‘Buddenbrooks’ regarding philosophical dua¬lism.<br />
<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
<br />
Panel 4 introduced the novel’s in¬ter¬national dissemination, and here Martin Woesler (Witten/Germany, Rome/Italy) ana¬lyzed the changing reception of the novel by early Western translators and recipients. The novel was instrumentalized (e.g. for language learning) and exoticized. Wu Wei (Oslo/Norway, Heidelberg/Ger¬many) explored the color symbolism of ‘redness’ in novel. <br />
<br />
The translations were dealt with in panel 5, Daniela Zhang Cziráková (Slovakia) in-tro¬duced the Czech and Slovak translations of the novel. He Jun (Chengdu) introduced German excerpt translations before Franz Kuhn and Khoo An Ny (Fudan Shanghai) the state of translations in Malaysia.<br />
<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
<br />
General consent of the participants was that the 120 chapter version was the most authoritative one and that the title ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was more common than its alternative title ''Story of the Stone''.<br />
<br />
Wei Lingzhi (Peking) introduced results of a 2015 representative survey among Chinese readers about the novel and the author proving its unbroken popularity and high esteem. Regarding translations, the Hawkes/Minford translation was preferred over Yang/Yang.<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
<br />
All participants praised the importance of the recently published full translations in German and other languages and welcomed the opportunity to share their findings especially between Chinese and non-Chinese scholars. The choreographer Shen Fang-yu and the dramaturg Martin Woesler also presented a taping of the Folkwang Dance Studio Performance “REDCHAMBERDREAM”. <br />
<br />
For further information please refer to the conference website http://china-studies. com.<br />
<br />
'''World Citizen Lu Xun:''' <br />
<br />
'''Critical reception of European Culture by Lu Xun with the examples of Nazi cultural politics and of the Nobel Prize'''<br />
<br />
'''世界公民魯迅：魯迅批判性地接受歐洲文化——以納粹文化政治與諾貝爾獎為例'''<br />
<br />
'''''Martin Woesler 吳漠汀'''''<br />
<br />
Witten/Herdecke University 北京師範大學<br />
<br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
<br />
Abstract<br />
<br />
Lu Xun was well aware of global politics in culture, as proven by documents discovered a few years ago. Three days after the book burning in Berlin on May 10, 1933, Lu Xun, as a Member of the Executive Board of the “China League for Civil Rights,” protested the “brutal terror and reaction” of Nazi Germany. Lu Xun took action and submitted an official protest to the German Consulate in Shanghai, which was taken seriously by the Nazi diplomats. He protested the racist suppression of Jewish authors while his own piece of world literature, “A Madman’s Diary” (1918), would have been considered “degenerate art” if published in Germany. In June 1933, he proved his in-depth understanding of Nazi crimes, especially the book-burning, humiliation and deportation of writers, in two essays. <br />
<br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
<br />
因近年来所新发现的文物资料，鲁迅很深刻的意識到和瞭解了全球文化政治。柏林焚书案（1933年5月10日）发生的第三天，鲁迅做为“中国民权保障同盟”委员会成员，抗议德国纳粹“残忍的恐怖行径”。鲁迅立刻展开行动，向德国驻上海使领馆提出抗议（当时该处已经由德国纳粹接管）。他抗议纳粹对犹太作家的压制，当时他自己的世界文学作品“狂人日记”在德国也被看作是“变态艺术”。1933年6月，他通过2篇杂文，深刻论证了德国纳粹的罪行，特别是焚烧书籍、羞辱和驱逐作家等。<br />
<br />
In an earlier incident, when he was asked to accept a nomination for the Nobel Prize of Literature in 1927, he refused, not only out of personal modesty, but also because of global political considerations. <br />
<br />
他曾于1927年被提名为诺贝尔文学奖的候选人，但是他拒绝了，不仅是个人的谦逊，也是考量到当时的全球政治环境。<br />
<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
<br />
Both cases show a different side of Lu Xun’s Reception of European Culture: He was not just an admiring, importing, translator of European culture who was influenced by it (as seen in his own life and work). Instead, his reception was more complex and critical; he applied universal moral standards, as defined by civil and human rights, which he referred to.<br />
<br />
两个例子展现了鲁迅对于欧洲文化接受的不同面：他不仅是一位令人尊敬、重要的受欧洲文化影响的翻译者（参见他的生平和作品）。另一方面，他对西方文化的接受也是复杂而批判性的；他遵循普世价值观，如他所定义的公民权利和人权。<br />
<br />
This makes Lu Xun a world citizen, one who cannot simply be claimed by certain parties or nations.<br />
<br />
综上所述，鲁迅是一位世界公民，这不是哪个政党或者民族可以对他简简单单下定论的。<br />
<br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
<br />
'''Introduction''''''简介'''<br />
<br />
Beginning with his earliest student years in 1902-1903, Lu Xun became an important translator of foreign literature (Jules Verne: ''Journey to the Moon, Twenty Thousand Leagues under the Sea''). In March 1906, he decided to give up the study of Western medicine in order to become a writer; to cure the Chinese people’s minds instead of their physical illnesses. During his lifetime, Lu Xun was torn between his hope that he could turn Chinese people’s lives to the better and his disappointment that a writer’s works alone were not powerful enough to actually change things or to instigate people to change them. <br />
<br />
<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
<br />
In 1917, when his friend Qian Xuantong asked him to contribute to the new radical magazine ''New Youth'' (founded by Chen Duxiu), Lu Xun responded: "Imagine an iron house: without windows or doors, utterly indestructible, and full of sound sleepers – all about to suffocate to death. Let them die in their sleep, and they will feel nothing. Is it right to cry out, to rouse the light sleepers among them, causing them inconsolable agony before they die?" In spite of this opinion, in 1918 he still wrote his first story published under his name; “A Madman’s Diary.”<br />
<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
<br />
It was a social-critical short story which reached world literature level, with one fictional element placed in a realistic setting (influenced by Gogol and parallel to Kafka’s stories using a similar technique). He placed his hopes on the next generation, as we know from the last lines “A Madman’s Diary:” “Save the children....” We also know that Lu Xun engaged in political activities, starting, perhaps, with his support of the Tongmenghui in Japan and by developing plans to educate politically active students etc.<br />
<br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
<br />
So while Lu Xun was at first concerned with China, he understood the signs of the times and was anxious to get additional education in Western sciences. He absorbed Western knowledge, learned several European languages and was an important translator of Western literature, e.g. in 1909 he published a book with translated Eastern European stories in Japan. While Lu Xun’s target was the Chinese people, he was very well aware that backwardness in China could only be overcome by learning from the West, especially from Europe. <br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
<br />
Because of Lu Xun’s extremely critical attitude and his concern for China, the Communist Party and patriots in China claimed to have him in their “pocket.” However, although Lu Xun’s target was China, his measurement scale and means were international universal principles and he was too fierce a protester to be in anyone’s “pocket.” He was active in different political initiatives – such as the China League for Civil Rights (中國民權保障同盟) and the later Leagues of Left-Wing Writers (although some members accused him of being a Right-Wing writer). <br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
<br />
He did not become a member of the Chinese Communist Party, but instead quarrelled with Communists ideologists. In 1935, he declined to write a pro-Communist novel. Shortly before his death, he wrote: “Forget about me, and care about your own life – you're a fool if you don't.” In spite of this, the Party posthumously made him a Communist Party Member and Mao Zedong wrote the calligraphy above his tomb.<br />
<br />
Denton, Kirk (2002), Lu Xun Biography, MCLC Resource Center.<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
<br />
'''Westernization?'''<br />
<br />
Did Lu Xun trough his Western education and translations of Western literature simply fully supported a ‘Westernization’ of China (全盤西化)? This can be disproven with the following examples: his criticism of Nazi crimes and his decline of the Nobel Prize. His critical mind and intellectual capacities did not allow him simple answers to complex questions.<br />
<br />
Only three days after the book burning in Berlin (May 10, 1933), Lu Xun protested at the Shanghai Consulate against Nazi Germany. This shows his extreme awareness of international politics and the nature of societies.<br />
鲁迅是否通过他的西方教育和西方文学翻译来完全支持中国的“全盘西化”？ 以下例子可以证明这一点：他对纳粹罪行的批评和对诺贝尔奖的拒绝。 他的批判性思维和智力能力使他无法简单地回答复杂的问题。在柏林焚书事件发生的三天后（1933年5月10日），鲁迅在上海领事馆抗议德国纳粹，这表明他对国际政治和社会性质的极致认识。--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 02:01, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
<br />
The reaction of the Vice General Consul in his report to the German Embassy in Peking shows that the German Consulate engaged in counter propaganda and denied the allegations, referring even to their support of the Jewish community in Shanghai. While the world was still asleep, Lu Xun already understood and criticized Nazi anti-writer politics in Germany. It took the rest of the world almost a decade more to “wake up.” Even Nazi Germany’s invasion of Poland in 1939 did not “wake up” other countries, enabling Nazi Germany to conduct further surprise attacks (blitzkrieg) in Western Europe (Netherlands, Belgium, France etc.).<br />
<br />
在给德国驻北京大使馆的报告中，副总领事的反应表明，德国领事馆反对这些宣传，并否认有关指控，甚至拒绝承认他们支持上海的犹太社区。当世界还在沉睡的时候，鲁迅已经理解并批判德国的纳粹反作家政治。而世界上其他的国家花了将近10年的时间才“醒悟”，甚至1939年纳粹德国入侵波兰的事件也没能“唤醒”其他国家，这使得纳粹德国能够在西欧（荷兰、比利时、法国等）发动进一步的突然袭击（闪电战）。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 15:08, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
<br />
Lu Xun was well able to distinguish between positive and negative parts of European culture, which leads to the question: which moral standards did he actually live up to? The thesis of this paper is that he oriented himself to abstract universal human values and morals. As proof, the following details of Lu Xun’s protests are examined.<br />
<br />
鲁迅对于欧洲文化的态度究竟是积极还是消极的呢？这也引出另一个问题：他到底遵循哪一种道德价值观？本文将论证，鲁迅遵循的是普世价值观。<br />
<br />
鲁迅能够很好地区分欧洲文化中积极和消极的部分，这就引出了一个问题：他究竟遵循的是哪些道德标准？本文将论证：鲁迅遵循的是抽象的人类普世价值和道德。本文将从鲁迅的抗议宣言中分析论证。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 03:09, 13 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
鲁迅能够很好地区分欧洲文化的正面和负面的部分，从而也引出了问题：他到底遵循的是什么样的道德标准？本文的理论是以鲁迅对人类的普世价值和道德理念为主。鲁迅的声明中列出的细节都真实可考。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 09:40, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
<br />
'''Lu Xun’s in-depth and early understanding of Nazi crimes'''<br />
<br />
On July 11 and 16, 1933, Lu Xun (using his pseudonyms) published two essays against Nazi crimes – about the book burning in China and Germany. As shown by this immediate response, Lu Xun was quick to retrieve information and form a judgment – independent of regionalism and dependent only upon universal moral values.<br />
<br />
Lovell, Julia. "Introduction". In ''Lu Xun: The Real story of Ah-Q and Other Tales of China, The Complete Fiction of Lu Xun''. England: Penguin Classics. 2009. ISBN 978-0-140-45548-9, here pp. xxx.<br />
<br />
Silvia Kettelhut: G''eschäfte übernommen: Deutsches Konsulat, Shanghai, Impressionen aus 150 Jahren,'' Shanghai 2006.<br />
<br />
“鲁迅早期对纳粹罪行的深入了解”<br />
<br />
1933年7月11日至16日，鲁迅（使用化名）发表了两篇反对纳粹罪行的文章，该书在中德两国畅销。正如这一即时反应所表明的那样，鲁迅迅速地获取信息并作出判断——独立于区域主义，仅依赖于普遍的道德价值观。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 12:36, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
<br />
In his essay “The Book burning in China and Germany” (dated June 28 and published July 11, 1933), Lu Xun, under the penname Ru Niu, compares Qin Shihuangdi’s book burning with the one by Hitler. He points out that the emperor did not burn books on agriculture and medicine and instead still accepted pluralism. Polemically he criticizes his Chinese colleagues for not understanding that the threat by Hitler is a threat to freedom in general. Lu Xun directly addresses the German dictator Hitler as “Mr. Hitler.”<br />
<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
<br />
In the second essay, “Surplus of Knowledge” (dated July 12 and published July 16, 1933) he compares a recent agricultural crisis in China following a “harvest surplus” and the demand to abandon the learning of theories in favor of learning practical things with the demand in Nazi Germany to abandon liberal and pluralistic education. Polemically he calls the German imprisonment of students in labor camps a “solution to the unemployment problem.” He demands that China get rid of knowledge, insisting that people should become fatalist and opportunist. <br />
<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
<br />
Lu Xun early had studied the German philosopher Nietzsche, who was also pocketed by the Nazis, and wanted to study abroad in Germany. His critical reflection of Nazi German situation shows that he could also be extremely critical against Germany and was able to judge it according to universal values.他对纳粹德国现状的批判显示，他有能力根据普世价值来对纳粹德国做出评判。<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
<br />
'''The China League for Civil Rights'''<br />
<br />
The China League for Civil Rights was established with the outspoken goal to free prisoners from Guomindang (GMD) imprisonment. Prominent among members of the League was Song Qingling (left-wing GMD), the widow of Sun Yat-sen, who broke with Qiang Kai-shek in 1927 – when the GMD turned more and more repressive. The Communists also had massive losses after 1927 and went underground. Lu Xun was the most prolific member of the League.<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
<br />
In 1931, Song Qingling returned to Shanghai from Europe and headed a campaign to rescue a foreign couple detained without trial by the GMD. I did not find evidence that she knew that the couple were Comintern agents; the campaign did not address their identity. It concentrated on the legal aspects of the detainment.<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
<br />
An early stage of this part of the study including the translation of the two essays into German has been published as “Der Protest des chinesischen Intellektuellen Lu Xun gegen Nazi-Verbrechen”, in: ''Bulletin of the German China Association'' 54 (2010) 119 pp., pp. 53-58, ISSN 1436-8048. This first essay was published as Ru Niu 孺牛 [Lu Xun]: 华德焚书异同论 (Discussion of Parellels and Differences of the Book Burning in China and Germany), July 11, 1933, 申报 Shen Bao, 自由谈 (Free Talks), German translation by Martin Woesler as “ Die Bücherverbrennungen in China und Deutschland Diskussion der Gemeinsamkeiten und Unterschiede ” in: ''Bulletin of the German China Association'' 54 (2010) 53-55.<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
<br />
This second essay was published as Yu Ming 虞明 [Lu Xun]: “智识过剩 (Surplus of Knowledge)“, dated July 12, 1933, ''Shen Bao'' am 16.7.1933, English translation in: ''Lu Xun, Selected Works'', Übers. Yang Xianyi, Gladys Yang, Bd. 3, S. 324f., 1st ed 1959/1960, 2nd ed. 1964 p. 289-290, 3rd ed. 1980 p. 324 f., 4th ed. 2003 (Peking: Foreign Languages Press), German translation by Martin Woesler as “Wissensüberschuss” in: ''Bulletin of the German China Association 54'' (2010) 56-58.<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
<br />
The couple Paul and Gertrud Ruegg is also known as Mr. and Mrs. Hilaire Noulens. Ruegg's public role was secretary-general of the Pan-Pacific Trade Union, an international agent for organizing the Chinese labour movement. His secret role was secretary of the Comintern's Far Eastern Bureau in Shanghai. In June 1930, the couple was first arrested by the police in the International Settlement, and then turned over to GMD authorities. See: Jinxing Chen: “The Rise and Fall of the China League for Civil Rights”, in: ''China Review'' Vol. 6, No. 2, Special Issue on: WTO and China's Financial Development (Fall 2006), pp. 121-147.<br />
<br />
Bruun, Ole, and Michael Jacobsen. ''Human rights and Asian values: Contesting national identities and cultural representations in Asia''. Vol. 6. Psychology Press, 2000.<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
<br />
In the League’s press conference in Shanghai, on 30 December 1932, Cai Yuanpei referred to J. J. Rousseau and said that the League would not be placed in the pocket of any political party. The League was very active in publishing statements, sending telegrams to foreign governments in about half a dozen cases and seeing government officials on behalf of the imprisonment of intellectuals out of political reasons.<br />
<br />
On May 13, 1933, Ms. Song Qingling announced her visit to the German Vice General Consul, Richard Behrend, in Shanghai, and representatives of the League – including its president Song Qingling, Cai Yuanpei, Lu Xun, Yang Xing¬fo (Yang Quan) – submitted the following protest note. <br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
<br />
Transcription, from Kettelhut 2006 pp. 155-158. Source: PA AA (Political Archive of the Foreign Office / Politisches Archiv des Auswärtigen Amtes) R 98440.<br />
<br />
Submission of the protest note to Vice General Consulate Behrend by the Board of the China League of Civil Rights, including the widow of Sun Yat-sen, Song Qingling, the president of Academia Si¬ni¬ca, Cai Yuanpei, Lu Xun and the Vice President of Academia Sinica, Yang Xing¬fo (Yang Quan). Wood block print by Zhao Yannian 趙延年 (born 1924) 1956. Not displayed in the wood block print are the writers Lin Yutang, Agnes Smedley und Harold Isaacs, which, according to the report of the Consulate, were also present. Lin Yutang was also not mentioned by the Chinese press. <br />
<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
<br />
The vice consul took the protest seriously and submitted the letter to Peking, accompanied with a report in which he described Ms Song Qingling as the head of the League and listed Lu Xun as “the famous writer” and leading fighter for the “New Chinese Language Movement.” <br />
<br />
Song Qingling, about a month after the visit at the Consulate, on June 17, 1933 sent a telegram to “Chancellor Hitler” demanding the immediate release of political prisoners.<br />
<br />
For the involvement of foreigners in the League see Chen Jinxing 2006 and others.<br />
<br />
Report by Behrendt for the German Embassy Peking dated May 15, 1933, see Kettelhut 2006.<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
<br />
The reaction from Berlin was that they should try to influence Song Qingling. The reply from the German diplomats in China was that it had been tried earlier and another attempt would probably be counter-productive since Ms. Song was close to the Communists.<br />
<br />
The League did not survive long. Hu Shi won the leadership of the Peking arm of the League. His critical review of a prison report led to some tensions within the League, leading to the dissolvement of the Peking arm. In the end, Yang Quan, the Secretary General, was assassinated by GMD, while Song Qingling received a letter with a bullet in it – forcing her to hide. All of this combined into a fatal blow to the League. Chen Jinxing (2006), however, suspects that tensions within the League (e.g. with Hu Shi) helped its dissolution. <br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
<br />
As the most prolific member of the league, Lu Xun’s active, and prominent, participation in the League’s protests shows his devotion to the principles of universal human rights – reaching beyond concern only for his countrymen.鲁迅的抗议显示了他普世人权的原则。<br />
<br />
Price, Ruth. ''The Lives of Agnes Smedley''. OUP USA, 2005.<br />
<br />
Chen, Jinxing: “The Rise and Fall of the China League for Civil Rights”, in: ''China Review'' Vol. 6, No. 2, Special Issue on: WTO and China's Financial Development (Fall 2006), pp. 121-147.<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
<br />
'''The Nobel Prize of Literature'''<br />
<br />
In 1926, “The True Story of Ah Q” was translated by Jing Yinyu into French. In September 1927, Peking University Professor Liu Bannong suggested to Sven Hedish (member of the Swedish Academy) that Lu Xun be considered for laureateship. Nobel Prize Laureate Kenzaburō Ōe called Lu Xun "The greatest writer Asia produced in the twentieth century." In the 1920s, 1915 Nobel Laureate Romain Rolland introduced Chinese literature to the world. In 1927, he especially recommended Lu Xun and his story “Ah Q.”<br />
<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
<br />
Lu Xun rejected the nomination in a letter to his former student and confidante, Tai Jingnong, with the following reasoning: “There are a lot of better writers than me in the world and they can’t get it.” He further said “I think there is nobody truly deserving the Nobel Prize in China. It would be better for Sweden to ignore us. It would only encourage Chinese egotism, causing them to believe they could really parallel those great foreign writers if yellow-skinned people were given preferential consideration. The result would not be good at all.” (Eventually, the prize was awarded to Sinclair Lewis.)<br />
<br />
鲁迅在给之前的学生兼知己台静农的回信中拒绝了提名，理由是：“世界上有太多比我更优秀的作家，他们都不能获此殊荣，”他接着说道“我认为中国还没人能获诺贝尔奖，瑞典方最好是忽略掉我们。如果给黄种人优待，这只会让中国人盈盈自满，认为自己可以与外国优秀作家相提并论。结果并不如是。“（最终，奖项颁给了辛克莱·刘易斯）。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 09:21, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
鲁迅在给他旧时的学生兼知己，台静农的一封回信中拒绝了提名，理由如下：“世界上比我好的作家有很多，他们尚没有获此殊荣。”他又说：“我觉得在中国没有人真配得上诺贝尔奖。瑞典要是不把我们考虑在内那是最好。如果黄种人享有优待的话，只会徒增中国人的自大，让他们觉得自己真的能比肩那些伟大的外国作家。这可不是什么好事。”（最后，获奖者为辛克莱·刘易斯）。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 11:05, 13 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
<br />
Lu Xun was well acquainted with many famous foreign writers. During these days, he personally met several, such as Agnes Smedley, Harold Isaacs, and Bernhard Shaw. Therefore, Lu Xun had an understanding of the domestic political implications of the Nobel Prize; of awarding such a prize to a national literature which was still under development and had not yet reached a satisfying level. He understood that the effect of such an award would be to increase Chinese egotism. So he sacrificed his own honor in order not to send the wrong signal; in order to not discourage Chinese literature by receiving mercy from the international community, but instead to encourage its further development so that it might eventually reach the level of the “great foreign writers.”<br />
<br />
鲁迅与许多著名的外国作家很熟。在这些日子里，他亲自见了几个人，如艾格尼丝·史沫特莱、哈罗德·艾萨克斯和伯恩哈德·肖。因此，鲁迅对诺贝尔文学奖的国内政治含义有了一个认识，即把诺贝尔奖颁给一个尚处于发展阶段、尚未达到令人满意水平的民族文学。他明白这样一个奖项的效果会增加中国人的自负。因此，为了不发出错误的信号他牺牲了自己的荣誉，；为了不让中国文学受到国际社会的怜悯而气馁，而是鼓励中国文学进一步发展，使之最终达到“伟大的外国作家”的水平。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 15:10, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
<br />
Biography of Sven Hedin (1865-1952), see George Kish, ''To the Heart of Asia: The Life of Sven Hedin'' (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1984). Hedin was in Beijing in late 1926 and early 1927 seeking government permission for an exploration to Mongolia (''ibid.'', p. 114). Quoted after: Wang, B. [汪宝荣]. (2011). Lu Xun's fiction in English translation: the early years. (Thesis). University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.5353/th_b4696908 (in the following: Wang 2011).<br />
<br />
斯文·赫丁传见诸于乔治·基什撰写的《亚洲的心脏：斯文·赫丁的一生》（阿安伯：密歇根大学出版社，1984）。1926年年末以及1927年年初，赫丁在北京为得到可以让他蒙古进行勘探的政治许可（同上，第114页）。引用：Wang，B.[王宝荣].（2011）。鲁迅小说英文版：早年。（论文）香港特别行政区波克富兰大学。引用于 http://dx.doi.org/10.5353/th_b4696908 （如下：王，2011）。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 08:42, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
<br />
Lu Xun 鲁迅, “Zhi Tai Jingnong” 致台静农, 25 Sept. 1927, rpt. in ''LXQJ'' 12: 73-74. See a penetrating discussion of Lu Xun’s international stature and Nobel candidacy in Paul B. Foster, “The Ironic Inflation of Chinese National Character: Lu Xun’s International Reputation, Romain Rolland’s Critique of ‘The True Story of Ah Q,’ and the Nobel Prize”, ''Modern Chinese Literature and Culture'', 13.1 (Spring, 2001): 140-168. Interestingly, Foster suggests that Lu Xun may have contributed to the publicity which eventually led to the suggestion that he be nominated for a Nobel Prize. Quoted after: Wang 2011.<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
<br />
This shows that Lu Xun was modest and aware of the global position of Chinese literature, and that he had a vision for its development.这些显示鲁迅很谦逊，其在中国文学的得到世界的认可，同时，他的视野也促进了中国文学的发展。 Who would decline a Nobel Prize? Only someone with principles more important than the Nobel Prize. Lu Xun firmly believed in universal values, against which even the Nobel Prize had to step back. 鲁迅相信普世价值观，为此甚至可以拒绝诺贝尔奖。These principles were universal values, with the aim to lead Chinese literature, as a whole, to world level instead of singling out anybody to let the people further “sleep in their iron house.”<br />
<br />
<br />
This shows that Lu Xun was modest and aware of the global position of Chinese literature, and that he had a vision for its development.<br />
<br />
这表明鲁迅很谦逊，对中国文学的国际地位有着清醒的认识，对中国文学的发展有着远见卓识。<br />
<br />
Who would decline a Nobel Prize? Only someone with principles more important than the Nobel Prize. Lu Xun firmly believed in universal values, against which even the Nobel Prize had to step back. <br />
<br />
谁会拒绝诺贝尔奖？除非他的原则比诺贝尔奖更为重要。鲁迅坚信普世价值，即使诺贝尔奖也不得不在这一价值面前退让。<br />
<br />
These principles were universal values, with the aim to lead Chinese literature, as a whole, to world level instead of singling out anybody to let the people further “sleep in their iron house.”<br />
<br />
这些原则是普世价值，旨在把中国文学作为一个整体，带到世界水平，而不是挑出一个人，然后让其他人继续“睡在铁屋子里”。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 09:40, 13 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
<br />
Several researchers have also interpreted the incident. Foster (2001) pointed to Romain Rolland’s role. Wang (2011) blames the bad quality of the French translation of “Ah Q” by Jing Yinyu as contributing to the fact that Lu Xun was not awarded the Nobel Prize. However, Romain Rolland, 1915 Nobel Prize Laureate, praised this French translation and also supported a Nobel Prize for Lu Xun. Gloria Davies recounts further incidents around this matter.<br />
<br />
一些研究人员也对该事件进行了解释。福斯特（2001）指出罗曼-罗兰德的作用。王晓东（2011）称景印宇的《阿Q正传》法译本质量不过关，是导致鲁迅没有获得诺贝尔奖的原因。然而，1915年诺贝尔奖获得者罗曼-罗兰德对这一法译本大加赞赏，也支持为鲁迅设立诺贝尔奖。格洛丽亚-戴维斯还讲述了与此事相关的其他事件。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 03:01, 13 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
<br />
一些研究人员也对此事进行了解释。福斯特（2001）指出罗曼·罗兰（Romain Rolland）在其中的作用。 王晓东（2011）认为景印宇的《阿Q正传》法译本质量不过关，导致鲁迅未获得诺贝尔奖。 然而，1915年诺贝尔奖获得者罗曼·罗兰（Romain Rolland）对这一法译本大加赞赏，并支持鲁迅获得诺贝尔奖。 格洛丽亚·戴维斯（Gloria Davies）讲述了有关此事的后续事件。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:41, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
一些研究人员也对此事进行了解释。福斯特（2001）指出罗曼·罗兰（Romain Rolland）在其中的作用。 王晓东（2011）将鲁迅未获得诺贝尔奖的原因归咎于景印宇的《阿Q正传》法译本质量不过关。然而，1915年诺贝尔奖获得者罗曼·罗兰（Romain Rolland）对这一法译本大加赞赏，并支持鲁迅获得诺贝尔奖。 格洛丽亚·戴维斯（Gloria Davies）讲述了有关此事的后续事件。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 09:54, 13 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
<br />
'''Conclusion: Universalism'''<br />
<br />
Lu Xun was very much involved in daily politics in China and fought several fights with other intellectuals and even the Communist Party publically by the means of ''zawen'' (critical essays). For us today, these fights about small and sometimes strange issues seem to characterize its actors as caught in provinciality. However, he was universal – both in his political understanding (recognizing German domestic suppression much earlier than many others and suspecting that even the Nobel Prize could be understood as a tool of mercy towards the underdeveloped nation of China) as well as in his literature. While he wrote literary pieces of the same level as Franz Kafka, he was producing world literature in a climate which was – despite all daily chaos – freer than the one in Germany. <br />
<br />
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
<br />
Criticism of suspected political motifs behind a Noble Prize for him and of the human rights violations in Germany show that Lu Xun was neither an advocate of total westernization nor that he oriented himself towards the West as a contrast foil for China. He placed nothing less than universal values as the contrast foil to China. True, also the League of Left-wing Writers was a short-lived daily-policy tool within China (Lu Xun himself said, it “may not last long”), but it represented universal values. He also referred to the children. This was another way of distancing himself from daily politics as he pointed to existential and universal ideals like future, hope, another chance and new people who are innocent; not pre-educated and burdened with the past.<br />
<br />
==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
<br />
Paul B. Foster, “The Ironic Inflation of Chinese National Character: Lu Xun’s International Reputation, Romain Rolland’s Critique of ‘The True Story of Ah Q,’ and the Nobel Prize”, ''Modern Chinese Literature and Culture'', 13.1 (Spring, 2001): 141.<br />
<br />
保罗·B·福斯特:中国民族个性的膨胀讽刺地表现为鲁迅享有国际声誉，罗曼·罗兰批判《阿Q正传》获诺贝尔奖，以及《现代中国文学与文化》，13.1（春，2001）：141。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 09:48, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Jeffrey Wasserstrom: “All I see Around Me is the Same Old Darkness: Gloria Davies on Lu Xun”, Nov 4, 2013, https://goo.gl/HgqmCe. See also Gloria Davies, ''Lu Xun’s Revolution'', Harvard University Press:2012.<br />
<br />
杰夫瑞.瓦瑟施特伦：“我看到周围都是像鲁迅笔下的格洛丽亚·戴维斯一样古老的黑暗”，2013年11月4日，https://goo.gl/HgqmCe。参见《鲁迅的革命》中的格洛丽亚·戴维斯，哈佛大学出版社2012年版。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 09:48, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s reception of Western culture was not uncritical; he was shaped by both his heritage education and his Western education, applying universal standards to the Chinese development - a Chinese man with universal values – a true citizen of the world.鲁迅并非“全盘西化”，他的价值观受到传统教育和西方教育的影响，用普世价值来判斷中国发展——一个具有普世价值的中国人——一个真正的世界公民。<br />
<br />
==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
<br />
'''Appendix: Lu Xun’s two essays in Chinese<br />
<br />
智识过剩'''<br />
虞明<br />
<br />
世界因为生产过剩，所以闹经济恐慌。虽然同时有三千万以上的工人挨饿，但 是粮食过剩仍旧是“客观现实”，否则美国不会赊借麦粉给我们，我们也不会 “丰收成灾”。<br />
然而智识也会过剩的，智识过剩，恐慌就更大了。据说中国现行教育在乡间提 倡愈甚，则农村之破产愈速。这大概是智识的丰收成灾了。美国因为棉花 贱，所以在铲棉田了。中国却应当铲智识。这是西洋传来的妙法。<br />
西洋人是能干的。五六年前，德国就嚷着大学生太多了，一些政治家和教育 家，大声疾呼的劝告青年不要进大学。现在德国是不但劝告，而且实行铲除智识 了：例如放火烧毁一些书籍，叫作家把自己的文稿吞进肚子去，还有，就是把一群 群的大学生关在营房里做苦工，这叫做“解决失业问题”。<br />
中国不是也嚷着文法科的大学生过剩吗？其实何止文法科。<br />
就是中学生也太多了。要用“严厉的”会考制度，像铁扫帚似的——刷， 刷，刷，把大多数的智识青年刷回“民间”去。<br />
智识过剩何以会闹恐慌？中国不是百分之八九十的人还不识字吗？然而智识过 剩始终是“客观现实”，而由此而来的恐慌，也是“客观现实”。智识太多了，不是心 活，就是心软。<br />
心活就会胡思乱想，心软就不肯下辣手。结果，不是自己不镇静，就是妨害别 人的镇静。于是灾祸就来了。所以智识非铲除不可。<br />
然而单是铲除还是不够的。必须予以适合实用之教育，第一，是命理学——要乐 天知命，命虽然苦，但还是应当乐。第二，是识相学——要“识相点”，知道点近代武 器的利害。至少，这两种适合实用的学问是要赶快提倡的。<br />
提倡的方法很简单：—— 古代一个哲学家反驳唯心论，他说，你要是怀疑这碗麦饭的物质是否存在，那最好 请你吃下去，看饱不饱。现在譬如说罢，要叫人懂得电学，最好是使他触电，看痛 不痛；要叫人知道飞机等类的效用，最好是在他头上驾起飞机，掷下炸弹，看死不死 ……<br />
<br />
有了这样的实用教育，智识就不过剩了。亚门！<br />
<br />
七月十二日。<br />
<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
<br />
Lu Xun to Tai Jingnong, 12 February 1933, Lu Xun shuxinji (Collected Correspondence of Lu Xun) (Beijing: Renmin wenxue chubanshe, 1976), Vol. 1, p. 354; Zou Taofen, Taofen wenji (Collected Works of Taofen) (Hong Kong: Joint Publishing Co. Ltd., 1957), Vol. 1, p. 73.<br />
<br />
《鲁迅致台静农》，1933年2月12日，鲁迅书信集（鲁迅合集）（北京：人民文学出版社，1976），第1卷，第354页；邹韬奋文集（韬奋合集）（香港：联合出版社集团，1957），第1卷，第73页。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 08:51, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
'''华德焚书异同论''' <br />
<br />
孺牛<br />
<br />
德国的希特拉先生们一烧书，中国和日本的论者们都比之于秦始皇。然而秦始皇实在冤枉得很，他的吃亏是在二世而亡，一班帮闲们都替新主子去讲他的坏话了。<br />
<br />
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
不错，秦始皇烧过书，烧书是为了统一思想。但他没有烧掉农书和医书；他收罗许多别国的“客卿”，并不专重“秦的思想”，倒是博采各种的思想的。<br />
Exactly, First Emperor of Qin had burned books to unify thoughts. Yet, books for agriculture and medicine were saved; he had embraced many guest officials from other states and was open to all kinds of ideas without only holding "thought's in Qin State" as highly esteemed.--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 02:51, 13 November 2020 (UTC) Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
It is true that Qin Shihuang burned books to unify his thoughts. But he did not burn down agricultural and medical books; he collected many "alienministers" from other countries, and did not focus exclusively on "Qin's thoughts", but collected various ideas.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 07:40, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
秦人重小儿；始皇之母，赵女也，赵重妇人，所以我们从“剧秦”的遗文中，也看不见轻贱女人的痕迹。<br />
<br />
People in the state of Qin attached great importance to children, while the state of Zhao emphasized women. And the mother of First Emperor of Qin is a woman from country Zhao. Therefore, we see no trace of contempt for women even in literature which depreciated Qin.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 05:22, 13 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
希特拉先生们却不同了，他所烧的首先是“非德国思想”的书，没有容纳客卿的魄力；其次是关于性的书，这就是毁灭以科学来研究性道德的解放，结果必将使妇 人和小儿沉沦在往古的地位，见不到光明。而可比于秦始皇的车同轨，书同文……之类的大事业，他们一点也做不到。<br />
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==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
阿剌伯人攻陷亚历山德府的时 候，就烧掉了那里的图书馆，那理论是：如果那些书籍所讲的道理，和《可兰经》相同，则已有《可兰经》，无须留了；倘使不同，则是异端，不该留了。这 才是希特拉先生们的嫡派祖师——虽然阿剌伯人也是“非德国的”——和秦的烧书，是不能比较的。<br />
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==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
但是结果往往和英雄们的豫算不同。始皇想皇帝传至万世，而偏偏二世而亡，赦免了农书和医书，而秦以前的这一类书，现在却偏偏一部也不剩。<br />
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==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
希特拉先生一上台，烧书，打犹太人，不可一世，连这里的黄脸干儿们，也听得兴高彩烈，向被压迫者大加嘲笑，对讽刺文字放出讽刺的冷箭来——到 底还明白的冷冷的讯问道：你们究竟要自由不要？不自由，无宁死。现在你们为什么不去拚死呢？<br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
这回是不必二世，只有半年，希特拉先生的门徒 们在奥国一被禁止，连党徽也改成三色玫瑰了。最有趣的是因为不准叫口号，大家就以手遮嘴，用了“掩口式”。<br />
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==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
这真是一个大讽刺。刺的是谁，不问也 罢，但可见讽刺也还不是“梦呓”，质之黄脸干儿们，不知以为何如？六月二十八日。<br />
<br />
==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
When we define an academic category like "Chinese studies", we pay respect to the fact that the world historically has developed differently in different regions. Of course the world was far less connected than today, with slow carriers like horses and ships and often bad or risky infrastructure like roads.<br />
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在定义诸如“中国研究”之类的学术类别时，我们要尊重这一事实：从历史上看，全球不同地区发展轨迹不同。当然，那是马匹和船只等运输工具速度慢，马路等基础设施经常是破烂不堪或有造成事故的风险，当时世界的联系远比现在低。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:54, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
在定义诸如“中国研究”之类的学术类别时，我们要尊重这一事实：从历史上看，全球不同地区发展轨迹不同。当然，那是马匹和船只等运输工具速度慢，马路等基础设施经常是破烂不堪或有造成事故的风险，当时世界的联系远没有现在紧密。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 15:20, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
Therefore it appears on first sight that these regions have developed their culture, their civilization and even first written languages on their own, independently. The oldest evidence of written civilizations, dating back around 3500 years BC, we find in the fertile crescent Mesopotamia with the clay tablets of the Sumerer. A little bit later there is evidence in Ancient Egypt, then in Proto-India and finally also in China.<br />
<br />
==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
But the more we explore history, the more fascinating evidence comes to light that these seemingly independently developing regions have had more trade relations and exchange of ideas than seems likely bearing in mind mobility: The Silk Road is not only rediscovered and reevaluated historically, but also rebuilt as a political agenda today.<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
We today find early evidence of European civilizations in America and Asia as well as the Chinese civilization also in America and Europe.<br />
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Cultural Science is more influenced by its subject than other sciences, since we are part of it and cannot leave it to examine it. The history of cultural science has developed from the first times of intercultural encounters to today’s life, in which cultures are mixed and people understand each other as being part of different cultures simultaneously.<br />
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==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
However, there will always be differentiation between cultures, simply because the trends of integration and separation occur at the same time.<br />
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When there is different cultures, there is an interest in comparing these. This medal has two sides. As soon as you start to compare, you may value. Cultural encounters happened before there were experts or a whole discipline.<br />
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然而文化之间总是会有差异的，因为融合和分离的趋势是同时发生的。<br />
当存在不同的文化时，比较这些文化是有意义的。这个奖牌有两面。一旦你开始比较，你可能会珍惜。文化交流发生在专家或整个学科出现之前。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:41, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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然而，文化之间总是存在差异，只是因为融合和分离的趋势同时出现。<br />
当存在不同的文化时，将这些文化做对比是有意义的。这枚奖牌有两面性。一旦你开始比较，你可能会重视。在文化专家或整个学科出现之前，文化交流就已经发生了。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:20, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
So the first comparisons between cultures were ethnocentric: You compared whatever you encountered as “other”, “foreign” or “alien”, to your own culture. This was often accompanied with feelings. There was both, the feeling of fear of the unknown and curiosness in the exotic.<br />
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==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
You may categorize civilizations into so-called “high civilizations” and “low civilizations”, into “developed” and “underdeveloped” cultures. This was an ethnocentric approach in the age of cultural relativism. Today in the age of post-growth economy and after tragic experiences of colonialization and missionization, we know that each culture is equal and cannot be ranked to be higher or lower, of more or less value than the other.<br />
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你可以把各种文明分为“高等文明”、“低等文明”、“发达文明”和“不发达文明”。这是文化相对主义时代的一种民族中心主义方法。在经济后增长的今天，在经历了殖民和传教的悲惨经历之后，我们知道，每一种文化都是平等的，不能比较，没有一种文化文化比另一种文化更高级或更低级、更具价值或更少价值。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:00, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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你可以将文明划分为“高等文明”、“低等文明”、“发达文明”和“不发达文明”。这是文化相对主义时代民族中心主义的分法。人类在经历了殖民和传教的悲惨经历之后，在经济后增长的今天，我们知道，每一种文化都是平等的，没有高低贵贱之分。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 12:42, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
While very early there were historians collecting knowledge from travel reports or official delegations visiting foreign cultures, in the middle ages handbooks collected the knowledge to describe different cultures. Even the Romans had words for the Chinese (Seres in the North and Sinae in the South) and attributed to Asian-looking people certain characteristics of behaviour, attitudes, value systems, beliefs, morals and character.<br />
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虽然很早以前，有历史学家从旅行报告中或者从政府代表团造访异域文化时候汲取知识，但是中世纪的时候指南书籍都是到处搜集知识来描述不同文化的。哪怕是罗马人也有描述中国人的词语（罗马北方称为Sere，南方称为Sinae），他们还把行为、态度、价值体系、信仰、道德和性格这些特定特征与长有亚洲外貌的人联系在一起。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:08, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
The first in-depth analysis of the Chinese culture through Western people came not with the merchants, but with the Jesuits. How few was known about China can be seen from the fact, that only the Jesuits managed to clarify, that the myth of the two empires, Tartary and Kitai/Cathay, in fact both were the same (China).<br />
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首次通过西方人来深入分析中国文化，不是由商人发起的，而是耶稣会。过去鲜少有人真正了解中国，只有耶稣会设法澄清关于两个帝国的神话，实际上，鞑靼和契丹所指一样，都是指的中国。<br />
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:02, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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首次深入分析中国文化的西方人不是商人，而是耶稣信徒。了解中国的人有多么少，我们可以从这个事实中看出来：只有耶稣信徒能够分清鞑靼和契丹这两大帝国的神话。实际上这两者都是指中国。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:43, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
However, the Jesuit’s approach was still ethnocentric and cultural relativist, because by portraying (like Du Halde) China as a seemingly ideal state suitable for mission work, they contributed to subjective views on China.<br />
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然而，耶稣会的分析方法仍然带有种族中心主义和文化相对论的思想。因为通过将中国描绘成一个看起来像是适合进行宣教工作的理想国家（比如杜赫德神父的作品），他们对中国的观点带有主观色彩。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 10:43, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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然而，耶稣会士的分析方法仍然带有种族中心主义和文化相对主义的思想。因为他们带着主观色彩看待中国，所以将中国描绘成一个看似适合进行宣教的理想国度（比如杜赫德神父的作品）。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:18, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
Around 1720 presumably the French Jesuit Jean-François Noëlas even translated the Dao de jing into Latin.[ Collani, Claudia von, Harald Holz, Konrad Wegmann eds. Uroffenbarung und Daoismus: jesuitische Missionshermeneutik des Daoismus. Europ. University Press, 2008. [Partial retranslation Chinese-Latin-German.]] The translation turns out to deviate from the original in the way that we suddenly find the Christian trinity god in it.<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
This is the starting point of an ethnocentric tradition to read the self and the own into the other and the alien, instead of respecting the other as a value by itself and allowing it to even challenge the own beliefs. Even the German Christian missionary and sinologist Richard Wilhelm used a Christian language (belief, heavens’ doors, life after death etc.) in his influential 1919 Taoteking translation and in 1925 he translated “god” into the Analects of Confucius.<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
The missionaries baptized the seemingly “backward” aborigines in several continents, sometimes supported by the sword. A lot of cultures, considered less “developed”, were heavily influenced or even destroyed and extinguished. Earlier, the “Warriors of the Cross” even fought wars and devastated complete regions.<br />
==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
The other aspect, the exotization of the other was expressed by the way the first Chinese people who came to Europe were received: They were passed on at tea meetings and gazed at like animals. Soon Chinese goods became the symbol of the exotic. Chinese porcellain and nick-nacks, even Chinese-style buildings were recreated in Europe. <br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
The fever-like admiration of a China image, which certainly was not the true China, is called Chinoiserie. The Chinoiserie even involved European philosophers like Voltaire and Leibniz, who compared China to an ideal country without religion and still moral values, represented by a wise emperor.<br />
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对中国形象的狂热崇拜，当然不是真正的中国，被称为中国风。 中国艺术甚至与伏尔泰和莱布尼兹（Leibniz）之类的欧洲哲学家相提并论，他们将中国比作一个没有宗教信仰和道德价值观的理想国家，以一个明智的皇帝为代表。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 07:46, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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对中国形象的狂热崇拜被称为“中国风”,这当然不是真正的中国。甚至连伏尔泰和莱布尼茨这样的欧洲哲学家也认同这种中国风这种观念，他们把中国比作一个没有宗教和道德价值观的理想国家，由一个明智的皇帝代表。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:44, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
In Europe, the first experts on Chinese culture were entrusted with the task to explain the Chinese culture no longer from the ethnocentric viewpoint, but from a scientific one: Professorships at universities were established. Their early translations show traces of admiration of the exotic. Chinoiserie was also countered by Européerie in China. However, this phase did only last as long as it fit to European politics.<br />
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在欧洲，第一批研究中国文化的专家被委以重任，不再从民族中心主义的观点来解释中国文化，而是从科学的角度来解释: 大学里设立了教授职位。他们早期的翻译显示出对异国情调的赞赏。在中国的欧洲人也反对“中国风”。然而，这一阶段只会在符合欧洲政治的情况下持续。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:12, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在欧洲，第一批研究中国文化的专家被委以重任，她们开始不再从民族中心主义的观点，而是从科学的角度来解释中国文化：在大学里设立了教授职位。他们早期的翻译显示出对异国情调的赞赏。在中国的欧洲人也反对“中国风”。然而，这一阶段只会在符合欧洲政治的情况下持续。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:58, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
As soon as the import of colonial goods (and resources) became an economic factor, the (wrong) image of the ideal China changed into a negative one (similarly wrong). Not only mission and belief were motifs to look down on the Chinese culture, but also the comparison of economic development and living standards. <br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
Hegel continued the ethnocentric view on China with his ranking of cultures. Although Confucius already had developed a “Golden Rule” principle comparable to Kant’s “Categorical Imperative”, Hegel declared Chinese philosophy as inferior to European philosophy, and even saw a geographical step by step development from Confucius over Buddha, Zarathustra, the ancient Greek and the Roman philosophy, leading to the European philosophy. <br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
A ladder only second by the Arab philosophy. At the turn from the 19th to the 20th century, China was suddenly considered as static, as “the sick man of Asia”. Actually semi-colonialism in China helped to hinder development there. <br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==Rereading the reviews of Chinese literature in contemporary Western journals, it is astonishing, how disrespectful even men of letters treated Chinese literature, even during a time, when it was not yet available in translation, so that it is save to say that ethnocentric attitude prevailed over knowledge. <br />
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==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
This can be proven by the many mistakes you can find in the reviews (Morrison: the book was of low literary quality, but written in Peking dialect and therefore useful as language learning material; Gützlaff: the protagonist Baoyu is a petulant woman; Giles: the words “Red Chamber Dreams do not appear in the book” etc.). Also, the tradition of the title translation as “Dream of the Red Chamber” can be traced back to the origins of the better translation as “Red Chamber Dreams”, sacrificed by Francis Davis finally in favor of the powerful tool of Morrison’s dictionary calling it “Dream of the Red Chamber”.<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
Here, the exotic was used to make fun of China. Barrow introduces an excerpt, describing the outward appearance of Baoyu and Xifeng, translated by Francis Davis into English, explicitely for the reason to “amuse the beaux and belles”. Francis Davis himself picks two poems from the novel for translation, but not for its own sake, but to use them as a proof for his own (minority) opinion that the Chinese poetry knew a certain, “descriptive” function of poems in novels.<br />
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在这里，这种异域文化常用来取笑中国。巴罗引用了一段描述宝玉和熙凤外貌的文本，弗朗西斯·戴维斯将其翻译成英文版本，很明显其意图是取笑书中的“美人”。弗朗西斯·戴维斯从小说中选了两首诗进行翻译，但他不仅仅是为了这两首诗，而是为了用这两首诗证明自己（少数人）的观点，他认为我们对中国诗有一定了解之后，我们就自然会了解诗歌在小说中的描述性作用。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:01, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
In 1815 Macao Reverend Robert Morrison (1782-1834) coined the Western translation of the novel’s title by mentioning it in his Dictionary of the Chinese Language as “dreams of the red chamber.”[ He explained the character “妙” as in the novel’s character “妙玉 Meaou yǔh [Miao Yu]” as “the admirable gem, name of one of the female characters in the novel called 紅樓夢 the dreams of the red chamber”, see Robert Morrison: A Dictionary of the Chinese language in three parts, Macao: East India Company Press 1815, vol. I., 930 pp., here p. 614, left column. 24 years after the print edition was published, this is the first mention and translation of the novel’s title into a Western language known so far. If no earlier occurrence is found it means that Morrison created a translation which has lasted until today almost unchanged.] <br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
In 1815 Macao Reverend Robert Morrison (1782-1834) coined the Western translation of the novel’s title by mentioning it in his Dictionary of the Chinese Language as “dreams of the red chamber.”[ He explained the character “妙” as in the novel’s character “妙玉 Meaou yǔh [Miao Yu]” as “the admirable gem, name of one of the female characters in the novel called 紅樓夢 the dreams of the red chamber”, see Robert Morrison: A Dictionary of the Chinese language in three parts, Macao: East India Company Press 1815, vol. I., 930 pp., here p. 614, left column. 24 years after the print edition was published, this is the first mention and translation of the novel’s title into a Western language known so far. If no earlier occurrence is found it means that Morrison created a translation which has lasted until today almost unchanged.] He chose the plural, which was quite reasonable as there are many dreams in the novel. It appears that 27 years later the plural “dreams” was turned into the singular “dream,” which sounds a bit more general and is therefore also a reasonable translation. Red Chamber Dreams is the most common translation in English and, in its variations, in all Western languages so far.<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
He chose the plural, which was quite reasonable as there are many dreams in the novel. It appears that 27 years later the plural “dreams” was turned into the singular “dream,” which sounds a bit more general and is therefore also a reasonable translation. Red Chamber Dreams is the most common translation in English and, in its variations, in all Western languages so far.<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
In 1817 Rev. Robert Morrison published a book for studying Chinese,[ Robert Morrison, A view of China for philological purposes: containing a sketch of Chinese Chronology, Geography, Government, Religion & Customs, designed for the use of persons who study the Chinese language, Macao: East Asia Company Press, 1817, 141 S., hier S. 120-121.] in which he recommended “Dreams of the Red Chamber” as beginner readings, together with the novel Hao qiu zhuan, which was available mostly in English and partly in Portuguese by 1719, and fully in English by 1761. Both were written in colloquial style.<br />
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1817年，罗伯特·莫里森牧师出版了一本研究汉语的书，[罗伯特·莫里森，从语言学的角度看中国：包含中国年表，地理，政府，宗教和习俗的梗概，旨在供学习汉语的人使用。 澳门：东亚公司出版社，1817年，141 S.，hier S. 120-121。]，其中他推荐《红楼梦》作为初学者阅读，包括小说《好逑传》，这本小说到1719年大部分都是用英语撰写，部分用葡萄牙语撰写，到1761年全部变成了英文版。两种语言都是口语化的。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 07:33, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1817年，启罗伯特·莫里森牧师出版了一本学习中文的书,[罗伯特·莫里森,从语言学的角度看中国:包含中国年表、地理、政府、宗教和习俗,旨在供学习汉语的人使用,澳门:东亚公司出版社,1817年,141 S., hier S. 120-121.] 在这本书中，他推荐《红楼梦》和小说《好逑传》作为初学者读物。到1719年，《好逑传》主要以英文出版，部分以葡萄牙文出版，到1761年完全以英文出版。两者都是用口语化的。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 07:53, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
Morrison claims that Dream was written in Peking dialect. This does not hold true, since the author’s family Cao came from the South and many people in the novel have Nanking dialect sprinkles. In fact, the highly artful and intentional switch of dialects and sociolects contributed to the later fame of the novel. Morrison’s mistake developed its own tradition.[ Even in 1995, you could read that the Dreams is written in Peking dialect, cf. Shu Changshan, Die Rezeption Thomas Manns in China, 1995, Frankfurt: Lang, 326 pp. At least Tong Yao, Die Vielfältigkeit der Literatur, 2006 mentions both Peking and Nanking dialects.]<br />
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莫里森声称《梦》是用北京方言写成的。但事实并非如此，因为作者曹家来自南方，小说中的许多人物都有南京方言的点缀。事实上，方言和社会语的高度巧妙和有意的转换为这部小说后来的名声做出了贡献。莫里森的错误发展了自己的传统。[即使在1995年，大家也可以读到“《梦》是用北京方言写的”，参见舒长山、托马斯·曼斯的《中国的梦》（1995），法兰克福:朗，326页。至少佟耀《文学之声》（2006）同时提到了北京方言和南京方言。]--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 05:23, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
Barrow mentioned the title “[...] a Chinese novel called Hung-low-Mung, or, The Red Chamber Dreams” on June 4, 1819, in the Quarterly Review. He inserted this reference into a review[ My own findings, so far not discussed in 20th century hongxue, and published first in October 2010. John Barrow, “Art. IV Narrative of a Journey in the Interior of China, and of a Voyage to and from that Country, in the Years 1816 and 1817; containing an Account of the most interesting Transactions of Lord Amherst's Embassy to the Court of Pekin, and Observations on the Countries which it visited. By Clarke Abel F.L.S. London 1818”, in: William Gifford ed., Quarterly Review 21:41 (January 1819) S. 67-91, hier S. 79-80. This edition appeared (only by) June 4, 1819 with 13,000 copies. The author follows here the argumentation of the assignment to the author Barrow due to the following indications: “Gentleman's Magazine (Mar. 1844), 246-47. The article's author refers to #415 and #438 (including a specific reference), both of which are on the same topic and are by Barrow. Cf. also the discussion of infanticide (p. 76) and Raffles's account of Java reviewed by Barrow in #422. In his Q[uarterly] R[eview] articles, it was Barrow's signature practice to refer to his own works, see “Quarterly Review Archive” http://www.rc.umd.edu/ reference/qr/index/41.html, last visited March 10, 2018.] of Clarke Abel’s report of a journey through China.[ Clarke Abel, Narrative of a Journey in the Interior of China, and of a Voyage to and from that Country, in the Years 1816 and 1817; containing an Account of the most interesting Transactions of Lord Amherst's Embassy to the Court of Pekin, and Observations on the Countries which it visited, F.L.S. London 1818.] <br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
He interrupted his review with an excursus on the uniform appearance and static nature of the Chinese, in line with the contemporary China-bashing of Herder and Hegel. For contemporary Europeans, the Chinese appeared abnormally uniform and simple in their clothes and appearance. <br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
They would not be subordinated to the tyranny of fashion; their culture was static. In order to entertain the “belles and beaux of Great Britain,” Barrow provides a foil to this general impression by quoting the descriptions of the garments and anatomy of two characters, Wang Xifeng and Jia Baoyu, from chapter 3 of J. Davis’ translation of Dream. <br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
In fact the graphic comparisons given in these descriptions were simply strange to Europeans of that time, since they apparently did not correspond to the European’s own ideal of beauty.<br />
Even in 1842 Gützlaff criticized: “the author [makes] many protestations of his inability to do justice to the subject, which indeed is the only truth in the book […] the style is without any art […] whosoever wishes to familiarize himself with the manner of speaking the northern court dialect, may peruse this work with advantage”[ “Amongst the novels of the Chinese, this work holds a decidedly high rank. The author, after making many protestations of his inability to do justice to the subject, which indeed is the only truth in the book […] Having brought this tedious story to a conclusion, in expressing our opinion about the literary merits of the performance, we may say that the style is without any art, being literally the spoken language of the higher classes in the northern provinces. Some words that are used in a sense different from that in ordinary writings, and others are formed for the occasion, to express provincial sounds. But after reading one volume the sense is easily understood, and whosoever wishes to familiarize himself with the manner of speaking the northern court dialect, may peruse this work with advantage.” ibid., p. 273.]<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
In 1867, 78 years after the first Chinese printed edition, we find a first real in-depth review of two pages by William Frederick Mayers:[ William Frederick Mayers, in: Notes and Queries (Dec 31, 1867) pp. 167-168, here p. 167. Mayers was Chinese secretary of the British Legation at Peking. He gives also short extracts in translation: <br />
“Vast as is Heaven above or Earth below –<br />
Sighs may such limits fill for passion vainly past <br />
Grieve for the senseless youth, the hapless maiden’s woe ! <br />
Not oft is love’s light pledge redeem’ed at last ! ” (p. 167) […] <br />
Vain to be soft in temper, mild in ways, <br />
Fair as the fairest … (p. 168) <br />
[…] <br />
Not often shines <br />
thy longings too are vain ! ” (p. 168)].]<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
“If it be lawful to avow a feeling approaching to enthusiasm for any Chinese production, The Hung Low Mêng 紅樓夢 or ‘Dreams of the Red Chamber’ is beyond possibility of cavil the work for which genuine admiration may be expressed. What, in English literature, the writings of Thackeray and Bulwer are in comparison with the wearisome and unskilful productions of previous generations, such is the Hung Low Mêng when compared with the works of fiction that have emanated from other Chinese authors.<br />
<br />
如果能够依法公开宣布我们对于任何一部中国作品近乎狂热的喜爱，红楼梦将无可挑剔地成为一部最值得对其倾诉真挚仰慕之情的作品。英国文学中，萨克雷和布尔沃的之前的作品与萨克雷和沃尔本人的作品相比显得乏味而笨拙，中国其他作家的作品和《红楼梦》相比也是如此。--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 09:29, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
manated from other Chinese authors. Human character in its complex variety of shades, the intricacies of family relations, the force of passion and the torture of disappointed yearnings after love are pourtrayed with a degree of skill and knowledge such as in truth suggests a resemblance with the two great master-spirits of English romance; whilst, as in Nature's own drama of existence, the reflections of storm and sunshine are closely interlaced, and the lighter thread of comedy runs side by side with the dark main-strand of a story which opens with the omens of sorrow and is conducted to a tearful end. If, at the same time, a faint – a very faint – tinge of the supernatural is allowed to show itself in the conception of the tale, this is not only in full accord with the inclinations of the people for whom the work is written, but is also far less obtrusive than the similar element which pervades more than one of our own most celebrated fictions. […]”<br />
Reading through almost 80 years of reviews, during which more and more chapters of the novel became available, the ethnocentric attitude gradually changes to the scientific one and finally, with Mayr’s review of 1867 to a dialectic one, not only admitting that the Chinese novel was a piece of world literature, but even leaving open the possibility that it surpassed literary achievements of the own culture. This process certainly has been brought to a good end with the establishment of further diversified Chinese Studies in Europe and the USA, with the role of overseas Chinese at American universities, with further translations especially through Franz Kuhn in the 1930s and with the establishment of the German China Association in the 1950s. <br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
During its 60 years of history, the German China Association (next to the developing chairs of Chinese Studies at universities and next to other organizations dealing with China like friendship associations and Confucius Institutes) has helped to overcome prejudices, cultural relativism with diversity and tolerance. This is especially challenging, because the cultures and languages are quite distant and German media and internet community tends to bash China.<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
During the last 20 years, the German China Association was shaped through its prolific president, Gregor Paul, who has shaped the prestige of the Association with his sharp and precise analysis of a common logic in China and the West as well as universal values, including human rights, worth to strive for both in the West and in China. His entertaining and informative lectures used a rhethoric often referring to persuasive conventional wisdom, e.g. that differences often come from different opinions instead of a difference of the nature of the things, as can be seen from a quarrel with his wife about what both remembered had happened the day before.<br />
<br />
在过去20年间，德中协会是由其多产的主席格雷戈·保罗所塑造，他通过尖锐又精准地分析中西方的共同逻辑，以及分析包括中西方都值得为之奋斗的人权在内的普世价值，从而树立了协会的威望。他运用修辞手法进行寓教于乐的演讲，往往是关于一些具有说服力的传统大智慧。比如，分歧往往源于观点的不同而非事物性质的不同，这点从保罗和其妻子关于昨天发生之事的争论中可看出。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 12:37, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
Paul is a consequent logician and a real universalist and he has added to Germany’s international reputation as “the land of poets and thinkers”.<br />
The process of doing more justice to China today culminates in the cooperation between Chinese and Western scholars at international conferences, in research projects or international book projects like A New Literary History of Modern China, Harvard University Press 2017.<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
Europeans (and later US-Americans) have made a contribution to Chinese Studies in general. They were influenced heavily by the idealizers (Jesuits, European philosophers of the enlightenment) and by China-bashers (Hegel, the German emperor...). It took 100 years for a Chinese piece of world literature to be recognized as such in Europe. But today, Chinese literature and culture is recognized with the Nobel Prize and Confucius Institutes do successful work in the whole work promoting and exporting Chinese culture abroad.<br />
<br />
总体而言，欧洲人（以及后来的美国人）为“中国学”做出了贡献。 “中国学”曾受到理想主义者（耶稣会士，欧洲启蒙哲学家）和批判中国以赢取政治筹码者（黑格尔，德国皇帝……）的严重影响，中国的一部世界文学历时百年才被欧洲认可。但是今天，中国文学和文化获得了诺贝尔奖，孔子学院在促进向外传播中国文化的工作中取得了成功。--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 09:37, 13 November 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
==Volunteer==<br />
However, we should not overestimate the European contribution. There are still examples of ethnocentrism, even of religiously motivated reading of things into Chinese literature. One of these examples is the 10 volume History of Chinese Literature published in Bonn. In two volumes, the one about the origins of Chinese literature and the one on Chinese poetry, a German sinologist, who formerly was a priest, defines, that the origin of Chinese literature lies in the dialogue of the author with god.<br />
<br />
然而，我们不应高估欧洲的贡献。现在仍然有民族中心主义的例子，甚至是出于宗教动机对中国文学作品的解读。在波恩出版的10卷《中国文学史》就是其中之一。德国汉学家在《中国文学起源论》和《中国诗歌论》两卷中，曾任神父的汉学家对中国文学的起源进行了界定:中国文学的起源在于作者与上帝的对话。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 05:27, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Volunteer==<br />
This reminds us again of the Jesuit reading of things into Chinese texts, it reminds us of the attempts, to impose your own culture on other seemingly backward cultures, in this case even the try to impose the Western god on the Chinese culture of a time, when China had a totally different understanding of the world and of heaven than that of a Christian god. The emergence of Chinese literature comes from songs, speeches and paintings, from the wish to document events, family etc., but not from an encounter with god.<br />
<br />
这再次让我们想起耶稣会会士对于中国经文的解读；想起我们试图强加自身的文化于其他看似落后的文化上，当时中国对世界和天堂的理解完全不同于基督教的上帝，在这种情况下我们甚至试图把西方的上帝强加于一个时代的中国文化上。中国文学起源于歌曲，演说和画作；源于期望记录事件，家庭等，而非起源于与上帝的邂逅。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 14:33, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Volunteer==<br />
The same German sinologist retranslated the Analects, attributed to Confucius, and translated some of the more than 50 occurrences of “heaven” or “demon/ghost” with the term “god”.[ Here Wolfgang Kubin stands in the tradition of Jean-François Noëlas 1720 and Richard Wilhelm 1925, see: Konfuzius: Gespräche. Transl. Richard Wilhelm. In Kubin’s commentary in the beginning of his identically titled book (Konfuzius: Gespräche Diederichs 2011), he justifies his reading of god into the Analects (p. 10). He translates “shen” as “gods” (p. 215) and claims, Confucius was sacrificing to the gods (p. 30), he understands „guishen“ as „demon and god“ or „spirit and god“ and “tian” as “god of heaven”, “supreme god”, (p. 213).] <br />
<br />
==Volunteer==<br />
Experts on Confucius also quote the few passages, where Confucius addresses the question of the supranatural like ghosts etc. and analyze that Confucius may have been at best not interested or even negative about the belief in ghosts, while he was positive about the social stability and peace rituals brought for the people.<br />
<br />
This reminds us of the fact, that it is to us to make sure that ethnocentrism is still existing today and that science is a field that needs to be aware of and cautious about it. And it needs courage to speak out against it.<br />
<br />
孔子专家也引用了一些段落,在这些段落中孔子探讨了像是鬼魂之类的超自然的问题。专家们分析认为孔子充其量可能是不感兴趣,甚至对鬼魂的存在持否定态度，尽管他对仪式给人们带来的社会稳定和和平持积极态度。<br />
<br />
这提醒我们一个事实：我们十分确信种族中心主义在今天仍然存在并且科学是需要注意和谨慎的领域，而公开反对它需要勇气。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:12, 13 November 2020 (UTC)</div>Hu Huifanghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201102_trans&diff=10379920201102 trans2020-11-08T14:50:16Z<p>Hu Huifang: /* Zhou Shuyao 周书尧 */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
'''On the Comparison between "Sublimation" an "Functonal Equivalence" Theories'''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br />
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'''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br />
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“化境”与“功能对等”理论的比较<br />
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摘要：钱钟书与尤金·奈达分别是中西方翻译史上的杰出翻译家。钱先生的“化境”理论与奈达的“功能对等”理论对中西翻译理论与实践方面有广泛深刻的影响。通过比较两者之间的异同，本文将从辩证法角度来认识这两者的理论价值。这种做法旨在更好的将翻译理论应用于翻译实践，并主张我们从历史与对立的角度看待中西方翻译理论，从而使翻译研究更具有系统性与科学性。<br />
<br />
关键词：化境；功能对等；钱钟书；尤金·奈达--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 07:24, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
'''Introduction''':<br />
As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004: 64).<br />
<br />
尤金•乃达是美国当代著名语言学家和翻译理论家。他致力于《圣经》翻译，还从自己的翻译实践中总结了一系列翻译理论，其理论核心是“功能对等”（起初称为“动态对等”）。在他看来，“功能对等”指在目标文本中反映出的对等类型，该目标文本旨在使原文功能适应它得以生成以及为其而生成的特定语境。” （Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004: 64）--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 01:35, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
尤金•奈达是美国当代著名的语言学家和翻译理论家。他致力于《圣经》翻译，还从自己的翻译实践中总结了一系列翻译理论。其理论核心是“功能对等”（起初称为“动态对等”）。在他看来，“功能对等”指在目标文本中反映出的对等类型，该目标文本旨在使原文功能适应它得以生成以及为其而生成的特定语境。” --[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 04:59, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
'''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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'''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br />
<br />
The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”.<br />
<br />
1.“化境”及“功能对等”理论起源<br />
<br />
1.1 “化境”理论起源<br />
<br />
钱钟书在1963年写过一本书，名为《林纾翻译》，并于1979年在中华书局出版了“锥管集”，正是这两部作品让他想到了“化境”这一翻译理论。钱钟书认为翻译过程实际上就是运用“诱惑”，避免“误用”，以及追求“化境”的过程。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 10:31, 4 November 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 02:42, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.“化境”和“功能对等”的理论起源<br />
<br />
1.1 “化境”的理论起源<br />
<br />
钱钟书在1963年写下的《林纾的翻译》以及1979年中华书局出版的《管锥集》中提及“化境说”这一翻译理论。他认为翻译的过程实际上是遵循“化”，避免“讹”，以及追求“化境”的过程。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:45, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1. “化境”及“功能对等”的理论起源<br />
<br />
1.1 “化境”的理论起源<br />
<br />
钱钟书的“化境”这一翻译理论思想体现在他的两本著作中，也就是他于1963年完成的《林纾的翻译》以及1979年由中华书局出版的《管锥编》。他认为翻译的过程实际上是遵循“化”，避免“讹”，而追求“化境”的过程。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 08:09, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”.<br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9).<br />
<br />
而且，我们可以从钱钟书的理论中提取出三个等级的“化”（化境），一是将源文本转化为目标文本，其次是使用归化的方式使之更为自然，通顺，不带有因为文化及语言差异而产生的翻译腔，最后是“化境”的最高目标，即精神的转化，只改变源文本外在的躯壳，而保留其内在的精神和风格，使得目标文本与源文本没有丝毫偏差。换句话说，译文应该忠实于原文，读起来完全不像是翻译出来的，因为原著读起来也绝不会像是一部翻译作品一样。(Kao, 1975: 8-9)--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 09:43, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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另外，我们可以从钱钟书的理论中提取三种“化”（化境）的境界。首先，将源文本转换成目标文本，其次，运用归化方法将使源文本自然顺畅地表达成目标文本，避免由于文化和语言差异造成的明显的翻译腔。最后，“化境”的最终目标，即“灵魂的轮回”，取代源文本外部的形式，保留内部精神和风格，而不害其义。换句话说，翻译应该忠实于源文本，又使得译文读起来不像译文，因为用母语写成的文学作品读起来绝不会像是翻译过来的。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 10:11, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
'''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. <br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida & Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory.<br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
'''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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'''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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(1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation.<br />
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2. “化境”和“功能对等”之间的异同<br />
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2.1 “化境”和“功能对等”之间的相同点<br />
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（1）翻译过程的相似：如上文所述，钱钟书先生提出翻译是运用“诱”，避免“讹”，追求“化境”的过程。具体来说，“诱”指的是文化交流中起作用的翻译媒介。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 09:53, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
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In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts.<br />
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从这个意义上讲，翻译可以看作是一种引导，可以使目标读者理解源语言及其文化，并更好地理解外国的优秀作品。 这个过程具有重要意义，因为如果读者对源语言文化和外国文学兴趣不大； 那么翻译作品将失去其价值。 因此，我们可以说翻译不仅是两种语言间的转换，而且是不同文化和思想之间的碰撞。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:50, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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从这个意义上讲，翻译可以看作是向导，它可以引领目标读者理解源语言及文化，并更好地理解外国优秀作品。 这个过程具有重要意义，因为如果读者对源语言文化和外国文学缺乏兴趣； 那么翻译作品将失去其价值。 因此可以说，翻译不仅是两种语言的转换，它还是是不同文化和思想之间的碰撞。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 07:16, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
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==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression.<br />
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所谓的“讹”是指在翻译过程中对原文的歪曲和错误表达。由于“讹”在翻译中是无法避免的，无论一个译者多么优秀，无论他的译文多么流畅，他都不能避免以这样或那样的方式犯这样或那样的错误，但他可以用尽一切手段使原文信息得到最大程度的呈现(余承法，2003: 43)。这是由于不同语言之间的差异，译者理解事物方式的差异，写作风格与原文内容形式的差异，甚至译者理解能力与表达能力的差异。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:41, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality.<br />
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最后一步称为”化境“，”化“在这里是升华的意思，是文学翻译的最高理想，也是翻译过程的最终目标。译者应设法弄清楚原作者想法，并思考他所想象的东西，让自己沉迷于作者（的世界）（罗新璋， 1984: 511），钱钟书对翻译这一过程的解释是实现”化“的最根本的条件。因此，在做翻译练习时，译者每一步都必须做好准备，这对能力和素质有很高的要求。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 13:47, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text.<br />
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同样，奈达基于“功能对等”理论，从语言学角度，提出翻译过程“四步模型”：分析，迁移，重构，检验。奈达和泰伯提出：所有语言都有6～12中基本内核结构，并且，他们在内核层面的一致性远远大于其在更详细结构层面，比如词序上的一致性。首先，“分析”指的是我们要先分析原文本的表面结构，再掌握句子的语法意义，换句话说，就是掌握原文本的概念意义和内涵意义。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 03:48, 4 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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同样，奈达基于“功能对等”理论，从语言学角度提出翻译过程的“四步模型”，即“分析、转换、重组、检验”。奈达和泰伯认为所有语言都有六到十二种基本核心结构，它们在核心层面上比在更复杂的结构层次上更一致”，比如词序的一致性。首先，“分析”指我们必须分析源文本的表层结构，再掌握句子的语法意义，换句话说，就是指源文本的指称意义和内涵意义。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 14:22, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure.<br />
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为了正确传达原文信息，译者必须对原文进行从表层结构到深层结构的分析。然后是“转换”，转换的意思就是将分析过的源文本呈现到目的文本中。这一步包括两种不同语言符号和语言形式之间的转换，同时也是两种不同思想模式之间的转换。接着是“重构”，即对源文本进行再加工和再创造，在这一步中，译者在将源文本译成目的文本时需要遵循目的语言的表达方式，摆脱源文本表层结构的束缚，从而更深层地挖掘源文本深层结构的含义。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 01:11, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
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==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, "Check" refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br />
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==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
(2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.<br />
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(2)同样关注目标读者的反应。自古以来，国内外翻译家对优秀翻译的标准有不同的看法。严复在其翻译作品《天演论》中提出了著名的三字方针，即 "信、达、雅"。同样，西方翻译家亚历山大-弗雷泽-泰特勒也提出了 "翻译三原则"。简单地说，就是译文要完整地抄录原作的思想；译文的风格和写作方式要与原作具有相同的特点；译文要具有原作的所有易感性。<br />
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==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them.<br />
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从严复和泰勒对翻译标准的描述中我们可以看出，译者研究翻译原则和标准正是其重视译入语读者、对译入语文化充满责任感的体现。钱钟书的“化境”论强调译者应该引导我们的读者阅读外国文学作品，或者让读者受到外国文化感染，了解外国作家。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 12:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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通过对严复和泰勒尔对翻译标准的描述的分析，我们可以看到，对翻译原则和标准的研究，正是译者对译语读者的重视，也是译者对译入语文化的责任感的体现。钱钟书的“升华”理论强调，译者应该引导读者阅读外国文学作品，或者让读者被外国文化所吸引，介绍外国作家。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 04:31, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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通过对严复和泰勒尔对翻译标准的描述的分析，我们可以看到，对翻译原则和标准的研究，体现了译者对译语读者的重视，也是译者对译入语文化责任感的体现。钱钟书的“化境”理论强调，译者应该引导读者阅读外国文学作品，或者让读者受到外国文化吸引，了解外国作家。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 10:37, 7 November 2020 (UTC)Li lili<br />
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==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
“Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu:<br />
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“升华”不仅是翻译的标准，还体现了译者对目标读者的照顾。 钱先生说：“翻译应该忠于原著，这样才不会读起来像翻译的作品，因为在源语言的文化背景下，原著永远不会读起来像一部翻译作品。” 好的翻译作品可以激发读者对原著的好奇心，也能带给读者美妙的享受。 钱先生还评论了严复提出的三原则：--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 08:57, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
“Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101)<br />
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“翻译理论当中的信还应包括达和雅。达基于信，但雅并不非靠达才能实现。信是指用统一的风格传递原文信息。许多人认为，翻译中的雅需要靠辞藻的堆砌才能实现。但是很少有人意识到，为保持原文的风格，是需要舍弃对词语的修饰的。即使不忠实于原文，译文也可以清楚明了，但倘若读者读不懂译文，就算不上信。”（钱钟书，1986:1101）--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 12:01, 3 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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翻译中，信应当包含达和雅。达可以充分实现信，但只有达，就不能实现雅。相同风格传达原文信息—这就是信…很多人已经逐渐意识到：翻译不该为了雅，而堆砌辞藻，美化译文。但很少有人认识到：翻译得舍弃这些修饰词来译出原文精神。译文即使不忠于原文，也能明白易懂，但忠于原文，读者反而读不懂了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 03:27, 4 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work.<br />
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同时，奈达认为准确的翻译取决于一般读者在多大的程度上能够正确的理解原文，也就是说，目标读者是否在阅读译文的时候会有和阅读原文一样的感受。“功能对等”的目的就是让读者能达到交流需求。为了使目标得以实现，我们有必要改变原文的形式和考虑读者对译文的接受程度。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:50, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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同时，奈达认为翻译的准确性取决于一般读者在多大程度上能够正确地理解源文本，也就是说，目标语读者在阅读翻译作品时是否会有着相似或者是一样的感受。“功能对等”的目的是为了满足读者交流的需要。为了达到这个目标，我们可以根据读者对翻译文本的可接受性对源文本的形式进行一定的修改。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 16:05, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture.<br />
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奈达的“功能对等”不仅需要对原文忠实，而且也要对目标语读者和原语读者负责。奈达描绘了与理论家在语义学和语用学这两个方面所进行的关于各种“意义研究的科学方法”的工作。奈达工作的核心是从一个单词具有固有的意义这样的旧观念转化为意义的功能定义，也就是一个单词可以从它的上下文获得含义，并且不同的文化会产生不同的响应。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:47, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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奈达的“功能对等”不仅要对原文有忠实姓还要对目标语堵着和原文读者负责。 在理论学家在语义学和语用学研究的工作中，奈达叙述了各种“意义研究科学方法”。奈达的核心论点是脱离词汇有固定的意义这个旧观念并转向意思的功能定义，也就是根据不同的文化和背景，一个词汇会有相应的不同意思。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 01:37, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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奈达的“功能对等”理论不仅要求应忠实于原文，还要求要对目的语读者和原文读者负责。基于理论家在语义学和语用学方面的相关工作，奈达提出了“意义研究科学法”。这一方法的核心是，摆脱了单词有固定含义的旧观念，转向了意义的功能定义，即通过上下文获得单词的含义，并且根据文化的不同单词的含义也会有所不同。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 03:47, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
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==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br />
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(3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境).<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original.<br />
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由此可见，“归化”是连接原文转换和目标语升华实现的桥梁。在《七个补丁》一书中，他写道：“无论目标版本是‘面向欧洲’还是‘面向汉语’，翻译总是基于原语国家的语言系统到目的国的语言系统（2002:78）。虽然他没有明确指出翻译应该是“归化导向”还是“异化导向”，但他将翻译与原作的“转世”相比较，认为翻译是原作的“外化”。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 04:27, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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显而易见，“归化”是连接原文转化和在目标语中实现化境的桥梁。在《七个补丁》一书中，他写道：“无论目标版本是‘面向欧洲’还是‘面向中国’，翻译总是基于从源语国家到目的语国家的语言系统(2002: 78)。虽然他没有明确说明翻译应该是“归化”还是“异化”，但他把翻译比作原作的“转世”，认为翻译是原作的“变形”。 --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 01:27, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text.<br />
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此外，他赞赏林纾的翻译作品，并评论说，他宁愿阅读林纾的翻译，也不愿阅读哈格德的原文。 这样，钱钟书先生似乎更喜欢“中国化”风格的文字，这体现了“本土化”的倾向。 在“功能对等”理论中，Nida提倡使用目标语言的表达习惯来转换原始文本。 他认为语言是交流的手段，交流是最终目标，也是翻译的重要角色，因此他更加关注受体对目标文本的反应。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 14:43, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original.<br />
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在《七个补丁》一书中，他写道:“无论目标版本是‘面向欧洲’还是‘面向中国’，翻译总是基于从原国家到目标国家的语言系统(2002: 78)。虽然他没有明确说明翻译应该是“归化”还是“异化”，但他把翻译比作原作的“转世”，认为翻译是原作的“变形”。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 05:18, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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他在《七个补丁》一书中写道：“无论目标版本是“欧洲版”还是“中国版”，翻译始终基于从源语国家到目标语国家的语言系统(2002：78)。 尽管他没有明确说明翻译是应“本土化”还是“异化”，但他将译文比作原著的“转世”，并认为译文是原著的一种“变形”。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:11, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br />
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为了目的语读者能理解译文，译文必须符合目的语的文化传统与语言习惯。同时，译者要在保证译文忠实于原文的基础上使其自然且通顺。奈达的“归化”翻译趋向正是出于这种观点。请看下列例子：--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 07:51, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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为了使目标读者接受译文，译文符合目的语的文化传统和语言习惯十分重要。与此同时，译者必须在保证忠实原文的前提下，使译文自然流畅。以上可看出奈达的“归化”翻译倾向。请看下面的例子:--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 08:17, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
S: “white as snow”<br />
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T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br />
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From the point of view of tr--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:06, 8 November 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:06, 8 November 2020 (UTC)aditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what "white as snow" means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
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源语言：“White as snow"<br />
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目标语：“白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br />
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对于支持传统翻译标准的译者来说，以上的翻译是与原文信息相冲突的，但是对于从来没有见过雪的读者，他们完全不能理解“像雪一样白”的意义。通过归化的翻译策略，目标语读者能够达到与源语言读者同样的反应，实现更好的交流。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 13:39, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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源语言："White as snow"<br />
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目标语：“白如木棉花” 或 “白如鹭毛” 或 “白如蘑菇”<br />
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按照传统翻译标准，以上翻译与原文信息相悖，但是对于从来没有见过雪的读者，他们完全不能理解“像雪一样白”。通过归化的翻译策略，目标语读者能够产生与源语言读者相近的反应，实现更好的交流。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:55, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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源语言：“White as snow"<br />
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目标语：“白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br />
从传统翻译标准的角度来看，以上翻译与原文信息背道而驰，但是对于那些从没见过雪，不知道雪长什么样子的人来说，他们完全不能理解”像雪一样白“是什么意思。通过归化的翻译策略，目标语读者能够产生与源语言读者相近的反应，实现更好的交流。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:06, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
'''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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(1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”.<br />
2.2化境论与功能对等的区别<br />
（1）理论基础不同:钱钟书的化境论是建立在严复的翻译标准“信、达、雅”之上的，是对中国传统翻译理论的发展。钱钟书的化境论将翻译研究从美学范畴推向了艺术的极致。最终，化境论被纳入到中国翻译思想的发展历程中，即“案本求信-神似-化境。”--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 08:26, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
2.2化境论与功能对等的区别<br />
（1）理论基础不同:钱钟书的化境论建立在严复的翻译标准“信、达、雅”之上，是对中国传统翻译理论的发展。钱钟书的化境论将翻译研究从美学范畴推向了艺术的极致。最终，化境论成为了中国翻译思想的发展历程中的一部分，即“案本求信-神似-化境。”--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 10:39, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
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==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br />
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Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version.<br />
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这四种概念相互独立，又紧密相关。这些概念逐步发展，构成了一个完整的翻译体系，是传统翻译理论中的重要组成部分(Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20)。奈达的“功能对等理论”是基于其《圣经》翻译实践。在乔姆斯基的转换生成语法的指导下，奈达的功能对等理论要求译者由浅入深地分析文本结构，然后将原文的深层结构转化为译文的深层结构，最后调整译文使其呈表层结构。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:44, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这四个概念，既独立又相互关联。它们逐渐发展成为一个完整的翻译系统，而这个系统是我们传统翻译理论的重要组成部分(罗新章，2009:20)。奈达的“功能对等”理论是在其圣经翻译实践的基础上建立起来的。在乔姆斯基的转换生成语法指导下，奈达的功能对等要求译者从表层结构分析到深层结构;然后将其从原文的深层结构转化为译入语的深层结构，最后调整译入语的语言结构，得到译文的表层结构。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 14:10, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
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==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function.<br />
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从这一系列步骤中，我们可以看出翻译学的层次性和理论性。因此奈达提出了他的观点，即翻译可以称为一门科学。钱钟书则认为译作不仅可以超越原著，有时甚至比原著还要好得多；尽管奈达没有表明在原文和译文哪个要更好，但他更强调两种语言之间的对等和目标受众的反应，因此更重视翻译的交际功能。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 13:00, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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通过一系列步骤，我们可以看到翻译研究的层次性与理论性，因此奈达提出了他的观点，即翻译可以视为一门科学。钱钟书认为译作可以超越原作，有时甚至能比原作更好。而奈达并未表明原文与译文哪个更佳，他的重点更多放在两种语言的对等和受众者的响应方面，因此将研究的优先级放在了翻译的交际功能上。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 07:50, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
(2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154).<br />
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8)<br />
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他所描述的文学翻译的“最高理想”会不可避免地产生“信息错误”的问题，而这将限制“升华”的应用范围。 尽管一代又一代的学者和专家做出了卓有成效的努力去从各个方面阐明“升华”，但对很多翻译圈的人来说，“升华”还是无法从理论上解释和实践实现的，这就像“阁楼上的空中”。 （于成发，2003：8）--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 04:31, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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他所描述的文学翻译的“最高理想”会不可避免地产生“信息错误”的问题，而这些问题将限制“化境”的应用范围。 尽管一代又一代的专家学者努力从各个方面阐明“化境”，并取得了成果，但对很多翻译圈的人来说，“化境”还是如同“空中阁楼一般”，仍旧无法从理论上解释并通过实践来实现。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 13:06, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible.<br />
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与此相反，奈达对于圣经中宗教文化的翻译带有统一和肃穆的色彩。为了传播上帝的意志，他向各行各业的人们传道；因此，奈达对于圣经的翻译不仅要达到贵族们的要求，还要满足缺乏宗教文化知识的普通公民的需要。“功能对等”理论的目标读者是来自各行各业的大众，其适用范围更趋于实践。奈达的翻译的对等理论来源于圣经的翻译实践。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 07:32, 4 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
与此相反，奈达对于圣经的翻译带有统一和庄严的宗教文化色彩。他向各行各业的人传道是为了传播上帝的旨意；正因如此，奈达的翻译不仅要满足上流社会的需要，还要让那些缺乏宗教文化知识的普通大众对此有一定的了解。“功能对等”理论的目标读者是来自社会各阶层的群众，其适用范围也更加实际。奈达的功能对等理论起源于圣经的翻译实践。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 03:00, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br />
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众所周知，西方语言在文化和表达方面有许多共通之处，因此奈达的“对等”理论在两种欧洲语言之间相对容易实现。在英汉翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以很难实现完全的“对等”。奈达将翻译步骤严格地划分成四个部分，可视为一种实用性的翻译方法，用于指导一些科技文、公告和应用文的翻译。就文学体裁而言，像诗歌和散文翻译，译者的创造力可能更为重要，用机械的方法和步骤是很难传达原文的文学性的。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 12:06, 4 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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众所周知，西方语言在文化和表达方面有许多共通之处，因此奈达的“对等”理论在两种欧洲语言之间相对容易实现。而在英汉翻译中，汉语和英语属于不同语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以很难实现完全的“对等”。奈达将翻译严格地划分成四个步骤，这可视为一种用于指导一些科技文、公告和应用文翻译的实用性翻译方法。就文学体裁而言，像诗歌和散文翻译，译者的创造力可能更为重要，用机械的方法和步骤是很难传达原文的文学性的。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 04:37, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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众所周知，西方语言在文化和表达方面有许多共通之处，因此奈达的“对等”理论在两种欧洲语言之间相对容易实现。因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且两者文化差异较大，所以在英汉翻译中很难实现完全的“对等”。奈达将翻译严格地划分为四个步骤，可视为一种实用性的翻译方法，用于指导一些科技文、公告和应用文的翻译。就文学体裁而言，像诗歌和散文翻译，译者的创造力可能更为重要，用机械的方法和步骤是很难传达原文的文学性的。--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 09:03, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
'''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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'''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br />
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According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the "servant" of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer.<br />
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3.A 对“化境”和“功能对等”的批判性理解<br />
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3.1 “化境”一说法忠实原文吗？<br />
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根据传统的翻译理论，译者一直被认为是原文和译文的“仆人”。他必须要忠实原文，在表达出原作者的意思的同时也要考虑目标读者。徐俊（2003：321）在他的书《论翻译》中写道“传统翻译理论中经常强调三点:第一，译者在翻译中不应纳入自己的主观思想。第二，不应该在翻译中表现出译者个人的情感特点。第三，译者应在原文的基础上进行翻译，忠实于原文作者的思想。”--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 02:59, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
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3.A 对“化境”和“功能对等”的批判性理解<br />
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3.1 “化境”就是忠实原文吗？<br />
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根据传统的翻译理论，译者总是被认为是原文和译文的“仆人”。在关注目标读者的同时，他必须忠实于原作者。许俊(2003: 321)在《论翻译》一书中写道:“传统的翻译理论往往强调三点:首先，译者在翻译中不应纳入自己的主观思想；其次，他们不应该在翻译中表达自己的个性；最后，译者应该在原文的基础上翻译文本，并忠实地遵循原作者的思想。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 05:28, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant.<br />
<br />
从钱钟书“化境”理论的分析中可以明显看出，他更倾向于“归化”的翻译策略，强调译文可以超越原文。他本人欣赏林纾的翻译作品，因为他们共同的主张和相似的历史背景。从历史唯物主义的观点来看，“社会存在决定社会意识，社会意识对社会存在具有反作用。”例如，林纾生活在一个封闭的国家，当时的清朝非常傲慢，甚至是无知。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 09:30, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
从钱钟书“化境”理论的分析中可以明显看出，他更倾向于“归化”的翻译策略，强调译文可以超越原文。他本人欣赏林纾的翻译作品，因为他们拥有共同的主张和相似的历史背景。从历史唯物主义的观点来看，“社会存在决定社会意识，社会意识对社会存在具有反作用。”例如，林纾生活在一个封闭的国家，当时的清朝非常傲慢，甚至可以说是无知。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 10:58, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one.<br />
<br />
他的翻译风格自然受到了名族感情的影响。因此，他的翻译有“归化”的倾向，甚至有不忠实翻译的倾向。钱钟书生活在新中国成立后的文艺繁荣时期，当时毛主席提出了“百花齐放，百家争鸣”的方针，因此，我们的中国人民洋溢着崇高的精神和自豪的情感，一些译者的翻译作品更倾向于利用“归化”，使翻译作品比原作更优秀。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 10:23, 7 November 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
他的翻译风格自然受到了民族情结的影响。因此，他的翻译倾向于“归化”，甚至倾向于不忠实的翻译。钱钟书生活在新中国成立后的文艺繁荣时期，在该时期毛主席提出了“百花齐放，百家争鸣”的方针，这让中国人民洋溢出斗志昂扬的精气神和自豪的情绪；一些译者的翻译作品也更倾向于采用“归化”，使得翻译作品比原作更出彩。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:27, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
<br />
林纾的翻译风格自然受到了民族情结的影响。因此，他的翻译倾向于“归化”，甚至倾向于不忠实的翻译。钱钟书生活在新中国成立后的文艺繁荣时期，当时毛主席提出了“百花齐放，百家争鸣”的方针，这我们的中国人民洋溢着崇高的精神和自豪的情感。一些译者的译作更倾向于“归化”的翻译策略，使得译作比原作更出彩。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 09:46, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator.<br />
<br />
这种翻译策略对原文有些许“不忠”，不会像鲁迅所倡导的“异化”方法那样“真诚地模仿”原文。“升华”理论很难具体实施，因为它已经成为一个“无法实现”的目标。翻译是“汉化”还是“欧化”；是“忠实”还是“创新”，而译者在翻译中究竟是“有形”还是“无形”都是难以衡量的标准，因为这些因素不可避免地受到译者主观和历史客观性的影响。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 10:09, 4 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这种翻译策略对原文或有“不实”，或不像鲁迅所倡导的“异化”方法那样“真挚地模仿”原文。要具体应用“化境”理论还有点难度，因为它已成为一个“遥不可及”的目标。翻译应该是“汉化”还是“欧化”，是“忠实“还是”创新“；译者在译文中应该”现身“还是”隐形“，这些标准都难以衡量，因为这些都不可避免的受到译者主观和历史客观性的影响。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 08:24, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br />
<br />
“化境”是否能做到忠实于原文本呢？或许正如钱钟书先生所说：“ 译者在使用母语时往往比使用原作者的源语言更加灵活通顺，这种情况在翻译史中是很常见的。” 在某种程度上，我们认为这种“不忠”就是忠实于原文。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 02:47, 4 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“化境”真的是忠实原文的一种翻译方法吗？也许就如钱钟书先生所说的那样：“相较于原作者的源语言，译者运用其母语的能力要更加灵活通顺。”而这就是翻译历史上经常出现的现象。我们可以认为这样的“不忠实”其实是特定意义下的“忠实”。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:50, 4 November 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
'''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br />
<br />
The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field.<br />
<br />
3.2 有关奈达“功能对等理论”的问题<br />
<br />
意义、对等和可译性问题是上个世纪60年代翻译研究不变的主题，而作为翻译研究的重要人物之一，美国的尤金·奈达提出了一种新的“科学”方法来解决这些问题。尤金·奈达的翻译理论是在他自己的实践工作中发展起来的，从上个世纪40年代起，他开始开展翻译工作和组织《圣经》的翻译工作，还常常对那些在该领域工作的没有经验的译者进行培训。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 12:52, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects.<br />
对于奈达的“功能对等”理论，翻译界一直褒贬不一。有人认为该理论是翻译科学的代表，对翻译实践有很好的指导作用。 然而，也有一些学者不同意这一理论，例如彼得·纽马克就是它的批评者之一。 他认为奈达的对等理论过于重视读者，但有时牺牲了作者的原始思想。 同样令人质疑的是，“功能对等”能否适用于各种主题的原始文本。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 04:47, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
对于奈达的“功能对等”理论，翻译界褒贬不一。有人认为，该理论是翻译科学的代表，对翻译实践具有很好的指导作用。然而，也有一些学者不同意这一理论，例如彼得·纽马克就是其批评者之一。他认为奈达的对等理论过于重视读者，有时却忽视了作者真正的原创思想。当然，功能对等能否适用于各种主体的原文本也值得怀疑。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 08:30, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means.<br />
<br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers.<br />
<br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries.<br />
<br />
这样，翻译作品的读者不仅能获得与原著的读者相同的反应，而且有利于他们学习理解新事物和新概念，从而逐步促进不同文化之间的交流，增加不同国家的共同利益。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 01:52, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这样不仅能使翻译作品的读者产生与原文读者相同的反应，也有利于他们学会理解新事物、新概念，从而不断促进不同文化的交流，提高各个国家的共同利益。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:24, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
'''4.Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration.Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br />
<br />
4.结论<br />
<br />
钱钟书先生的“化境说”奈达的“功能对等”理论分别代表了中西方翻译研究上取得的巨大进步，二者都为翻译研究和实践提供了重要参考。他们的理论被比作一个需要更多调查和探索的宝库。此外，我们必须以批判性的眼光来学习他们的理论，为翻译研究新时代的建立而努力。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 13:50, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
'''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''<br />
<br />
A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18).<br />
<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”.<br />
<br />
本文中的“译者行为”是一个广义的问题，即译者的翻译行为受其社会文化背景、翻译动机、翻译观、翻译能力以及源语言可译性等因素的影响。（徐军199-254）具体而言，我们将讨论的翻译行为是“翻译什么（他们翻译了什么作品）”和“如何翻译（他们的翻译原则）”。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:16, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
本文的“译者行为”是一个广义的概念，即译者的翻译行为受其所处的社会文化背景、及其翻译动机、翻译观、对原文的语言可译性、翻译能力等因素的影响(Xu Jun 199-254)。具体来说，我们要讨论的翻译行为是“翻译什么(他们翻译了什么作品)”和“如何翻译(他们的翻译原则)”。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 04:52, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br />
<br />
So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br />
<br />
From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br />
<br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
'''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br />
<br />
A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br />
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According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br />
<br />
“Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165).<br />
<br />
'''|.以前的一些研究'''<br />
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A.伊文•佐哈尔的多元系统理论<br />
<br />
根据《翻译研究入门》：以色列学者伊塔马•伊文•佐哈尔借鉴了20世纪20年代俄国形式主义者以及20世纪30和40年代捷克结构主义者的观点，使得多元系统理论在20世纪70年代得以发展。对于形式主义者来说，一部文学作品不能孤立地而是要作为文学系统的一部分来研究。因此，文学是社会框架、文化框架、文学框架和历史框架的一部分。（芒迪 165）--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 15:30, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
《翻译研究入门》中写道：<br />
<br />
”以色列学者伊塔马•伊文•佐哈尔借鉴了20世纪20年代俄国形式主义者以及20世纪30和40年代捷克结构主义者的观点，使得多元系统理论在20世纪70年代得以发展。形式主义的观点认为，一部文学作品不能孤立地而是要作为文学系统的一部分来研究......因此，文学是社会框架、文化框架、文学框架和历史框架的一部分......”（芒迪 ，第165页）--Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br />
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(1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br />
<br />
(2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br />
<br />
Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br />
<br />
1978年，Even-Zohar在“翻译文学在文学多元系统中的地位”中，第一次提出了一个新术语，即多元系统（Even-Zohar 22），强调翻译文学本身就是一个系统：<br />
<br />
（1）以译入语文化选择的方式进行翻译;<br />
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（2）在翻译规范，行为和政策上受到其他共同系统的影响（Even-Zohar 22）。<br />
<br />
因此，翻译不是孤立的，而是与其他系统（例如译入语文化）相关联的。 文化选择的源语对应于有组织的系统，而不是个人任意做出的决定。 同时，翻译作品在不同文化中的不同地位，与该国文学的地位也有关。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 05:53, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1978年，埃文•佐哈尔在《翻译文学在文学多元系统中的地位》中首次提出了“多元系统”这一术语(埃文•佐哈尔22)， 强调翻译文学本身就是一个系统:<br />
<br />
(1) 该系统以目的语文化选择的方式进行翻译;<br />
(2)该系统还受到其他联合系统对翻译规范、行为和政策的影响(埃文•佐哈尔 22)。<br />
因此，翻译不是孤立的，而是与其他系统(例如目的语文化)相关联的。而文化所选择的源语则与有组织的系统相对应，而不是由个人做出的武断决定。同时，翻译作品在不同文化中的地位也不同，这与该国文学的地位有关。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 13:25, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
B.Bassett and Lefevere<br />
<br />
Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br />
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C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br />
<br />
Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)'.<br />
<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br />
<br />
Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology.<br />
<br />
参与这种权力地位的人，就是莱弗维尔认为的 "改写 "文学并支配大众消费的人。这种改写的动机可以是意识形态的（顺应或反抗主流意识形态），也可以是诗学的（顺应或反抗主流/偏好的诗学）"（Munday 194）。而翻译是最明显可识别的重写类型（Lefevere 9）。<br />
<br />
例如，译者的翻译观，反映了译者的意识形态，可以顺应或反抗社会主流意识形态。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 00:16, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
处于这种权力地位的人，就是莱弗维尔认为的 "改写 "文学并支配大众消费的人。这种改写的动机可以是意识形态的（顺应或反抗主流意识形态），也可以是诗学的（顺应或反抗主流/偏好的诗学）"（Munday 194）。而翻译是最明显可识别的重写类型（Lefevere 9）。<br />
例如，译者的翻译观，反映了译者的意识形态，可以顺应或反抗社会主流意识形态。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 04:43, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Ma Shuya<br />
<br />
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br />
The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br />
<br />
Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader.<br />
<br />
对于Lefereve来说，文学体系中的翻译功能是由两种主要因素控制的，一种是文学体系内的专家，专家们对于主流诗学有部分话语权；另一种就是文学体系外的资助人，在一定程度上他们决定了意识形态。<br />
体系内的专家也包括了译者本身，译者决定诗学，有时也会影响译文的意识形态。(Monday 194).<br />
<br />
因此，译者角色必不可少，译者的意识形态对译文和译文读者也有着重要的影响。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 10:36, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
对于Lefereve来说，文学体系中的翻译功能被两个主要因素控制，第一个是文学体系内的专家，专家们对于主流诗学有部分话语权；第二个就是文学体系外的资助人，在一定程度上他们决定了意识形态。体系内的专家也包括了译者本身，译者决定诗学，有时也会影响译文的意识形态。(Monday 194).<br />
<br />
因此，译者角色至关重要，译者的意识形态对译文和译文读者也有着重要的影响。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 14:48, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
“For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br />
<br />
D.Venuti<br />
<br />
Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br />
<br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
“Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br />
<br />
Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217).<br />
<br />
“规范可能首先是语言的或文学的，但它们也将包括各种各样的国内价值观、信仰和社会表征，它们为特定群体的利益提供意识形态力量。”而且它们总是被安置在社会机构中，在那里翻译被生产和纳入文化和政治议程”(29)。<br />
芒迪建议，韦努蒂所指的团体和社会机构将包括整个出版行业的各种参与者……每一个参与者在他们的时代和地方的主导文化和政治议程中都有一个特殊的位置和作用。译者本身就是这种文化的一部分，他们可以接受，也可以反抗(217)。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:31, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors.<br />
<br />
因此，译者作为文化的一部分，受到社会意识形态、赞助者意识形态和诗学的影响。然而，译者或多或少享有一定的自主权。例如，译者的翻译观，即对翻译的理解，既可以顺应文化，也可以反叛文化。其次，他们的翻译观影响着他们的具体翻译行为，如他们选择的翻译作品和他们的翻译原则。下面是三个例子来讨论译者的翻译观如何直接影响他们的翻译行为。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 12:42, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior.<br />
<br />
为了缩小社会意识形态的差异，本文将探讨中国近代（1949年以后）的三位译者。然而，由于他们处于不同的社会风气和社会阶段，他们无疑有着不同的世界观，这就导致了他们对翻译持有不同看法。但重点仍然是他们的观点对其翻译行为的影响。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 02:48, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
为了缩小社会意识形态的差异，本文将讨论中国近代（1949年以后）的三位译者。但是，由于他们出生于不同的气候和社会阶段，因此毫无疑问，他们彼此之间具有的独特世界观导致了他们对翻译的独特看法。但是重点仍将集中在他们的观点对他们的翻译行为施加的影响上。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 03:06, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
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为了缩小社会意识形态的差异，此论文将讨论现代中国（1949年之后）的三位译者。然而，由于他们出生在不同的社会时期及时代背景下，因此毫无疑问，他们有不同于彼此的世界观，这也造成了他们对翻译的不同看法。但我们的焦点会聚焦于他们不同的翻译观点是如何对各自的翻译行为造成影响的。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 10:53, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br />
<br />
A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br />
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For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br />
<br />
2.当代中国的三个例子<br />
<br />
A.许渊冲（1921-）：翻译是译者的责任。<br />
许渊冲认为，中国译者有责任把外国杰作译成中文以及把中国的优秀作品译成外文。其目的在于把先进的思想介绍到中国，也在于给外国人带去优秀的中国文化，在这一过程中，世界上的文化会更丰富，文明也会更多样。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 10:39, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
二、当代中国的三个例子<br />
<br />
1.许渊冲（1921-）：翻译是译者的责任。<br />
许渊冲认为，中国译者有责任把国外著作译成中文以及把中国的优秀作品译成外文。其目的在于把先进的思想译介到中国，并输出优秀的中国文化。在这一过程中，世界上的文化更为繁荣，文明更具多样性。--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 12:00, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br />
<br />
在这种情况下，徐渊冲进一步提出，两种文化的历史和演变是截然不同的，各有优缺点。如果他们能够相互学习，取长补短，便能够同时加以改善。 在这方面，翻译可以被视为两种不同文化之间的竞争。翻译甚至可以超越原作品。如果我们充分利用一种文化的优势来完善另一种文化，那么全人类的文化便会得到发展。 这是翻译者的最终目标（“超越” 47）。 基于这种观点，徐渊冲提出了“竞争论”和“优势论”。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 04:39, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Ma Shuya<br />
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<br />
在这种情况下，徐渊冲进一步提出，两种文化的历史和演变是互不相同的，它们各有优缺点。如果它们能够相互学习，取长补短，那么它们就可以得到提高。在这方面，翻译可以被视为两种不同文化之间的竞争。翻译甚至可以超越原作品。如果我们充分利用一种文化的优势来完善另一种文化，那么全人类的文化便会得到发展。这是翻译者的最终目标（“超越” 47）。基于这种观点，徐渊冲提出了“竞争论”和“优势论”。--[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 09:37, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc.<br />
<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br />
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Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br />
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From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br />
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江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br />
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江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br />
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==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br />
<br />
法语中的“grondement”在英语中的意思为“咆哮”或是“低吼”。在段落中和接下来的语境中英语翻译的版本似乎都是比较合理的。然而，就通篇文章来看，许渊冲认为傅雷翻译的“浩荡”更加形象地描绘出了这条横跨欧洲的大河的力量。一些读者甚至把傅雷翻译的版本当作这一作品的经典开头，这也从侧面表明傅雷的译文的确比原始翻译版本好。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 15:03, 5 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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法语单词“grondement”在英语中的意思是“咆哮”或“喃喃自语”。英文版译文在段落之间和以下内容中似乎是连贯的。但是，就整个作品来看，许渊冲认为傅雷在其译文中所使用的“浩荡”一词更具力量，能更加形象地描绘这条横贯欧洲的壮观河流，有些读者甚至将傅雷的译文当成了这一作品的“经典开篇句”，证明了其译文已经超越了原作。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:58, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty.<br />
<br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br />
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Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br />
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他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br />
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他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br />
<br />
(qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br />
<br />
Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?”<br />
<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br />
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The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br />
<br />
<br />
他还引用了罗曼·罗兰的“ Qu'importe celui quicrée？"，表示译者应该提高翻译的艺术性，以使读者享受美的乐趣，而不是刻意保留作者的风格。因此，他对付磊的翻译持赞成意见。<br />
<br />
最后一个例子是孙中山写的《起义歌》最后一句的翻译，收录在《惊天动地的歌》中：--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 02:54, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
<br />
他还引用了罗曼·罗兰的“Qu' importe celui qui crée? Il'y a de réel que ce qu'on crée”，表示译者应该使译文更具有艺术性，给读者一种美的享受，而不是刻意地保持作者的风格。所以他赞成傅雷的翻译。<br />
<br />
最后一个例子是孙中山写的《起义歌》最后一句的翻译，收录在《震天歌》中：--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 06:42, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br />
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Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br />
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Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br />
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Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222).<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br />
<br />
B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China.<br />
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许渊冲认为翻译是一种艺术，也是两种文化的碰撞，所以他选择翻译那些中西经典作品并且强调翻译要体现美感。翻译不仅要忠实于原文，还要能影响并感染读者，让他们产生比对原作品更深刻的印象。<br />
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B.刘重德（1914-）：翻译外国著作是为服务于中国。--Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
<br />
许渊冲认为,翻译既是一种艺术，也是两种文化的碰撞，所以他选择翻译那些中西方经典作品，并强调在翻译的同时，还要体现译文的美感。翻译不仅要忠实于原文，还要能够感染读者，让他们对译文产生比对原作品更深刻的印象。<br />
<br />
B.刘重德（1914-）：翻译是为外国著作服务于中国。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 12:23, 3 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
许渊冲认为翻译是一种艺术，是两种文化间的碰撞。所以在翻译选材时，他选择那些中西方经典作品，并强调翻译应当体现译文的美感。翻译不仅要忠实原文，还要有魅力感染读者，让他们对译作产生比对原作更深刻的印象。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 07:22, 4 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br />
为了让西方名著在中国更加流行，刘重德决定投身于翻译事业。他认为通过将西方文学作品翻译成中文，可以使先进思想服务于中国的知识分子，再进一步提高全国人民的思想。它是第一个将简奥斯汀的《爱玛》翻译成中文的人。但是他对他所翻译的《爱玛》的第一版本感到不满意，最后在90年代他重新翻译了《爱玛》，并更改了曾经的错误翻译。这件事反映了他不断自我提升的精神和细致谨慎的学识。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 14:23, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br />
<br />
In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original.<br />
<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br />
<br />
Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122).<br />
<br />
因此，翻译将像原始作品一样动人且生动，读者也可以从美学上得到快感（“十” 122-123）。<br />
<br />
因此，他从严复的三个原则“信达雅（忠实，表现力和优雅）”发展为“信达切（忠实，表现力和亲密）”，作为一套翻译参考原则：“翻译风格必须 与您工作的原件相对应或至少相近...文学作品的思想内容，语言表达和文体特征构成一个统一的实体，译者应将三个要素作为一个整体加以再现”（“十” 122）。--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 10:27, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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因此，译文将像原作一样动人且生动，读者也可以从美学上获得愉悦（“十” 122-123）。 <br />
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因此，他严复的“信、达、雅”三个原则发展为“信、达、近”，将其作为一套翻译参考原则：“你的翻译风格必须与原作保持一致，或者至少要接近原作的风格... 文学作品的思想内容、语言表达和文体特征是一个统一的整体，译者应将这三个要素作为一个整体进行再现”（“十” 122）。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 02:54, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br />
<br />
So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br />
<br />
Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br />
<br />
回乡偶书 <br />
少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br />
儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br />
(the original poem)<br />
<br />
Homecoming<br />
I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br />
My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br />
Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br />
“Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br />
(Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br />
<br />
和许渊冲不同，刘重德认为“文学翻译具有双重性。也就是说，“一方面，它是一门有自己规律和方法的科学，另一方面，它又是一门艺术”（''Ten'' 2)。<br />
<br />
那么，刘重德的翻译观点究竟是如何影响他的翻译原则呢？有以下两个示例。<br />
<br />
这是刘重德对《回乡偶书》一诗的翻译。<br />
<br />
回乡偶书 <br />
少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br />
儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br />
(原诗)<br />
<br />
Homecoming<br />
I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br />
My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br />
Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br />
“Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br />
(刘重德的译文)--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 08:15, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br />
<br />
这种翻译很好地使目标文本的样式和功能适应源文本，使人感觉就像是刘忠德本人自己创作的一样。我们可以欣赏到原始作品所表达的相同含义和情感。 目标文本与源文本保持相同的行数：每个句子有12个音节。 源文本的节奏模式也保持不变：第一行与第三行押韵，第二行与第四行押韵。 目标文本正是源文本的声音，形式和感觉的表达（江196-197）。--[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 09:19, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这种翻译很好地使目标文本的样式和功能适应源文本，使人感觉就像是刘重德本人自己原创的一样。我们可以欣赏到原始作品所表达的相同的含义和情感。 目标文本与源文本保持相同的行数：每个句子有12个音节。 源文本的节奏模式也保持不变：第一行与第三行押韵，第二行与第四行押韵。 目标文本正是源文本的声音，形式和感觉的表达（江196-197）。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:36, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br />
<br />
(1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br />
<br />
事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br />
<br />
事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br />
<br />
“神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br />
<br />
以下两例来自刘重德对''Emma''的重译：<br />
<br />
（1）The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br />
<br />
事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(前译)<br />
<br />
事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(刘重德)<br />
<br />
前译中的“神乎其技”与原文本中"much beyond it" 体现的平易文风不相符。中文的四字词确实可以表现复杂的含义，但它应该用于正式文体和学术文体中。在此句中，“神乎其技”体现的风格与原文毫不相称，应该用更简单的词代替，所以刘重德用“大大超过我的弹奏”替换了“神乎其技”。<br />
<br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
(2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br />
<br />
还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br />
<br />
还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br />
<br />
(Jiang 278-279)<br />
<br />
The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style.<br />
<br />
例子（2）<br />
<br />
“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br />
<br />
还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(原文的翻译)<br />
<br />
还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(刘重德的翻译)<br />
<br />
（姜 278-279）<br />
<br />
就像上面提到的“神乎其技”一样，这里的“俗不可耐”也不符合ST的通俗风格，所以刘忠德把它改成了“庸俗”，以契合原著。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 03:08, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br />
<br />
C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br />
<br />
对于刘重德来说，翻译是一种科学，是一种中国人学习西方人长处的方式，因此他选择西方杰作来翻译，并强调译作的“切”，以此来切实地传达原文意思和风格。<br />
李继宏（1980-）：翻译终究是一种人类的素材生产活动。--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 09:00, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
刘重德认为，翻译是一门科学，通过翻译，中国人可以学习西方人的长处。因此，他挑选西方杰出的文学作品来翻译，并强调译作的“切”，以此来切实地传达原文意思和风格。<br />
李继宏（1980-）：翻译终究是人类的一种素材生产活动。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 02:39, 7 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br />
<br />
李继宏认为翻译算是人类物质生产活动的一种。他在一篇叫做“文学翻译应该与时俱进：翻译速度和薪酬”的文章中驳斥了另一位翻译家施康强的观点，他说新时代翻译工作的薪酬不同于旧时代，主要是因为翻译工具属于生产工具，而这种工具现在已经发展成电脑，数字数据，网络等等。所以，应该提高翻译速度。因此，如今，一名专业的译者毫无疑问可以通过每小时翻译1000字，一天工作八小时来过上体面的生活。每翻译1000字，他们可以拿到60元。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 12:48, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
<br />
The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br />
这篇文章旨在反对史康强的观点，即令人震惊的薪酬翻译会影响翻译质量，但同时也在对大量的经济理论和活动，数字以及薪酬计算中揭示了李立宏的翻译观点。工资计算以支持他的观点中。 认为，他对出版商在翻译作品销售中获得的报酬越来越多表示青睐，并宣布自己翻译了195190个单词的“风筝赛跑者”（由Khaled Hosseini撰写），每天仅工作10天，每天15小时.--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 12:42, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
本文旨在反对史康强提出的翻译薪酬过高会影响翻译质量这一观点，但同时也在对大量的经济理论和活动，数字以及薪酬计算中揭示了李立宏的翻译观点。他对出版商在翻译作品销售中获得的回报越来越多表示支持，并宣称他在10天中每天工作15小时翻译完了195190字的《追风筝的人》（由卡勒德·胡赛尼撰写）。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 14:44, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
<br />
In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one.<br />
<br />
<br />
在这篇文章他还说:“任何负责任的译者都不会为个人收入而翻译，”但他接着又说，“事实上，除了高收入之外，译者还从读者的来信中得到支持。” 尽管他这完全矛盾的话令人费解，但我们仍然可以推断，金钱如果不是译者最重要的动力，那也是他翻译的一个重要动力。--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 11:54, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在这篇文章他还说:“任何有责任心的译者都不会为了赚钱而做翻译，”但他接着又说，“事实上，除了高收入之外，读者的来信也支撑着他的翻译事业。” 尽管他这自相矛盾的话令人迷惑，但我们仍然可以推断，尽管钱不是推动译者翻译事业最重要的动力，但也是一个重要动力。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 13:42, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
<br />
The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br />
<br />
To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br />
<br />
李继宏翻译的作品有《小王子》、《老人与海》、《动物庄园》、《了不起的盖茨比》、《瓦尔登湖》、《月亮与六便士》、《傲慢与偏见》、《喧哗与愤怒》等外国名著。然而，这些作品在中国已经很受欢迎，价值不菲，市场上有几种译本。<br />
一开始，他翻译了卡勒德·胡塞尼(Khaled Hosseini)的作品《追风筝的人》(the Kite Runner)，如他所说：“翻译该作品一共只用了10天，每天15个小时”。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 11:07, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
李继宏翻译的作品有《小王子》、《老人与海》、《动物庄园》、《了不起的盖茨比》、《瓦尔登湖》、《月亮与六便士》、《傲慢与偏见》、《喧哗与骚动》等外国名著。然而，这些作品在中国已经很受欢迎，价值不菲，市场上有好几种译本。<br />
<br />
起初，他翻译了卡勒德·胡塞尼(Khaled Hosseini)的作品《追风筝的人》，他说道：“翻译这部作品，我只用了10天，一天翻译15个小时”。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 14:14, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
<br />
(1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br />
<br />
我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br />
<br />
In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).”<br />
<br />
在这个文本里面，"take somebody up on something" 表示 “接受某人所提出的提议或邀请”这查自《短语动词字典》（438）。根据上下文，这位乞讨老人是我未曾见面的 “母亲”的同事。他告诉我一个关于“我”母亲的故事，并承诺会告诉我更多关于她的细节：“老人笑了。‘我会记得并且这是个承诺。记得回来找我’（胡塞尼）--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:47, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
<br />
It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br />
<br />
我们可以推断出，这位老人给了叙述者一个了解他母亲更多信息的机会。因此，“offer”的意思是“邀请”，而不是“办公室 (office)”。此外，“offer”这个词似乎是被译者误读成了“office”。也许是译者忙着尽快翻译，而没有仔细检查他的译文是否正确。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:48, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
由此推断，这位老人让叙述者可以更好地了解他母亲。因此，“offer”的意思是“邀请”，而不是“办公室 (office)”。此外，“offer”一词似乎是被译者误读成“office”。也许是译者忙着尽快翻译，所以没有仔细检查其译文是否正确。--[[User:Zhang Weihong|Zhang Weihong]] ([[User talk:Zhang Weihong|talk]]) 06:10, 7 November 2020 (UTC) Zhang Weihong<br />
<br />
由此推断，这位老人让叙述者有机会更多地了解他的母亲。因此，“offer”的意思是“邀请”，而不是“办公室 (office)”。此外，“offer”一词似乎是被译者误读成“office”。也许是译者忙着尽快翻译，所以没有仔细检查其译文是否正确。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 03:07, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
<br />
(2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br />
<br />
“你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br />
<br />
The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br />
说话人是医院的工作人员，他让刚从手术中苏醒过来的病人“放屁”。“gas”一词在新牛津英汉词典中是物理学中“气体”，“瓦斯”的意思，“pass”指“通过”，“fart”作为名词意思是“放屁”（从肛门排气）（632）。总之“排便”与源语中的本来意思不相符。因此翻译可以被纠正为“你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。”这也是一个小而简单的错误。译者对待翻译应该更加谨慎一些。--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 06:16, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
<br />
This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br />
<br />
(1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br />
<br />
“I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).”<br />
<br />
你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br />
<br />
“如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br />
<br />
The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST.<br />
<br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
(2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br />
<br />
因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br />
<br />
According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone.<br />
因为他们觉得自己是这个国家的自由民，这个国家包括他们在内，这个国家就是伟大的“Cockaigne”（安乐乡）。<br />
根据《大英百科全书》，“Cockaigne“也拼作“Cockayne”，这是一个极度奢华舒适的想象之地，物质享受和快乐总是近在咫尺。在中世纪的欧洲传说中，关于“Cockaigne“的提及尤为突出。这些故事描述了流淌着酒的河流，用蛋糕和大麦糖建造的房屋，铺满糕点的街道，以及向每个人免费赠送物品的商店。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 10:17, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
<br />
Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included.<br />
<br />
烤鹅徘徊着邀请人们吃掉自己，黄油百灵像甘露一样从天上落下。” 李积宏不知道这个词的丰富含义，没有任何解释就将其翻译成“天堂之国”。 实际上，在本书中，李继宏为“莎士比亚”，“巴尔扎克”和“生丁”等词添加了206个解释性注释，但其中不包括“鸡尾酒”。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 09:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
烤鹅徘徊着邀请人们吃掉自己，黄油百灵像甘露一样从天上落下。”李积宏不知道这个词的丰富含义，没有任何解释就将其翻译成“天堂之国”。事实上,在这本书中,李继宏为“莎士比亚”，“巴尔扎克”和“生丁”等词添加了206个解释性注释，但其中不包括“鸡尾酒”。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 11:38, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br />
<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
<br />
From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br />
<br />
III.Conclusion<br />
<br />
This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br />
<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
<br />
For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between two cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work.<br />
<br />
许渊冲认为翻译是一门艺术，是两种文化之间的较量，因此他侧重翻译西方和中国经典作品，并强调翻译的美感；而刘重德认为翻译是一门科学，是中国人学习西方人长处的一种方式，因此他偏重于翻译西方名著，强调翻译中的 “贴近性”，以传达原著的贴近意义和风格。其实，于两者而言，翻译是译者的一种责任，应认真对待，反观李继宏，翻译于他只是一种生产活动，一种赚钱或者获得人气、名气和优越感的工具。因此他注重经济效益和速度，译文多有瑕疵，译者的个性得到极大彰显，甚至掩盖了原作的风格和意义。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 01:17, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
许渊冲认为翻译是一门艺术，是两种文化之间的竞争，因此他侧重翻译西方和中国经典作品，并强调翻译的美感；而刘重德认为翻译是一门科学，是中国人学习西方人长处的一种方式，因此他偏重于翻译西方名著，强调翻译中的 “切合性”，以传达切合原著的意义和风格。其实，于两者而言，翻译是译者的一种责任，应认真对待，反观李继宏，翻译于他只是一种生产活动，一种赚钱或者获得人气、名气和优越感的工具。因此他注重经济效益和速度，译文多有瑕疵，译者的个性得到极大彰显，甚至掩盖了原作的风格和意义。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 01:57, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
<br />
For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
<br />
Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
<br />
'''Work Cited'''（文献不需要翻译）<br />
<br />
胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br />
<br />
蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br />
<br />
李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 <https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1> <br />
<br />
刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br />
<br />
毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br />
<br />
许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br />
<br />
许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br />
---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br />
<br />
---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br />
<br />
杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br />
周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br />
<br />
Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br />
<br />
Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 <https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne ><br />
<br />
Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br />
<br />
Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br />
<br />
Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br />
<br />
Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br />
<br />
Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br />
<br />
Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br />
<br />
Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br />
<br />
Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br />
<br />
Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br />
<br />
Contemporary Translation Studies<br />
'''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''<br />
<br />
'''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br />
<br />
Edwin genzler's Contemporary Translation Theory and Jamie Mundi's Introduction to Translation Theory: Theory And Practice are regarded as rare masterpieces in the history of translation. After the introduction of the two great works, this paper compares the formal equivalence theory and functional equivalence theory of Eugene Nida and the translation principles of Alexandre Fraser tetler and Yan Fu to elaborate the basic principles of translation. By comparing Eugene Nida's theory of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, this paper tries to find out its advantages and disadvantages and give some examples to help readers grasp Nida's translation thoughts and guide his translation practice better. At the same time, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Alexander Fraser Tatler's translation principles and comparing them with Yan Fu's translation theories, it is helpful for readers to understand the differences between Chinese and western translation and perform better in cross-cultural context.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 02:51, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
'''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation.<br />
<br />
摘要：爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》二书被认为是翻译学科的杰作。本文在对其做完简要介绍后将从中选取著名的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则来界定翻译的基本原则。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 08:57, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
<br />
After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br />
<br />
关键词：艾德温·根茨勒；《当代翻译理论》；杰里米·芒迪；《翻译学导论：理论与实践》；尤金·奈达；形式对等；功能对等；亚历山大·弗雷泽泰勒；严复；翻译原则<br />
<br />
'''Introduction:''<br />
<br />
In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theor<br />
<br />
引言：<br />
<br />
这篇文章介绍了作者对《当代翻译理论》和《翻译学导论：理论与实践》这两本著作的理解。在对这两本著作进行简要的介绍之后，文章开始对四个重要的翻译理论的进行重点探讨。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 13:25, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== Headline text ==<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
<br />
This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation.<br />
本文将分为三个部分。 首先，在对《当代翻译理论》这一伟大著作进行简明扼要的介绍之后着重分析奈达的两个著名的翻译理论，即形式对等和动态对等理论。 通过对其定义的阐述，可以更容易地找出这两个概念的优缺点。在此之后，本文将继续简要介绍乔姆斯基的翻译研究。然后本文将在奈达和乔姆斯基的翻译观点中探寻二者的异同之处。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 07:06, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
本文将分为三部分。 首先，在简明扼要地介绍了《当代翻译理论》这一伟大著作之后，本文会着重分析奈达的两个著名翻译理论，即形式对等和动态对等理论。 通过对其定义的阐述，人们可以更容易发现这两个概念的优缺点。在此之后，本文将继续简要地介绍乔姆斯基的翻译研究。然后本文将在奈达和乔姆斯基的翻译观点中探寻二者的异同。<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
<br />
This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation.<br />
<br />
本文将分为三个部分。首先，在简要介绍了伟大的著作《当代翻译理论》之后，重点分析了奈达的两种著名的翻译理论，即形式对等和动态对等。通过给出它们的定义，我们更容易发现这两个概念的优点和缺点。然后，本文将对乔姆斯基的翻译研究进行简要介绍。然后在翻译中找出奈达和乔姆斯基观点的共性和区别。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 11:39, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
该论文将分为三个部分展开。首先，对巨著《当代翻译理论》进行简要介绍之后，此论文将着重分析奈达的两大著名翻译理论，即形式对等和动态对等。通过给出这两大概念的定义，我们更易于发现它们的优缺点。其次，该论文将简单介绍乔姆斯基的翻译研究。最后找出奈达和乔姆斯基的翻译观之间的同和异。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 01:18, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
<br />
'''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br />
<br />
Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). <br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
<br />
He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42).<br />
<br />
他还详细介绍了几种主要的翻译学派：北美翻译研讨会，翻译的“科学”，早期的翻译研究，多元系统翻译和解构。 在这本书中还介绍了该学科不同部分的情况。“根茨勒用他发散的思维观点，从美国翻译研讨会计划，到从解构主义和后殖民翻译理论及以后的多元系统研究来追溯文学翻译研究的发展”--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 12:03, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
他还详细介绍了几种主要的翻译学派：北美翻译培训学派，翻译科学学派，早期翻译研究派，多元体系学派和解构主义学派。本书介绍了该学科不同学派中的情况。 “根茨勒阐述了他发人深省的观点，从多元系统研究的角度，追溯了从美国翻译培训学派至解构主义学派以及后殖民翻译理论中文学翻译的发展”(Xu and Wang 2000:42)。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 08:27, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
<br />
This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation.<br />
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这本书不仅为我们提供了能深刻地将翻译理论化的道路，而且对于翻译实践也行之有效。在本书结尾，他也谈到了翻译的未来趋势，表达了对翻译未来的积极态度。作者将大量复杂的理论素材转化为易于理解的语言，让即使没有读过任何一本关于翻译的书的人也能轻松阅读本书。除此之外，因为本书的每一章节都是分开的，所以你可以单独阅读每一章，而不依赖于你对其他章节的理解。通过这种方法，我们更易于找到自己感兴趣阅读的翻译主题和有价值的信息。根茨勒的书为我们提供了翻译学派迄今为止所取得的成就的精确分析，并给出了他对翻译未来的见解。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 08:13, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
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“This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br />
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In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation.<br />
<br />
“这本书是翻译教材的续本，涵盖了此领域最重要的理论，例如‘相同美感经历、动态对等、相应的文学功能，以及德里达的结构理论‘。尽管有不同的重点，但每种理论都是在思考初始存在和了解目的社会的概念框架中形成的。如今，‘所有的翻译理论对于原文和译文的区分都很生硬。‘“<br />
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在第二章，这本书介绍了美国翻译工作坊。这一章主要介绍了A.里查德的新批判主义和翻译，艾滋拉庞德的细节翻译理论，弗雷德里克翻译和劳伦斯韦努蒂的反思翻译。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 08:05, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“这本书是翻译教材的续本，涵盖了翻译领域最重要的一些理论，比如“相同审美感受力，动态对等，相应文学功能，和德里达的解构理论”。尽管它们的关注点不同，但每种理论都是通过建立思考初始存在性和了解目标社区的概念框架而不断完善的。如今，“所有翻译理论均刻板地将源文本和译文区别开来”。<br />
<br />
在第二章中，本书介绍了美国翻译培训派。本章主要介绍了I. A. 理查兹的新批评理论和翻译，埃兹拉·庞德的细节翻译理论，威尔的翻译的矛盾理论，劳伦斯·韦努蒂对翻译的反思。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 08:45, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
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In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). <br />
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==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
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Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48).<br />
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当时迫切需要一个翻译分类理论，翻译“科学”就因此而诞生。本书主要介绍了奈达的形式对等和动态对等，以及乔姆斯基的句法结构和生成转换语法。在这本书中，我将说明我对形式等价和动态等价这两个概念的理解。埃德温•根茨勒在其著作《当代翻译理论》中阐述了动态对等的概念，他认为翻译就是用接受者的语言再现与源语信息最接近、最自然的对等，首先在意义上，其次在风格上。一般来说，译语接受者和译文之间的关系要与源语接受者和原文之间的关系对等。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 02:10, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
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因此，它迫切需要一个翻译分类理论，而翻译“科学”也在这一理论的孕育下诞生。本书主要介绍了尤金•奈达(Eugene Nida)的“形式对等”和“动态对等”，以及诺姆•乔姆斯基（Noam Chomsky）的句法结构和生成转换语法。在这本书中，我将说明我对“形式对等”和“动态对等”这两个概念的理解。埃德温•根茨勒（Edwin Gentzler）在其著作《当代翻译理论》中阐述了动态对等的概念，他认为翻译就是用最接近、最自然的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息。一般来说，译语接受者和译文之间的关系要与源语接受者和原文之间的关系对等。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:03, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
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In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br />
list the advantages of dynamic equivalence.<br />
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奈达的动态对等注重目的语与接受者以及源语言与学习者的感受，他认为这两种感觉应该相似，具体来说就是：“动态对等更注重读者与信息之间的关系，这意味着目标语的读者在读到目标语时反应应该与源语言读者一样”（刘 2012:242）。“目标语中不应该出现消息遗漏或者翻译腔”（朱 2002:203）。如今动态对等的优势便体现在此。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 10:18, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
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“On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays.<br />
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“一方面，动态对等和意译有点像，它强调的是翻译应达到原文一样的效果，而不应受到原文内容和格式的限制。” (Li 2014:112).“它侧重于翻译原文内容的正确方式”(Shakernia 2013:2)另一方面，“它注重读者的反应，并从目标读者的角度分析翻译过程。”(Nida 1995:225)从这方面来看，翻译并不是一项单一的活动，它增加了更多的社会元素从而使翻译更加明确和具体。此外，由于动态对等理论中的分类翻译原则，这一理论更适用于科技类文章的翻译。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 07:20, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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“一方面，动态对等和意译有点相似，它强调译文实现和原文同样的效果，而不受限于原文内容和格式。” (Li 2014:112).“它侧重于翻译原文内容的正确方式”(Shakernia 2013:2)另一方面，“它注重读者反应，并从目标读者角度来分析翻译过程。”(Nida 1995:225)从这方面来看，翻译并不是一项单一的活动，通过增加更多社会元素,翻译变得更加明确更加具体。此外，由于动态对等理论中的分类翻译原则，这一理论更适用于科技类文章的翻译。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 10:52, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
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The dynamic equivalence provides us a detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br />
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However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them.<br />
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动态对等理论为我们在翻译过程中提供了具体的翻译规则，这就让我们在翻译时有法可依，有理可据。这些文章应该是比较正规和正式的。<br />
然而，虽然动态对等理论享誉良多，我们也应对其进行一定的限制。首先，“它只是一种语言转换，忽略了语言承载的文化，导致了文化驯化的现象”（刘2012:245）。事实上，文化差异是客观存在的，谁也无法避免。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 09:29, 5 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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动态对等为我们在翻译过程中提供了一个详细的翻译规则，以便在翻译过程中找到合理的翻译原则。这些文章应该更加正规和正式。<br />
<br />
然而，尽管动态对等理论得到了广泛的赞誉，但仍存在一些局限性。首先，“它只是一种语言转换，忽略了语言所承载的文化信息，导致了文化归化”（刘2012:245）。事实上，文化差异是客观存在的，不可能被避免，任何人都无法避免。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 12:34, 5 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
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If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into "ode to the east wind", because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world.<br />
如果要保持动态对等的翻译，势必会对文化交流产生负面影响。例如,“在中华文化中‘东风’是一个积极的形象，在西方社会认为西风是良好品德”(Shakerni 2013:2)因此,奇怪的是雪莱的西风的歌唱是翻译成“歌唱东风”,因为它会阻碍中国读者对西方世界的了解。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 11:33, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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如果要坚持动态对等翻译，这势必会对文化交流产生负面影响。例如，“东风”在中国文化中是一个积极的形象，而西方社会则认为西风代表着良好的道德”（Shakerni 2013:2），因此，将雪莱的《西风颂》翻译成《东风颂》就非常奇怪，因为这会阻碍中国读者对西方世界的了解。--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 12:06, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
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What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language.<br />
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此外，由于目标读者在性别、年龄、学历、生活经历等方面的差异，判断目标读者是否具有相似的效果是不确定和不现实的。严格地说，读者的反应是一个变量，不能被视作等同于标准效应。最后，文本中的动态对等信息做得很好，就像圣经一样，但是却很难实现文学翻译，文本语言不同于一般语言。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 12:28, 5 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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更重要的是，由于目标读者的性别、年龄、教育背景、生活经历等不同，判断他们是否具有相似的效应是不确定的，也是不现实的。严格来说，读者的反应是一个变量，无法将其视为等同于标准效果。最后，文本中的动态对等信息做得很好，就像《圣经》一样，但很难实现文学翻译，文本语言与一般语言不同。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 00:19, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
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Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br />
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动态对等理论过分强调听众的反应，这有时会牺牲其他因素，如信息的准确性、原语言历史背景的独特性等，而这些因素对翻译对等也至关重要。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 03:52, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content.<br />
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其次，动态对等理论会展现出形式对等。“形式对等是简单的，以源语言为导向的。就像逐字直译一样”(Shakernia 2013:2)。形式对等强调信息本身，既包括形式也包括内容。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 03:52, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
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“One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3).<br />
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==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
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In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holy kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others.<br />
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在讲求形式对等的翻译中，我们要把这句话译为“用圣洁的亲吻和别人打招呼”，可这样的译文似乎有些奇怪，因为读者不明白何为“圣洁的亲吻”。因此，我们需要对此进行解释——在《旧约》中，“圣洁的亲吻”是人们常用的问好方式。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 13:03, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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在形式对等的翻译中，我们要把这句话译为向他人圣吻问安。但这对读者来说似乎有些奇怪，因为他们不知道圣吻是什么意思。所以我们需要对圣吻进行解释，即在《旧约》中，圣吻通常是人们常用的问好方式。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 15:08, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
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However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different.<br />
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但是，在动态对等中，我们无需考虑结构的对应关系，唯一需要注意的是译语受众的反应。 我们可以将它翻译成“与他人热情地握手”。 从上面的示例中，不难发现这两种对等的侧重点非常不同，因此两者的翻译也会有所不同。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 07:17, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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然而，在动态对等中，我们不需要考虑结构的对应性。我们只需要注意语言受众的反应。我们可以把它翻译成“热情地与他人握手”。从上面的例子中，很明显可以发现这两个对等的重点是非常不同的，因此翻译可能会有所不同。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 11:42, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
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Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223).<br />
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在此，将试着弄清形式对等的优缺点。形式对等最突出的优点之一是，在这种翻译中，"形式对等更加注重源语结构，强调了翻译的准确性"。(Nida 1995:223)。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 05:49, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在此，将试图找出形式对等的优缺点。形式对等最显著的优势之一是，在该翻译中，“形式对等以源语言结构为导向，这对语言的准确性和正确性产生强烈的影响”(Nida 1995:223)。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 07:38, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
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Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language.<br />
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因为形式对等强调对源文本内容和形式的完整记述，所以译文保有与源文本一致的结构。形式对等的另一个优点就是强调准确性。 因为在这个翻译理论中，译者需要在目的语中找到和源语言对应的表达。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 06:09, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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由于形式对等强调原文内容和形式的完整性，因而译文与原文结构一致。形式对等的另一个优点就是强调准确性。因为在这个翻译理论中，目标语言将尝试在源语言中找到对应的表达。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 07:41, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
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For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence<br />
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例如，在把“Please fetch me a glass of water”这个句子译成中文的时候，我们会尽量找到每个词对应的中文词汇。我们会尝试找到每个词，如“请”，“拿来”，“我”等。在汉语中我们可以找到对应的音译为“qing gei wo yi bei shui”。除此之外，让我们看看形式对等有哪些缺点。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 12:35, 5 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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例如，当我们把” Please fetch me a glass of water”这句话翻译成中文时，我们会尽量找到每个词在中文中所对应的词汇。我们会尝试找到每个词，例如“请”，“拿来”，“我”等等。然后我们就可以找到其在中文中所对应的词汇，将其音译为“请给我一杯水”。除此之外，让我们再来看看形式对应的缺点。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 14:17, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
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One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!”<br />
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形式对等一个很明显的缺点就是有时候会忽视原文的意图。因为形式对等也被称之为直译，而作者的意图就有可能被忽视掉了。举例来说，我们经常会听到中国人问，“你吃了吗？实际上这是中国打招呼的一种习惯，那么我们就不能把它翻译成英语的“Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”， 而是要译成“Hello！”或者“Hi！”--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 09:22, 3 November 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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形式对等的一个明显的缺点是有时会忽略原文的意图。因为形式对等也被称之为直译，这样可能会忽略作者的意图。例如，我们经常听到中国人说：“你吃了吗？实际上这是中国打招呼的一种习惯，那么我们就不能把它翻译成英语的“Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”， 而是要译成“Hello！”或者“Hi！"--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 10:15, 4 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
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Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224).<br />
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在这两种理论中，奈达把动态对等放在第一位。 人们将动态对等视为对现代翻译提出的核心贡献。 “奈达重视读者的反应，主张用接受语言的表达习惯，即归化来代替原始文本中的外国文化表现”（奈达，1995：224）。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 13:16, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
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By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) .<br />
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到目前为止，“奈达在翻译研究中取得了很大的成就，他简化了乔姆斯基的理论，只采用了模型的后两部分来验证他的科学” (Gentzler 2001： 52)。“他了解以实践为导向的方法的性质，试图科学地验证他的方法，并将其应用于整个翻译” (Panou，2013： 1)。 --[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 12:32, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
迄今为止，“奈达的翻译研究取得了很大成就。他简化了乔姆斯基的理论，只采用了模型的后两部分来验证其科学性”（根茨勒 2001: 52)。“他了解以实践为导向的方法本质，试图用科学的方式验证他的方法，并将其作为一个整体应用于翻译。”（帕诺 2003: 1)。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 14:15, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
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In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5).<br />
本章还讨论了诺姆·乔姆斯基(Noam Chomsky)对语言学和翻译的贡献。在乔姆斯基看来，语言学是一门科学的研究，我们可以把许多语言学的原则应用到翻译中，因此，翻译也可以说是一门科学的研究。诺姆·乔姆斯基的贡献之一是他提出的“转换生成语法”。“这个理论探讨了人们为什么会说话以及人们如何学习新句子。它是一种关于语言能力的理论。乔姆斯基认为基础和转换构成语法。”(周2019:5)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 12:00, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在本章中还讨论了诺姆·乔姆斯基(Noam Chomsky)对语言学和翻译的贡献。在乔姆斯基看来，语言学是一门科学的研究，我们可以把许多语言学的原则应用到翻译中，因此，翻译也可以说是一门科学的研究。诺姆·乔姆斯基的贡献之一是他提出的“转换生成语法”。“这个理论探讨了人们为什么能够说话以及人们如何学习新句子。它是一种关于语言能力的理论。乔姆斯基认为基础部分和转换过程构成了语法。”--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 12:34, 5 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
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The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241).<br />
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基础形成深层结构，深层结构进而转化成表层结构。词义归属于深层结构。除此之外，“他认为语言是人类独特的自然构成，我们应该更加关注语言能力而不是语言行为”（Zhou 2019: 6）。“TG语法试图揭示特定语法和普遍语法的统一性，探索普遍规则，以期揭示人类的认知系统和人类的本质”（Zhu 2018: 241）。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 14:09, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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基础形成深层结构，深层结构转换为表层结构。词义属于深层结构。此外，“他认为语言是人类独特的自然构成。应该更多地关注语言能力而不是语言行为”（Zhou 2019：6）。 “ TG语法试图揭示特定语法和普遍语法的统一性，探索普遍规则，以期揭示人类的认知系统和人类的本质。”--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 09:05, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
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Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br />
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==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
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'''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br />
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As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54).<br />
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分析：翻译研究概论：理论与应用<br />
“翻译研究概论：理论与应用”是第二本书。这本书出版了四次，非常受欢迎。 《翻译研究概论：理论与应用》仍是翻译研究领域相关理论和概念的权威指南。 第四版已经过全面修订，并继续为理论界提供均衡而详细的指南。 “每种理论都适用于多种语言，如孟加拉语，中文，英语，法语，德语，意大利语，葡萄牙语，旁遮普语，葡萄牙语和西班牙语”--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 10:39, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''分析'' 翻译研究概论：理论与应用''''' <br />
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至于第二本书《翻译研究概论：理论与应用》。这本书出版了四次，非常受欢迎。 《翻译研究概论：理论与应用》仍是翻译研究领域相关理论和概念的权威指南。 第四版已经过全面修订，并继续为理论界提供均衡而详细的指南。 “每种理论都适用于多种语言，如孟加拉语、中文、英语、法语、德语、意大利语、葡萄牙语、旁遮普语、葡萄牙语和西班牙语”--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 12:14, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
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It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research.<br />
这本书从翻译的定义入手，从20世纪以前的翻译理论介绍到了现代翻译理论。书中着重讨论了多个重要翻译理论，如系统翻译理论、多元系统翻译理论、翻译功能理论等。我之所以如此喜欢这本书，是有三个原因的。首先，这本书内容丰富，编排巧妙，便于读者阅读。它用一个介绍性的列表来清晰地呈现关键术语,想法和主要文本,并详细说明书中所讨论的模式，问题和说明性案例研究。这个介绍性的列表应用到了章节中并评估了章节的主要样式，而且提出进一步阅读的建议，简短评估本章的总结以及一系列讨论和研究要点，以激发进一步的思考和研究。<br />
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==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
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I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br />
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==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
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Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br />
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==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
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Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br />
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第三，在最后的注释和索引之前，书中囊括了一个与翻译研究相关的网站的附录。这些网站包括两个发布会议、最新出版物和研究信息的网站，六个国际翻译期刊网站和四个通常包含有用链接的翻译组织网站。这样，读者能够更容易地在网站上搜索信息，进行进一步的阅读和学习。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 10:29, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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第三，在最后注释和索引之前，该书包括与翻译研究相关的网站附录。其中包括两个公布会议信息、最近的出版物和研究的网站、六个国际翻译期刊网站和四个经常包含有用链接的翻译组织网站。这样，读者就更容易在网上搜索信息，以便进一步阅读和学习。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:12, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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第三，在最后注释和索引之前，该书收录了有关翻译研究的网站。其中包括两个公布会议信息、最近的出版物和研究的网站、六个国际翻译期刊网站和四个经常包含有用链接的翻译组织网站。这样，方便读者在网上检索信息，以便进一步阅读和学习。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 14:00, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
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Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18).<br />
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现在，让我们继续讨论这本书的内容。在第二章中，这本书列举了关于“逐字翻译”和“意义”翻译的争论，这是翻译理论中占主导地位的争论。“忠实翻译”是试图在两者间寻求一个折中点。许多伟大的翻译家都反对逐字翻译，他们提倡有意义的翻译”（Munday 2013:18）。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 07:29, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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现在，让我们继续讨论这本书的内容。在第二章中，这本书列举了关于“逐字翻译”和“意义”翻译这两种在翻译理论中占主导地位的争论。“忠实翻译”是试图在两者间寻求一个折中点。许多伟大的翻译家都反对逐字翻译，他们提倡有意义的翻译”（Munday 2013:18）。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 13:19, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
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For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''.<br />
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例如，西塞罗强烈反对逐字翻译，他说：“我认为没有必要逐字逐句地翻译，但我保留了语言的一般风格和力量”（Munday 2013:19）。“随着圣经和其他宗教、哲学文本的翻译，直译和意译的问题已经持续了一千多年”（Munday 2013:22）。至于《圣经》的翻译，必须提到马丁·路德，他对《新约》和后来《旧约》的翻译产生了重大影响。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 07:32, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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例如，西塞罗强烈反对逐字翻译，说“我认为没有必要逐字呈现，但我保留了语言的一般风格和力量” (芒迪，2013： 19)。“自由和文字翻译问题与”圣经“和其他宗教和哲学文本的翻译一起存在了 1000 多年” (Munday 2013： 22)。至于“圣经”的翻译，必须提到马丁 · 路德的主要影响是他对“新约”和后来的“旧约”的翻译。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 12:35, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
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Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard.<br />
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马丁·路德（Martin Luther）呼吁对翻译的本质进行根本性变革。“在那个年代，欧洲人只能阅读到《圣经》的拉丁文译本。这就意味着大多数人无法阅读到母语版本的《圣经》。”(Stolt 2014:373). 斯托尔特（Stolt）尤为关注德国读者。此处，他支持“在翻译中使用纯粹、直白的德语，也支持在翻译中构建新的语言”。因此，斯托尔特在他自己翻译的《圣经》译本中使用了非文学翻译方法。(Stolt 2014:373). 斯托尔特虽然使用的是一种方言，但是这种方言在社会上使用甚广。他意在促使在翻译中使用德语，开创这样一种新的标准，不过他花费了漫长的时间。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:48, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
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“His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules.<br />
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“他的出发点是让读者与听众保持交流，但当时圣经手稿译本的听众是由学者组成，而非讲德国本土方言的普通民众。”(Stolt 2014:374). 由于马丁·路德致力于德语的《圣经》翻译，德国人现在就能顺畅地读《圣经》。稍后，本书将谈及德莱顿、多莱特、泰特勒的翻译原则。书中将侧重讲泰特勒的翻译原则，因为多莱特提出的是翻译五原则而泰特勒提出了翻译三原则。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 06:28, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
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They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language.<br />
第一，译者应该完全复写出原作的思想。第二，译者的风格和笔调应与原文的性质相同。第三，译文应和原文同样流畅。（芒迪 2013:26）这里我们可以看到，泰特勒追求的是源语与目的语的平衡。译者在翻译时必须能够运用恰当的笔调和技巧。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:24, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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首先，翻译需要完全传递原作的思想。第二，译者的风格和笔调必须和原作一致。第三，译文莺歌原文一样流畅。”（Munday 2013:26）我们从这里可以看到，泰特勒追求的是源语与目的语之间的平衡。译者在翻译为目的语时，需运用适当的笔法和技巧。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 02:20, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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首先，译文应该完全表达出原文所体现的思想。第二，译文的写作风格和写作手法必须和原文保持一致。第三，译文的语言应该和原文一样流畅。”（Munday 2013:26）. 我们从这里可以看到，泰特勒追求的是源语与目的语之间的平衡。译者使用目的语翻译时，必须运用精确的笔法和技巧。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 06:31, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
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For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language.<br />
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例如，“两个句子表达相同的含义，但是它们的写作风格不同”（习 2009:41）。一个句子是“星期一早上，公园通常人满为患”，另一个是“星期一早上，公园吸引了很多人”。显然，第一句语气消极，而第二句语气积极。这两句都传达相同的含义，但语气和风格不一。要成为一名优秀的译者，你需要熟练地将源语的风格引入到目的语中。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 08:34, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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例如，“有两个句子表达相同的意思，但它们的写作风格不同”(习 2009:41)。一个是在星期一早上，公园里通常挤满了人。另一个是周一早上，公园吸引了很多人。很明显，第一句表达消极的情绪，而第二句是表达积极的情绪。这两个句子表达的意思相同，但语气和风格却不同。要成为一名优秀的译者，你需要善于将源语言的相同风格引入目标语言。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 10:33, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
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The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies.<br />
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他的翻译原则优点如下：首先，“他摒弃了传统翻译二分法，试图不用有争议的术语例如直译、意译以更好、更清晰地呈现其翻译原则（別和黄 2007:164）。在此，在其翻译原则中，我们看不到直译及意译这种在翻译学中会引起歧义的词。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 14:32, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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他的翻译原则优势在于：首先，“他摒弃了传统的翻译二分法，尽量避免使用直译、意译等有争议的术语，以更好地呈现其翻译原则”（白和黄 2007：164）。因此，我们在其翻译原则中看不到直译、意译这种在翻译学中会引起歧义的词。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 02:08, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
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Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his "picture" the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original.<br />
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其次，“他阐明并扩大了人们关于译者即画家的隐喻的理解。 在他看来，他主张译者的工作与画家截然不同”（Bie和Huang，2007：166）。 尽管译者使用的颜色与原始颜色不同，但他必须为“图片”赋予相同的功能和效果。译者无法复制原始样式，但必须使用自己的样式来翻译完美的原作。他研究模仿的内容越多，他的副本就越无法体现原著的轻松和精神。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 03:26, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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其次，“他阐述并拓展了人们对译者即画家这一隐喻的理解。在他看来，他认为译者的工作和画家截然不同。”（(Bie and Huang 2007: 166）。尽管译者没有使用和之前一致的色彩，他必须让他的“绘画”具有原来的力量和效果。译者无法复制原作的风格，但是在翻译完美的原作时必须融入自己的风格。他越是研究仿作，他的仿作就越不能重现原作的从容和精神气。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 06:23, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
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Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). <br />
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==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
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Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu.<br />
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泰特勒指出，“这三个原则有一个必要的顺序。 顺序安排适当，自然，并根据其对翻译的重要性进行安排的，不能随便更改。”（Firdaus 2012：287）。 这样，我们可以得出结论，他的想法是，在需要牺牲某种原则的情况下，翻译者应注意翻译原则顺序的重要性。 译者不能以牺牲原文翻译的忠实性为代价来获得优美流畅的译文。 泰特勒的翻译对后来的翻译研究产生了很大的影响，对后来的译者，例如我们中国的伟大译者严复，也产生了很大的影响。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 07:36, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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泰特勒指出，这三个原则有一个必要的顺序。 顺序安排需要适当、自然、并根据其对不能随便更改的翻译的重要性进行安排”（Firdaus 2012：287）。 这样，我们可以得出结论，他的想法是，在需要牺牲某种原则的情况下，翻译者应注意翻译原则顺序的重要性。 译者不能以牺牲原文翻译的忠实性为代价来获得优美流畅的翻译。 泰特勒的翻译对后来的翻译研究产生了很大的影响，对后来的译者，例如我们的中国伟大译者严复，也产生了很大的影响。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 07:56, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
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Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br />
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这里我们将列出严复的翻译理论，然后我们可以对严复的翻译原则和泰勒的翻译原则作一个简单的比较。“严复是中国伟大的学者和翻译家，他将19世纪末达尔文的自然选择学说等西方思想引入中国，并因此声名鹊起。”（王2008:70）正如史春兰、赵薇在《论严复的“信达雅”和泰勒的翻译三原则——以比较翻译为例》中提出的观点一样，严复在其译著《天演论》的序言中提出了翻译的三大难点：信、达、雅。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 12:00, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
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“Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br />
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It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories.<br />
“信”意味着对原文或者原意的一种全方面完整的表达或者转换。“信”要求巧妙地表达出原文意思。“达”要求译文清楚，在语法和逻辑上没有错误。译文要灵活地表达原文的内容。“雅”意味着译文和原文在风格上有相似性。也就是说，译文的措辞要和原文尽可能相似。仔细分析就会发现，这两种翻译理论很明显有着许多相似的地方。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 07:05, 4 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“信”意指全面透彻地传达原文本、原思想。“信”强调用正确方式表达出源信息的内容。“达”要求译文必须表意清晰，没有任何语法错误，没有混淆逻辑，没有混淆时态。“达”还要求译文必须自如地传达源信息的内容。“雅”指目的译文必须在风格上与原文本类似。(2005:96)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 03:02, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
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Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br />
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==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
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It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors.<br />
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这两种翻译理论之间的差异是显而易见的。第一，“两者思维方式不同。严复并未对其翻译理论做出明确而详细的阐释。相反，这依赖于他人对其翻译理论的解释（Xi 2009:41）。正如一句话，“一言不发，万事大吉”。要更好地理解严复的翻译理论，就必须联系与反思各位先知的的伟大思想。<br />
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这两种翻译理论之间有许多差异，这是清晰明了的。第一，“思维方式不同。严复并未对其翻译理论做出明确详细的阐述， 反而是他人对其翻译理论进行解释”（Xi 2009:41）正如常言道：“一切尽在不言中”。要更好地理解严复的翻译理论，就必须联系与反思祖先的伟大思想。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 14:46, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
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As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text.<br />
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众所周知，“传统的中国思维方式是感性的，这往往会使该理论变得模糊和被接受。然而，西方十分重视理性思维，这使理论变得更加具体。”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98)。西方的思维方式强调理性思维，强调对事物和人的理性理解。此外，“它专注于对事物和人的形式理解”（Shi and Zhao 2005:98)。因此，泰特勒的三种翻译原则都尊重原始文本的客体。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 08:08, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
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And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br />
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Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). <br />
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==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
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One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance.<br />
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严复翻译标准的最大特点之一是语义含混。但事实上，“严复偏重于意译，为达，即所以为信也”（席，2009:41）。因为在翻译的过程中，传达原文的形式和风格时，除了追求原文的“达”，其次求“信”亦大难矣（席，2009:42）。因此，我们可以得出一个结论：求信乃译事之根本，其次求“达”，最后求“雅”。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:31, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
严复翻译标准的一个重要的特征是语义模糊。但事实上，“严复偏重于意译，为达，即所以为信也。”（席，2009:41）“因为在翻译的过程中，传达原文的形式和风格时，除了追求原文的‘达’，其次‘信’亦大难矣。”（席，2009:42）因此，我们可以得出结论，在他的三个原则中，求“信”乃译事之根本，其次求“达”，最后求“雅”。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 12:19, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
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We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text.<br />
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我们应当遵循“原意”的一般原则，只有这样，我们才能有合理的逻辑去对信达雅的重要性排序。尽管泰特勒认为他所提出的三原则的顺序是恰当的，自然的并且不能更改的，但他仍然建议，为了忠实的传递原文内容，必要时我们可以牺牲掉其流利度和优美性。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 01:26, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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我们应当遵循“原意”的一般原则，只有这样我们才能够有合理的逻辑对“信，达，雅”按照重要性进行排序。“然而泰特勒认为他所提出的三个原则是恰当的，自然的并且不能被更改的”（Wang 2008:71).泰特勒建议，为了实现忠于原文的翻译，我们可以牺牲掉对于原作优美性和流畅性的追求。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 03:51, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
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“If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br />
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Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73).<br />
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“如果我们必须放弃他提出的某个原则，他建议我们放弃最不重要的一个，即第三个原则”（王，2008:71）。换言之，这是对原有“风格和效能”的首次牺牲。此外，原画的风格和意境必须被传达出来，这样才是忠实的画面感。 <br />
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第三，“这两种翻译理论在价值取向方面是不同的。造成这种差异的原因是东西方注重实践和理论的学术传统的不同”（王，2008:73）。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 02:15, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
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As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style.<br />
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众所周知，中国传统翻译更注重实践而非理论。翻译思想应指导翻译实践，具有参考价值。严复的“信达雅”起初是用于描述翻译中的困难，而不是作为翻译标准。他从自己的实践中总结，关心的是实践而非理论。然而，西方译者把实践和理论放在同一层次上。泰特勒的三原则是三个层面的困难，从内容忠实到鲜明的风格。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:08, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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众所周知，中国的传统翻译重实践而轻理论，认为翻译思想应指导实践并具备参考价值。严复的“信达雅”原本是用于描述翻译的困难，而不是作为翻译标准。他从自己的实践经验中进行总结，关心的是实践而非理论。然而，西方译者把实践和理论置于同等地位。泰特勒的三原则对三个层次的困难作了详细描述，包括从内容的忠实到不同的风格。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 08:34, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
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The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode.<br />
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所反映的逻辑形式清晰而明显，与隐含的“信、达、雅”的翻译原则有明显的不同。 “西方翻译理论侧重于详细的分析，合理的抽象和理论演绎，并注重语言表达中逻辑的组织、层次和清晰度”（Wang 2008：73）。 在传统哲学的影响下，西方翻译理论在整个过程中具有强烈的主体客体感。 以“达”为例，严复的“达”和泰特勒的第三条原则“翻译应还原译文原始结构”具有大致相同的含义，但显然它们的思维方式是不同的。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 07:36, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
所反映的逻辑形式清晰而明显，与隐含的“信、达、雅”三个翻译原则有明显的不同。 “西方翻译理论侧重于详细的分析，合理的抽象和理论演绎，并注重语言表达中逻辑的组织，层次和清晰度”（Wang 2008：73）。 在传统哲学的影响下，西方翻译理论在整个过程中具有强烈的主观客体感。 以“达”为例，严复的“达”和泰特勒的第三条原则“翻译应还原译文的原始结构”具有大致相同的含义，但显然它们的思维方式是不同的。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 07:48, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
<br />
“The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism.<br />
<br />
“中国人的思维模式是直觉和理解，而英国人的思维模式是逻辑和理性，这对每种语言都产生了深刻的影响”(Chen 2012:126)。在这个意义上，理解与理性思考的区别以及对原文的尊重程度就能得到最好的体现。最后，“这两种翻译理论的动机是不同的。严复的标准是有目的的，旨在引起精英的注意”(Wang 2008:73)。严复翻译的西方文学作品主要是西方资本主义时期的伟大名著。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 04:43, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“中国人采用直觉和理解的思维方式，而英国人则遵循逻辑和理性的思维方式，这对每种语言都产生了深远的影响”(陈2012:126)。在这种程度上，可以最好地反映出理解与理性思维之间的差异以及对原始文本的尊重程度。最后，“这两种翻译理论的动机是不同的。严复的标准是有目的的，旨在引起精英的注意”(王2008:73)。 严复从翻译过来的西方文学作品，主要是西方资本主义时期的伟大名著。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 14:02, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
<br />
“He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
<br />
'''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br />
<br />
'''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br />
<br />
Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).”<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
<br />
In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''.<br />
<br />
在《翻译研究概论：理论与应用》中，作者列出了每个翻译研讨会对翻译的贡献和成就的介绍（刘、邓，2010：54）。这两本书在安排上的差异在于，在《翻译研究概论：理论与应用》一书中增加了一个案例研究，以扩大读者对本书所列翻译研究的影响。此外，本书还增加了案例研究的讨论，总的来说，进一步的阅读、讨论以及研究要点，是当代翻译研究所缺乏的。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 13:56, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在《翻译研究概论：理论与应用》中，作者列出了每个翻译研讨会对翻译的贡献和成就的介绍”（Liu和Deng，2010：54）。 在《翻译研究概论：理论与应用》一书中增加了一个案例研究，以扩大读者对本书所列翻译研究的影响。 这是两本书的差别。除此之外，本书还增加了案例研究的讨论，总结，进一步的阅读和讨论以及研究要点，这是当代翻译研究所缺乏的。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 14:50, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
<br />
These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br />
<br />
'''2.From the content of the material'''<br />
<br />
Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111).<br />
这些对《翻译研究导论:理论与应用》这本书的补充部分帮助读者拓展个人研究，也帮助读者把理论知识与翻译实践联系起来。<br />
'''2.从文本内容看'''<br />
两本书都列举了各自翻译培训班的主要贡献，但是他们的关注点和方法不同。在《现代翻译理论》中，作家将“分析各自翻译培训班的优缺点，并且研究这些翻译培训班之间的相互关系，还至少描述了各自翻译理论对世界的重要性并且对各翻译理论的假定提出了问题。”(李 2014:111)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 14:07, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
《翻译研究导论：理论与应用》的补充部分帮助读者拓展个人研究，更好结合理论知识与翻译实践。<br />
<br />
2. 从内容上看：<br />
这两本书都列举了各自翻译工作坊的主要贡献，但它们的侧重点和方法有所不同。在《当代翻译理论》中，作者先“分析各翻译工作坊的优劣势，然后研究工作坊之间的相互关系，再描述各翻译理论对世界的重要性，最后针对这些理论成立的前提发问。”(李 2014:111)--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 01:40, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book.<br />
<br />
在《翻译研究介绍:理论与应用》一书中，作者首先简要介绍了章节目录，然后对各翻译研讨会的介绍进行了详细阐述。为了使这本书更加准确，作者还在书中列出了总结、案例研究、研究讨论、深入阅读和讨论以及研究要点，让读者对这本书有一个更加全面的了解。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 05:48, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
<br />
Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'',<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
<br />
the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic.<br />
<br />
作者对庞德的翻译思想提出了疑问：”“他是在谈论直觉，揣测作者的意愿，还是在做什么?”(Gentzler 2001:20)<br />
继这个问题之后，作者就庞德的翻译思想提出了自己的观点，强调译者既应该在传统之内，也应该在任何制度化逻辑之外。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 07:43, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
作者对庞德的翻译思想提出了疑问，“他是在说直觉，猜测作者的原意，还是别的什么?”(Gentzler 2001:20)<br />
在这个问题之后，作者对庞德的翻译思想提出了自己的看法，强调译者既应该在传统之内，也应该在任何制度化逻辑之外。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 10:21, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
作者对庞德的翻译思想提出了疑问，“他是在谈论直觉，揣测作者的意图，还是在做什么别的?”(Gentzler 2001:20)<br />
在这个问题之后，作者就庞德的翻译思想提出了自己的看法，强调译者既应在传统之内，也应在任何制度化逻辑之外。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 01:35, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
<br />
While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches.<br />
<br />
在“翻译研究导论：理论与应用”提问题这一点上更为明显。 在每一章的末尾，作者将在讨论和研究要点中提出几个问题。 这些问题中的一些可以在教科书中找到答案，而另一些则需要读者进行其他研究。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 07:49, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在“翻译研究导论：理论与应用”提出问题这一点上尤为显著。在章节末，作者会在讨论部分和研究要点上给出他的几个问题。这些问题中的一些可以在课本中找到答案，而另一些则需要读者做一些额外的研究。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 07:50, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
<br />
'''Conclusion:'''<br />
<br />
All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books.<br />
<br />
结论<br />
总之，本文通过对这两本书的详细介绍和对翻译理论的详细分析，希望有助于读者更好地理解这两本书。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 00:10, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
结论<br />
<br />
总而言之，本文对这两本书做了详细介绍并对翻译理论进行详尽分析，目的在于希望能够有助于读者更好地理解这两本书。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 02:12, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
<br />
After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation.<br />
<br />
通过对奈达翻译理论中的两种理论的深入分析，以及对泰特勒翻译三原则与严复翻译原则的比较，这更有利于读者理解翻译的基本规则。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 04:30, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
对奈达翻译理论中的两种理论进行深入分析，并将泰特勒翻译三原则与严复翻译原则进行比较，更有利于读者理解翻译的基本规则。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 05:47, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
<br />
And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text.</div>Hu Huifanghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201102_trans&diff=10379620201102 trans2020-11-08T14:43:06Z<p>Hu Huifang: /* Hu Huifang 胡慧芳 */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
'''On the Comparison between "Sublimation" an "Functonal Equivalence" Theories'''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br />
<br />
'''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br />
<br />
“化境”与“功能对等”理论的比较<br />
<br />
摘要：钱钟书与尤金·奈达分别是中西方翻译史上的杰出翻译家。钱先生的“化境”理论与奈达的“功能对等”理论对中西翻译理论与实践方面有广泛深刻的影响。通过比较两者之间的异同，本文将从辩证法角度来认识这两者的理论价值。这种做法旨在更好的将翻译理论应用于翻译实践，并主张我们从历史与对立的角度看待中西方翻译理论，从而使翻译研究更具有系统性与科学性。<br />
<br />
关键词：化境；功能对等；钱钟书；尤金·奈达--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 07:24, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
'''Introduction''':<br />
As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004: 64).<br />
<br />
尤金•乃达是美国当代著名语言学家和翻译理论家。他致力于《圣经》翻译，还从自己的翻译实践中总结了一系列翻译理论，其理论核心是“功能对等”（起初称为“动态对等”）。在他看来，“功能对等”指在目标文本中反映出的对等类型，该目标文本旨在使原文功能适应它得以生成以及为其而生成的特定语境。” （Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004: 64）--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 01:35, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
尤金•奈达是美国当代著名的语言学家和翻译理论家。他致力于《圣经》翻译，还从自己的翻译实践中总结了一系列翻译理论。其理论核心是“功能对等”（起初称为“动态对等”）。在他看来，“功能对等”指在目标文本中反映出的对等类型，该目标文本旨在使原文功能适应它得以生成以及为其而生成的特定语境。” --[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 04:59, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
'''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
<br />
'''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br />
<br />
The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”.<br />
<br />
1.“化境”及“功能对等”理论起源<br />
<br />
1.1 “化境”理论起源<br />
<br />
钱钟书在1963年写过一本书，名为《林纾翻译》，并于1979年在中华书局出版了“锥管集”，正是这两部作品让他想到了“化境”这一翻译理论。钱钟书认为翻译过程实际上就是运用“诱惑”，避免“误用”，以及追求“化境”的过程。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 10:31, 4 November 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 02:42, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1.“化境”和“功能对等”的理论起源<br />
<br />
1.1 “化境”的理论起源<br />
<br />
钱钟书在1963年写下的《林纾的翻译》以及1979年中华书局出版的《管锥集》中提及“化境说”这一翻译理论。他认为翻译的过程实际上是遵循“化”，避免“讹”，以及追求“化境”的过程。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:45, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1. “化境”及“功能对等”的理论起源<br />
<br />
1.1 “化境”的理论起源<br />
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钱钟书的“化境”这一翻译理论思想体现在他的两本著作中，也就是他于1963年完成的《林纾的翻译》以及1979年由中华书局出版的《管锥编》。他认为翻译的过程实际上是遵循“化”，避免“讹”，而追求“化境”的过程。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 08:09, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”.<br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9).<br />
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而且，我们可以从钱钟书的理论中提取出三个等级的“化”（化境），一是将源文本转化为目标文本，其次是使用归化的方式使之更为自然，通顺，不带有因为文化及语言差异而产生的翻译腔，最后是“化境”的最高目标，即精神的转化，只改变源文本外在的躯壳，而保留其内在的精神和风格，使得目标文本与源文本没有丝毫偏差。换句话说，译文应该忠实于原文，读起来完全不像是翻译出来的，因为原著读起来也绝不会像是一部翻译作品一样。(Kao, 1975: 8-9)--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 09:43, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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另外，我们可以从钱钟书的理论中提取三种“化”（化境）的境界。首先，将源文本转换成目标文本，其次，运用归化方法将使源文本自然顺畅地表达成目标文本，避免由于文化和语言差异造成的明显的翻译腔。最后，“化境”的最终目标，即“灵魂的轮回”，取代源文本外部的形式，保留内部精神和风格，而不害其义。换句话说，翻译应该忠实于源文本，又使得译文读起来不像译文，因为用母语写成的文学作品读起来绝不会像是翻译过来的。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 10:11, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
'''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. <br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida & Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory.<br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
'''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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'''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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(1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation.<br />
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2. “化境”和“功能对等”之间的异同<br />
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2.1 “化境”和“功能对等”之间的相同点<br />
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（1）翻译过程的相似：如上文所述，钱钟书先生提出翻译是运用“诱”，避免“讹”，追求“化境”的过程。具体来说，“诱”指的是文化交流中起作用的翻译媒介。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 09:53, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
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In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts.<br />
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从这个意义上讲，翻译可以看作是一种引导，可以使目标读者理解源语言及其文化，并更好地理解外国的优秀作品。 这个过程具有重要意义，因为如果读者对源语言文化和外国文学兴趣不大； 那么翻译作品将失去其价值。 因此，我们可以说翻译不仅是两种语言间的转换，而且是不同文化和思想之间的碰撞。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:50, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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从这个意义上讲，翻译可以看作是向导，它可以引领目标读者理解源语言及文化，并更好地理解外国优秀作品。 这个过程具有重要意义，因为如果读者对源语言文化和外国文学缺乏兴趣； 那么翻译作品将失去其价值。 因此可以说，翻译不仅是两种语言的转换，它还是是不同文化和思想之间的碰撞。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 07:16, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
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==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression.<br />
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所谓的“讹”是指在翻译过程中对原文的歪曲和错误表达。由于“讹”在翻译中是无法避免的，无论一个译者多么优秀，无论他的译文多么流畅，他都不能避免以这样或那样的方式犯这样或那样的错误，但他可以用尽一切手段使原文信息得到最大程度的呈现(余承法，2003: 43)。这是由于不同语言之间的差异，译者理解事物方式的差异，写作风格与原文内容形式的差异，甚至译者理解能力与表达能力的差异。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:41, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality.<br />
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最后一步称为”化境“，”化“在这里是升华的意思，是文学翻译的最高理想，也是翻译过程的最终目标。译者应设法弄清楚原作者想法，并思考他所想象的东西，让自己沉迷于作者（的世界）（罗新璋， 1984: 511），钱钟书对翻译这一过程的解释是实现”化“的最根本的条件。因此，在做翻译练习时，译者每一步都必须做好准备，这对能力和素质有很高的要求。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 13:47, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text.<br />
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同样，奈达基于“功能对等”理论，从语言学角度，提出翻译过程“四步模型”：分析，迁移，重构，检验。奈达和泰伯提出：所有语言都有6～12中基本内核结构，并且，他们在内核层面的一致性远远大于其在更详细结构层面，比如词序上的一致性。首先，“分析”指的是我们要先分析原文本的表面结构，再掌握句子的语法意义，换句话说，就是掌握原文本的概念意义和内涵意义。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 03:48, 4 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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同样，奈达基于“功能对等”理论，从语言学角度提出翻译过程的“四步模型”，即“分析、转换、重组、检验”。奈达和泰伯认为所有语言都有六到十二种基本核心结构，它们在核心层面上比在更复杂的结构层次上更一致”，比如词序的一致性。首先，“分析”指我们必须分析源文本的表层结构，再掌握句子的语法意义，换句话说，就是指源文本的指称意义和内涵意义。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 14:22, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure.<br />
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为了正确传达原文信息，译者必须对原文进行从表层结构到深层结构的分析。然后是“转换”，转换的意思就是将分析过的源文本呈现到目的文本中。这一步包括两种不同语言符号和语言形式之间的转换，同时也是两种不同思想模式之间的转换。接着是“重构”，即对源文本进行再加工和再创造，在这一步中，译者在将源文本译成目的文本时需要遵循目的语言的表达方式，摆脱源文本表层结构的束缚，从而更深层地挖掘源文本深层结构的含义。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 01:11, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
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==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, "Check" refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br />
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==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
(2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.<br />
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(2)同样关注目标读者的反应。自古以来，国内外翻译家对优秀翻译的标准有不同的看法。严复在其翻译作品《天演论》中提出了著名的三字方针，即 "信、达、雅"。同样，西方翻译家亚历山大-弗雷泽-泰特勒也提出了 "翻译三原则"。简单地说，就是译文要完整地抄录原作的思想；译文的风格和写作方式要与原作具有相同的特点；译文要具有原作的所有易感性。<br />
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==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them.<br />
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从严复和泰勒对翻译标准的描述中我们可以看出，译者研究翻译原则和标准正是其重视译入语读者、对译入语文化充满责任感的体现。钱钟书的“化境”论强调译者应该引导我们的读者阅读外国文学作品，或者让读者受到外国文化感染，了解外国作家。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 12:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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通过对严复和泰勒尔对翻译标准的描述的分析，我们可以看到，对翻译原则和标准的研究，正是译者对译语读者的重视，也是译者对译入语文化的责任感的体现。钱钟书的“升华”理论强调，译者应该引导读者阅读外国文学作品，或者让读者被外国文化所吸引，介绍外国作家。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 04:31, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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通过对严复和泰勒尔对翻译标准的描述的分析，我们可以看到，对翻译原则和标准的研究，体现了译者对译语读者的重视，也是译者对译入语文化责任感的体现。钱钟书的“化境”理论强调，译者应该引导读者阅读外国文学作品，或者让读者受到外国文化吸引，了解外国作家。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 10:37, 7 November 2020 (UTC)Li lili<br />
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==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
“Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu:<br />
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“升华”不仅是翻译的标准，还体现了译者对目标读者的照顾。 钱先生说：“翻译应该忠于原著，这样才不会读起来像翻译的作品，因为在源语言的文化背景下，原著永远不会读起来像一部翻译作品。” 好的翻译作品可以激发读者对原著的好奇心，也能带给读者美妙的享受。 钱先生还评论了严复提出的三原则：--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 08:57, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
“Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101)<br />
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“翻译理论当中的信还应包括达和雅。达基于信，但雅并不非靠达才能实现。信是指用统一的风格传递原文信息。许多人认为，翻译中的雅需要靠辞藻的堆砌才能实现。但是很少有人意识到，为保持原文的风格，是需要舍弃对词语的修饰的。即使不忠实于原文，译文也可以清楚明了，但倘若读者读不懂译文，就算不上信。”（钱钟书，1986:1101）--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 12:01, 3 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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翻译中，信应当包含达和雅。达可以充分实现信，但只有达，就不能实现雅。相同风格传达原文信息—这就是信…很多人已经逐渐意识到：翻译不该为了雅，而堆砌辞藻，美化译文。但很少有人认识到：翻译得舍弃这些修饰词来译出原文精神。译文即使不忠于原文，也能明白易懂，但忠于原文，读者反而读不懂了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 03:27, 4 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work.<br />
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同时，奈达认为准确的翻译取决于一般读者在多大的程度上能够正确的理解原文，也就是说，目标读者是否在阅读译文的时候会有和阅读原文一样的感受。“功能对等”的目的就是让读者能达到交流需求。为了使目标得以实现，我们有必要改变原文的形式和考虑读者对译文的接受程度。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:50, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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同时，奈达认为翻译的准确性取决于一般读者在多大程度上能够正确地理解源文本，也就是说，目标语读者在阅读翻译作品时是否会有着相似或者是一样的感受。“功能对等”的目的是为了满足读者交流的需要。为了达到这个目标，我们可以根据读者对翻译文本的可接受性对源文本的形式进行一定的修改。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 16:05, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture.<br />
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奈达的“功能对等”不仅需要对原文忠实，而且也要对目标语读者和原语读者负责。奈达描绘了与理论家在语义学和语用学这两个方面所进行的关于各种“意义研究的科学方法”的工作。奈达工作的核心是从一个单词具有固有的意义这样的旧观念转化为意义的功能定义，也就是一个单词可以从它的上下文获得含义，并且不同的文化会产生不同的响应。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:47, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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奈达的“功能对等”不仅要对原文有忠实姓还要对目标语堵着和原文读者负责。 在理论学家在语义学和语用学研究的工作中，奈达叙述了各种“意义研究科学方法”。奈达的核心论点是脱离词汇有固定的意义这个旧观念并转向意思的功能定义，也就是根据不同的文化和背景，一个词汇会有相应的不同意思。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 01:37, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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奈达的“功能对等”理论不仅要求应忠实于原文，还要求要对目的语读者和原文读者负责。基于理论家在语义学和语用学方面的相关工作，奈达提出了“意义研究科学法”。这一方法的核心是，摆脱了单词有固定含义的旧观念，转向了意义的功能定义，即通过上下文获得单词的含义，并且根据文化的不同单词的含义也会有所不同。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 03:47, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
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==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br />
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(3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境).<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original.<br />
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由此可见，“归化”是连接原文转换和目标语升华实现的桥梁。在《七个补丁》一书中，他写道：“无论目标版本是‘面向欧洲’还是‘面向汉语’，翻译总是基于原语国家的语言系统到目的国的语言系统（2002:78）。虽然他没有明确指出翻译应该是“归化导向”还是“异化导向”，但他将翻译与原作的“转世”相比较，认为翻译是原作的“外化”。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 04:27, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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显而易见，“归化”是连接原文转化和在目标语中实现化境的桥梁。在《七个补丁》一书中，他写道：“无论目标版本是‘面向欧洲’还是‘面向中国’，翻译总是基于从源语国家到目的语国家的语言系统(2002: 78)。虽然他没有明确说明翻译应该是“归化”还是“异化”，但他把翻译比作原作的“转世”，认为翻译是原作的“变形”。 --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 01:27, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text.<br />
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此外，他赞赏林纾的翻译作品，并评论说，他宁愿阅读林纾的翻译，也不愿阅读哈格德的原文。 这样，钱钟书先生似乎更喜欢“中国化”风格的文字，这体现了“本土化”的倾向。 在“功能对等”理论中，Nida提倡使用目标语言的表达习惯来转换原始文本。 他认为语言是交流的手段，交流是最终目标，也是翻译的重要角色，因此他更加关注受体对目标文本的反应。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 14:43, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original.<br />
<br />
在《七个补丁》一书中，他写道:“无论目标版本是‘面向欧洲’还是‘面向中国’，翻译总是基于从原国家到目标国家的语言系统(2002: 78)。虽然他没有明确说明翻译应该是“归化”还是“异化”，但他把翻译比作原作的“转世”，认为翻译是原作的“变形”。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 05:18, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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他在《七个补丁》一书中写道：“无论目标版本是“欧洲版”还是“中国版”，翻译始终基于从源语国家到目标语国家的语言系统(2002：78)。 尽管他没有明确说明翻译是应“本土化”还是“异化”，但他将译文比作原著的“转世”，并认为译文是原著的一种“变形”。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 04:11, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br />
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为了目的语读者能理解译文，译文必须符合目的语的文化传统与语言习惯。同时，译者要在保证译文忠实于原文的基础上使其自然且通顺。奈达的“归化”翻译趋向正是出于这种观点。请看下列例子：--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 07:51, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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为了使目标读者接受译文，译文符合目的语的文化传统和语言习惯十分重要。与此同时，译者必须在保证忠实原文的前提下，使译文自然流畅。以上可看出奈达的“归化”翻译倾向。请看下面的例子:--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 08:17, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
S: “white as snow”<br />
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T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br />
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From the point of view of tr--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:06, 8 November 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:06, 8 November 2020 (UTC)aditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what "white as snow" means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
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源语言：“White as snow"<br />
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目标语：“白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br />
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对于支持传统翻译标准的译者来说，以上的翻译是与原文信息相冲突的，但是对于从来没有见过雪的读者，他们完全不能理解“像雪一样白”的意义。通过归化的翻译策略，目标语读者能够达到与源语言读者同样的反应，实现更好的交流。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 13:39, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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源语言："White as snow"<br />
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目标语：“白如木棉花” 或 “白如鹭毛” 或 “白如蘑菇”<br />
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按照传统翻译标准，以上翻译与原文信息相悖，但是对于从来没有见过雪的读者，他们完全不能理解“像雪一样白”。通过归化的翻译策略，目标语读者能够产生与源语言读者相近的反应，实现更好的交流。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:55, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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源语言：“White as snow"<br />
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目标语：“白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br />
从传统翻译标准的角度来看，以上翻译与原文信息背道而驰，但是对于那些从没见过雪，不知道雪长什么样子的人来说，他们完全不能理解”像雪一样白“是什么意思。通过归化的翻译策略，目标语读者能够产生与源语言读者相近的反应，实现更好的交流。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:06, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
'''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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(1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”.<br />
2.2化境论与功能对等的区别<br />
（1）理论基础不同:钱钟书的化境论是建立在严复的翻译标准“信、达、雅”之上的，是对中国传统翻译理论的发展。钱钟书的化境论将翻译研究从美学范畴推向了艺术的极致。最终，化境论被纳入到中国翻译思想的发展历程中，即“案本求信-神似-化境。”--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 08:26, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
2.2化境论与功能对等的区别<br />
（1）理论基础不同:钱钟书的化境论建立在严复的翻译标准“信、达、雅”之上，是对中国传统翻译理论的发展。钱钟书的化境论将翻译研究从美学范畴推向了艺术的极致。最终，化境论成为了中国翻译思想的发展历程中的一部分，即“案本求信-神似-化境。”--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 10:39, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
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==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br />
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Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version.<br />
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这四种概念相互独立，又紧密相关。这些概念逐步发展，构成了一个完整的翻译体系，是传统翻译理论中的重要组成部分(Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20)。奈达的“功能对等理论”是基于其《圣经》翻译实践。在乔姆斯基的转换生成语法的指导下，奈达的功能对等理论要求译者由浅入深地分析文本结构，然后将原文的深层结构转化为译文的深层结构，最后调整译文使其呈表层结构。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:44, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这四个概念，既独立又相互关联。它们逐渐发展成为一个完整的翻译系统，而这个系统是我们传统翻译理论的重要组成部分(罗新章，2009:20)。奈达的“功能对等”理论是在其圣经翻译实践的基础上建立起来的。在乔姆斯基的转换生成语法指导下，奈达的功能对等要求译者从表层结构分析到深层结构;然后将其从原文的深层结构转化为译入语的深层结构，最后调整译入语的语言结构，得到译文的表层结构。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 14:10, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
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==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function.<br />
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从这一系列步骤中，我们可以看出翻译学的层次性和理论性。因此奈达提出了他的观点，即翻译可以称为一门科学。钱钟书则认为译作不仅可以超越原著，有时甚至比原著还要好得多；尽管奈达没有表明在原文和译文哪个要更好，但他更强调两种语言之间的对等和目标受众的反应，因此更重视翻译的交际功能。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 13:00, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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通过一系列步骤，我们可以看到翻译研究的层次性与理论性，因此奈达提出了他的观点，即翻译可以视为一门科学。钱钟书认为译作可以超越原作，有时甚至能比原作更好。而奈达并未表明原文与译文哪个更佳，他的重点更多放在两种语言的对等和受众者的响应方面，因此将研究的优先级放在了翻译的交际功能上。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 07:50, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
(2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154).<br />
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8)<br />
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他所描述的文学翻译的“最高理想”会不可避免地产生“信息错误”的问题，而这将限制“升华”的应用范围。 尽管一代又一代的学者和专家做出了卓有成效的努力去从各个方面阐明“升华”，但对很多翻译圈的人来说，“升华”还是无法从理论上解释和实践实现的，这就像“阁楼上的空中”。 （于成发，2003：8）--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 04:31, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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他所描述的文学翻译的“最高理想”会不可避免地产生“信息错误”的问题，而这些问题将限制“化境”的应用范围。 尽管一代又一代的专家学者努力从各个方面阐明“化境”，并取得了成果，但对很多翻译圈的人来说，“化境”还是如同“空中阁楼一般”，仍旧无法从理论上解释并通过实践来实现。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 13:06, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible.<br />
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与此相反，奈达对于圣经中宗教文化的翻译带有统一和肃穆的色彩。为了传播上帝的意志，他向各行各业的人们传道；因此，奈达对于圣经的翻译不仅要达到贵族们的要求，还要满足缺乏宗教文化知识的普通公民的需要。“功能对等”理论的目标读者是来自各行各业的大众，其适用范围更趋于实践。奈达的翻译的对等理论来源于圣经的翻译实践。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 07:32, 4 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
与此相反，奈达对于圣经的翻译带有统一和庄严的宗教文化色彩。他向各行各业的人传道是为了传播上帝的旨意；正因如此，奈达的翻译不仅要满足上流社会的需要，还要让那些缺乏宗教文化知识的普通大众对此有一定的了解。“功能对等”理论的目标读者是来自社会各阶层的群众，其适用范围也更加实际。奈达的功能对等理论起源于圣经的翻译实践。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 03:00, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br />
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众所周知，西方语言在文化和表达方面有许多共通之处，因此奈达的“对等”理论在两种欧洲语言之间相对容易实现。在英汉翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以很难实现完全的“对等”。奈达将翻译步骤严格地划分成四个部分，可视为一种实用性的翻译方法，用于指导一些科技文、公告和应用文的翻译。就文学体裁而言，像诗歌和散文翻译，译者的创造力可能更为重要，用机械的方法和步骤是很难传达原文的文学性的。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 12:06, 4 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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众所周知，西方语言在文化和表达方面有许多共通之处，因此奈达的“对等”理论在两种欧洲语言之间相对容易实现。而在英汉翻译中，汉语和英语属于不同语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以很难实现完全的“对等”。奈达将翻译严格地划分成四个步骤，这可视为一种用于指导一些科技文、公告和应用文翻译的实用性翻译方法。就文学体裁而言，像诗歌和散文翻译，译者的创造力可能更为重要，用机械的方法和步骤是很难传达原文的文学性的。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 04:37, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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众所周知，西方语言在文化和表达方面有许多共通之处，因此奈达的“对等”理论在两种欧洲语言之间相对容易实现。因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且两者文化差异较大，所以在英汉翻译中很难实现完全的“对等”。奈达将翻译严格地划分为四个步骤，可视为一种实用性的翻译方法，用于指导一些科技文、公告和应用文的翻译。就文学体裁而言，像诗歌和散文翻译，译者的创造力可能更为重要，用机械的方法和步骤是很难传达原文的文学性的。--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 09:03, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
'''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
<br />
'''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br />
<br />
According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the "servant" of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer.<br />
<br />
3.A 对“化境”和“功能对等”的批判性理解<br />
<br />
3.1 “化境”一说法忠实原文吗？<br />
<br />
根据传统的翻译理论，译者一直被认为是原文和译文的“仆人”。他必须要忠实原文，在表达出原作者的意思的同时也要考虑目标读者。徐俊（2003：321）在他的书《论翻译》中写道“传统翻译理论中经常强调三点:第一，译者在翻译中不应纳入自己的主观思想。第二，不应该在翻译中表现出译者个人的情感特点。第三，译者应在原文的基础上进行翻译，忠实于原文作者的思想。”--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 02:59, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
<br />
3.A 对“化境”和“功能对等”的批判性理解<br />
<br />
3.1 “化境”就是忠实原文吗？<br />
<br />
根据传统的翻译理论，译者总是被认为是原文和译文的“仆人”。在关注目标读者的同时，他必须忠实于原作者。许俊(2003: 321)在《论翻译》一书中写道:“传统的翻译理论往往强调三点:首先，译者在翻译中不应纳入自己的主观思想；其次，他们不应该在翻译中表达自己的个性；最后，译者应该在原文的基础上翻译文本，并忠实地遵循原作者的思想。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 05:28, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant.<br />
<br />
从钱钟书“化境”理论的分析中可以明显看出，他更倾向于“归化”的翻译策略，强调译文可以超越原文。他本人欣赏林纾的翻译作品，因为他们共同的主张和相似的历史背景。从历史唯物主义的观点来看，“社会存在决定社会意识，社会意识对社会存在具有反作用。”例如，林纾生活在一个封闭的国家，当时的清朝非常傲慢，甚至是无知。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 09:30, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
从钱钟书“化境”理论的分析中可以明显看出，他更倾向于“归化”的翻译策略，强调译文可以超越原文。他本人欣赏林纾的翻译作品，因为他们拥有共同的主张和相似的历史背景。从历史唯物主义的观点来看，“社会存在决定社会意识，社会意识对社会存在具有反作用。”例如，林纾生活在一个封闭的国家，当时的清朝非常傲慢，甚至可以说是无知。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 10:58, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one.<br />
<br />
他的翻译风格自然受到了名族感情的影响。因此，他的翻译有“归化”的倾向，甚至有不忠实翻译的倾向。钱钟书生活在新中国成立后的文艺繁荣时期，当时毛主席提出了“百花齐放，百家争鸣”的方针，因此，我们的中国人民洋溢着崇高的精神和自豪的情感，一些译者的翻译作品更倾向于利用“归化”，使翻译作品比原作更优秀。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 10:23, 7 November 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
他的翻译风格自然受到了民族情结的影响。因此，他的翻译倾向于“归化”，甚至倾向于不忠实的翻译。钱钟书生活在新中国成立后的文艺繁荣时期，在该时期毛主席提出了“百花齐放，百家争鸣”的方针，这让中国人民洋溢出斗志昂扬的精气神和自豪的情绪；一些译者的翻译作品也更倾向于采用“归化”，使得翻译作品比原作更出彩。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:27, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
<br />
林纾的翻译风格自然受到了民族情结的影响。因此，他的翻译倾向于“归化”，甚至倾向于不忠实的翻译。钱钟书生活在新中国成立后的文艺繁荣时期，当时毛主席提出了“百花齐放，百家争鸣”的方针，这我们的中国人民洋溢着崇高的精神和自豪的情感。一些译者的译作更倾向于“归化”的翻译策略，使得译作比原作更出彩。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 09:46, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator.<br />
<br />
这种翻译策略对原文有些许“不忠”，不会像鲁迅所倡导的“异化”方法那样“真诚地模仿”原文。“升华”理论很难具体实施，因为它已经成为一个“无法实现”的目标。翻译是“汉化”还是“欧化”；是“忠实”还是“创新”，而译者在翻译中究竟是“有形”还是“无形”都是难以衡量的标准，因为这些因素不可避免地受到译者主观和历史客观性的影响。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 10:09, 4 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这种翻译策略对原文或有“不实”，或不像鲁迅所倡导的“异化”方法那样“真挚地模仿”原文。要具体应用“化境”理论还有点难度，因为它已成为一个“遥不可及”的目标。翻译应该是“汉化”还是“欧化”，是“忠实“还是”创新“；译者在译文中应该”现身“还是”隐形“，这些标准都难以衡量，因为这些都不可避免的受到译者主观和历史客观性的影响。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 08:24, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br />
<br />
“化境”是否能做到忠实于原文本呢？或许正如钱钟书先生所说：“ 译者在使用母语时往往比使用原作者的源语言更加灵活通顺，这种情况在翻译史中是很常见的。” 在某种程度上，我们认为这种“不忠”就是忠实于原文。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 02:47, 4 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“化境”真的是忠实原文的一种翻译方法吗？也许就如钱钟书先生所说的那样：“相较于原作者的源语言，译者运用其母语的能力要更加灵活通顺。”而这就是翻译历史上经常出现的现象。我们可以认为这样的“不忠实”其实是特定意义下的“忠实”。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:50, 4 November 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
'''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br />
<br />
The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field.<br />
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3.2 有关奈达“功能对等理论”的问题<br />
<br />
意义、对等和可译性问题是上个世纪60年代翻译研究不变的主题，而作为翻译研究的重要人物之一，美国的尤金·奈达提出了一种新的“科学”方法来解决这些问题。尤金·奈达的翻译理论是在他自己的实践工作中发展起来的，从上个世纪40年代起，他开始开展翻译工作和组织《圣经》的翻译工作，还常常对那些在该领域工作的没有经验的译者进行培训。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 12:52, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects.<br />
对于奈达的“功能对等”理论，翻译界一直褒贬不一。有人认为该理论是翻译科学的代表，对翻译实践有很好的指导作用。 然而，也有一些学者不同意这一理论，例如彼得·纽马克就是它的批评者之一。 他认为奈达的对等理论过于重视读者，但有时牺牲了作者的原始思想。 同样令人质疑的是，“功能对等”能否适用于各种主题的原始文本。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 04:47, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
对于奈达的“功能对等”理论，翻译界褒贬不一。有人认为，该理论是翻译科学的代表，对翻译实践具有很好的指导作用。然而，也有一些学者不同意这一理论，例如彼得·纽马克就是其批评者之一。他认为奈达的对等理论过于重视读者，有时却忽视了作者真正的原创思想。当然，功能对等能否适用于各种主体的原文本也值得怀疑。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 08:30, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means.<br />
<br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers.<br />
<br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries.<br />
<br />
这样，翻译作品的读者不仅能获得与原著的读者相同的反应，而且有利于他们学习理解新事物和新概念，从而逐步促进不同文化之间的交流，增加不同国家的共同利益。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 01:52, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这样不仅能使翻译作品的读者产生与原文读者相同的反应，也有利于他们学会理解新事物、新概念，从而不断促进不同文化的交流，提高各个国家的共同利益。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:24, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
'''4.Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration.Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br />
<br />
4.结论<br />
<br />
钱钟书先生的“化境说”奈达的“功能对等”理论分别代表了中西方翻译研究上取得的巨大进步，二者都为翻译研究和实践提供了重要参考。他们的理论被比作一个需要更多调查和探索的宝库。此外，我们必须以批判性的眼光来学习他们的理论，为翻译研究新时代的建立而努力。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 13:50, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
'''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''<br />
<br />
A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18).<br />
<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”.<br />
<br />
本文中的“译者行为”是一个广义的问题，即译者的翻译行为受其社会文化背景、翻译动机、翻译观、翻译能力以及源语言可译性等因素的影响。（徐军199-254）具体而言，我们将讨论的翻译行为是“翻译什么（他们翻译了什么作品）”和“如何翻译（他们的翻译原则）”。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:16, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
本文的“译者行为”是一个广义的概念，即译者的翻译行为受其所处的社会文化背景、及其翻译动机、翻译观、对原文的语言可译性、翻译能力等因素的影响(Xu Jun 199-254)。具体来说，我们要讨论的翻译行为是“翻译什么(他们翻译了什么作品)”和“如何翻译(他们的翻译原则)”。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 04:52, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br />
<br />
So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br />
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From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br />
<br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
'''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br />
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A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br />
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According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br />
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“Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165).<br />
<br />
'''|.以前的一些研究'''<br />
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A.伊文•佐哈尔的多元系统理论<br />
<br />
根据《翻译研究入门》：以色列学者伊塔马•伊文•佐哈尔借鉴了20世纪20年代俄国形式主义者以及20世纪30和40年代捷克结构主义者的观点，使得多元系统理论在20世纪70年代得以发展。对于形式主义者来说，一部文学作品不能孤立地而是要作为文学系统的一部分来研究。因此，文学是社会框架、文化框架、文学框架和历史框架的一部分。（芒迪 165）--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 15:30, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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《翻译研究入门》中写道：<br />
<br />
”以色列学者伊塔马•伊文•佐哈尔借鉴了20世纪20年代俄国形式主义者以及20世纪30和40年代捷克结构主义者的观点，使得多元系统理论在20世纪70年代得以发展。形式主义的观点认为，一部文学作品不能孤立地而是要作为文学系统的一部分来研究......因此，文学是社会框架、文化框架、文学框架和历史框架的一部分......”（芒迪 ，第165页）--Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br />
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(1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br />
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(2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br />
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Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br />
<br />
1978年，Even-Zohar在“翻译文学在文学多元系统中的地位”中，第一次提出了一个新术语，即多元系统（Even-Zohar 22），强调翻译文学本身就是一个系统：<br />
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（1）以译入语文化选择的方式进行翻译;<br />
<br />
（2）在翻译规范，行为和政策上受到其他共同系统的影响（Even-Zohar 22）。<br />
<br />
因此，翻译不是孤立的，而是与其他系统（例如译入语文化）相关联的。 文化选择的源语对应于有组织的系统，而不是个人任意做出的决定。 同时，翻译作品在不同文化中的不同地位，与该国文学的地位也有关。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 05:53, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1978年，埃文•佐哈尔在《翻译文学在文学多元系统中的地位》中首次提出了“多元系统”这一术语(埃文•佐哈尔22)， 强调翻译文学本身就是一个系统:<br />
<br />
(1) 该系统以目的语文化选择的方式进行翻译;<br />
(2)该系统还受到其他联合系统对翻译规范、行为和政策的影响(埃文•佐哈尔 22)。<br />
因此，翻译不是孤立的，而是与其他系统(例如目的语文化)相关联的。而文化所选择的源语则与有组织的系统相对应，而不是由个人做出的武断决定。同时，翻译作品在不同文化中的地位也不同，这与该国文学的地位有关。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 13:25, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
B.Bassett and Lefevere<br />
<br />
Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br />
<br />
C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br />
<br />
Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)'.<br />
<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br />
<br />
Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology.<br />
<br />
参与这种权力地位的人，就是莱弗维尔认为的 "改写 "文学并支配大众消费的人。这种改写的动机可以是意识形态的（顺应或反抗主流意识形态），也可以是诗学的（顺应或反抗主流/偏好的诗学）"（Munday 194）。而翻译是最明显可识别的重写类型（Lefevere 9）。<br />
<br />
例如，译者的翻译观，反映了译者的意识形态，可以顺应或反抗社会主流意识形态。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 00:16, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
处于这种权力地位的人，就是莱弗维尔认为的 "改写 "文学并支配大众消费的人。这种改写的动机可以是意识形态的（顺应或反抗主流意识形态），也可以是诗学的（顺应或反抗主流/偏好的诗学）"（Munday 194）。而翻译是最明显可识别的重写类型（Lefevere 9）。<br />
例如，译者的翻译观，反映了译者的意识形态，可以顺应或反抗社会主流意识形态。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 04:43, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Ma Shuya<br />
<br />
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br />
The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br />
<br />
Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader.<br />
<br />
对于Lefereve来说，文学体系中的翻译功能是由两种主要因素控制的，一种是文学体系内的专家，专家们对于主流诗学有部分话语权；另一种就是文学体系外的资助人，在一定程度上他们决定了意识形态。<br />
体系内的专家也包括了译者本身，译者决定诗学，有时也会影响译文的意识形态。(Monday 194).<br />
<br />
因此，译者角色必不可少，译者的意识形态对译文和译文读者也有着重要的影响。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 10:36, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
<br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
“For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br />
<br />
D.Venuti<br />
<br />
Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br />
<br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
“Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br />
<br />
Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217).<br />
<br />
“规范可能首先是语言的或文学的，但它们也将包括各种各样的国内价值观、信仰和社会表征，它们为特定群体的利益提供意识形态力量。”而且它们总是被安置在社会机构中，在那里翻译被生产和纳入文化和政治议程”(29)。<br />
芒迪建议，韦努蒂所指的团体和社会机构将包括整个出版行业的各种参与者……每一个参与者在他们的时代和地方的主导文化和政治议程中都有一个特殊的位置和作用。译者本身就是这种文化的一部分，他们可以接受，也可以反抗(217)。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:31, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors.<br />
<br />
因此，译者作为文化的一部分，受到社会意识形态、赞助者意识形态和诗学的影响。然而，译者或多或少享有一定的自主权。例如，译者的翻译观，即对翻译的理解，既可以顺应文化，也可以反叛文化。其次，他们的翻译观影响着他们的具体翻译行为，如他们选择的翻译作品和他们的翻译原则。下面是三个例子来讨论译者的翻译观如何直接影响他们的翻译行为。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 12:42, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior.<br />
<br />
为了缩小社会意识形态的差异，本文将探讨中国近代（1949年以后）的三位译者。然而，由于他们处于不同的社会风气和社会阶段，他们无疑有着不同的世界观，这就导致了他们对翻译持有不同看法。但重点仍然是他们的观点对其翻译行为的影响。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 02:48, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
为了缩小社会意识形态的差异，本文将讨论中国近代（1949年以后）的三位译者。但是，由于他们出生于不同的气候和社会阶段，因此毫无疑问，他们彼此之间具有的独特世界观导致了他们对翻译的独特看法。但是重点仍将集中在他们的观点对他们的翻译行为施加的影响上。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 03:06, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
<br />
为了缩小社会意识形态的差异，此论文将讨论现代中国（1949年之后）的三位译者。然而，由于他们出生在不同的社会时期及时代背景下，因此毫无疑问，他们有不同于彼此的世界观，这也造成了他们对翻译的不同看法。但我们的焦点会聚焦于他们不同的翻译观点是如何对各自的翻译行为造成影响的。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 10:53, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br />
<br />
A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br />
<br />
For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br />
<br />
2.当代中国的三个例子<br />
<br />
A.许渊冲（1921-）：翻译是译者的责任。<br />
许渊冲认为，中国译者有责任把外国杰作译成中文以及把中国的优秀作品译成外文。其目的在于把先进的思想介绍到中国，也在于给外国人带去优秀的中国文化，在这一过程中，世界上的文化会更丰富，文明也会更多样。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 10:39, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
二、当代中国的三个例子<br />
<br />
1.许渊冲（1921-）：翻译是译者的责任。<br />
许渊冲认为，中国译者有责任把国外著作译成中文以及把中国的优秀作品译成外文。其目的在于把先进的思想译介到中国，并输出优秀的中国文化。在这一过程中，世界上的文化更为繁荣，文明更具多样性。--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 12:00, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br />
<br />
在这种情况下，徐渊冲进一步提出，两种文化的历史和演变是截然不同的，各有优缺点。如果他们能够相互学习，取长补短，便能够同时加以改善。 在这方面，翻译可以被视为两种不同文化之间的竞争。翻译甚至可以超越原作品。如果我们充分利用一种文化的优势来完善另一种文化，那么全人类的文化便会得到发展。 这是翻译者的最终目标（“超越” 47）。 基于这种观点，徐渊冲提出了“竞争论”和“优势论”。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 04:39, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Ma Shuya<br />
<br />
<br />
在这种情况下，徐渊冲进一步提出，两种文化的历史和演变是互不相同的，它们各有优缺点。如果它们能够相互学习，取长补短，那么它们就可以得到提高。在这方面，翻译可以被视为两种不同文化之间的竞争。翻译甚至可以超越原作品。如果我们充分利用一种文化的优势来完善另一种文化，那么全人类的文化便会得到发展。这是翻译者的最终目标（“超越” 47）。基于这种观点，徐渊冲提出了“竞争论”和“优势论”。--[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 09:37, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc.<br />
<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br />
<br />
Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br />
<br />
From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br />
<br />
江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br />
<br />
江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br />
<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br />
<br />
法语中的“grondement”在英语中的意思为“咆哮”或是“低吼”。在段落中和接下来的语境中英语翻译的版本似乎都是比较合理的。然而，就通篇文章来看，许渊冲认为傅雷翻译的“浩荡”更加形象地描绘出了这条横跨欧洲的大河的力量。一些读者甚至把傅雷翻译的版本当作这一作品的经典开头，这也从侧面表明傅雷的译文的确比原始翻译版本好。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 15:03, 5 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
法语单词“grondement”在英语中的意思是“咆哮”或“喃喃自语”。英文版译文在段落之间和以下内容中似乎是连贯的。但是，就整个作品来看，许渊冲认为傅雷在其译文中所使用的“浩荡”一词更具力量，能更加形象地描绘这条横贯欧洲的壮观河流，有些读者甚至将傅雷的译文当成了这一作品的“经典开篇句”，证明了其译文已经超越了原作。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:58, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty.<br />
<br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br />
<br />
Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br />
<br />
他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br />
<br />
他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br />
<br />
(qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br />
<br />
Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?”<br />
<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br />
<br />
The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br />
<br />
<br />
他还引用了罗曼·罗兰的“ Qu'importe celui quicrée？"，表示译者应该提高翻译的艺术性，以使读者享受美的乐趣，而不是刻意保留作者的风格。因此，他对付磊的翻译持赞成意见。<br />
<br />
最后一个例子是孙中山写的《起义歌》最后一句的翻译，收录在《惊天动地的歌》中：--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 02:54, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
<br />
他还引用了罗曼·罗兰的“Qu' importe celui qui crée? Il'y a de réel que ce qu'on crée”，表示译者应该使译文更具有艺术性，给读者一种美的享受，而不是刻意地保持作者的风格。所以他赞成傅雷的翻译。<br />
<br />
最后一个例子是孙中山写的《起义歌》最后一句的翻译，收录在《震天歌》中：--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 06:42, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br />
<br />
Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br />
<br />
Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br />
<br />
Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222).<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br />
<br />
B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China.<br />
<br />
许渊冲认为翻译是一种艺术，也是两种文化的碰撞，所以他选择翻译那些中西经典作品并且强调翻译要体现美感。翻译不仅要忠实于原文，还要能影响并感染读者，让他们产生比对原作品更深刻的印象。<br />
<br />
B.刘重德（1914-）：翻译外国著作是为服务于中国。--Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
<br />
许渊冲认为,翻译既是一种艺术，也是两种文化的碰撞，所以他选择翻译那些中西方经典作品，并强调在翻译的同时，还要体现译文的美感。翻译不仅要忠实于原文，还要能够感染读者，让他们对译文产生比对原作品更深刻的印象。<br />
<br />
B.刘重德（1914-）：翻译是为外国著作服务于中国。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 12:23, 3 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
许渊冲认为翻译是一种艺术，是两种文化间的碰撞。所以在翻译选材时，他选择那些中西方经典作品，并强调翻译应当体现译文的美感。翻译不仅要忠实原文，还要有魅力感染读者，让他们对译作产生比对原作更深刻的印象。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 07:22, 4 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br />
为了让西方名著在中国更加流行，刘重德决定投身于翻译事业。他认为通过将西方文学作品翻译成中文，可以使先进思想服务于中国的知识分子，再进一步提高全国人民的思想。它是第一个将简奥斯汀的《爱玛》翻译成中文的人。但是他对他所翻译的《爱玛》的第一版本感到不满意，最后在90年代他重新翻译了《爱玛》，并更改了曾经的错误翻译。这件事反映了他不断自我提升的精神和细致谨慎的学识。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 14:23, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br />
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In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original.<br />
<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br />
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Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122).<br />
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因此，翻译将像原始作品一样动人且生动，读者也可以从美学上得到快感（“十” 122-123）。<br />
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因此，他从严复的三个原则“信达雅（忠实，表现力和优雅）”发展为“信达切（忠实，表现力和亲密）”，作为一套翻译参考原则：“翻译风格必须 与您工作的原件相对应或至少相近...文学作品的思想内容，语言表达和文体特征构成一个统一的实体，译者应将三个要素作为一个整体加以再现”（“十” 122）。--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 10:27, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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因此，译文将像原作一样动人且生动，读者也可以从美学上获得愉悦（“十” 122-123）。 <br />
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因此，他严复的“信、达、雅”三个原则发展为“信、达、近”，将其作为一套翻译参考原则：“你的翻译风格必须与原作保持一致，或者至少要接近原作的风格... 文学作品的思想内容、语言表达和文体特征是一个统一的整体，译者应将这三个要素作为一个整体进行再现”（“十” 122）。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 02:54, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br />
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So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br />
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Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br />
<br />
回乡偶书 <br />
少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br />
儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br />
(the original poem)<br />
<br />
Homecoming<br />
I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br />
My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br />
Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br />
“Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br />
(Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br />
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和许渊冲不同，刘重德认为“文学翻译具有双重性。也就是说，“一方面，它是一门有自己规律和方法的科学，另一方面，它又是一门艺术”（''Ten'' 2)。<br />
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那么，刘重德的翻译观点究竟是如何影响他的翻译原则呢？有以下两个示例。<br />
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这是刘重德对《回乡偶书》一诗的翻译。<br />
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回乡偶书 <br />
少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br />
儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br />
(原诗)<br />
<br />
Homecoming<br />
I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br />
My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br />
Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br />
“Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br />
(刘重德的译文)--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 08:15, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br />
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这种翻译很好地使目标文本的样式和功能适应源文本，使人感觉就像是刘忠德本人自己创作的一样。我们可以欣赏到原始作品所表达的相同含义和情感。 目标文本与源文本保持相同的行数：每个句子有12个音节。 源文本的节奏模式也保持不变：第一行与第三行押韵，第二行与第四行押韵。 目标文本正是源文本的声音，形式和感觉的表达（江196-197）。--[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 09:19, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这种翻译很好地使目标文本的样式和功能适应源文本，使人感觉就像是刘重德本人自己原创的一样。我们可以欣赏到原始作品所表达的相同的含义和情感。 目标文本与源文本保持相同的行数：每个句子有12个音节。 源文本的节奏模式也保持不变：第一行与第三行押韵，第二行与第四行押韵。 目标文本正是源文本的声音，形式和感觉的表达（江196-197）。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:36, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br />
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(1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br />
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事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br />
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事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br />
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“神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br />
<br />
以下两例来自刘重德对''Emma''的重译：<br />
<br />
（1）The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br />
<br />
事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(前译)<br />
<br />
事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(刘重德)<br />
<br />
前译中的“神乎其技”与原文本中"much beyond it" 体现的平易文风不相符。中文的四字词确实可以表现复杂的含义，但它应该用于正式文体和学术文体中。在此句中，“神乎其技”体现的风格与原文毫不相称，应该用更简单的词代替，所以刘重德用“大大超过我的弹奏”替换了“神乎其技”。<br />
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==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
(2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br />
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还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br />
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还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br />
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(Jiang 278-279)<br />
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The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style.<br />
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例子（2）<br />
<br />
“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br />
<br />
还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(原文的翻译)<br />
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还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(刘重德的翻译)<br />
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（姜 278-279）<br />
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就像上面提到的“神乎其技”一样，这里的“俗不可耐”也不符合ST的通俗风格，所以刘忠德把它改成了“庸俗”，以契合原著。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 03:08, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
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==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br />
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C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br />
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对于刘重德来说，翻译是一种科学，是一种中国人学习西方人长处的方式，因此他选择西方杰作来翻译，并强调译作的“切”，以此来切实地传达原文意思和风格。<br />
李继宏（1980-）：翻译终究是一种人类的素材生产活动。--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 09:00, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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刘重德认为，翻译是一门科学，通过翻译，中国人可以学习西方人的长处。因此，他挑选西方杰出的文学作品来翻译，并强调译作的“切”，以此来切实地传达原文意思和风格。<br />
李继宏（1980-）：翻译终究是人类的一种素材生产活动。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 02:39, 7 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br />
<br />
李继宏认为翻译算是人类物质生产活动的一种。他在一篇叫做“文学翻译应该与时俱进：翻译速度和薪酬”的文章中驳斥了另一位翻译家施康强的观点，他说新时代翻译工作的薪酬不同于旧时代，主要是因为翻译工具属于生产工具，而这种工具现在已经发展成电脑，数字数据，网络等等。所以，应该提高翻译速度。因此，如今，一名专业的译者毫无疑问可以通过每小时翻译1000字，一天工作八小时来过上体面的生活。每翻译1000字，他们可以拿到60元。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 12:48, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
<br />
The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br />
这篇文章旨在反对史康强的观点，即令人震惊的薪酬翻译会影响翻译质量，但同时也从李立宏借用了大量的经济理论和活动，数字，工资计算以支持他的观点中揭示了李立宏对翻译的观点。 认为，他对出版商在翻译作品销售中获得的报酬越来越多表示青睐，并宣布自己翻译了195190个单词的“风筝赛跑者”（由Khaled Hosseini撰写），每天仅工作10天，每天15小时.--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 12:42, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
<br />
In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one.<br />
<br />
<br />
在这篇文章他还说:“任何负责任的译者都不会为个人收入而翻译，”但他接着又说，“事实上，除了高收入之外，译者还从读者的来信中得到支持。” 尽管他这完全矛盾的话令人费解，但我们仍然可以推断，金钱如果不是译者最重要的动力，那也是他翻译的一个重要动力。--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 11:54, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在这篇文章他还说:“任何有责任心的译者都不会为了赚钱而做翻译，”但他接着又说，“事实上，除了高收入之外，读者的来信也支撑着他的翻译事业。” 尽管他这自相矛盾的话令人迷惑，但我们仍然可以推断，尽管钱不是推动译者翻译事业最重要的动力，但也是一个重要动力。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 13:42, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
<br />
The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br />
<br />
To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br />
<br />
李继宏翻译的作品有《小王子》、《老人与海》、《动物庄园》、《了不起的盖茨比》、《瓦尔登湖》、《月亮与六便士》、《傲慢与偏见》、《喧哗与愤怒》等外国名著。然而，这些作品在中国已经很受欢迎，价值不菲，市场上有几种译本。<br />
一开始，他翻译了卡勒德·胡塞尼(Khaled Hosseini)的作品《追风筝的人》(the Kite Runner)，如他所说：“翻译该作品一共只用了10天，每天15个小时”。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 11:07, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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李继宏翻译的作品有《小王子》、《老人与海》、《动物庄园》、《了不起的盖茨比》、《瓦尔登湖》、《月亮与六便士》、《傲慢与偏见》、《喧哗与骚动》等外国名著。然而，这些作品在中国已经很受欢迎，价值不菲，市场上有好几种译本。<br />
<br />
起初，他翻译了卡勒德·胡塞尼(Khaled Hosseini)的作品《追风筝的人》，他说道：“翻译这部作品，我只用了10天，一天翻译15个小时”。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 14:14, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
<br />
(1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br />
<br />
我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br />
<br />
In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).”<br />
<br />
在这个文本里面，"take somebody up on something" 表示 “接受某人所提出的提议或邀请”这查自《短语动词字典》（438）。根据上下文，这位乞讨老人是我未曾见面的 “母亲”的同事。他告诉我一个关于“我”母亲的故事，并承诺会告诉我更多关于她的细节：“老人笑了。‘我会记得并且这是个承诺。记得回来找我’（胡塞尼）--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:47, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
<br />
It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br />
<br />
我们可以推断出，这位老人给了叙述者一个了解他母亲更多信息的机会。因此，“offer”的意思是“邀请”，而不是“办公室 (office)”。此外，“offer”这个词似乎是被译者误读成了“office”。也许是译者忙着尽快翻译，而没有仔细检查他的译文是否正确。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:48, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
由此推断，这位老人让叙述者可以更好地了解他母亲。因此，“offer”的意思是“邀请”，而不是“办公室 (office)”。此外，“offer”一词似乎是被译者误读成“office”。也许是译者忙着尽快翻译，所以没有仔细检查其译文是否正确。--[[User:Zhang Weihong|Zhang Weihong]] ([[User talk:Zhang Weihong|talk]]) 06:10, 7 November 2020 (UTC) Zhang Weihong<br />
<br />
由此推断，这位老人让叙述者有机会更多地了解他的母亲。因此，“offer”的意思是“邀请”，而不是“办公室 (office)”。此外，“offer”一词似乎是被译者误读成“office”。也许是译者忙着尽快翻译，所以没有仔细检查其译文是否正确。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 03:07, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
<br />
(2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br />
<br />
“你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br />
<br />
The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br />
说话人是医院的工作人员，他让刚从手术中苏醒过来的病人“放屁”。“gas”一词在新牛津英汉词典中是物理学中“气体”，“瓦斯”的意思，“pass”指“通过”，“fart”作为名词意思是“放屁”（从肛门排气）（632）。总之“排便”与源语中的本来意思不相符。因此翻译可以被纠正为“你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。”这也是一个小而简单的错误。译者对待翻译应该更加谨慎一些。--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 06:16, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
<br />
This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br />
<br />
(1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br />
<br />
“I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).”<br />
<br />
你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br />
<br />
“如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br />
<br />
The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST.<br />
<br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
(2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br />
<br />
因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br />
<br />
According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone.<br />
因为他们觉得自己是这个国家的自由民，这个国家包括他们在内，这个国家就是伟大的“Cockaigne”（安乐乡）。<br />
根据《大英百科全书》，“Cockaigne“也拼作“Cockayne”，这是一个极度奢华舒适的想象之地，物质享受和快乐总是近在咫尺。在中世纪的欧洲传说中，关于“Cockaigne“的提及尤为突出。这些故事描述了流淌着酒的河流，用蛋糕和大麦糖建造的房屋，铺满糕点的街道，以及向每个人免费赠送物品的商店。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 10:17, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
<br />
Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included.<br />
<br />
烤鹅徘徊着邀请人们吃掉自己，黄油百灵像甘露一样从天上落下。” 李积宏不知道这个词的丰富含义，没有任何解释就将其翻译成“天堂之国”。 实际上，在本书中，李继宏为“莎士比亚”，“巴尔扎克”和“生丁”等词添加了206个解释性注释，但其中不包括“鸡尾酒”。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 09:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
烤鹅徘徊着邀请人们吃掉自己，黄油百灵像甘露一样从天上落下。”李积宏不知道这个词的丰富含义，没有任何解释就将其翻译成“天堂之国”。事实上,在这本书中,李继宏为“莎士比亚”，“巴尔扎克”和“生丁”等词添加了206个解释性注释，但其中不包括“鸡尾酒”。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 11:38, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br />
<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
<br />
From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br />
<br />
III.Conclusion<br />
<br />
This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br />
<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
<br />
For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between two cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work.<br />
<br />
许渊冲认为翻译是一门艺术，是两种文化之间的较量，因此他侧重翻译西方和中国经典作品，并强调翻译的美感；而刘重德认为翻译是一门科学，是中国人学习西方人长处的一种方式，因此他偏重于翻译西方名著，强调翻译中的 “贴近性”，以传达原著的贴近意义和风格。其实，于两者而言，翻译是译者的一种责任，应认真对待，反观李继宏，翻译于他只是一种生产活动，一种赚钱或者获得人气、名气和优越感的工具。因此他注重经济效益和速度，译文多有瑕疵，译者的个性得到极大彰显，甚至掩盖了原作的风格和意义。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 01:17, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
许渊冲认为翻译是一门艺术，是两种文化之间的竞争，因此他侧重翻译西方和中国经典作品，并强调翻译的美感；而刘重德认为翻译是一门科学，是中国人学习西方人长处的一种方式，因此他偏重于翻译西方名著，强调翻译中的 “切合性”，以传达切合原著的意义和风格。其实，于两者而言，翻译是译者的一种责任，应认真对待，反观李继宏，翻译于他只是一种生产活动，一种赚钱或者获得人气、名气和优越感的工具。因此他注重经济效益和速度，译文多有瑕疵，译者的个性得到极大彰显，甚至掩盖了原作的风格和意义。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 01:57, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
<br />
For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
<br />
Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
<br />
'''Work Cited'''（文献不需要翻译）<br />
<br />
胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br />
<br />
蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br />
<br />
李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 <https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1> <br />
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刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br />
<br />
毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br />
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许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br />
<br />
许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br />
---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br />
<br />
---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br />
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杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br />
周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br />
<br />
Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br />
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Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 <https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne ><br />
<br />
Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br />
<br />
Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br />
<br />
Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br />
<br />
Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br />
<br />
Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br />
<br />
Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br />
<br />
Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br />
<br />
Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br />
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Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br />
<br />
Contemporary Translation Studies<br />
'''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''<br />
<br />
'''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br />
<br />
Edwin genzler's Contemporary Translation Theory and Jamie Mundi's Introduction to Translation Theory: Theory And Practice are regarded as rare masterpieces in the history of translation. After the introduction of the two great works, this paper compares the formal equivalence theory and functional equivalence theory of Eugene Nida and the translation principles of Alexandre Fraser tetler and Yan Fu to elaborate the basic principles of translation. By comparing Eugene Nida's theory of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, this paper tries to find out its advantages and disadvantages and give some examples to help readers grasp Nida's translation thoughts and guide his translation practice better. At the same time, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Alexander Fraser Tatler's translation principles and comparing them with Yan Fu's translation theories, it is helpful for readers to understand the differences between Chinese and western translation and perform better in cross-cultural context.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 02:51, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
'''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation.<br />
<br />
摘要：爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》二书被认为是翻译学科的杰作。本文在对其做完简要介绍后将从中选取著名的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则来界定翻译的基本原则。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 08:57, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
<br />
After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br />
<br />
关键词：艾德温·根茨勒；《当代翻译理论》；杰里米·芒迪；《翻译学导论：理论与实践》；尤金·奈达；形式对等；功能对等；亚历山大·弗雷泽泰勒；严复；翻译原则<br />
<br />
'''Introduction:''<br />
<br />
In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theor<br />
<br />
引言：<br />
<br />
这篇文章介绍了作者对《当代翻译理论》和《翻译学导论：理论与实践》这两本著作的理解。在对这两本著作进行简要的介绍之后，文章开始对四个重要的翻译理论的进行重点探讨。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 13:25, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== Headline text ==<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
<br />
This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation.<br />
本文将分为三个部分。 首先，在对《当代翻译理论》这一伟大著作进行简明扼要的介绍之后着重分析奈达的两个著名的翻译理论，即形式对等和动态对等理论。 通过对其定义的阐述，可以更容易地找出这两个概念的优缺点。在此之后，本文将继续简要介绍乔姆斯基的翻译研究。然后本文将在奈达和乔姆斯基的翻译观点中探寻二者的异同之处。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 07:06, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
本文将分为三部分。 首先，在简明扼要地介绍了《当代翻译理论》这一伟大著作之后，本文会着重分析奈达的两个著名翻译理论，即形式对等和动态对等理论。 通过对其定义的阐述，人们可以更容易发现这两个概念的优缺点。在此之后，本文将继续简要地介绍乔姆斯基的翻译研究。然后本文将在奈达和乔姆斯基的翻译观点中探寻二者的异同。<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
<br />
This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation.<br />
<br />
本文将分为三个部分。首先，在简要介绍了伟大的著作《当代翻译理论》之后，重点分析了奈达的两种著名的翻译理论，即形式对等和动态对等。通过给出它们的定义，我们更容易发现这两个概念的优点和缺点。然后，本文将对乔姆斯基的翻译研究进行简要介绍。然后在翻译中找出奈达和乔姆斯基观点的共性和区别。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 11:39, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
该论文将分为三个部分展开。首先，对巨著《当代翻译理论》进行简要介绍之后，此论文将着重分析奈达的两大著名翻译理论，即形式对等和动态对等。通过给出这两大概念的定义，我们更易于发现它们的优缺点。其次，该论文将简单介绍乔姆斯基的翻译研究。最后找出奈达和乔姆斯基的翻译观之间的同和异。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 01:18, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
<br />
'''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br />
<br />
Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). <br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
<br />
He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42).<br />
<br />
他还详细介绍了几种主要的翻译学派：北美翻译研讨会，翻译的“科学”，早期的翻译研究，多元系统翻译和解构。 在这本书中还介绍了该学科不同部分的情况。“根茨勒用他发散的思维观点，从美国翻译研讨会计划，到从解构主义和后殖民翻译理论及以后的多元系统研究来追溯文学翻译研究的发展”--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 12:03, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
他还详细介绍了几种主要的翻译学派：北美翻译培训学派，翻译科学学派，早期翻译研究派，多元体系学派和解构主义学派。本书介绍了该学科不同学派中的情况。 “根茨勒阐述了他发人深省的观点，从多元系统研究的角度，追溯了从美国翻译培训学派至解构主义学派以及后殖民翻译理论中文学翻译的发展”(Xu and Wang 2000:42)。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 08:27, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
<br />
This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation.<br />
<br />
这本书不仅为我们提供了能深刻地将翻译理论化的道路，而且对于翻译实践也行之有效。在本书结尾，他也谈到了翻译的未来趋势，表达了对翻译未来的积极态度。作者将大量复杂的理论素材转化为易于理解的语言，让即使没有读过任何一本关于翻译的书的人也能轻松阅读本书。除此之外，因为本书的每一章节都是分开的，所以你可以单独阅读每一章，而不依赖于你对其他章节的理解。通过这种方法，我们更易于找到自己感兴趣阅读的翻译主题和有价值的信息。根茨勒的书为我们提供了翻译学派迄今为止所取得的成就的精确分析，并给出了他对翻译未来的见解。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 08:13, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
<br />
“This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br />
<br />
In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation.<br />
<br />
“这本书是翻译教材的续本，涵盖了此领域最重要的理论，例如‘相同美感经历、动态对等、相应的文学功能，以及德里达的结构理论‘。尽管有不同的重点，但每种理论都是在思考初始存在和了解目的社会的概念框架中形成的。如今，‘所有的翻译理论对于原文和译文的区分都很生硬。‘“<br />
<br />
在第二章，这本书介绍了美国翻译工作坊。这一章主要介绍了A.里查德的新批判主义和翻译，艾滋拉庞德的细节翻译理论，弗雷德里克翻译和劳伦斯韦努蒂的反思翻译。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 08:05, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“这本书是翻译教材的续本，涵盖了翻译领域最重要的一些理论，比如“相同审美感受力，动态对等，相应文学功能，和德里达的解构理论”。尽管它们的关注点不同，但每种理论都是通过建立思考初始存在性和了解目标社区的概念框架而不断完善的。如今，“所有翻译理论均刻板地将源文本和译文区别开来”。<br />
<br />
在第二章中，本书介绍了美国翻译培训派。本章主要介绍了I. A. 理查兹的新批评理论和翻译，埃兹拉·庞德的细节翻译理论，威尔的翻译的矛盾理论，劳伦斯·韦努蒂对翻译的反思。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 08:45, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
<br />
In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). <br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
<br />
Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48).<br />
<br />
当时迫切需要一个翻译分类理论，翻译“科学”就因此而诞生。本书主要介绍了奈达的形式对等和动态对等，以及乔姆斯基的句法结构和生成转换语法。在这本书中，我将说明我对形式等价和动态等价这两个概念的理解。埃德温•根茨勒在其著作《当代翻译理论》中阐述了动态对等的概念，他认为翻译就是用接受者的语言再现与源语信息最接近、最自然的对等，首先在意义上，其次在风格上。一般来说，译语接受者和译文之间的关系要与源语接受者和原文之间的关系对等。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 02:10, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
因此，它迫切需要一个翻译分类理论，而翻译“科学”也在这一理论的孕育下诞生。本书主要介绍了尤金•奈达(Eugene Nida)的“形式对等”和“动态对等”，以及诺姆•乔姆斯基（Noam Chomsky）的句法结构和生成转换语法。在这本书中，我将说明我对“形式对等”和“动态对等”这两个概念的理解。埃德温•根茨勒（Edwin Gentzler）在其著作《当代翻译理论》中阐述了动态对等的概念，他认为翻译就是用最接近、最自然的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息。一般来说，译语接受者和译文之间的关系要与源语接受者和原文之间的关系对等。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:03, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
<br />
In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br />
list the advantages of dynamic equivalence.<br />
<br />
<br />
奈达的动态对等注重目的语与接受者以及源语言与学习者的感受，他认为这两种感觉应该相似，具体来说就是：“动态对等更注重读者与信息之间的关系，这意味着目标语的读者在读到目标语时反应应该与源语言读者一样”（刘 2012:242）。“目标语中不应该出现消息遗漏或者翻译腔”（朱 2002:203）。如今动态对等的优势便体现在此。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 10:18, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
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“On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays.<br />
<br />
“一方面，动态对等和意译有点像，它强调的是翻译应达到原文一样的效果，而不应受到原文内容和格式的限制。” (Li 2014:112).“它侧重于翻译原文内容的正确方式”(Shakernia 2013:2)另一方面，“它注重读者的反应，并从目标读者的角度分析翻译过程。”(Nida 1995:225)从这方面来看，翻译并不是一项单一的活动，它增加了更多的社会元素从而使翻译更加明确和具体。此外，由于动态对等理论中的分类翻译原则，这一理论更适用于科技类文章的翻译。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 07:20, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
“一方面，动态对等和意译有点相似，它强调译文实现和原文同样的效果，而不受限于原文内容和格式。” (Li 2014:112).“它侧重于翻译原文内容的正确方式”(Shakernia 2013:2)另一方面，“它注重读者反应，并从目标读者角度来分析翻译过程。”(Nida 1995:225)从这方面来看，翻译并不是一项单一的活动，通过增加更多社会元素,翻译变得更加明确更加具体。此外，由于动态对等理论中的分类翻译原则，这一理论更适用于科技类文章的翻译。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 10:52, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
<br />
The dynamic equivalence provides us a detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br />
<br />
However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them.<br />
<br />
动态对等理论为我们在翻译过程中提供了具体的翻译规则，这就让我们在翻译时有法可依，有理可据。这些文章应该是比较正规和正式的。<br />
然而，虽然动态对等理论享誉良多，我们也应对其进行一定的限制。首先，“它只是一种语言转换，忽略了语言承载的文化，导致了文化驯化的现象”（刘2012:245）。事实上，文化差异是客观存在的，谁也无法避免。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 09:29, 5 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
动态对等为我们在翻译过程中提供了一个详细的翻译规则，以便在翻译过程中找到合理的翻译原则。这些文章应该更加正规和正式。<br />
<br />
然而，尽管动态对等理论得到了广泛的赞誉，但仍存在一些局限性。首先，“它只是一种语言转换，忽略了语言所承载的文化信息，导致了文化归化”（刘2012:245）。事实上，文化差异是客观存在的，不可能被避免，任何人都无法避免。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 12:34, 5 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
<br />
If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into "ode to the east wind", because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world.<br />
如果要保持动态对等的翻译，势必会对文化交流产生负面影响。例如,“在中华文化中‘东风’是一个积极的形象，在西方社会认为西风是良好品德”(Shakerni 2013:2)因此,奇怪的是雪莱的西风的歌唱是翻译成“歌唱东风”,因为它会阻碍中国读者对西方世界的了解。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 11:33, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
如果要坚持动态对等翻译，这势必会对文化交流产生负面影响。例如，“东风”在中国文化中是一个积极的形象，而西方社会则认为西风代表着良好的道德”（Shakerni 2013:2），因此，将雪莱的《西风颂》翻译成《东风颂》就非常奇怪，因为这会阻碍中国读者对西方世界的了解。--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 12:06, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
<br />
What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language.<br />
<br />
此外，由于目标读者在性别、年龄、学历、生活经历等方面的差异，判断目标读者是否具有相似的效果是不确定和不现实的。严格地说，读者的反应是一个变量，不能被视作等同于标准效应。最后，文本中的动态对等信息做得很好，就像圣经一样，但是却很难实现文学翻译，文本语言不同于一般语言。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 12:28, 5 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
更重要的是，由于目标读者的性别、年龄、教育背景、生活经历等不同，判断他们是否具有相似的效应是不确定的，也是不现实的。严格来说，读者的反应是一个变量，无法将其视为等同于标准效果。最后，文本中的动态对等信息做得很好，就像《圣经》一样，但很难实现文学翻译，文本语言与一般语言不同。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 00:19, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
<br />
Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br />
<br />
动态对等理论过分强调听众的反应，这有时会牺牲其他因素，如信息的准确性、原语言历史背景的独特性等，而这些因素对翻译对等也至关重要。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 03:52, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content.<br />
<br />
其次，动态对等理论会展现出形式对等。“形式对等是简单的，以源语言为导向的。就像逐字直译一样”(Shakernia 2013:2)。形式对等强调信息本身，既包括形式也包括内容。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 03:52, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
<br />
“One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3).<br />
<br />
==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
<br />
In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holy kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others.<br />
<br />
在讲求形式对等的翻译中，我们要把这句话译为“用圣洁的亲吻和别人打招呼”，可这样的译文似乎有些奇怪，因为读者不明白何为“圣洁的亲吻”。因此，我们需要对此进行解释——在《旧约》中，“圣洁的亲吻”是人们常用的问好方式。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 13:03, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
<br />
在形式对等的翻译中，我们要把这句话译为向他人圣吻问安。但这对读者来说似乎有些奇怪，因为他们不知道圣吻是什么意思。所以我们需要对圣吻进行解释，即在《旧约》中，圣吻通常是人们常用的问好方式。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 15:08, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
<br />
However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different.<br />
<br />
但是，在动态对等中，我们无需考虑结构的对应关系，唯一需要注意的是译语受众的反应。 我们可以将它翻译成“与他人热情地握手”。 从上面的示例中，不难发现这两种对等的侧重点非常不同，因此两者的翻译也会有所不同。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 07:17, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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然而，在动态对等中，我们不需要考虑结构的对应性。我们只需要注意语言受众的反应。我们可以把它翻译成“热情地与他人握手”。从上面的例子中，很明显可以发现这两个对等的重点是非常不同的，因此翻译可能会有所不同。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 11:42, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
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Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223).<br />
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在此，将试着弄清形式对等的优缺点。形式对等最突出的优点之一是，在这种翻译中，"形式对等更加注重源语结构，强调了翻译的准确性"。(Nida 1995:223)。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 05:49, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在此，将试图找出形式对等的优缺点。形式对等最显著的优势之一是，在该翻译中，“形式对等以源语言结构为导向，这对语言的准确性和正确性产生强烈的影响”(Nida 1995:223)。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 07:38, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
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Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language.<br />
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因为形式对等强调对源文本内容和形式的完整记述，所以译文保有与源文本一致的结构。形式对等的另一个优点就是强调准确性。 因为在这个翻译理论中，译者需要在目的语中找到和源语言对应的表达。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 06:09, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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由于形式对等强调原文内容和形式的完整性，因而译文与原文结构一致。形式对等的另一个优点就是强调准确性。因为在这个翻译理论中，目标语言将尝试在源语言中找到对应的表达。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 07:41, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
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For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence<br />
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例如，在把“Please fetch me a glass of water”这个句子译成中文的时候，我们会尽量找到每个词对应的中文词汇。我们会尝试找到每个词，如“请”，“拿来”，“我”等。在汉语中我们可以找到对应的音译为“qing gei wo yi bei shui”。除此之外，让我们看看形式对等有哪些缺点。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 12:35, 5 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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例如，当我们把” Please fetch me a glass of water”这句话翻译成中文时，我们会尽量找到每个词在中文中所对应的词汇。我们会尝试找到每个词，例如“请”，“拿来”，“我”等等。然后我们就可以找到其在中文中所对应的词汇，将其音译为“请给我一杯水”。除此之外，让我们再来看看形式对应的缺点。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 14:17, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
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One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!”<br />
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形式对等一个很明显的缺点就是有时候会忽视原文的意图。因为形式对等也被称之为直译，而作者的意图就有可能被忽视掉了。举例来说，我们经常会听到中国人问，“你吃了吗？实际上这是中国打招呼的一种习惯，那么我们就不能把它翻译成英语的“Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”， 而是要译成“Hello！”或者“Hi！”--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 09:22, 3 November 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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形式对等的一个明显的缺点是有时会忽略原文的意图。因为形式对等也被称之为直译，这样可能会忽略作者的意图。例如，我们经常听到中国人说：“你吃了吗？实际上这是中国打招呼的一种习惯，那么我们就不能把它翻译成英语的“Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”， 而是要译成“Hello！”或者“Hi！"--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 10:15, 4 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
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Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224).<br />
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在这两种理论中，奈达把动态对等放在第一位。 人们将动态对等视为对现代翻译提出的核心贡献。 “奈达重视读者的反应，主张用接受语言的表达习惯，即归化来代替原始文本中的外国文化表现”（奈达，1995：224）。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 13:16, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
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By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) .<br />
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到目前为止，“奈达在翻译研究中取得了很大的成就，他简化了乔姆斯基的理论，只采用了模型的后两部分来验证他的科学” (Gentzler 2001： 52)。“他了解以实践为导向的方法的性质，试图科学地验证他的方法，并将其应用于整个翻译” (Panou，2013： 1)。 --[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 12:32, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
迄今为止，“奈达的翻译研究取得了很大成就。他简化了乔姆斯基的理论，只采用了模型的后两部分来验证其科学性”（根茨勒 2001: 52)。“他了解以实践为导向的方法本质，试图用科学的方式验证他的方法，并将其作为一个整体应用于翻译。”（帕诺 2003: 1)。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 14:15, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
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In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5).<br />
本章还讨论了诺姆·乔姆斯基(Noam Chomsky)对语言学和翻译的贡献。在乔姆斯基看来，语言学是一门科学的研究，我们可以把许多语言学的原则应用到翻译中，因此，翻译也可以说是一门科学的研究。诺姆·乔姆斯基的贡献之一是他提出的“转换生成语法”。“这个理论探讨了人们为什么会说话以及人们如何学习新句子。它是一种关于语言能力的理论。乔姆斯基认为基础和转换构成语法。”(周2019:5)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 12:00, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在本章中还讨论了诺姆·乔姆斯基(Noam Chomsky)对语言学和翻译的贡献。在乔姆斯基看来，语言学是一门科学的研究，我们可以把许多语言学的原则应用到翻译中，因此，翻译也可以说是一门科学的研究。诺姆·乔姆斯基的贡献之一是他提出的“转换生成语法”。“这个理论探讨了人们为什么能够说话以及人们如何学习新句子。它是一种关于语言能力的理论。乔姆斯基认为基础部分和转换过程构成了语法。”--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 12:34, 5 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
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The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241).<br />
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基础形成深层结构，深层结构进而转化成表层结构。词义归属于深层结构。除此之外，“他认为语言是人类独特的自然构成，我们应该更加关注语言能力而不是语言行为”（Zhou 2019: 6）。“TG语法试图揭示特定语法和普遍语法的统一性，探索普遍规则，以期揭示人类的认知系统和人类的本质”（Zhu 2018: 241）。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 14:09, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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基础形成深层结构，深层结构转换为表层结构。词义属于深层结构。此外，“他认为语言是人类独特的自然构成。应该更多地关注语言能力而不是语言行为”（Zhou 2019：6）。 “ TG语法试图揭示特定语法和普遍语法的统一性，探索普遍规则，以期揭示人类的认知系统和人类的本质。”--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 09:05, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
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Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br />
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==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
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'''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br />
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As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54).<br />
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分析：翻译研究概论：理论与应用<br />
“翻译研究概论：理论与应用”是第二本书。这本书出版了四次，非常受欢迎。 《翻译研究概论：理论与应用》仍是翻译研究领域相关理论和概念的权威指南。 第四版已经过全面修订，并继续为理论界提供均衡而详细的指南。 “每种理论都适用于多种语言，如孟加拉语，中文，英语，法语，德语，意大利语，葡萄牙语，旁遮普语，葡萄牙语和西班牙语”--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 10:39, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''分析'' 翻译研究概论：理论与应用''''' <br />
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至于第二本书《翻译研究概论：理论与应用》。这本书出版了四次，非常受欢迎。 《翻译研究概论：理论与应用》仍是翻译研究领域相关理论和概念的权威指南。 第四版已经过全面修订，并继续为理论界提供均衡而详细的指南。 “每种理论都适用于多种语言，如孟加拉语、中文、英语、法语、德语、意大利语、葡萄牙语、旁遮普语、葡萄牙语和西班牙语”--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 12:14, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
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It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research.<br />
这本书从翻译的定义入手，从20世纪以前的翻译理论介绍到了现代翻译理论。书中着重讨论了多个重要翻译理论，如系统翻译理论、多元系统翻译理论、翻译功能理论等。我之所以如此喜欢这本书，是有三个原因的。首先，这本书内容丰富，编排巧妙，便于读者阅读。它用一个介绍性的列表来清晰地呈现关键术语,想法和主要文本,并详细说明书中所讨论的模式，问题和说明性案例研究。这个介绍性的列表应用到了章节中并评估了章节的主要样式，而且提出进一步阅读的建议，简短评估本章的总结以及一系列讨论和研究要点，以激发进一步的思考和研究。<br />
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==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
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I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br />
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==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
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Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br />
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==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
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Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br />
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第三，在最后的注释和索引之前，书中囊括了一个与翻译研究相关的网站的附录。这些网站包括两个发布会议、最新出版物和研究信息的网站，六个国际翻译期刊网站和四个通常包含有用链接的翻译组织网站。这样，读者能够更容易地在网站上搜索信息，进行进一步的阅读和学习。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 10:29, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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第三，在最后注释和索引之前，该书包括与翻译研究相关的网站附录。其中包括两个公布会议信息、最近的出版物和研究的网站、六个国际翻译期刊网站和四个经常包含有用链接的翻译组织网站。这样，读者就更容易在网上搜索信息，以便进一步阅读和学习。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:12, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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第三，在最后注释和索引之前，该书收录了有关翻译研究的网站。其中包括两个公布会议信息、最近的出版物和研究的网站、六个国际翻译期刊网站和四个经常包含有用链接的翻译组织网站。这样，方便读者在网上检索信息，以便进一步阅读和学习。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 14:00, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
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Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18).<br />
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现在，让我们继续讨论这本书的内容。在第二章中，这本书列举了关于“逐字翻译”和“意义”翻译的争论，这是翻译理论中占主导地位的争论。“忠实翻译”是试图在两者间寻求一个折中点。许多伟大的翻译家都反对逐字翻译，他们提倡有意义的翻译”（Munday 2013:18）。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 07:29, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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现在，让我们继续讨论这本书的内容。在第二章中，这本书列举了关于“逐字翻译”和“意义”翻译这两种在翻译理论中占主导地位的争论。“忠实翻译”是试图在两者间寻求一个折中点。许多伟大的翻译家都反对逐字翻译，他们提倡有意义的翻译”（Munday 2013:18）。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 13:19, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
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For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''.<br />
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例如，西塞罗强烈反对逐字翻译，他说：“我认为没有必要逐字逐句地翻译，但我保留了语言的一般风格和力量”（Munday 2013:19）。“随着圣经和其他宗教、哲学文本的翻译，直译和意译的问题已经持续了一千多年”（Munday 2013:22）。至于《圣经》的翻译，必须提到马丁·路德，他对《新约》和后来《旧约》的翻译产生了重大影响。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 07:32, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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例如，西塞罗强烈反对逐字翻译，说“我认为没有必要逐字呈现，但我保留了语言的一般风格和力量” (芒迪，2013： 19)。“自由和文字翻译问题与”圣经“和其他宗教和哲学文本的翻译一起存在了 1000 多年” (Munday 2013： 22)。至于“圣经”的翻译，必须提到马丁 · 路德的主要影响是他对“新约”和后来的“旧约”的翻译。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 12:35, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
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Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard.<br />
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马丁·路德（Martin Luther）呼吁对翻译的本质进行根本性变革。“在那个年代，欧洲人只能阅读到《圣经》的拉丁文译本。这就意味着大多数人无法阅读到母语版本的《圣经》。”(Stolt 2014:373). 斯托尔特（Stolt）尤为关注德国读者。此处，他支持“在翻译中使用纯粹、直白的德语，也支持在翻译中构建新的语言”。因此，斯托尔特在他自己翻译的《圣经》译本中使用了非文学翻译方法。(Stolt 2014:373). 斯托尔特虽然使用的是一种方言，但是这种方言在社会上使用甚广。他意在促使在翻译中使用德语，开创这样一种新的标准，不过他花费了漫长的时间。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:48, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
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“His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules.<br />
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“他的出发点是让读者与听众保持交流，但当时圣经手稿译本的听众是由学者组成，而非讲德国本土方言的普通民众。”(Stolt 2014:374). 由于马丁·路德致力于德语的《圣经》翻译，德国人现在就能顺畅地读《圣经》。稍后，本书将谈及德莱顿、多莱特、泰特勒的翻译原则。书中将侧重讲泰特勒的翻译原则，因为多莱特提出的是翻译五原则而泰特勒提出了翻译三原则。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 06:28, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
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They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language.<br />
第一，译者应该完全复写出原作的思想。第二，译者的风格和笔调应与原文的性质相同。第三，译文应和原文同样流畅。（芒迪 2013:26）这里我们可以看到，泰特勒追求的是源语与目的语的平衡。译者在翻译时必须能够运用恰当的笔调和技巧。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:24, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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首先，翻译需要完全传递原作的思想。第二，译者的风格和笔调必须和原作一致。第三，译文莺歌原文一样流畅。”（Munday 2013:26）我们从这里可以看到，泰特勒追求的是源语与目的语之间的平衡。译者在翻译为目的语时，需运用适当的笔法和技巧。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 02:20, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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首先，译文应该完全表达出原文所体现的思想。第二，译文的写作风格和写作手法必须和原文保持一致。第三，译文的语言应该和原文一样流畅。”（Munday 2013:26）. 我们从这里可以看到，泰特勒追求的是源语与目的语之间的平衡。译者使用目的语翻译时，必须运用精确的笔法和技巧。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 06:31, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
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For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language.<br />
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例如，“两个句子表达相同的含义，但是它们的写作风格不同”（习 2009:41）。一个句子是“星期一早上，公园通常人满为患”，另一个是“星期一早上，公园吸引了很多人”。显然，第一句语气消极，而第二句语气积极。这两句都传达相同的含义，但语气和风格不一。要成为一名优秀的译者，你需要熟练地将源语的风格引入到目的语中。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 08:34, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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例如，“有两个句子表达相同的意思，但它们的写作风格不同”(习 2009:41)。一个是在星期一早上，公园里通常挤满了人。另一个是周一早上，公园吸引了很多人。很明显，第一句表达消极的情绪，而第二句是表达积极的情绪。这两个句子表达的意思相同，但语气和风格却不同。要成为一名优秀的译者，你需要善于将源语言的相同风格引入目标语言。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 10:33, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
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The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies.<br />
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他的翻译原则优点如下：首先，“他摒弃了传统翻译二分法，试图不用有争议的术语例如直译、意译以更好、更清晰地呈现其翻译原则（別和黄 2007:164）。在此，在其翻译原则中，我们看不到直译及意译这种在翻译学中会引起歧义的词。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 14:32, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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他的翻译原则优势在于：首先，“他摒弃了传统的翻译二分法，尽量避免使用直译、意译等有争议的术语，以更好地呈现其翻译原则”（白和黄 2007：164）。因此，我们在其翻译原则中看不到直译、意译这种在翻译学中会引起歧义的词。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 02:08, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
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Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his "picture" the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original.<br />
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其次，“他阐明并扩大了人们关于译者即画家的隐喻的理解。 在他看来，他主张译者的工作与画家截然不同”（Bie和Huang，2007：166）。 尽管译者使用的颜色与原始颜色不同，但他必须为“图片”赋予相同的功能和效果。译者无法复制原始样式，但必须使用自己的样式来翻译完美的原作。他研究模仿的内容越多，他的副本就越无法体现原著的轻松和精神。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 03:26, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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其次，“他阐述并拓展了人们对译者即画家这一隐喻的理解。在他看来，他认为译者的工作和画家截然不同。”（(Bie and Huang 2007: 166）。尽管译者没有使用和之前一致的色彩，他必须让他的“绘画”具有原来的力量和效果。译者无法复制原作的风格，但是在翻译完美的原作时必须融入自己的风格。他越是研究仿作，他的仿作就越不能重现原作的从容和精神气。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 06:23, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
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Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). <br />
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==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
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Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu.<br />
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泰特勒指出，“这三个原则有一个必要的顺序。 顺序安排适当，自然，并根据其对翻译的重要性进行安排的，不能随便更改。”（Firdaus 2012：287）。 这样，我们可以得出结论，他的想法是，在需要牺牲某种原则的情况下，翻译者应注意翻译原则顺序的重要性。 译者不能以牺牲原文翻译的忠实性为代价来获得优美流畅的译文。 泰特勒的翻译对后来的翻译研究产生了很大的影响，对后来的译者，例如我们中国的伟大译者严复，也产生了很大的影响。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 07:36, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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泰特勒指出，这三个原则有一个必要的顺序。 顺序安排需要适当、自然、并根据其对不能随便更改的翻译的重要性进行安排”（Firdaus 2012：287）。 这样，我们可以得出结论，他的想法是，在需要牺牲某种原则的情况下，翻译者应注意翻译原则顺序的重要性。 译者不能以牺牲原文翻译的忠实性为代价来获得优美流畅的翻译。 泰特勒的翻译对后来的翻译研究产生了很大的影响，对后来的译者，例如我们的中国伟大译者严复，也产生了很大的影响。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 07:56, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
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Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br />
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这里我们将列出严复的翻译理论，然后我们可以对严复的翻译原则和泰勒的翻译原则作一个简单的比较。“严复是中国伟大的学者和翻译家，他将19世纪末达尔文的自然选择学说等西方思想引入中国，并因此声名鹊起。”（王2008:70）正如史春兰、赵薇在《论严复的“信达雅”和泰勒的翻译三原则——以比较翻译为例》中提出的观点一样，严复在其译著《天演论》的序言中提出了翻译的三大难点：信、达、雅。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 12:00, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
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“Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br />
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It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories.<br />
“信”意味着对原文或者原意的一种全方面完整的表达或者转换。“信”要求巧妙地表达出原文意思。“达”要求译文清楚，在语法和逻辑上没有错误。译文要灵活地表达原文的内容。“雅”意味着译文和原文在风格上有相似性。也就是说，译文的措辞要和原文尽可能相似。仔细分析就会发现，这两种翻译理论很明显有着许多相似的地方。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 07:05, 4 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“信”意指全面透彻地传达原文本、原思想。“信”强调用正确方式表达出源信息的内容。“达”要求译文必须表意清晰，没有任何语法错误，没有混淆逻辑，没有混淆时态。“达”还要求译文必须自如地传达源信息的内容。“雅”指目的译文必须在风格上与原文本类似。(2005:96)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 03:02, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
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Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br />
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==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
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It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors.<br />
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这两种翻译理论之间的差异是显而易见的。第一，“两者思维方式不同。严复并未对其翻译理论做出明确而详细的阐释。相反，这依赖于他人对其翻译理论的解释（Xi 2009:41）。正如一句话，“一言不发，万事大吉”。要更好地理解严复的翻译理论，就必须联系与反思各位先知的的伟大思想。<br />
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这两种翻译理论之间有许多差异，这是清晰明了的。第一，“思维方式不同。严复并未对其翻译理论做出明确详细的阐述， 反而是他人对其翻译理论进行解释”（Xi 2009:41）正如常言道：“一切尽在不言中”。要更好地理解严复的翻译理论，就必须联系与反思祖先的伟大思想。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 14:46, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
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As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text.<br />
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众所周知，“传统的中国思维方式是感性的，这往往会使该理论变得模糊和被接受。然而，西方十分重视理性思维，这使理论变得更加具体。”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98)。西方的思维方式强调理性思维，强调对事物和人的理性理解。此外，“它专注于对事物和人的形式理解”（Shi and Zhao 2005:98)。因此，泰特勒的三种翻译原则都尊重原始文本的客体。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 08:08, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
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And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br />
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Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). <br />
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==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
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One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance.<br />
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严复翻译标准的最大特点之一是语义含混。但事实上，“严复偏重于意译，为达，即所以为信也”（席，2009:41）。因为在翻译的过程中，传达原文的形式和风格时，除了追求原文的“达”，其次求“信”亦大难矣（席，2009:42）。因此，我们可以得出一个结论：求信乃译事之根本，其次求“达”，最后求“雅”。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 06:31, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
严复翻译标准的一个重要的特征是语义模糊。但事实上，“严复偏重于意译，为达，即所以为信也。”（席，2009:41）“因为在翻译的过程中，传达原文的形式和风格时，除了追求原文的‘达’，其次‘信’亦大难矣。”（席，2009:42）因此，我们可以得出结论，在他的三个原则中，求“信”乃译事之根本，其次求“达”，最后求“雅”。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 12:19, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
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We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text.<br />
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我们应当遵循“原意”的一般原则，只有这样，我们才能有合理的逻辑去对信达雅的重要性排序。尽管泰特勒认为他所提出的三原则的顺序是恰当的，自然的并且不能更改的，但他仍然建议，为了忠实的传递原文内容，必要时我们可以牺牲掉其流利度和优美性。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 01:26, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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我们应当遵循“原意”的一般原则，只有这样我们才能够有合理的逻辑对“信，达，雅”按照重要性进行排序。“然而泰特勒认为他所提出的三个原则是恰当的，自然的并且不能被更改的”（Wang 2008:71).泰特勒建议，为了实现忠于原文的翻译，我们可以牺牲掉对于原作优美性和流畅性的追求。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 03:51, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
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“If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br />
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Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73).<br />
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“如果我们必须放弃他提出的某个原则，他建议我们放弃最不重要的一个，即第三个原则”（王，2008:71）。换言之，这是对原有“风格和效能”的首次牺牲。此外，原画的风格和意境必须被传达出来，这样才是忠实的画面感。 <br />
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第三，“这两种翻译理论在价值取向方面是不同的。造成这种差异的原因是东西方注重实践和理论的学术传统的不同”（王，2008:73）。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 02:15, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
<br />
As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style.<br />
<br />
众所周知，中国传统翻译更注重实践而非理论。翻译思想应指导翻译实践，具有参考价值。严复的“信达雅”起初是用于描述翻译中的困难，而不是作为翻译标准。他从自己的实践中总结，关心的是实践而非理论。然而，西方译者把实践和理论放在同一层次上。泰特勒的三原则是三个层面的困难，从内容忠实到鲜明的风格。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:08, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
众所周知，中国的传统翻译重实践而轻理论，认为翻译思想应指导实践并具备参考价值。严复的“信达雅”原本是用于描述翻译的困难，而不是作为翻译标准。他从自己的实践经验中进行总结，关心的是实践而非理论。然而，西方译者把实践和理论置于同等地位。泰特勒的三原则对三个层次的困难作了详细描述，包括从内容的忠实到不同的风格。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 08:34, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
<br />
The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode.<br />
<br />
所反映的逻辑形式清晰而明显，与隐含的“信、达、雅”的翻译原则有明显的不同。 “西方翻译理论侧重于详细的分析，合理的抽象和理论演绎，并注重语言表达中逻辑的组织、层次和清晰度”（Wang 2008：73）。 在传统哲学的影响下，西方翻译理论在整个过程中具有强烈的主体客体感。 以“达”为例，严复的“达”和泰特勒的第三条原则“翻译应还原译文原始结构”具有大致相同的含义，但显然它们的思维方式是不同的。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 07:36, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
所反映的逻辑形式清晰而明显，与隐含的“信、达、雅”三个翻译原则有明显的不同。 “西方翻译理论侧重于详细的分析，合理的抽象和理论演绎，并注重语言表达中逻辑的组织，层次和清晰度”（Wang 2008：73）。 在传统哲学的影响下，西方翻译理论在整个过程中具有强烈的主观客体感。 以“达”为例，严复的“达”和泰特勒的第三条原则“翻译应还原译文的原始结构”具有大致相同的含义，但显然它们的思维方式是不同的。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 07:48, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
<br />
“The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism.<br />
<br />
“中国人的思维模式是直觉和理解，而英国人的思维模式是逻辑和理性，这对每种语言都产生了深刻的影响”(Chen 2012:126)。在这个意义上，理解与理性思考的区别以及对原文的尊重程度就能得到最好的体现。最后，“这两种翻译理论的动机是不同的。严复的标准是有目的的，旨在引起精英的注意”(Wang 2008:73)。严复翻译的西方文学作品主要是西方资本主义时期的伟大名著。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 04:43, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“中国人采用直觉和理解的思维方式，而英国人则遵循逻辑和理性的思维方式，这对每种语言都产生了深远的影响”(陈2012:126)。在这种程度上，可以最好地反映出理解与理性思维之间的差异以及对原始文本的尊重程度。最后，“这两种翻译理论的动机是不同的。严复的标准是有目的的，旨在引起精英的注意”(王2008:73)。 严复从翻译过来的西方文学作品，主要是西方资本主义时期的伟大名著。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 14:02, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
<br />
“He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
<br />
'''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br />
<br />
'''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br />
<br />
Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).”<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
<br />
In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''.<br />
<br />
在《翻译研究概论：理论与应用》中，作者列出了每个翻译研讨会对翻译的贡献和成就的介绍（刘、邓，2010：54）。这两本书在安排上的差异在于，在《翻译研究概论：理论与应用》一书中增加了一个案例研究，以扩大读者对本书所列翻译研究的影响。此外，本书还增加了案例研究的讨论，总的来说，进一步的阅读、讨论以及研究要点，是当代翻译研究所缺乏的。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 13:56, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
<br />
These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br />
<br />
'''2.From the content of the material'''<br />
<br />
Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111).<br />
这些对《翻译研究导论:理论与应用》这本书的补充部分帮助读者拓展个人研究，也帮助读者把理论知识与翻译实践联系起来。<br />
'''2.从文本内容看'''<br />
两本书都列举了各自翻译培训班的主要贡献，但是他们的关注点和方法不同。在《现代翻译理论》中，作家将“分析各自翻译培训班的优缺点，并且研究这些翻译培训班之间的相互关系，还至少描述了各自翻译理论对世界的重要性并且对各翻译理论的假定提出了问题。”(李 2014:111)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 14:07, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
《翻译研究导论：理论与应用》的补充部分帮助读者拓展个人研究，更好结合理论知识与翻译实践。<br />
<br />
2. 从内容上看：<br />
这两本书都列举了各自翻译工作坊的主要贡献，但它们的侧重点和方法有所不同。在《当代翻译理论》中，作者先“分析各翻译工作坊的优劣势，然后研究工作坊之间的相互关系，再描述各翻译理论对世界的重要性，最后针对这些理论成立的前提发问。”(李 2014:111)--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 01:40, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book.<br />
<br />
在《翻译研究介绍:理论与应用》一书中，作者首先简要介绍了章节目录，然后对各翻译研讨会的介绍进行了详细阐述。为了使这本书更加准确，作者还在书中列出了总结、案例研究、研究讨论、深入阅读和讨论以及研究要点，让读者对这本书有一个更加全面的了解。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 05:48, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
<br />
Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'',<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
<br />
the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic.<br />
<br />
作者对庞德的翻译思想提出了疑问：”“他是在谈论直觉，揣测作者的意愿，还是在做什么?”(Gentzler 2001:20)<br />
继这个问题之后，作者就庞德的翻译思想提出了自己的观点，强调译者既应该在传统之内，也应该在任何制度化逻辑之外。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 07:43, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
作者对庞德的翻译思想提出了疑问，“他是在说直觉，猜测作者的原意，还是别的什么?”(Gentzler 2001:20)<br />
在这个问题之后，作者对庞德的翻译思想提出了自己的看法，强调译者既应该在传统之内，也应该在任何制度化逻辑之外。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 10:21, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
作者对庞德的翻译思想提出了疑问，“他是在谈论直觉，揣测作者的意图，还是在做什么别的?”(Gentzler 2001:20)<br />
在这个问题之后，作者就庞德的翻译思想提出了自己的看法，强调译者既应在传统之内，也应在任何制度化逻辑之外。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 01:35, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
<br />
While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches.<br />
<br />
在“翻译研究导论：理论与应用”提问题这一点上更为明显。 在每一章的末尾，作者将在讨论和研究要点中提出几个问题。 这些问题中的一些可以在教科书中找到答案，而另一些则需要读者进行其他研究。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 07:49, 5 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在“翻译研究导论：理论与应用”提出问题这一点上尤为显著。在章节末，作者会在讨论部分和研究要点上给出他的几个问题。这些问题中的一些可以在课本中找到答案，而另一些则需要读者做一些额外的研究。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 07:50, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
<br />
'''Conclusion:'''<br />
<br />
All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books.<br />
<br />
结论<br />
总之，本文通过对这两本书的详细介绍和对翻译理论的详细分析，希望有助于读者更好地理解这两本书。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 00:10, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
结论<br />
<br />
总而言之，本文对这两本书做了详细介绍并对翻译理论进行详尽分析，目的在于希望能够有助于读者更好地理解这两本书。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 02:12, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
<br />
After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation.<br />
<br />
通过对奈达翻译理论中的两种理论的深入分析，以及对泰特勒翻译三原则与严复翻译原则的比较，这更有利于读者理解翻译的基本规则。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 04:30, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
对奈达翻译理论中的两种理论进行深入分析，并将泰特勒翻译三原则与严复翻译原则进行比较，更有利于读者理解翻译的基本规则。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 05:47, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
<br />
And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text.</div>Hu Huifanghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies&diff=102939History of Translation Studies2020-11-01T13:41:24Z<p>Hu Huifang: /* Comparative Studies */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
=Acknowledgement=<br />
I am indebted to the more than 300 students of the Master Course "Introduction to Translation Studies" conducted in the two fall terms 2019/2020 and 2020/2021 at Hunan Normal University, Foreign Studies College. They have enriched this monograph with their ideas, their creativity and the top students even have contributed short passages to this book on single aspects. They have also helped to arrange that the monograph could appear in different languages simultaneously.<br />
The Foreign Studies College is one of the top places of Translation and Interpreting Studies in China.<br />
=Foreword=<br />
Interpretation theories and interpretation studies are as old as human languages, since interpretation practise is not just necessary between full fledged languages, but is practised as soon as two different individuals meet, like a grandmother and her grandchild. The first lay interpreters naturally reflected on their interpreting work and this was the start of theories and studies. As soon as written language was invented, critical reflection also started and with it translation theories and translation studies.<br />
<br />
The first thoughts about transponing the meaning of one language into a similar one of another language were prescriptive with precepts and principles, sometimes exaggerated into dogma and people not adhering to them being tortured or murdered.<br />
<br />
In the 1960s, the translation studies started to become aware of itself as an academic discipline.<br />
=Introduction=<br />
<br />
=The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation=<br />
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=Western Translation Theories=<br />
=='''Impacts of Western Translation Theories on The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish'''==<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' In the west, studies on translation practices and theories have walked through the recorded history of over two thousand years, during which there exist various characters, theories, schools of translation, exerting great influences on translators an translating activities at present. The book ''The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish'' has discussed the “Chinglish” by English learners and translators in China. The author’s outlooks on translation also have shown the ideologies of western translation theories.<br />
<br />
'''Keywords:''' Western translation theories; Translation history; Translator’s Guide to Chinglish; <br />
<br />
'''摘要：'''据记载，西方翻译理论与实践的历史已达两千余年，这其中不乏各大翻译家、翻译理论和翻译流派等，他们都对如今的翻译工作者和翻译活动产生了深远的影响。《中式英语之鉴》这本书讨论了中国英语学习者和翻译工作者的“中式英语”问题。作者在此书中的观点体现着西方的翻译理论思想。<br />
<br />
'''关键词：'''西方翻译理论；翻译史；《中式英语之鉴》<br />
<br />
'''I. Introduction'''<br />
<br />
Translating sets forth on its journey a long time ago. It has been over 2200 years since Livius Andronicus translated Homer’s Odyssey from Greek into Latin around 250 BC, which is the earliest activity of translating from recorded history. Throughout history, translation is not only involved in politics,culture, religion, language and so forth, but also keeps changing as times and social conditions roll on. On grounds of the changes of targets and contents of translation history, considering the specific periods of people’s apprehension of translation and the roles translation plays in society of different times, researchers divided the history of western translation into 3 parts, translation of religious materials, translation of literary classics and translation of non-literary materials. <br />
<br />
The division of western translation history varies from person to person in circles of translation. Generally speaking, from about 250 BC when people translated ''Septuagint'' into Greek to the 16th century when the translation of the Bible prevailed, it is the historical period of translating religious materials, followed by period of translation of literature mainly from literary classics and great works of social sciences.(Wu & Shu 2011:76) After the Second World War, however, translation of non-literary and practical materials began to exert influence as a major force. <br />
<br />
In the west, studies on translation practices and theories have walked through the recorded history of over two thousand years, which is very close to the one in China. Nevertheless, China had made little progress with translation studies because of closed-door policy. Before years around 1980s, the systematic study on theories of western translation had been left incomplete in China, where few books and papers related were published. And even in the western countries, there existed similar situations. However, studies on theories of western translation has made appreciable development since 1980s, especially the books on history of western translation theory written by Rener, Robinson, etc. These books and materials are indisputably of great value for us to take a closer look at theories of western translation, yet it is very hard for people of Chinese cultures to search, unearth and analyse the history of translation theories in the backgrounds of western cultures. As Tan Zaixi put it in his book ''The Brief History of Western Translation'', “From ancient times, translation in the west has been proceeding for over two thousand years, along with extraordinary translators and divergent theories, which can not be expound within twenty or thirty thousand words.”(Tan 1991:1) And for translation studies as a independent discipline, it is a very meaningful job to study translation and its theories from all over the world, which includes the western translation theories. <br />
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Accordingly, while studying the history of western translation theories, we must understand the necessity of describing the development of western translation theories in a proper way and figure out how they are classified, especially for theories of modern and contemporary times. Based on the fundamental way of studying translation or ideologies of various schools, now people would usually divide translation studies into literary school, linguistic school and cultural school. The literary school includes the traditional philological approach and the hermernutic approach; the linguistic school consists of the equivalence approach, the functional approach and the cognitive approach; the cultural school covers translation studies approach, deconstruction approach, feminism approach, post-colonial approach and the integrated approach, of which translation studies approach can be further divided into polysystem theory, the norm theory and the manipulation theory. By contributing new thoughts to this discussion, the study aims to reach more consensus among translation studies scholars in this aspect.<br />
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'''II. School Classification''' <br />
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Beyond dispute, it’s practicable that people describe the history of western translation theories by dividing them into different schools in light of theories and ideologies of translation studies. With the modernization and integration of economy in western society, western translation theories also begin to get over the hurdles in the way of mutual development and blur the distinction among nationalities, which makes it harder to owe some ideology or theory of translation to a certain country or area. For instance, Gideon Toury was famous in the west but lived in Israel. In contrast, when some ideology or theory is proposed by someone in some place, it can probably be responded to or supported by scholars from all corners of the world. They hold it up totally out of agreement with the points someone makes, not necessarily where the points come from. Another example, Eugene A. Nida, who put forward the idea of “functional equivalence”, is American, but Kade, who is his supporter, comes from German. Therefore, it might be easier to understand the present situation and trends of western translation theories from levels of translation schools and ideologies, especially for theories of contemporary and modern times.<br />
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As one would expect, it is just one of the methods to classify western translation theories on the basis of translation schools or ideologies. From a perspective of historical development, it would be a more traditional way to classify western translation theories by times and nations. This diachronic way of studying it helps to organize the historical materials clearly and make profitable comparisons among traditions and characteristics of translation theories among western countries and regions, which enables people to understand the distribution and trends of western translation theories with an open mind. On the other hand, the diachronic way also describes the divergence and amalgamation of western translation theories. To give an example, the debate between free and literal translation never ends during which the eclecticism occurred and then literal translation was overtaken by free translation; the transfer from regarding the words as translation units to viewing sentences, discourses and even the whole passages as translation units... and so on. Despite that, as for studies on western translation theories, it is not the best way to do it only by a certain means. If we completely choose the way of describing the history of western translation theories by dividing them into different schools in light of theories and ideologies of translation studies, the relation between translation theories and specific cultural environment of society may be ambiguous and so is the relation between diachronic and synchronic development of translation. If we only decide on a more traditional way to classify western translation theories by times and nations, our research and description will inevitably be in need of subjects of translation theories. To avoid such deficiencies, we must adopt a way combining both means mentioned above to study western translation theories. In other words, we must take into consideration not only the historical connection between theories and ideas of translation but also the relation of translation theories with the specific social and cultural environment. Only by doing so, our research would be able to describe the whole process of western translation theories from an objective perspective. <br />
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From what we have mentioned above, we view western translation theories from two sides. First, we view it from the respect of historical development steadily. Cicero, was the first translation theorist in the west during times of Roman empire. As a rhetorician and orator, he categorized translation into ones by “ut interpres” and “ut orator” for the first time. Translation by “ut interpres” means translation of no creativity but translation by “ut orator” means translation of creativity which may even rival the original. As a matter of fact, Cicero put forward two fundamental ways of translating and pioneered the study of theories and methods of translation. Since Cicero’s studies on translation, western translation theories have been dealing with arguments between free translation and literal translation, word-for-word translation and excessively free translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness and so forth. <br />
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Besides Cicero, there are an abundance of excellent translation theorists in western translation history, who have proposed assorted theories and ideas from different angles in different times. In ancient times, aside from Cicero’s categorization of “literal translation” and “free translation”, Marcus Fabius Quintlianus thought that the target ought to compete with the original; St. Jerome believed that people were supposed to follow the rules of literal translation when translating ''the Bible'' and use free translation when it came to literary classics; St. Augustine held the view that translation was inspired by God. In the Middle Ages, Manlius Boethius promoted the literal translation that would rather keep “faithful” than “elegant”; Dante was of the opinion that “works of literature are untranslatable”. During the Renaissance, Desiderius Erasmus believed that translation was not a subjection to authority of religious beliefs and translation of ''the Bible'' depended on the language of a translator; Martin Luther held the view of humanism that texts must be rendered in the people’s language; Etienne Dolet reckoned that people translated on “five principles” of understanding the content of the original, being proficient in the original language and the target language, avoiding word-for-word translation, expounding in simple languages and focusing on the style of the target text. From the 17th to 19th century, Charles Batteux was of the opinion that author was the master and translator was the servant, whose work were not allowed to be amplified, to omit and change the wording of the original; John Dryden categorized translating into metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation and he thought translation was some kind of art; Tytler put forward three principles that the target reflected the ideas exactly the original conveyed, the style and skills the target used should be of the same characteristics of the original and the target should be as expressive as the original; Friedrich Schleiermacher made a distinction between translation and interpretation, literal translation and mechanical translation; Humboldt believed his theories that language decided the translatability and untranslatability of the world; Matthew Arnold thought whether a translation was good or not depended on the experts; Francis W. Newman had the idea that it were common readers, not the experts,who determined the criteria of translation. In the 20th century, we have Fedolov’s theories that people should study translation theories from linguistics first and translation theories is categorized into history, introduction and arguments of translation; we have Roman Jakobson’s three classification of interlingual translation, intralingual translation and intersemiotic translation; we have Levy’s thoughts that “translating should make reader have an illusion of the original”, “translating is a deciding process”; we have Gachechiladze’s theories on literary translation that “translation is always a artistic and realistic reflection of the original” and “ translation of literature and art is a artistic work”; we have Carford’s theories of linguistics that translation should reach an equivalence of context; Nida thought “translating is a science”, “translating is communicating” and there exists equivalence between the readers of the original and the target; Mounin’s view of modern linguistics on translation theories; Paul Valery emphasized that the target needed to break the limits of the original. All the thoughts and ideas mentioned above have constituted the most essential parts of western translation theories.<br />
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Furthermore, we could look at the whole system of western translation theories from the other side, which is the schools of ideology. There are two branches of it: translation theories of literature and art and linguistics theories of translation. The school of translation of literature and art stems from the early drama by Terentius in Ancient Rome, ucceeded by Levy and Gachechiladze in modern times, and continues to thrive in the 21st century. People of this branch perceive translation as a kind of literary art, which draws attention to recreation of literature. Theorists have been discussing the defects and merits between faithfulness and unfaithfulness, word-for-word translation and excessively free translation, literal translation and free translation and so on. Besides, they also foreground the purposes and effects of translation. They stress both the original and the literary attributes of the language of it., as well as the idiomatic expression and tradition of literature of the original that people must respect whiling translating. They not only zero in on the style and literariness of the text very much but the talent of literature a translator or interpreter should possess. The school of linguistic theories of translation is from Augustine and people of traditional linguistics or philology in Ancient Rome to various schools of modern linguistics in the 20th and 21st century. For this situation, the core lies in language. People of this school, who think that the goal of translating is to reach the equivalence between the original and the target, combine translation theories with analysis of semantic and syntactic functions and talk on issues of translation from the characteristics of structure and sentence-making skills of a language so as to show how the equivalent texts are made from words, grammars and other features of a language. <br />
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From either branches we can see that they have their own advantages and disadvantages. Translation theories of literature and art give an emphasis to the purposes and results of translating and the artistic effects from a macroscopic view, but neither pay much heed to practical process of translating and skills of using a language nor care about whether the target and the original reach the equivalence of structures. Linguistics theories of translation is also not spotless because some theories don’t stress the aesthetic functions and ignore the recurrences of works of literature and art. They mostly focus on the structure of a language to and theoretically are limited to word, sentence or syntax only, which disregards the main structure of a text and the structure of discourse and the cultural features to a larger extent.<br />
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However, no matter it is the branch of translation theories of literature and art or linguistics theories of translation, they are not completely isolated but complement each other. Although either of two branches has its own shortcomings, there is no translation theorist of literature and art who could talk about the artistic value of literary works divorced from linguistic issues; there is no theorist of linguistics who could be immersed in linguistic structures of a text without issues of aesthetics.<br />
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'''III. About ''The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish'''''<br />
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Joan Pinkham, a professional translator from the U.S., published the book ''The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish'' in 2000. She worked for the Foreign Languages Press and Central Compilation and Translation Bureau in China for 8 years from 1980s to 1990s. It is one of the few books by westerners that systematically discuss the “Chinglish” issues in China. In the years working for the Foreign Languages Press and Central Compilation and Translation Bureau, her job was to revise and polish the drafts from Chinese translators, which was inevitably affected by Chinese and mindset of Chinese people. For that reason, Pinkham got to know many English translations with “Chinese characteristics” and wrote this book. ''The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish'' consists of three parts, Unnecessary Words, Sentence Structure and Supplementary Examples, which reveal lots of mistakes Chinese translators tend to make. <br />
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First of all let’s take a look at examples given in the fist chapter:<br />
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promoting the cause of peaceful reunification;<br />
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reforms in the sphere of economy;<br />
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to ensure a relationship of close cooperation between.<br />
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Phrases like these can often be seen in some English papers or periodicals and they seem to make sense to English learners or translators in China. But the author regards them as negative examples in the first chapter of the first part, Unnecessary Nouns. The author mentioned that “Many of these nouns are easy to recognize. They are plainly redundant because their sense is already included or implied in some other element of sentence.”(Liu 2002:34) in the book. Here the author perceives nouns like “cause”, “sphere” and “relationship” as “category nouns”, which are the general nouns that sever only to introduce a specific noun to follow. Let’s take the first phrase as an example. In such constructions, the first noun announces the category of the second; in this case, it tells the readers that “promoting” falls into the category of “cause.” That is something they already know. Accordingly, the first noun should be deleted: “ promoting peaceful reunification.”(Pinkham 2000:16) It is the same for other two examples. What’s more, the first chapter also involves “Unnecessary Verbs.” Examples are as follows:<br />
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to bring about a change in this state of affairs;<br />
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until China realizes its modernization;<br />
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trying to entice the Korean army to launch an attack against them.<br />
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“Like unnecessary nouns, most unnecessary verbs in Chinglish occur in phrases. Usually they are combined with nouns (plus the inevitable articles and prepositions that nouns bring with them).”(Pinkham 2000:34) The commonest type is phrases like these. As for “to bring about a change in this state of affairs”, here the verb (“bring about”) is a weak, colorless, all purpose word having no very specific meaning of its own, while the real action is expressed in the noun(“change”). Since the verb is not contributing anything to the sense, it can be edited out: “change this state of affairs.” <br />
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In the second chapter, the author talks about Unnecessary Modifiers, which is not a problem easy to cope with for Chinese translators because it covers the issue of whether they should be used and using the modifiers properly. Five types of unnecessary modifiers are listed, redundant modifiers, self-evident modifiers, intensifiers, qualifiers and cliches. But the author especially points out that it is not appropriate to revise some accepted phrases, which are related to some national policies, even if they have unnecessary modifiers in the sentences, because this may cover political affairs. <br />
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In the third and forth chapter the author talks on Redundant Twins and Saying the Same Thing Twice. For instance, views and opinions, help and assistance, stir up and incite, sentiments and feelings, prudent and cautious. The author classifies the redundant words into three groups according to the relation between synonyms and clauses and offers corresponding reversion. And she adds that examples of redundant synonyms are too many to list even for native English speakers; for example, rules and regulations, bits and pieces, by leaps and bounds, betwixt and between, by hook or by crook, huffing and puffing. After centuries of development, these phrases are now accepted by native English speakers or learners probably because of their jaunty alliteration or rhythm. But the author believes that these phrases unavoidably “exert an influence not only on native speakers of English (including foreign polishers) but on Chinese translators as well, reinforcing the habits of their own language. No doubt this influence contributes to the abundance of twins in Chinglish.”<br />
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The first chapter of the second part is mainly about The Noun Plague. Here the author shows a draft: “The prolongation of the existence of this temple is due to the solidity of its construction.” She also gives a revision: “The temple has endured because it was solidly built.” The first version contains four abstract nouns, while the second has none. Not only do the nouns make the statement nearly twice as long, but they also make it pretentious, wooden and hard to understand.(Pinkham 2000:56) Yet, the author doesn’t think that “noun plague” only occurs in Chinglish but in English by native speakers, especially in theses and government documents where abstract nouns can often be seen, because they want their theses or documents to seem more “authoritative” or “scientific.” The author thinks this is a dangerous trend which we should all fight against. And she advocates to use more verbs, gerunds or adverbs instead of abstract nouns. From the eighth to the twelfth chapter, the author gives some instruction to tell English learners and translators in China how to get rid of the mindset of Chinglish by putting pronouns and antecedents first, then the adjuncts and its purposes, in a logical way. The eighth chapter discussed the improper collocation of pronouns and antecedents. In this condition, personal pronouns, relative pronouns or demonstrative pronouns show up without antecedents or are too far away from antecedents. This is exactly what the uncertainty and lack of rigor of Chinese has brought about. The ninth chapter mainly talks about where we should set phrases or clause in an English sentence. The author is of the opinion that translators should pay attention to where the phrases or clauses are in a sentence so that the logic is clear and key points are highlighted. She also thinks that the phrases or clauses ought to modify what is close to them, otherwise in the sentence may occur the illogical parts. In addition, to stress the key points, the most important information should be imparted at the end of a sentence. <br />
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'''IV. Discussion'''<br />
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From Introduction and School Classification, we have leaned that in western translation history, there are traditionally two branches: translation theories of literature and art and linguistics theories of translation. In 1959, the book, ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation'' by Roman Jakobson, analyzed comprehensively the relation bewteen language and translation, the importance of translation and some existing problems of translating from an angle of linguistics, which had made groundbreaking contribution to linguistics theories of translation. Eugene A. Nida put forward a concept of “Translating is science” and he also applied Theory of Communication into translation on the basis of linguistics, believing that translating is communicating. He proposed the principle of “Dynamic Equivalence” and further submitted “Functional Equivalence” from the perspective of social linguistics and communicative function of language, which was instrumental in modern history of translation theories in the west as well. Nonetheless, Nida’s theories paid too much heed to content rather than form. To make up the deficiency, Peter Newmark put forward “Communicative Translation” and “Semantic Translation.” The former aimed at restructuring the language of the target in order to make it expressive and underline the effects of information; the latter emphasized the formal resemblance between the original and the target. From theories and ideas above, the core issue they care about is how the source language is transferred into the target language and “equivalence” is what they have in common. Katharina Reiss, Hans Vermeer, Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord from Germany started to use communicative theories, theories of communication, discourse linguistics and ideology of aesthetics to switch the focus of their studies from source texts to target texts, which made it an influential school in international translation circles. In 1971 in the book ''Translation and Limitations in Translation Criticism'', Reiss’s functional theories of translation was in embryonic state, where she believed that translation should reach equivalence in respects of conceptual content, forms of language and communication and name it “integral communicative performance.” In practice, however, she realized that the equivalence was not what people expected so relation between function of the original and the target was the priority. Hans Vermeer proposed skopos theory for that matter, which looked on translating as a process with purposes and results of the original. The skopos theory has three rules: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Skopos rule is considered as the primary one. It means that in the context and culture of target language, translation ought to work in a way exactly the recipient of target language expects and the purpose of translation actions determines the whole process of translating, that is, “the end justifies the means.” Coherence rule is that translation must accord with the standard of intratextual coherence, which means that translation has readability and acceptability to the recipient and makes sense in communicative context and culture of the target language. The fidelity rule means that there exists intertextual coherence between the original and the target. This is actually what other theories have talked about faithfulness in translation but the faithfulness depends on the purpose of the target and how translator understand the original. <br />
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Here we also have talked about the book The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish. This book has discussed some problems English learners and translators in China have in grammar and vocabulary. For discourse and semantics, there also exits some issues. And the author is American who has the typical mindset of the west and is able to find out some problems of translation by Chinese translators. And the author tends to revise those translations in an aspect of linguistics theories of translation. For example:<br />
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the editorial calls on the Chinese people to fully implement the CPC’s basic line, deepen reform and further opening to the outside, so as to further push forward the political, economic and social development of the country in a steady way;<br />
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The author revises it into:<br />
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the editorial calls on the Chinese people to implement the CPC’s basic line, deepen the reform, and promote the opening to the outside, so as to steadily push forward the political, economic and social development of the country.<br />
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In this sentence, “fully” is deleted because the author thinks it is unnecessary for its sense can be taken for granted: policies should always be fully carried out. If the word conveys something more specific in Chinese, that must be spelled out for the reader of English. We must say, for example, “to implement CPC’s basic line in all its aspects,” or “in every respect.” As for “further”, it is obvious that at this point in history any push given to development will be a “further” push. The repetition of “further” in the draft is particularly undesirable because the word is used in two different senses. It appears first as a verb (“to further opening”), then immediately after as an adverb (“to further push ahead”), so that the reader is obliged to go back and read the sentence again in order to make sense of it.(Pinkham 2000:74)<br />
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Even though the author doesn’t talk on any translation theories directly in her book, her discussion on Chinglish and the revision she offers do involve some translation criteria, for example, domestication and foreignization. Translating is the transfer process from one language to another, during which it carries wide backgrounds of culture. To be specific, it is also the process of transferring cultures among each one. In general, there are two ways when it comes to this process: domestication and foreignization. Domestication is that features of the original are abandoned, that is to say, characteristics of translation follow ones of the target, which would, to some degree, make it easier to understand for recipients of the target language and contributory to culture exchanges. Foreignization is that translator translates in a way the original does, translation remaining characteristics of the original language. <br />
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The author defines “Chinglish” as “Chinglish, of course, is that misshapen, hybrid language that is neither English nor Chinese but that might be described as ‘English with Chinese characteristics’”in the book. And she also points out that “this book is intended to help them turn their work into real English such as might have been written by an educated native English speaker of the language.” It means that the author is in favor of domestication during the process of translating. Here’s an another example: <br />
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we should draw up correct development and construction plans for all these zones;<br />
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The author revises it into:<br />
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we should draw up correct plans for the development of all these zones.<br />
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The author thinks that two large abstractions plainly used here mean the same thing. And to avoid using the noun “development” as an adjective, we should say: “ for the development of all these zones.” That would be the simplest, most natural word order in English.(Pinkham 2000:87)<br />
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'''V. Conclusion'''<br />
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In summary, ''A Brief History of Western Translation Theories'' by Tan Zaixi recounts the history of western translation theories from ancient times by introducing main characters, translation works, translation schools and other events in the west in historical stages. The book also takes preliminary analysis and discussion into development between theories and practices of translation. There are two different directions in terms of translation theories in the west: translation theories of literature and art and linguistics theories of translation. The former one extends from the ancient dramas to modern translations. In this regard, translation is considered as literary art, which focuses on recreation of the original. Theorist mostly emphasize culture, style and literariness of the target and the literary talent of the translator. The latter direction is linguistics theories of translation, which combine theories with semantics and syntax, and believe that translating should reach semantic equivalence between the original and the target through vocabulary, grammar and skills of using a language. In the long term, linguistics theories of translation has had predominance of studies of modern translation theories. Theorists hold the view that translation studies ranges from applied linguistics and contrastive linguistics and is closely related to semantics, along with literature and art studies, sociology, anthropology, psychology, theories of communication and so forth. <br />
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''The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish'' by Joan Pinkham summarizes the evidence of the common issues in English translation, which are ones translators in China are usually neglectful of. As Jacques Barzun, Dean of the Graduate Faculties of Columbia University, put it, “The clarity of her explanation is equaled only by the deftness with which she states the point of the English usages and the simplicity of the revisions made in faulty sentences. I know of no books as well adapted as hers to the needs of clumsy writers.” Even though the author doesn’t talk on any translation theories directly in her book, her discussion on Chinglish and the revision she offers do involve some translation criteria and the author tends to uphold domestication in this book. And we can’t deny that as a professional translator from America, with the typical western mindset, the author is inevitably influenced in the spectacular background of western translation history. More importantly, the two books this article refers to have demonstrated that theories must be applied into practice, guide practice and reveal the objective patters inside translating, otherwise theories would lose its vitality.<br />
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'''References:'''<br />
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[1]巫阿苗,束学军.西方翻译理论流派划分探索.[J].合肥工业大学学报.2011.12.25<br />
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[2]谭载喜.西方翻译简史.[M].北京.商务印书馆.1991.05<br />
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[3]刘银燕.中式英语, 你在使用吗?——《中式英语之鉴》评介.[J].外语教学.2002.09.30<br />
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[4]-[8] Joan Pinkham.The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish. [M].北京。外语教学与研究出版社.2000.05<br />
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主要参考书目:《西方翻译简史》、《中式英语之鉴》<br />
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=Derrida and Benjamin=<br />
=='''Comparison of Derrida’s and Benjamin’s Translation View'''==<br />
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'''Abstract：'''In western traditional translation view, conveying the meaning is the first aim. However, in Benjamin’s eye, this is an agreement of language non-identity, which does no good to the development of linguistic development. Benjamin has used the non-identity of language to overturn the ideas that view language as a tool. In this way, he has been regarded by many scholars as the forerunner who rebelled against the western logocentrism. He also did quite a lot contribution to the development of translation and his idea of pure language can be called the most well-known feature of him. While another dominate figure of deconstructivism is Derrida who has put logocentrism under great challenge. He’s no doubt one of the representatives of deconstructivism and he has created many concepts like différance, dissemination, trance etc., which serves not only in linguistics, philosophy but also in translation.<br />
In the history of western translation, Benjamin has always been classified as a member of deconstructivism. However, compared with another leading figure of deconstructivism, he has totally different understanding on translation. This essay is trying to undergo the comparison study between the two predominant figure’s comprehension on translation mainly through the aspects of pure language and difference, metaphrase and relevant translation, later life and rebirth of original texts. In the conclusion, we have concluded the comparison between the two figures’ attitudes towards five dimensions, respectively, original work, author, translator, translation work and translation criterion. At last we can find that in fact, Benjamin does not belong to deconstructivism.<br />
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'''Key words:''' Benjamin, Derrida, deconstructivism<br />
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'''摘要：'''在西方传统翻译观中，传递意义是首要目的。但是，在本雅明的眼中，这是对语言不一致性的认同。因此，这种传统的翻译观对于语言的发展并无益处。本雅明运用了语言的不一致性，并以此一举推翻了传统的观念，人们认为语言知识一种工具。通过这种方式，本雅明被视为众多学者中反抗西方逻各斯主义的先驱。他对翻译的发展做出了卓越的贡献，并且他纯语言的概念深入人心，成为他身上最闪亮的思想之一，也是他被众人所知的特点之一。然而另一位解构主义的大人物，德里达亦是以一己之力推翻西方的逻各斯中心主义。毫无疑问，他是解构主义的代表人物之一并且他也创造了“延异”，“播撒”，“痕迹”等概念。这些概念不仅仅推动了语言学、哲学的发展，也推动了翻译学的发展。<br />
在西方翻译历史中，本雅明总是被划为解构主义者。但其实与另一位解构主义的大人物相比，他对于翻译有着自己完全不同的理解。 本文打算进行这两位巨人的翻译理论对比，主要通过以下方面：纯语言与差异性，直译与“relevant”翻译，后世生命与重生。在最后的总结部分，笔者从五个角度总结了两位巨人的不同态度，对于原作的态度，对于作者的态度，对于译作的态度，对于译者的态度和对于翻译标准的态度。最终，我们能够发现严格意义上来说，本雅明完全不属于解构主义学派。<br />
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'''关键字：'''德里达，本雅明，解构主义<br />
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'''1.Pure Language and Difference'''<br />
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In its essence, translation is a kind of linguistic activity. Therefore, all translation theories involve linguistic issues. Benjamin has presumed a perfect original language as the origin of subsistent languages in real world after summarizing the deflects of subsistent languages. This original language is from God, and has full creativity and cognition, in which, language and spirit, meaning and form, signifier and signified have been united to show the truth through self-manifestation. Benjamin has pointed out that with the corruption of human, the language has no longer been one but multiple. Naming language has corrupted into the abstract conceptual language. '''(Cao Danhong 6)''' In this way, it descended to instrumental signs. It refers to things in various manual systems but it can never covey the universality through self-manifestation, so the relationship between the human and world has changed from the intersubjectivity into subject-object dichotomy where human dominates.'''(Wei Jiangang & Sun Yingchun 75)''' In another word, due to language descended from the original “being” into lower “having”. Therefore, it has become the synonyms of “abstract”, “judgement” and “meaning”. Language has never been a medium but a kind of means used in communication of “subjects” '''(Wohlfarth 27)'''. As a result, meaning has been the external reference out of sign itself, instead of spirits of self-manifestation of pure language. And the relationship between signified and signifier is actually external instead of being original, direct and internal. Paul De Man has said that we think we use our language freely. We feel comfortable and familiar with the dwelling place within our language, in which we thought we weren’t alienated, but we don’t notice that this kind of alienation has been shown strongly in our relationship with our original language. It has been disintegrated already, which bring a special alienation, a peculiar pain. '''(Paul De Man, 99)'''<br />
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Benjamin has set the transcendental existence of pure language in order to make the path of salvation to human clear, that’s to say to find the lost pure language is to unite the world together. Benjamin thinks that, all practical languages have a common origin and among themselves a kind of affinity that goes beyond the history. As, Benjamin once said, “The reference of pure language just like each language that exists as an entirety, is identical. However, this reference cannot be achieved through one single language, but through the complement of various languages” '''(Benjamin 61)''' That’s to say, if we want to reconstruct pure language, we have to eliminated the external relationship of linguistic reference and restore the identical relationship between spirit and language, which means to promote the linguistic reference of all languages to form an integral complementary, which call duty on translation. Only through translation can the mode of reference of source language enter into the target language. Therefore, to Benjamin, the significance of translation is not to covey the basic meaning and content of source language but the changes to both languages after translation, thereby translation can make us to know more about the differences and complementation of each language.<br />
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What is different between Benjamin and Derrida is that Derrida has invented the concept of “la differánce", which uses infinitely flowing stream of meaning to overthrow the western logocentrism. Thereout, it has assured the translation view that advocates difference and opposes the identity. Derrida has pointed out that la differánce is the precondition of possibility of multiple meanings so that meaning is the result of its moving. While meaning cannot precedes la differánce, there would be no existence of pure and completely identical origin of meaning, just like what the Babel story reminds us. '''(Davis 10)''' In another word, as meaning is in la differánce so that there cannot be any conceptual or theoretic systems no matter it is in one language or in several languages. Meaning always presents its fluidity, uncertainty and diversity. We cannot make meaning independent of language nor can we make language independent of meaning. On the contrary, meaning is already in language so meaning is the linguistic meaning. Due to the language is so complicated, fickle, ambiguous and different with itself, thus, meaning is also unclear ambiguous and even mysterious. '''(Cai Xinle 200)''' What we can discuss is only the relationship of difference instead of the transcendental identity. In Derrida’s view, word is in a dynamic state, we can only understand it, describe it or listen to its voice in such a dynamic condition. If there is a starting point, the meaning will flow no more as it can be fixed in the very beginning. If we must establish an origin, the difference will be it. Derrida has regarded the difference as the origin, aiming to explain that in the very beginning where meaning formed, that’s to say the source has already had initial difference among meanings. The so-called purity has been contaminated and the source is rather complicated. '''(Zhu Gang 20)'''<br />
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Derrida and Benjamin all oppose to structural linguistic view. What is different is that Benjamin opposed the human control and domination of language by emphasizing the identity of language and spirit. We’d rather to say that it’s opposed to structuralism but to the opposite relation between the subject and object. In essence, Benjamin is not against the concepts like structure, order, and center etc. He just opposes the structure, order and center etc. that are based on the interference to language done by the subject-object relationship, emphasizing that language will not be constrained by the fetter of any subject-object relationship. If we consider more carefully, he doesn’t disapprove the logocentrism completely as he just emphasizes that logocentrism cannot be constructed and learned by the subject and object relation. It must be built and realized by the way of unintentionality or the “presence” of logos will be delusive. On the contrary, Derrida is refusing any metaphysics during the process of his deconstruction of any conceptual system. In his opinion, Benjamin has not cast off the set pattern of logocentrism because Benjamin’s “Pure language” is still a construction of a concept, no matter how transcendental and absolute identity it is. Videlicet, if God were the person who deconstructs, we would see that rationality dominates everything and logos will be the deconstruction in the speaker’s status. It would not be the deconstruction of deconstruction. Once there is an unshakable center, logos will take the domination and everything will obey the authority in the center. Therefore, in order to avoid constructing any central system or structure, Derrida take the difference as the origin of everything. There will be no identity and everything is constantly reproducing and differentiating, so it presents nothing but difference. At any moment, it’s different from others as well as itself. In this way, the identity doesn’t exist. All we can observe is the dynamic stuff, which constantly changes.<br />
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'''2. Metaphrase and Relevant Translation<br />
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As Benjamin and Derrida has different linguistic view, their comprehension about the translation criterion are also different from each other’s. Benjamin thinks that in various languages, the ultimate essence, pure language, is only relevant to the linguistic factors and its changes. In linguistic works, it bears heavy alien meaning. Translation’s unique function is to make the pure language get rid of this heavy burden, to turn the symbolic action into symbolic objects itself, to make the pure language reoccur during the linguistic transition. '''(Benjamin, 67)''' In other words, real languages, without exception, refer to things externally. To recover the identity of language and spirit, we must let the language to break the shackle of meaning while the effects of translation are to make the two languages free of the heavy burden by making the modes of reference of the two languages complementary of each other. To judge whether translation of a work is successful is to observe the combination of signifier and signified of language. Benjamin thinks Hölderlin’s translation work is the perfect sample of for instance, his works are almost perfect transition of texts because they are absolutely literal translation and metaphrase but also not readable. It dismembered the sentences, leading to the consequence that meaning is missing. '''(Paul De Man 104)''' To Benjamin, the translation that gets the language out of the shackle of meaning, and makes the language manifest itself to covey the spirits is the best translation. Anyway, translation has to turn back to language itself, to the reference of language, to reach pure language commonly shared by the two languages by complementing the modes of reference of source language and target language. Benjamin declares that the interlinear version of Babel is the prototype of all translation due to the reason that Babel is the words of God, which are so true that language identifies with spirit. <br />
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Derrida is totally different from Benjamin’s proposition that he proposes the relevant translation. In general, “relevant” is the best translation in Derrida’s view, which is also the sort of translation expected by people. It’s a kind of translation that fulfills its duty and finishes its mission. It’s that kind of translation that finds the most comparatively accurate words for the expressions in the source text, that language used is the most correct, appropriate, relevant, direct and apropos… Obviously, Derrida is trying to use a series of words to set standard for the best translation or the ideal translation. What’ a pity is that many scholars believe the literal meaning that such is what set by Derrida, ignoring the implication. '''(Wang Yingchong 15)''' However, if we reflect on the “relevant”, we can hardly make what it means clear, and Derrida himself has made no ostension on “relevant”, thus, this is actually the word game of Derrida that meaning being not assured makes translation impossible. With the trick of the untranslatability of the word “relevant”, Derrida implies the deconstruction of his standard of translation. What Derrida really wants to express is that if there was a standard of translation, and the standard would work as the same, then would the standard still support itself? The untranslatability of “relevant” has already told us the untranslatability, not mentioning the translation standard. In Derrida’s point of view, meaning is already the delayed presence, leading to the result that translation is a debt that translator can never pay off, a mission that translator can never finish. Therefore, can text really not be translated?<br />
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Derrida says that we have to know what relevant translation is, what relevant translation means and what the essence of translation is, its mission, ultimate purpose and final mission. On one hand, relevant translation, no matter wrong or right, is generally better than irrelevant translation, and is likely to be viewed as the best translation. The definition of translation skopostheorie and the definition of the essence of realization in translation are contained in the definition of relevant translation. Therefore, the question that what relevant translation is goes back to what translation is or what should the translation be. While what the translation should be seems to be equal to what the possible best translation would be. '''(Derrida 429)'''<br />
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Therefore, Derrida’s discussion about the standard of translation goes back to the translatability and untranslatability. Actually, what Derrida wants to prove is that translation itself is a paradox, that is, just in the untranslatability can translation exist and go on. The original text always owes to translation, and constantly summons translation, and in a larger sense, anything meaningful calls for interpretation. '''(Wang Yingchong 17).''' Whereas, the good translation or the translation standard can only be discussed in absolute translatability; pursuit of translation in absolute untranslatability will be nonsense, and it can only be infinitely approached but never reached as once it become absolute translatability, which means translation presents the meaning in limitless differánce in presence, the identity occurs, then the translation will be unnecessary. <br />
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In short, Derrida and Benjamin have different view on translation. Benjamin worships metaphrase through which two languages can supplement each other’s referential pattern to manifest the pure language, whose spirits are the best translation. While Derrida plays a small fraud that he sets relevant translation as translation criterion but he doesn’t make it clear, in which way he indicates his ideas of untranslatability and that pursuit of translation in absolute untranslatability will be nonsense, and it can only be infinitely approached but never reached.<br />
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'''3. Afterlife and Rebirth<br />
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Benjamin also differs most from Derrida in the insight of the relationship between the original work and translation work. In Benjamin’s perspective, the purpose of translation is to promote the complementation of referential modes of different languages so as to restore the identity. Therefore, translation work is never the copy or reappearance of the original work, but the supplement and succession of the original work and in turn, original work can only rely on its translation work to refresh its vitality and go on its subsistence. The relationship of the two can only be understood in the whole purpose of realizing pure language. What Benjamin expects is through constant translation, we can make the referential modes of original work and translation work interflow until we exhaust all the referential modes to realize the final identity of language and spirit in entity. To the relationship of original work and translation work, Benjamin interprets from the perspective of organism and survival. Various forms of life closely correlate with biological phenomena though it has no great significance to biological phenomena. Translation work grows out of original work or we’d rather say it originates from the afterlife. Due to the fact that original work precedes the translation work, and in the range of world literature, no great works meets a perfect translator when its author is still alive, so translation work only marks the continuity of the original work. '''(Benjamin 76)<br />
'''<br />
Benjamin has regarded the original work as vigorous organism so that translation is views as the continuity of original work, which is also the afterlife of original work. Benjamin stresses that life is a historical concept instead of the existential concept. Life doesn’t limit within biological body. Only when we view life as a historical process of organism survival, can the concept of life be understood correctly. With this sense, translation work being the continuity of original work can be comprehended. Those that was flashy will corrupt and those that was fashionable will become old. So does the linguistic form. The linguistic form of the original work will die out with time passing by, but the life of original work will not die with the existential form of original work. With the help of translation work, the life of original work will be continued, updated and expanded, thus being constantly succeeded in its life history. Hence, translation was like the source of rejuvenation. '''(Kramer 24)''' However, in Benjamin’s points, translation work is the afterlife of original work doesn’t mean it’s the end of original work’s life nor that translation work replaces the original one to be an independent organism. Benjamin stresses that continuity of life doesn’t pay much attention to the survival of organism, which means that translation is a medium that pushes the original’s life process, a medium that provides a chance for the continuity of original’s life instead of substitution. The mission of translation is to promote the original work’s linguistic life growing until it ripens and fruit the pure language. <br />
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The final purpose of language is to meet our needs to show that the relation among languages is quite close. Translation cannot reveal or build such hidden relation, but translation can reoccur it by intensification and embryotic appearance. Right through the expression of embryotic form, it makes relation among languages reoccur. '''(Benjamin,60)'''<br />
Accordingly, translation is not the birth of original work nor the death of original work but the living on of the original. It’s the birth after death and death after birth. In this way, Benjamin has assured the position of the original work which is higher than the translation work, on which the original work depends to continue its life. Translation can never be equal to the original work because only the original language has the vigor to embody the fruit of pure language.<br />
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Compared to that, Derrida thinks that translation work is the rebirth of the original work and notes that there are two implications in “rebirth”, which are given by “Fortleben and Uberleben” in Benjamin’s The Task of Translator, indicating that life will continue, consistent and survival continues, but it also indicates resurrection after death. Derrida emphasizes that original work has equal and independent position with translation work, which are complementary for each other. If the original text calls for supplement, that’s because it’s not flawless, complete, entire and self-identified. The original texts to be translated fell into exile from the very beginning. '''(Derrida 2003)''' Starting from such complementary relationship, Derrida abolished the original position of the original work as original work has no difference from translation work in that original work is the translation work of former texts, and translation work can be translated as original work for later texts. La differánce of meaning is infinite that all the texts are the limited comprehension of semantic differánce, which supplement and substitute each other, constructing a constantly flowing semantic chain. A text that depends on other texts but differs from other texts at the same time constantly waits for supplement and substitution in the semantic net. Text is a claiming process that goes beyond meaning in itself; it’s the trace of a sequence of movements. The ultimate text that can cover the infinite semantic differánce doesn’t exist and the ultimate meaning is intangible as meaning is mobile and infinite.<br />
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All in all, Derrida and Benjamin have shown their distinctive comprehension about the original work and translation work. Benjamin has claimed that translation work is the afterlife of original work and original work also depends on translation to continue its life. Due to the fact that only the original work can deliver birth to pure language, although the very relations among languages can be reoccurred in translation work, original work ranks first. Derrida holds another opinion that the two, original work and translation work are equal and complementary. There is a doubt that why Benjamin insists that the fruit of pure language is on the original work’s side, as we mentioned in the beginning that Benjamin want to realize the identity of language and spirit through exhausting all the referential modes of all languages, and making them melt with each other. Though translation is the living-on of original work which just like the baby from a mother, affiliated to the original. Why the final result will be on the original side still needs our attention. During the differánce of texts, original text can become the translation of former text while the translation can be the original text of later text, thus the chain of textual differánce are built.<br />
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'''4.Conclusion<br />
'''<br />
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In a word, through the comparative study of Benjamin’s translation view and Derrida’s translation view, we can find something in common but the two still distinct with each other and own their unique perspective and ideas.<br />
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Firstly, on the aspect of original work, translation theories of deconstructivism emphasizing infinite differánce of meaning and relativity and fluidity of text deny the originality of original works with intertextuality. Lots of texts appear, one differing from the former a little bit; all of them are the translation of translation. Each text has its unique features, and at the same time, it’s the translation of another text, thus, no text is the absolute original work plus language itself is a kind of translation. In the first place, it’s the translation of non-linguistic world and in the second place, every sign and phrase are the translation of another sign and phrase. '''(Bssnett 112)''' Nonetheless, Benjamin insists on the originality of original work, emphasizing that linguistic core is contained only in the original work and the function of translation is to liberate the relationship between the signifier and signified. Hence, if Benjamin denies the originality of original work will make the ground of his translation view lost.<br />
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Secondly, on the aspect of the author, deconstructivism emphasizes the intertextuality instead of the author, declaring that God was already dead and trying to overthrow the concept that author is the source of meaning from the ground level, so translation views of deconstructivism denies the originality of the author and even the copyright of the author'''(Jiang Xiaohua & Zhang Jinghua 42)'''. However, Benjamin advocates the originality of the author. Though he has not mentioned the issues about author’s copyright, we can infer from the emphasis of originality of original work and creativity of the author that he should admit the copyright of the author.<br />
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Thirdly, on the aspect of translator, translation view of deconstructivism places the translator in the equal position of author, but at the meantime, it denies the creativity and copyright of translator. What Derrida does is to completely ignore the subjectivity of translator but focus on text. On the contrary, Benjamin does not only emphasize the position of translator and consider that translator contributes creativity as well as author, which just differs in the way of wok and he also points it out that the success of translation depends on the ability of translator.<br />
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Fourthly, on the aspect of translation work, translation view of deconstructivism has eliminated the difference between the original work and translation work, believing that original work and translation work supplements each other and coexists with each other; the original work lives on with the help of translation work while the translation work becomes independent text because it succeeds the semantic differánce of the original work. Whereas, Benjamin stresses that translation is the continuity and supplement of original life but at the same time, he disapproves the independence of translation work as the effect of translation work is only to promote the growth of “pure language” existing in original work and translation itself contains no organism of pure language so translation work has not been equipped with translatability.<br />
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Fifthly, on the aspect of translation criterion, translation view of deconstructivism has deconstructed the traditional translation view that seeks loyalty and equivalence and it has deconstructed the comprehension, extraction and transmission proposed by itself. '''(Wang Yingchong 18)''' As a result, it has treated the translatability and untranslatability in an equal way, indicating that any text can be translatable and untranslatable. Accordingly, the criterion of translation has been dissolved. Compared to Derrida, Benjamin prefers literal translation, advocating that we should promote the supplement of the referential modes of original work and translation work in the general purpose of realizing pure language. The most obvious distinction between the two is that the former has no intention to provide a solution or a conclusion after dissolving the criterion of translation, which is a little bit puzzling while the latter has set the transcendental body of pure language to declare the existence of absolute translatability, with intensified mode to present what is not in presence and to bring things far away nearer to us as distant things. '''(Derrida 79)<br />
'''<br />
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To sum up, Benjamin cannot be classified as a member of translation school of deconstructivism no matter from the perspective of ideas and the structure of his theories. Although Benjamin has many points of view that are similar with ideas of deconstructivism, but his theory system completely different.<br />
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'''Bibliography'''<br />
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[1]Basnett, Susan & Lefevere, Andre (eds.). Translation, History and Culture. London and New York: Pinter Publishers, 1990.<br />
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[2]Benjamin, Walter. The Task of the Translator: An Introduction to the Translation of Baudelaire's Tableaux Parisiens. Harry Zohn (trans.). Lawrence, Venuti (ed.). The Translation Studies Reader (Second Edition). New York: Routledge, 2004: 75-85.<br />
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[3]Davis, Kathleen, Deconstruction and Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2004.<br />
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[4]Derrida, J. What is A “Relevant” Translation? Lawrence, Venuti (trans. & ed.). The Translation Studies Reader (Second Edition). New York: Routledge,2004:423- 446.<br />
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[5]本雅明. 写作与救赎:本雅明文选.李茂增、苏仲乐译.上海:东方出版社, 2009: 61<br />
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[6]蔡新乐. 相关的相关——德里达“相关的”翻译及其他.北京:中国社会科学出版社, 2007.<br />
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[7]曹丹红. “本雅明《译者的任务》再解读”，中国翻译：2012（5）：5-9<br />
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[8]德曼.“结论”:瓦尔特.本雅明的“翻译者的任务". 郭军译.郭军、曹雷雨编.2003:83-112.<br />
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[9]蒋骁华、张景华. “重新解读韦努蒂的异化翻译理论兼与郭建中教授商榷”.中国翻译, 2007 (3): 39-44.<br />
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[10]克拉默.本雅明. 鲁路译. 北京:中国人民大学出版社，2008.<br />
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[11]王颖冲. “再论德里达的 “relevant" translation”. 中国翻译，2011 (5): 11-19.<br />
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[12]魏建刚、孙迎春. “本体论抑或方法论——本雅明《译者的任务》再探”.外语与外语教学，2013(2): 72-76.<br />
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[13]沃尔法思. 一个马克思主义者的“创世纪" . 郭军译. 郭军、曹雷雨编.2003:27-42.<br />
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[14]朱刚. 本原与延异:德里达对本原形而上学的解构.上海:上海人民出版社，2006.<br />
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=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
=='''Study on Gladys’ Translation of ''The Border Town'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics'''==<br />
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'''Abstract:''' As a famous novel, ''The Border Town'' written by Shen Congwen maninly introduces young people’s pursuit of love in Xiangxi as well as the simple folk customs, so the novel has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''The Border Town'', which is full of aesthetic features, from the angle of Translation Aesthetics. The paper tries to analyze Gladys Yang’s English translation of the novel from five aspects under Translation Aesthetics: beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form, beauty in image and beauty in ideorealm in order to test and measure the practicality and operability of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br />
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'''Key words:''' Translation Aesthetics; ''The Border Town''; Liu Miqing; Lin Yutang <br />
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'''翻译美学视角下《边城》戴乃迭英译本之探究'''<br />
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作 者：向晓蔚<br />
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（湖南师范大学外国语学院，长沙 410081）<br />
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'''摘 要：'''作为一部名作，沈从文的《边城》以清丽的笔触描绘了湘西地区的青年人对美好爱情的追求以及纯厚朴实的民风，蕴含浓郁的审美价值。对于《边城》这样一部美学价值极高的作品，从翻译美学的角度进行探讨将具有重要意义。因此，本文从翻译美学角度入手，从音韵美、用词美、形式美、意象美和意境美五个方面对小说《边城》戴乃迭的英译本进行分析，旨在验证翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的实践性和可操作性。<br />
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'''关键词：'''翻译美学；《边城》；刘宓庆；林语堂<br />
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Translation, especially literary translation, is a creative activity in nature. Translation is the pursuit of beauty and truth, and it involves philosophical concerns. Aesthetics, the study of beauty, is an eternal theme of Chinese literature. Ever since the emergence of translation, aesthetics and translation have been closely bonded together. Translation Aesthetics is a perfect combination of translation and aesthetics.<br />
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'''1 About Translation Aesthetics''' <br />
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Translation Aesthetics is to analyze, explain and solve the aesthetic problems emerging in interlingual conversion. Its main contents are aesthetic subjects, aesthetic objects, the aesthetic subject’s experience of aesthetic objects, the methods of representing beauty in translating process, the criteria of translation aesthetics and so forth.<br />
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'''1.1 Development of Translation Aesthetics in China'''<br />
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The traditional translation theory in China originated from the translation of Buddhist scriptures more than 1700 years ago. Chinese translation theory has a close relationship with philosophy and aesthetics. In China, aesthetic thoughts have a long history. Confucius, Mencius, Laozi and other famous ancient thinkers put forward their views on aesthetics. In the process of the formation and development of literary translation, ancient aesthetic thoughts provided the ideological basis for it. Classical aesthetic thoughts made subtle influence on Chinese literary translation theories. The translation theories which contain classical aesthetics are naturally different from other countries' translation theories. Yan Fu, a Chinese scholar, once put forward the theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, and Qian Zhongshu also put forward the theory of transformation, and so on. All these theories reflect the influence of classical aesthetics on Chinese writers. Reviewing its development, it is not difficult to find that almost all Chinese translation theories have their aesthetic origin. The combination of translation theory and aesthetics is traditional Chinese feature, and Translation Aesthetics carry forward traditional translation theory. With the increasingly close communication between China and other countries, Chinese classical aesthetics and Western aesthetics have developed a certain degree of integration, which is also a special form of mutual learning between China and the West in a sense. This kind of reference promotes the development and application of Translation Aesthetics.<br />
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'''1.2 Lin Yutang’s theory of Translation Aesthetics'''<br />
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In 1933, Lin Yutang put forward three principles for translation: faithfulness, smoothness and beauty in the article of ''On Translation''. The three principles of translation represent three responsibilities respectively: that toward the original author, that toward the reader, and that toward art. Here, fidelity becomes threefold. It is not only the fidelity to the original author, but also fidelity to the target reader and to art. In Lin Yutang’s opinion, translation is a kind of art. The main difference between art and science is that science is guided by the rule, while art is not. As for the standard of beauty in translation, he thought that “Every writing has its beauty in sound, meaning, spirit and style.”[1] The ideal translator should make his work an art. He should love it with the heart of art, be careful with it and regard translation as fine art. Especially when translating literary works, translator should pay more attention to the beauty of words. Lin Yutang believes that the most important thing in literary translation is to embody the style of the original work. That is, “not only what it says, but also how to say it”. From this point of view, Lin Yutang's translation thought is mainly aimed at literary translation. Among his three translation principles (faithfulness, smoothness and beauty), the third principle--beauty is regarded as the most important point in literary translation. Therefore, Lin Yutang's translation thought is also recognized as “translation of aesthetics” by some scholars.<br />
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So in the article of ''On Translation'' written by Lin Yutang, the main content is about the discussion on translation standards, and the core idea of the full text is that translation is an art. The most important thing in literary translation is to express the beauty of the original work, and to embody the original author's “how to say” in the translation. At the same time, Lin Yutang also affirmed that translation is creation. The translation with beauty features can make the original work be loved by the readers in the foreign culture, spread widely to the other countries, and achieve its equivalent effect in the source language environment to the greatest extent, which is the greatest responsibility and loyalty to the original text, the author, the readers and the art.<br />
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'''1.3 Liu Miqing’s theory of Translation Aesthetics'''<br />
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In 1995, Liu Miqing offers a theoretical framework of Translation Aesthetics in detail in his book ''An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics''. “Translation Aesthetics refers to the study on aesthetic object (the source text and the target text), the aesthetic subject (translators and readers) and aesthetic activities in translation, such as aesthetic judgments, aesthetic appreciation, and creative aesthetic representation in translation.”[2] Except for paying attention to the elements of translation, translation aims to find out the ways to produce wonderful works and principles in assessing the quality of translation. Generally speaking, Translation Aesthetics does research on translation theory and practice from the perspective of aesthetics. Its major task is to analyze and elucidate the aesthetic principles, with which we can guide translation practices and assess the literary translation. Moreover, a satisfying version needs some other elements, such as the aesthetic experience of a translator, comprehension of source text, and evaluation and reproduction of beauty.<br />
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“Aesthetic object (AO) refers to the objective matters that human's aesthetic activity targets at.[3] However, not everything in the objective world is aesthetic object. For instance, ''The Book of Songs'' on the bookshelf is not an aesthetic object until translator buys and translate it. In the aesthetic process, the translator appreciate the beauty in sound, beauty in form and beauty in sense in the book. These beauty in various forms is called “aesthetic object”. Translation aesthetic object (TAO) is the source text (ST) which the translator is about to translate. But not every source text can be TAO. For example, if the source text is inconsistent, empty and has no value to translate, it cannot be translation aesthetic object. TAO possesses aesthetic values and is designed to satisfy human's aesthetic needs. It clings to the aesthetic constituents and the aesthetic effects of the ST. If one pursues or analyzes the beauty in translation without adequate consideration of the ST, it equals to fish in the air and yields nothing but vainness. The attribute of TAO is different from the attribute of AO. On the one hand, it is attached to the aesthetic composition of SL. That is to say, translator cannot add something that is not in the aesthetic constituents of ST. If there are no rhymes in the original, translators should not add rhymes. If there is no irony in the original, translator should not add irony. If there is no hyperbole, translator should not add hyperbole, and so on. On the other hand, it has flexibility for aesthetic subject. In some circumstances, we can’t find an appropriate word to translate which is in line with the ST. Under these circumstances, we should translate it in a flexible way.<br />
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According to Liu Miqing, “Aesthetic constituents of source text can be classified into two systems: formal aesthetic constituents and non-formal aesthetic constituents.”[4]. Formal aesthetic system include the scope of phonetics, morphology and syntax. While the non-formal aesthetic system is non-material, non-natural sensible. It is an indefinite, non-quantitative system. So it is also called “fuzzy sets” or “sets of fuzziness”. All kinds of beauty in the two systems are aesthetic objects, which we will experience in translation.<br />
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The aesthetic subject (AS) refers to people who carry out aesthetic appreciation activity on the aesthetic object; and translation aesthetic subject (TAS) refers to the translator. When translating, translator plays a dual role. For one thing, he is the recipient of the SL text who should first decode the aesthetic information in the SL text. In this process, his role is both passive and subjective. For another, he is identified as the creator of the target text. Being so, he undertakes the task of aesthetic representation to the target text readers. Hence he ought to play his dynamic role as the aesthetic subject.<br />
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In aesthetics, aesthetic subject and aesthetic object are two concepts and two categories that cannot be separated. There is a dialectical relationship between them. Therefore, a qualified translator should possess the dual characters as the translation aesthetic subject: objectivity and subjectivity.<br />
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Comparing Lin Yutang’s theory with Liu Miqin’s theory, we can find that their thoughts have something in common. They both agree that Translation Aesthetics plays a significant role in translation, especially literary translation. Lin Yutang believes that literary translation is a creative art with beauty as its soul, so translators should always keep a heart of beauty-pursuit during the process of translating. While Liu Miqing offers a theoretical framework of Translation Aesthetics in detail. He regards source language and target language as aesthetic objects, treats translators as aesthetic subjects, and constructs basic framework of Translation Aesthetics in a dynamic role of subject and object.<br />
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'''2 A case study of The Border Town from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics'''<br />
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''The Border Town'' is Shen Congwen’s masterpiece, which is also the supporting pillar for him to construct Xiangxi. He adopted a pristine love story to display the pursuit of his ideal life. The love story set in a town of Hunan province which is beside Sichuan province. In the 1930s, it is a quite tranquil place without lots of people in rural area. People there live a simple and honest life. The language of the novel is simple, deep, implicit and subtle, and it is in harmony with the content. It contains rich poetic feelings and produces a beautiful and graceful beauty.<br />
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Literary translation is a very important part in translation studies, and it’s a complicated process that requires many different skills. On the one hand, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very necessary for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should pick up the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. On the other hand, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty in the context of the target language. In this part, a case study is conducted in detail based on Gladys Yang’s English translation of ''The Border Town'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics.<br />
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'''2.1 Beauty in sound'''<br />
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Sound is one of the fundamental forms which carries the aesthetic information of language, either in poetry, drama or fiction. Guided by the principle of preserving the beauty on the phonetic beauty as much as possible without hindering readers’ understanding, Gladys Yang not only reproduces the original rhyme but also tries to preserve the original sound effect of the onomatopoeias.<br />
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'''2.1.1 Rhyme'''<br />
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Generally speaking, rhymes are applied into songs and poems. However, it doesn't mean there is no rhyme in fictions. Technical fiction writers also attempt to select word and phrase patterns so as to make their works imbued with a regular beat. In regard to fiction, rhyme refers to the general way in which a passage moves and flows. “Rhythm, the beauty in sound, often takes the form of wave movement in prose”[5]. To be specific, rhyme is a linguistic phenomenon referring to the repetition of the same or similar syllable sounds. It is achieved by the means of repetition, phrase structure, sentence structure and pause. The function of rhyme is mainly of the aesthetic aspect and the semantic meaning. On the one hand, the use of rhyme adds musicality to the literary .On the other hand, it arouses the readers' resonance and satisfaction. Since the rhythmic features contribute greatly to the aesthetic flavor, translators should take them into consideration and try to present the rhyme in the source text.<br />
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Example 1: 无人过渡时，等着祖父又不来，便尽只反复温习这些女孩子的神气，且轻轻的无所谓的唱着：“白鸡关出老虎咬人，不咬别人，团总的小姐派第一……大姐戴副金簪子，二姐戴副银钏子，只有我三妹没得什么戴，耳朵上长年蜜条豆芽菜。”[6]<br />
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Translation: When no one comes she waits for her grandfather, and when he fails to come she compares the looks of the girls and chants softly: The tiger eats the captain’s daughter first; Most girls have gold and silver for their hair; Poor Emerald is the one who comes off worst-No trinkets, nothing but beansprouts to wear![7]<br />
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This folk song sings Cuicui’s heart at that moment. The density of the rhythm contributes a lot to the reflection of Cuicui’s mood. Owing to the poor condition in her family, she could only admire the landlord's daughter's dress and ornaments. The sound / i / and / ai / repeat five times and emerge in different positions of the original text. When singing, people should open and narrow their mouths forming a beautiful rhythmical meter. In Chinese the sound / i / vividly imitates the sound of weeping, and / ai / is like the sound of sighing. So the shift of the rhyme produces a sort of self-mockery effect to the audience, meanwhile arouses deep sympathy toward the pure girl in the readers’ heart.<br />
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'''2.1.2 Onomatopoeia'''<br />
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Onomatopoeia means that an object or something is related to some actions which can be imitated by some vivid words. It is one of the rhetorical devices that are widely used in literary works, which makes great efforts to let speech sound vivid and lifelike. There are plenty of onomatopoeias in English and Chinese, though they have different expression forms, they are all used to imitate the sound. Onomatopoetic words can add interest to the work, which also can create aesthetic effect in literary works.<br />
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The onomatopoeias in ''The Border Town'' demonstrate readers with a lively picture and put them in the scene by themselves. Meanwhile, the use of the onomatopoeias also enhances the aesthetic effect of Shen’s literal expressions. It is fortunate that in many cases English and Chinese onomatopoeias can be inter-translated. However, sometimes it is impossible to achieve. So it is often hard for aesthetic subjects to render the onomatopoeias accurately and appropriately. In some translations, Gladys Yang has selected appropriate onomatopoeias of other appropriate words not only to imitate the sound but also to denote the original meanings. In the end, the description becomes more concrete and vivid, as it is showed in examples.<br />
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Example 2: 那黄狗汪汪的吠着，受了惊似的绕屋乱走，有人过渡时，便随船渡过东岸且跑到那小山头向城里一方面大吠。[8]<br />
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Translation: Barking wildly, he dashes round the house. Next time, passengers are ferried across he follows them up the east bank and races up the hill overlooking town, yapping frantically.[9]<br />
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Example 3: 黄狗为了表示同主人的意见一致，也在翠翠身边汪汪的吠着。[10]<br />
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Translation: To show his agreement, Brownie sets up a furious barking.[11]<br />
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In the two examples, there are three “吠”(fèi, meaning bark)，which is as a modifier of the verb “叫”. In the first translation, Gladys uses “barking wildly” to show the dog’s scare. And the second one is translated into “yapping frantically”, which shows that it’s on duty. And the third one is “furious barking” to show its anger. In Chinese, we can only use different adverbs to modify the same verb. However, the same character in Chinese is translated into three different expressions. In this way, the target readers can understand the original clearly.<br />
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'''2.2 Beauty in lexis'''<br />
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Beauty in lexis is associated with word choice, register, and collocation, and there are many rhetorical devices that contribute to the formal beauty on the lexical level, such as euphemism, zeugma, oxymoron, etc. Shen Congwen, with deep affection to his hometown, writes his fiction in a language as genuine and beautiful as the frontier folk songs in his hometown. His language, which has also enriched the modern vernacularism in China, is imbued with metaphors, local jokes and ballads. As for the aesthetic representation on the lexical level, Yang’s English translation have done a satisfactory job in that she attempts to retain the aesthetic features of original lexis as much as possible, though when it comes to the lexis loaded with heavy cultural connotations, due to the cultural untranslatability, the translator has employed domestication to avoid misunderstanding.<br />
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Example 4: 翠翠在风日里长着，故把皮肤变得黑黑的，触目为青山绿水，故眸子清明如水晶。自然既长养她且教育她，为人天真活泼，处处俨然如一只小怪兽。人又那么乖，如山头黄麂一样，从不想到残忍事情，从不发愁，从不动气。[12]<br />
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Translation: Wind and sun have tanned this growing girl’s skin，her eyes rest on green hills are as clear as crystal. Nature is her mother and teacher, making her innocent, lively and untamed as some small wild creature. She has the gentleness of a fawn and seems not to know the meaning of cruelty, anxiety or anger.[13]<br />
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Shen Congwen's description of Cuicui is based on the perfect combination of a pure little girl and nature. Shen Congwen used “dark black” to describe the natural and healthy skin color of Cuicui. She described the clear and bright eyes of Cuicui as “as clear as crystal”. Only through the description of skin and eyes, the youthful image of Cuicui was vivid. In translation, like “small wild creature” and “fawn”, it shows the lively side of Cuicui. Therefore, whether or not the aesthetic value of the source language image can be reproduced in the translation becomes the key to the reader's ability to understand Cuicui’s character. For example, “dark black” Gladys Yang uses “tanned” to indicate that her skin is a natural and healthy beauty after the sun has shined.<br />
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'''2.3 Beauty in form'''<br />
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Like sound and lexis transmitting beauty, syntax and paragraphs also carry lots of aesthetic information. There are many differences existing in Chinese and English sentence structures. Chinese sentence is like a bamboo that all structures come out from the base, while English sentence is like a grape tree with branches from the stem and twigs from the branches and the clauses are strictly arranged by the grammatical rules. Sentences can express a comprehensive meaning and carries certain aesthetic information. The successful translation is always with a figure, and most works have their own way of using figures of speech to form their own characteristic style. Thus the beauty in form came into being.<br />
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Structural balance and harmony is one of the basic aesthetic principles, and it is obtained with the use of right rhetorical devices. Here the author chooses three typical rhetorical devices: antithesis, parallelism and repetition to express the beauty of sentences in translation. What’s more, the three rhetorical devices have been used in Shen’s ''The Border Town''.<br />
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'''2.3.1 Parallelism'''<br />
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Parallelism is to use repetition in equivalent positions to enhance language expression and pay attention to emphasis, clarity and coherence of opinions. In parallel construction, it is necessary for writers to balance word with word, phrase with phrase, clause with clause, and sentence with sentence. At the same time, importance of grammar should be concerned to strengthen coherence of the sentence. In terms of the syntactic level, parallelism is a sprightly succinct rhetorical device. The identical meaning, structure or tone appeals to the readers’ eyes and ears, and heightens the readers’ aesthetic experience. It is one of the valid ways to satisfy aesthetic demands of language: balance and concordance in structure, while rhythm and harmony in tonality. The aesthetic information in parallelism is largely showed in the reoccurrence of a specific pattern, which carries lots of aesthetic value to make the original more lively and impressive. So it is widely employed in literary works. There’s no exception in ''The'' ''Border Town''. Look at the example:<br />
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Example 5: 这事情在本地人并不希奇，边地俗语说：“火是各处可烧的，水是各处可流的，日月是各处可照的，爱情是可各处可到的。”[14]<br />
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Translation: There is nothing strange in these parts, where folk have a saying, “There is no place on earth where fire cannot spread, water flow, sun and moon shine, or love make its way.”[15]<br />
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In this example, the same concise and symmetric sentence structure reoccurred many times. The repetition “各处可”(meaning everywhere) produces rhythm, making the sentence read like a song. By comparing love to fire, water, the sun and the moon, it vividly depicts the honesty, and straightforwardness of the local people. In Gladys’ version, she transforms the original parallel structure into a simple sentence and an attributive clause. Concise as it is, it isn’t in line with the writer’s intention and obviously disobeys the style of the original. Although it has transmitted the meaning of the original sentences, it fails to render the aesthetic features of this local saying.<br />
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'''2.3.2 Antithesis'''<br />
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Antithesis, a rhetoric technique with symmetric form and harmonious tonality, is designed to illustrate different things or aspects of the identical thing by comparison, and the symmetric components can replenish and contrast each other. Look at the example below.<br />
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Example 6: 轻轻的自言自语：“每只船要有个码头，每只雀儿得有个巢。”[16]<br />
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Translation: “Boats have a wharf, birds have a nest.” he murmurs.[17]<br />
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In this sentence, “船”(chuán, meaning boat) and “雀儿”(què ér, meaning bird), “码头”(mǎ tóu, meaning wharf ) and “巢”(cháo, meaning nest) in the Chineses version make an antithesis with each other, and it is well balanced in form. The writer expresses the grandpa’s care to Cuicui. Gladys’s version is structurally well-balanced. However, the utilization of the word “have” in English version fails to show the strong sense of belonging, reducing the aesthetic value of the original. If she use “need” to replace it, I think the aesthetic enjoyment could be realized better.<br />
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'''2.3.3 Repetition'''<br />
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From the word of repetition, we know that the same word can be used several times in one sentence. The main function of this rhetoric is to emphasize some things or information. It may help to produce strong aesthetic effect. In The Border Town, Shen Congwen employs repetition deliberately to achieve his purpose of emotive intensification. The intensive repetition can be used as a powerful thematic device. Here is an example:<br />
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Example 7: 老船夫说：“翠翠我看了个好碾坊，碾盘是新的，水车是新的，屋上稻草也是新的！”[18]<br />
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Translation: “Emerald,” he tells her, “I've just seen a fine mill. Brand-new from the millstone and water-wheel to the thatch on the roof.”[19]<br />
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This sentence vividly reproduces grandfather's psychological state after he has visited the new mill. The repetition of “是新的”(meaning new) for three times echoes each other to highlight how the mill knocks the breath out of grandpa, and strengthen his envy and longing for the mill. Gladys translates it into “Brand-new from... to...” Though it fails to keep the symmetric form of the original, it still succeeds in recreating the particular aesthetic effect of the original text. The inverted sentence pattern, the shifted perspective and the emphatic words make up for the loss of the repetition to great extent. Meanwhile, the concise and paralleled sentence structure represents the aesthetic information of the original more appropriately.<br />
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'''2.4 Beauty in image'''<br />
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Image in the literary text refers to the output of the subjective intrinsic emotion of the author and the extrinsic objective substances or the incarnation of emotion produced out of language narration. It is the unity of finity and infinity, the unity of the latent and the outstanding.<br />
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Example 8: 翠翠温习着两次过节所见所闻的一切，心中很快乐，好像目前有一个东西，同早间在床上闭了眼睛所看到的那种捉摸不定的黄葵花一样，这东西仿佛明朗地在眼前，却看不准，抓不住。[20]<br />
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Translation: Going over two festivals in her mind, happily savoring what she had seen and heard, Emerald has the same sensation as when she closed her eyes in bed in the morning and sees yellow sunflowers just out of reach. Something exciting lies ahead as yet indistinct and intangible, but too lovely to let go.[21]<br />
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This sentence is a psychological description of Cuicui. She recalled the days of last two Dragon Boat Festivals when she encountered Nuosong. Her heart was filled with unnamable expectation. She wished to see Nuosong again. The above sentence describes the sprout of love in Cuicui’s heart which is implicit but brings her sweetness and dream. The image “黄葵花”(huáng kuí huā, meaning yellow sunflower) symbolizes that the love has planted its seed in Cuicui’s heart, and is in full blossoms which brings Cuicui happiness and which she would like to pluck. In the translated versions, Yang makes uses of literal translation by preserving the image of “黄葵花”and puts it into “yellow sunflower”. With the help of the context, it is easy for the target readers to understand the image of “yellow sunflower” and acquire the implicit aesthetic value in it in Yang’s version. It depicts the hope and happiness in Cuicui’s heart and brings the same enjoyment to target readers as it does to the source readers.<br />
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'''2.5 Beauty in ideorealm'''<br />
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Artistic ideorealm is defined as an artistic realm in lyric poetry and other literary works, which is an integration of subjective emotion and objective images and feelings. It is characterized as beautiful and implicit as a traditional Chinese painting, which can evoke readers’ association and imagination, and surpasses the concrete vision and ascends an extensive artistic space.<br />
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Example 9: 由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这官路将近湘西边境到了一个地方名为‘茶峒’的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只一个老人，一个女孩子，一只黄狗。[22]<br />
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Translation: The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chadong, a small town in the hills. Nearby a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl, and a dog.[23]<br />
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This is the first paragraph of the novel. Like telling a story, it is slow and plain. From what Shen Congwen has described, we can see that he has a special writing style which expresses the beauty of nature. Here, the writer uses seven “一”(yī, meaning one) in all, and every one describes different images. What’s more, “一”represents Shen’s melancholy aesthetic sentiment and creation view. Shen uses the rhetorical device of anadiplosis which means repeating the ending words of the precedent sentence in the following sentence. This kind of discourse progression mode is not only good for the coherence of narrative and understanding of discourse but also full of interest. Gladys thoroughly adverts to the aesthetic connotation and narrative techniques contain in “一” of the original text and strive for “formal similarity” and “spiritual similarity”. In sentence structure, Gladys retains the anadiplosis rhetorical device like “一”. More importantly, the static beauty of the original text has been changed into dynamic beauty by the recreation of the translator. To sum up, the whole translation is simple and fluent which correspond to the intangible and solitary artistic conception in the original text.<br />
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Example 10: 那首歌声音既极柔和，快乐中又微带忧郁，唱完了歌，翠翠觉得心上有一丝儿凄凉。她想起秋末酬神还愿时田坪中的火燎同鼓角。远处鼓声已起来了，她知道绘有朱红长线的龙船这时节已下河了。细雨依然落个不止，溪面一片烟.[24]<br />
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Translation: This gay, haunting melody has an undertone of sadness, making Emerald feel a pang of loneliness. Her thoughts fly to the bonfires and drumming in the fields to welcome the spirits at the end of autumn. Meanwhile drums sound up in the distance. The long crimson dragon boats will soon be staring their race. A light rain falls steadily, the stream is misted over.[25]<br />
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In this example, Gladys’ translation almost reaches the realm of “spirit likeness”. In the wording, she not only carefully uses some expressive words but blends her own aesthetic attitude and aesthetic ideas into translation. Cuicui has stirred her love since she met Nousong two years ago on Dragon Boat Festival. Henceforth, she has a load in her mind, which is nothing to do with her grandfather. Dragon Boat Festival comes again, and Cuicui sits alone on the ferryboat, waiting for her grandfather. Then she go to see the dragon boat race together with him in town, where she may meet Nuosong again. The example above come about after Cuicui chanted a folk song on the ferryboat. The lonely and gloomy scenic description to some degree symbolizes that Cuicui’s love will end in tragedy. The repetition, though merely a few characters, forms an echo which achieves the artistic effect of inexhaustible sadness and sympathy of the readers toward Cuicui.<br />
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'''3 Conclusion'''<br />
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After the research and analysis, the author has found that Translation Aesthetics can be regarded as a criteria to evaluate literary works. The unique aesthetic characteristics in literature indicate that Translation Aesthetics is an effective and practical theory to analyze literature translation. A good literary translation should fully express the literary features and artistic connotations of literary works, embody the aesthetic value of the works, and make the readers realize the infinite charm of oriental art and the great vitality of literary works. On the one hand, it is necessary to reproduce the linguistic features of literary works in a proper and flexible way. On the other hand, it is necessary to take into account the cognitive level and understanding ability of readers in different countries, so as to maximize the aesthetic charm of literary works.<br />
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=Culture Loaded Words=<br />
==The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication莫南 Mo Nan==<br />
'''文化负载词在中英交流中的翻译'''<br />
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'''摘要：'''随着经济全球化的深入发展，各国之间的文化交流日趋频繁。文化信息的成功传递是跨文化交流中的重要一环。文化负载词的翻译一直是译者面临的一大难题。准确传译文化负载词关系到译文质量的提高，跨文化交流活动的顺利进行以及文化的传播。本文将由六个部分组成。第一个部分和第二部分将分别讲述文化负载词的定义以及其翻译的难点。第三部分和第四部分将讲述文化负载词的翻译策略及其不可译性。第五部分和第六部分将分别讲述文化负载词的翻译对口译的影响并对本文进行一个简短的总结。<br />
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'''关键词：'''翻译；文化负载词；文化差异<br />
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'''Abstract:''' With the development of economic globalization, the cultural exchange among different countries becomes more and more frequent. The successful transmission of cultural message is an important link in international exchanges. In translation activities, the translation of culture-loaded words is a great challenge for translators, because the speaker and the audience come from a different linguistic and cultural environment. The accurate translation of culture-loaded words will help improve the quality of translation, enable successful cross-cultural exchanges and promote culture transmission. This paper will be divided into six parts. The first part will tell readers what is culture-loaded words. The second part will concentrate on the difficulties to translate culture-loaded words.The third part will discuss the translation approaches to culture-loaded words. The fourth part will focus on the question of translatability of culture-loaded words. The fifth part will introduce the interpreter’s translation of culture-loaded words. And the last part will briefly draw a conclusion about the paper.<br />
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'''Key words:''' translation; culture-loaded words; cultural differences<br />
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As we all know, translation plays an important role in intercultural communication. A good translator can help to promote the communication between two different cultures. With the process of globalization, intercultural communication is becoming more and more frequent. However, there exist plenty of cultural differences between different cultures, especially between the East and the West. Cultural differences make it hard for translators to translate well. Culture-loaded words belong to one of the differences between different cultures. Therefore, it is of great significance to be aware of the appropriate translation of culture-loaded words. This is because it can help translators translate better and thus make two different cultures communicate better.<br />
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'''1 The Definition of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
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Before discussing what are culture-loaded words, we should know what is culture first. “Culture, in a broad sense, means the total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community. As culture is so inclusive, it permeates virtually every aspect of human life and influences predominantly people’s behavior, including linguistic behavior. In a narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs, which can mostly be found in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture etc.” (Dai Weidong 2002:127) Culture is learned by human beings. A child is born without any certain kind of culture. A child gets its culture through learning. For example, a Chinese kid will speak, act and think like a Chinese if it grows up in China. An American kid will speak, act and think like an American if it is raised in the United States. Meanwhile, if a Chinese kid is raised by an American family in the USA, he will think, act and speak like American people do and vice versa. Culture is owned by all the social members. The special behavior and habit of a single person is not culture because it is not owned by every member of the society. Culture can be transmitted from generation to generation. During the transmission, culture will also develop. “Generally speaking, there are two types of culture: material and spiritual. While material culture, as the term itself suggests, is concrete, substantial and observable. Most of spiritual culture, the products of mind (ideologies, beliefs, values and concepts of time and space, for example), is abstract, ambiguous, and hidden. In contrast with nature in the sense of what is born and grows, culture refers to what has been grown and brought up with, in other words, what can be nurtured. Culture, especially material culture, is reproduced and preserved through the maintaining of beliefs, traditions, education and other institutional mechanisms, meanwhile, it changes slowly with the development of the society.” (Dai Weidong 2002:127-128) <br />
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“Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and disseminating culture. As the basic unit of language, word is of course the most direct reflection of culture. Culture-loaded words refer to the words, phrases, and idioms only contained in a culture. These words reflect the uniqueness of certain nations. This kind of uniqueness develops from the long historical process.” (Liao Qiyi 2002:232) Culture-loaded words can make a distinction between two different cultures. Culture-loaded words can also reflect a country’s social background, financial base and culture in a certain period of time. During different historical periods, different culture-loaded words occur. Different countries differ from each other because every country has its uniqueness that makes it special. Ordinarily speaking, a literary work, which shows a lot of national characteristics, contains plenty of culture-loaded words. Culture-loaded words make it difficult for translators to translate. <br />
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'''2 Difficulties in the Translation of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
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Every country has its own cultural origin. And “every nation has its own cultural focus. So its vocabulary always develops according to the cultural focus and becomes more and more detailed and complex.” (Liao Qiyi 2002:232)As we all know, Chinese culture and western culture have different origins. Chinese culture came from the Chinese mainland. There exist two big rivers, the Yellow River and the Huanghe River, across China. So Chinese people fed themselves by fishing, hunting and farming. The vast territory provided Chinese people enough resources to support themselves. The lofty mountains and high ranges, on the one hand, protected ancient China from the invasion of other countries, while on the other hand, also prevented China from communicating with other countries. Therefore, Chinese people is more conservative and emphasize harmony. <br />
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“There is a great difference of the physio geographic condition between China and the western countries, especially the relationship between sea and land. If we say that Chinese civilization came from the land, western civilization came from the sea.”(Huang Yongyuan and Zhang Jing 2011:237) Europe is surrounded by the sea on the west, south and north, and borders on Asia in the east. The whole Europe continent is close to the sea, and the maritime climate is very significant. As the cradle of Western culture, the ancient Greece, was more connected with the sea. Greece was transportation center of the eastern Mediterranean. It had many ports and mountains but had a barren land. This kind of condition forced the ancient Greeks to operate maritime trade very early to support themselves. Therefore, people from western countries are easy to accept foreign cultures.<br />
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China’s national spirit is different from that of the western countries. For example, China’s definition of “dragon” is so far away from that of the western countries. “The dragon, in Chinese myths and legends, is a kind of god . It is a symbol of the Chinese nation. The Chinese all call themselves "the descendants of the dragon"; it is also a symbol of the ancient imperial power, and the emperors of all ages considered themselves to be the true dragon. Each feature of the dragon represents an advantage. The wide forehead represents intelligence, the sword-like eyebrows represent courage, the tiger eyes represent majesty, the lion nose represents prosperity, the horse teeth represent diligence and kindness, the crocodile mouth represents swallowing, the shrimp mustache represents free water absorption , the cattle ears represent the leadership, the antlers represent health and longevity, the fish and clam represent defense, the camel head represents drought resisting, the eagle claws represent the ability to fly, and the snake neck represents the ability of accomplishing a task with ease. The Chinese dragon can be said to be a favorite to Chinese people. In the Western world, the dragon is called Drakon in Greek, Dragon in English, and Draco is in Latin. The dragon is a derogatory term in the West and a symbol of evil. In Western mythology, the dragon is the demon that makes people fear. ''The Bible'' illustrates dragon as a demon, and the devil Satan, who is opposite to God, is called the "great dragon"; the Old Dragon is the Devil, or Satan. In a biological perspective, dragon is a kind of particularly ferocious animal. In many cases, western literature describes the dragon as a monster to be eradicated by the hero.”(Huang Yongyuan and Zhangjing 2011:238) <br />
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Apart from the examples above, there are still many example containing different meanings in different countries because of cultural differences. For example, the color “red” represents happiness, auspiciousness and success. This is because the color red came from the sun. Ancient Chinese people worshiped the sun. Thus, when getting married, Chinese bride’s wedding dress is red. People will hang red lanterns and paste red couplets in Spring festival. However, in western countries, although they have words like, “red-letter day” and “the red carpet”, which contain positive meanings, the color “red” is a kind of taboo. In English, the color “red” is the association of fire and blood. It represents the radical and violent revolutions. So many English phrases containing red have negative meaning, like red-headed, red-light district, red-handed, red ruin, red ink, in the red etc. Similarly, the color “white” contains different meanings in the East and the West. In western countries, white means innocence, honesty, kindness and so on. When getting married, the bride will white wedding dress. Although the color white contains the meaning of purity and innocence, like “白衣天使”(white angel) which represents doctors and nurses in Chinese, white is a kind of taboo color in China. The color white represents death and ill omen. When a family member died, they will hang white cloth inside and outside the house. We can also realize the different meanings of the same word in different countries. For instance, the word “狗”(dog) contains a negative meaning. However, in western countries, dog always contains a positive meaning, like a lucky dog.<br />
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'''3 Approaches to Translate Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
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Under the great progress of globalization, different cultures have more accesses to communicate with each other. According to Eugene Nida, “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” (Nida Eugene A and Charles Taber R 1969:13) “Ordinarily speaking, there are three approaches to translate culture-loaded words, namely foreignization, domestication and translation compensation. The translation of culture-loaded words belongs to the micro aspect of cultural translation. In the context of globalization, the fundamental standpoint of exploring the translation approach is to preserve the unique cultural significance carried by culture-loaded words, which determines that we should use foreignization and translation compensation as the main translation approaches to translation culture-loaded words”.(Wang Xiang 2017:75)<br />
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'''3.1 Foreignization'''<br />
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Venuti(1995: 20) considers the foreignizing method to be ‘an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad’. It is ‘highly desirable’, he says, in an effort ‘to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation’. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the ‘violently’ domesticating cultural values of the English-language world. The foreignizing method of translating, a strategy Venuti also terms ‘resistancy’ (1995: 305-6), is a non-fluent or estranging translation style designed to make visible the presence of the translator by highlighting the foreign identity of the ST and protecting it from the ideological dominance of the target culture.<br />
Foreignization can preserve the uniqueness of the source language’s culture because respecting the source language culture is starting point. Compared with domestication approach, foreignization considers more about the source language’s cultural background and is more faithful to the source language’s culture. It can keep the exotic flavor of the source language text. However, foreignization is not a perfect translation approach. If the translation doesn’t pay enough attention, the foreignization approach will be abused easily. If the translator misuse the foreignization approach, the target text will be awkward and hard to understand.<br />
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The food culture contains great national characteristics. It shows the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. The words related to the food culture are rich in Chinese culture. Many examples of using foreignization approach can be found in the translation of traditional Chinese food. Firstly, the translation of traditional Chinese food can be related to Chinese allusions. Let’s take the translation of Yuanxiao or Tang-yuan(glue pudding) as an example. “It’s said that a lady-in-waiting called Yuanxiao during the Han dynasty missed her parents so much that she cried with tears in her face every single day. In order to help her, a minister named Dongfang Shuo lied to Emperor of the Han dynasty that the god of fire with the order of the Jade Emperor would burn Changan(the Capital of China in Han dynasty) on the 15th of the first lunar month. The solution to avoid this disaster was to ask the lady-in-waiting named Yuanxiao to make Tang-yuan, the favorite food of the god of fire, and to ask all the people in Changan to hang lanterns. Emperor Wu approved this plan. Finally, the girl named Yuanxiao met her parents. Thus, the tradition of Lantern Festival ( pronounced Yuanxiao Jie in Chinese, “jie” in Chinese means festival) appeared.” ( Xu Xianling and Li Xiangzhaung 2005:230) Therefore, if we translate the Chinese food “元宵” into Yuanxiao by the foreignization approach instead of translating into the glue pudding, the special Chinese culture in the food can be preserved well.<br />
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Secondly, the translation of Chinese food can be related to Chinese customs. Chinese people eat special traditional food in special Chinese festivals. For instance, people will eat double-ninth cake on the Double Ninth Festival. The Double Ninth Festival is on the 9th day of the 9th lunar month. The translation of double-ninth cake can keep the traditional Chinese culture well. Thirdly，the translation of traditional Chinese food can be related with Chinese people’s appreciation of beauty. For example, “the Chinese cuisine ‘鸟语花香’, can be translated into ‘Singing Birds and Fragrant Flowers(Steamed mandarin fish and bird-shaped shrimps)’’ and ‘青龙过海’ can be translated into ‘Green Dragons Crossing the Sea(Soup with green onion)’”. (Zhang Jiachen 2014:106) By using the foreignization approach, this kind of translation can preserve the beautiful image of these cuisines and the explanatory note can also prevent foreigners from being confused. What’s more, the translation of some Chinese cuisine can be related to the traditional Chinese medical science. For example, “‘八珍食品’ can be translated into ‘Eight Delicacies (Stimulate your baby’s appetite and better his or her growth) and ‘当归生姜羊肉汤’ can be translated into ‘ Angelica Ginger Lamb Soup(Replenish your blood and warm your spleen and stomach)’”. (Zhang Jiachen 2014:106) Translating in this way can pass the traditional Chinese medical culture to readers.<br />
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Although the foreignization approach can be of great help to pass the source language’s culture to the target readers, it requires the translator’s great knowledge between the two cultures. Therefore, translators have to do a good preparation before translating.<br />
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'''3.2 Translation compensation'''<br />
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George Steiner divides the process of translation into four parts and “By ensuring the translation is possible, compensation is the last step in the whole procedure”.(2001: 176) It should be acknowledged that translation compensation occurs and accompanies translation activity as early as cultural difference exists. It possesses a history as long as translation activity does. Scholar Mona Baker holds the view that compensation is a translation skill, which can be applied when “target language is impossible to directly make up for the losses in meaning, language style or emotional force”.(1992: 33) Due to the translation difficulties caused by cultural default and cultural differences, translators have to employ different compensation strategies to make sure their translation outcome can be totally understood by the TL readers. Hervey and Higgins divided translation compensation mainly into four kinds, namely compensation in kind, compensation by splitting, compensation by merging and compensation in place.<br />
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The translation compensation approach can be often used to translate the name of Chinese teas. China is the birthplace of tea culture. The record about tea appeared in the era of Shennong about 4700 years ago. Since ancient times, the tradition of providing to guests has been preserved. There are various kinds of teas in China like Longjing tea from Hangzhou , Oolong tea from Fujian etc. Chinese tea culture are also involved in Chinese Confucianism, Buddhism, Taoism and so on. Chinese tea culture is a treasure in traditional Chinese culture. <br />
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Chinese and English belong to different language systems. There are great differences between the two languages. Due to the different social environment , life style and vocabulary, sometimes it is impossible for translators to achieve complete equivalence. Chinese people’s ways to name teas are various. Sometimes, the Chinese character “茶” (tea in English) doesn’t even exit in the name of a tea. For example, some teas exhibited in the China Tea Museum in Hangzhou, like “羊岩勾青”(Yangyan Gouqing), “庐山云雾”(Lushan Yunwu), the names of these teas don’t contain the character of tea. If translators show the English names of these teas to the target readers without explanation, readers may feel confused. Sometimes, the names of some teas are the same as the names of other stuff. For example, “ ‘茉莉花茶’ is translated into Jasmine Tea. This kind of translation mixes the tea name with the flower name. Actually, ‘茉莉花茶’ is a kind of green tea which has the aroma of jasmine. Some kind of ‘茉莉花茶’ contains jasmine flower, some don’t. Similarly, ‘竹叶青’ is translated into Bamboo Leaf Green and ‘玉露’ is translated into Jade Dew. Although the translation of these names of teas used the literal translation approach and realized the verbal equivalence, translators neglected the features of the teas. This kind of translation will mislead the target reader to think of ‘竹叶青’ as the tea made of bamboo leaves and ‘玉露’ as the tea made of jade and dew, which is totally impossible”. (Cui Shan 2019:125) The translation of tea names is also a part of intercultural communication. It can directly influence the transmission of Chinese culture in the world and can also influence the business result. If a translator doesn’t pay enough attention to the cultural differences, it may lead to bad consequences. For example, a Chinese tea called “龙虎斗” was translated into “The Fighting Between Dragon and Tiger ”. Although the translation kept the verbal meaning of the tea, it violated the western taboo. This is because dragon is referred as a kind of evil and fierce beast. A reader without the knowledge of Chinese culture will have the image of two fierce beasts fighting and killing each other when reading the translation of the tea. The target reader will feel uncomfortable to read the name of the tea, let alone buy and drink it. “珠茶” is a kind of special tea from Shaoxing, Zhejiang Province. It is round and bullet-shaped. So it was translated into “gun power”. This kind of translation can easily make people think about the violent images of war. Therefore, when being sold to India, Indian purchasers strongly asked the seller to change the translation of the tea name.<br />
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Due to cultural differences, sometimes literal translation cannot express the true meaning of the tea name well. During this circumstance, translator should compensate the important information under the verbal meaning of the tea name. This kind of purpose can be achieved through the explanation of connotation under the tea name. Let’s take the tea names we have mentioned in the last paragraph as an example. According to the background information of the tea “玉露”, “ the shape of the tea is round and its color is white like jade. So it’s better to translate ‘玉露’ into ‘Jade-green Tea’ instead of ‘Jade Dew’”. (Cui Shan 2019:126) This kind of translation can show the color and type of the tea. It is more acceptable and less confusing for the target readers. Similarly, “‘茉莉花茶’ can be translated into ‘Jasmine Scented Tea’ instead of ‘Jasmine Tea’ and ‘竹叶青’ can be translated into ‘Bamboo-Leaf-Shaped Green Tea’ instead of ‘Bamboo Leaf ’”. (Cui Shan, 2019:126) “Jasmine Scented Tea” can show the true features of the tea and distinguish the tea from jasmine flower. And “Bamboo-Leaf-Shaped Green Tea” can tell the target readers the type and features of the tea and stop misleading readers to think of it as the tea made of bamboo leaves.<br />
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'''4 Untranslatability of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
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Catford thought that untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. When translating culture-loaded words, it is hard for translator to translate the culture behind these words in a perfect way. For example, “纸老虎” is translated into “Paper Tiger” in English. But if people don’t have a knowledge of Chinese culture, when they read the phrase “paper tiger”, they will think of it as a kind of artistic work. Similarly, “八股文” is translated into “Eight-part Essay”. When people read this kind of translation, they will only think of it as a kind of article containing eight parts. They cannot understand the moral imprisonment this kind of writing style brought to Chinese people. When the famous sinologist David Hawkes was translating the famous Chinese novel ''A Dream of Red Mansions'', he translated a servant girl in the novel called “紫鹃” into “Nightingale” instead of “cuckoo”. This is because the word “cuckoo” in western countries can be used to refer the woman who cheated in a relationship. In the novel, “紫鹃” is a quite innocent girl. So the word “cuckoo”, although is literally equivalent to “紫鹃”, it was still not chosen by David Hawkes to be the girl’s name. In English, “nightingale” refers to a small brown bird, the male of which has a beautiful song. It can also refer people who can sing beautifully. Although the translator avoided cultural conflict by translating “紫鹃” into “Nightingale”, “nightingale” still cannot show the innocence of that girl. Sometimes, translators will borrow words from other cultures to help themselves translate better. For example, translators translate “a beauty in ancient China named Xi Shi into ‘Chinese Cleopatra’. However, Cleopatra is more like the first and the only female emperor in Chinese history Wu Zetian in Chinese people’s mind to western people. In Chinese phrase ‘蝙蝠迎宾’， the word ‘蝙蝠’ is translated into ‘bird’ in English instead of ‘bat’. This is because bat represents vampires in western culture. This kind of translation avoided the violation of western taboo. But it also doesn’t translate the inner ‘happiness’ behind the phrase in Chinese culture.”(Chen Junming 2013:29)<br />
Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences. Although it is hard to translate culture-loaded words into target language in a perfect way, translators still need to try to discover the translation of culture-loaded words. Translators can also add some explanations after the translated sentences or words to make the meaning and culture behind the source language text be understood by target readers.<br />
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'''5 The Interpreter’s Translation of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
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Unlike translators, interpreters have much shorter time to translate. Sometimes, it is a great challenge for interpreters to translate in such a short time. As we have discussed above, culture-loaded words make it hard for translators to translate. So during the interpreting, it may be even harder for interpreters to translate utterances with culture-loaded words. An interpreter’s translation can be divided into three steps, namely comprehension, de-verbalization and reformulation. If an interpreter wants to interpret successfully, he should understand what the speaker has said. The interpreter will keep the content of what the speaker just said in his mind. During step two, the interpreter will forget the structure of these linguistic signs which formed what the speaker said and only remembers the ideas these linguistics signs wanted to express. During the last step, the interpreter uses another language to form new utterances to express the speaker’s ideas. The interpreter has to try to express all the information the speaker mentioned as possible and the interpreter also needs to try to make the translated language easy to be understood by target hearers. <br />
The striking feature of interpreting is its timeliness. Since the interpreter’s memory is limited, interpretation is more about translating the overall meaning of the discourse. Sometimes interpreters have to identify the key information of someone’s utterances and discard the unimportant information. The approach we have discussed above can also be used to interpret. For example, the interpreter can use literal translation approach to translate. By using the literal translation approach, “ ‘莫道今年春将尽，明年春色倍欢人。我期待着明年中国和世界都会变得更好’，can be translated into ‘Do not regret that the spring is departing, come next year as it will be twice as enchanting. I really hope to see that next year in China and in the whole world people will be better off.’”(Guo Huiqing 2018:94) It’s worth mentioning that interpreters have to translate in a limited time. So when confronting some special expression that is hard to find the equivalent in the target language. They will try to explain the meaning of these expression. For example, the interpreter can translate “ ‘山重水复疑无路，柳暗花明又一村’ into ‘After encountering all kinds of difficulties and experiencing all kinds of hardships, at the end of the day we will see light at the end of tunnel’”.(Guo Huiqing 2018:95) This expression is from ancient Chinese poet Tao Yuanming’s poem. This sentence just express the scenery of the countryside. But combing the poem with the utterances the speaker has said, the interpreter translates the sentence into the translation above. This kind of explanation approach can be often used in interpreting.<br />
Translation and interpreting share a lot in common like the approaches to translate. But interpreting has the feature of timeliness while translation doesn’t. This feature brings more challenges for interpreters to translate. It requires interpreter to have to quick response and a better sensibility to cultural differences.<br />
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'''6 Conclusion'''<br />
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“Since the knowledge and beliefs that constitute a people’s culture are habitually encoded and transmitted in the language of the people, it is extremely difficult to separate the two. On the one hand, language as an integral part of human being, permeates his thinking and way of viewing the world, language both expresses and embodies cultural reality. On the other, language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture, and the changes in language uses reflect the cultural changes in return.” (Dai Weidong 2002:130) Language and culture are interdependent during the process of evolution. Language belongs to culture. Translators, who translate the information from one language to another, have the responsibility to promote the communication between different countries. A good translator can help the transmission of cultures. The cultural differences among different countries lead to different culture-loaded words in different countries. The reason why we call a culture-loaded word a culture-loaded word is because it contains the special meaning of a culture. It is exactly this kind of uniqueness which makes a culture different from other cultures. Although culture-loaded words make it hard for translators to translate well, translators still have to find strategies to overcome this kind of difficulty. As long as cultural differences exist, culture-loaded words will still be there. As a bridge between two language or even two cultures, translators still have to work hard to discover better approaches to translate culture-loaded words well. If translators can translate better, the cultural communication between two countries will be better.<br />
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'''References'''<br />
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[1] Baker, Mona. ''In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation.'' London: Routledge, 1992<br />
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[2] Chen, Junming. [陈君铭]. 谈汉语文化负载词的不可译性[J]. 淮南师范学院学报, 2013(4):28-31<br />
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[3] Cui, Shan. [崔姗]. 翻译补偿视角下的中国茶名英译研. 福建茶叶, 2019(2):125-126<br />
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[4] Dai, Weidong. [戴炜栋]. 《新编简明英语语言学教程》. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2002<br />
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[5] Eugene A, Nida and Charles R, Taber.''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden：E.J.Brill,1969<br />
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[6] Guo, Huqing. [郭卉青]. 释意理论视角下文化负载词的英汉口译策略[J]. 陕西能源学院学报, 2018(2):94-96<br />
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[7] Huang, Yongyuan and Zhang, Jing. [黄永媛, and 张晶]. 中西文化起源对比与研究. 东北农业大学学报(社会科学版). 2011(6):107-109<br />
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[8] Lawrence, Venuti .''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation''. London and New York: Routledge, 1995<br />
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[9] Liao, Qiyi. [廖七一]. 《当代西方翻译理论探索》. 南京: 译林出版社, 2002<br />
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[10] Steiner, George. ''After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998<br />
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[11] Wang, Xiang. [王祥]. 全球化语境下文化负载词翻译技巧. 开封教育学院学报. 2017(8):75-76<br />
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[12] Xu, Xianling and Li, Xiangzhuang. [徐先, and李相状]. 中国饮食文化. 北京：中国戏剧出版社, 2005<br />
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Zhang, Jiachen. [张佳琛]. 中国“食”文化的异化翻译. 长沙理工大学学报（社会科学版）, 2014(3):140-107<br />
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=Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br />
=='''A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories'''==<br />
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'''(1)Introduction'''<br />
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'''1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br />
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'''1.2. Skopos Theory'''<br />
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Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br />
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Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br />
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Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br />
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Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br />
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Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br />
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'''II.Similarities and Differences'''<br />
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'''2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories'''<br />
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'''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br />
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Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br />
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While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br />
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'''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br />
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Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br />
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In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br />
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'''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br />
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'''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br />
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From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br />
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Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br />
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'''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br />
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Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br />
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In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br />
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'''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br />
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In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br />
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However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br />
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Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes." instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br />
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'''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br />
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In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br />
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Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br />
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'''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br />
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In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br />
Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br />
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'''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br />
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'''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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'''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br />
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Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br />
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Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br />
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'''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br />
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First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br />
Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br />
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In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br />
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'''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
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The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br />
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'''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br />
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'''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br />
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Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br />
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Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br />
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Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br />
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Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br />
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'''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br />
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However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br />
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Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br />
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Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br />
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Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br />
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'''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br />
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There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br />
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'''IV.Conclusion'''<br />
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Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br />
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Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br />
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Bibliography：<br />
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[1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
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[2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br />
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[3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br />
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[4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br />
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[5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br />
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[6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br />
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[7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br />
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[8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br />
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[9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br />
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[10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br />
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[11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br />
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=='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br />
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'''Introduction'''<br />
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'''Research background'''<br />
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Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely "functional equivalence theory". With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br />
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'''Significance of the study'''<br />
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By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br />
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'''Layout of this chapter'''<br />
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This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br />
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'''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br />
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'''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br />
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Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br />
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'''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br />
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Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br />
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'''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br />
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The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br />
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Example: “presidential historian...”<br />
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“总统的史学家......”<br />
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It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br />
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'''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br />
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From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br />
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Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br />
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It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br />
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'''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br />
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This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br />
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Example：“车来了！”<br />
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“Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br />
In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br />
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'''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br />
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The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br />
Example: “as white as snow.”<br />
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It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br />
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'''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br />
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Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br />
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'''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br />
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Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br />
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The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br />
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The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br />
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The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br />
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The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of "function plus loyalty", which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br />
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'''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br />
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Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br />
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'''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br />
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In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br />
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'''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br />
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In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br />
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''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br />
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Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br />
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Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br />
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无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br />
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If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br />
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'''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br />
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Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br />
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Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br />
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这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br />
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This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br />
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'''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br />
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Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br />
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Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br />
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OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br />
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农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br />
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开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br />
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The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br />
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There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br />
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'''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br />
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This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br />
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'''3.1 The differences'''<br />
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'''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br />
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The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br />
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German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of "action", and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br />
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'''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br />
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Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. "Equivalence" here, he clearly stated that it is not "equivalence" in mathematics, but "approximation", that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve "close and natural equivalence": (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br />
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Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be "coherent within the text," that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br />
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But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that "there is no translation without the original text", and free rewriting does not belong to translation; "Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation." This responsibility of the translator is "loyalty"(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of "function plus loyalty" avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br />
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'''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br />
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Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the "mirror reflection" of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br />
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Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br />
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'''3.2 The Similarities'''<br />
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'''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br />
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The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is "skopos theory" or "functional equivalence theory", both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br />
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Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that "the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural." In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br />
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'''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br />
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Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of "coherence within the text" that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br />
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Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br />
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'''Conclusion''' <br />
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By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br />
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'''Bibliography'''<br />
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Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London & New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br />
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Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br />
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Reiss, Katharina & Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br />
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Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London & New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br />
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陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br />
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范德瑞.奈达功能对等理论与功能主义目的论比较研究[J].淮海工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2019,17(04):66-69.<br />
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李长栓.《非文学翻译理论与实践》[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.2009:11<br />
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张春柏.影视翻译初探[J].中国翻译,1998(2):50-53.<br />
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张锦兰.目的论与翻译方法[J].《中国科技翻译》2004,17(01):1.<br />
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张美芳.功能加忠诚--介评克里丝汀·诺德的功能翻译理论[J]．外国语,2005(1):60-65.<br />
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=='''On the Comparison between "Sublimation" an "Functonal Equivalence" Theories'''==<br />
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'''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br />
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'''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br />
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'''Introduction''':<br />
As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br />
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Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br />
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'''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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'''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br />
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The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br />
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'''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida & Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br />
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'''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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'''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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(1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br />
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Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, "Check" refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br />
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(2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br />
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“Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br />
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In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br />
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From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br />
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(3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br />
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S: “white as snow”<br />
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T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br />
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From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what "white as snow" means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br />
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'''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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(1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br />
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Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br />
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(2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br />
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On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br />
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'''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br />
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'''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br />
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According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the "servant" of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br />
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'''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br />
<br />
The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br />
As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br />
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'''4.Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''References'''<br />
<br />
[1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br />
<br />
[2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br />
<br />
[3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br />
<br />
[4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br />
<br />
[5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br />
<br />
[6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br />
<br />
[7]Nida, Eugene A. & Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br />
<br />
[8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br />
<br />
[9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br />
<br />
[10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br />
<br />
[11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br />
<br />
=Theory and Practise=<br />
==Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior==<br />
<br />
A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br />
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So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br />
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From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br />
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'''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br />
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A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br />
<br />
According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br />
<br />
“Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br />
<br />
In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br />
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(1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br />
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(2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br />
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Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br />
<br />
B.Bassett and Lefevere<br />
<br />
Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br />
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C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br />
<br />
Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br />
<br />
Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br />
For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br />
The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br />
<br />
Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br />
“For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br />
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D.Venuti<br />
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Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br />
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“Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br />
<br />
Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br />
<br />
Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br />
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To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br />
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II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br />
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A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br />
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For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br />
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In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br />
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Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br />
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Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br />
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Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br />
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From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br />
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江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br />
<br />
江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br />
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The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br />
<br />
And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br />
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Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br />
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他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br />
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他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br />
<br />
(qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br />
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Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br />
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The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br />
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顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br />
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Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br />
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Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br />
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Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br />
<br />
For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br />
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B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br />
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In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br />
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Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br />
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In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br />
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Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br />
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Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br />
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So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br />
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Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br />
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回乡偶书 <br />
少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br />
儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br />
(the original poem)<br />
<br />
Homecoming<br />
I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br />
My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br />
Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br />
“Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br />
(Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br />
<br />
This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br />
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The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br />
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(1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br />
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事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br />
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事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br />
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“神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br />
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(2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br />
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还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br />
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还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br />
<br />
(Jiang 278-279)<br />
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The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br />
<br />
For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br />
<br />
C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br />
<br />
As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br />
<br />
The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br />
<br />
In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br />
<br />
The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br />
<br />
To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br />
<br />
(1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br />
<br />
我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br />
<br />
In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br />
<br />
(2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br />
<br />
“你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br />
<br />
The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br />
This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br />
<br />
(1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br />
<br />
“I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br />
<br />
你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br />
<br />
“如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br />
<br />
The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br />
<br />
(2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br />
<br />
因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br />
<br />
According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br />
<br />
Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br />
<br />
From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br />
<br />
III.Conclusion<br />
<br />
This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br />
<br />
For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br />
<br />
For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br />
<br />
Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br />
<br />
'''Work Cited'''<br />
<br />
胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br />
蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br />
李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 <https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1> <br />
刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br />
毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br />
许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br />
许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br />
---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br />
---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br />
杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br />
周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br />
Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br />
Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 <https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne ><br />
Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br />
Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br />
Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br />
Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br />
Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br />
Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br />
Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br />
Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br />
Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.0<br />
<br />
=Contemporary Translation Studies=<br />
==An Analysis of the Book of Contemporary Translation Theories and Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications==<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Introduction:<br />
In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: Contemporary Translation Theories and Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: Contemporary Translation Theories, and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br />
<br />
<br />
I Analysis of the book Contemporary Translation Theories<br />
Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called Contemporary Translation Theories whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global <br />
translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless <br />
on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a <br />
Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North <br />
American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation<br />
Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br />
“This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br />
In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book Contemporary Translation Theories,<br />
Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text(2001:48). <br />
In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness<br />
and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br />
list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br />
“On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of <br />
translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it <br />
focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of <br />
target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more <br />
social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the <br />
translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br />
detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br />
However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it <br />
still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the <br />
cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely <br />
have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a <br />
positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west <br />
wind is translated into "ode to the east wind", because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers <br />
have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response <br />
is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to <br />
realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic <br />
equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the <br />
active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also <br />
crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br />
Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence <br />
is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(<br />
Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form <br />
and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).<br />
The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the <br />
target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target <br />
readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(<br />
Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the <br />
translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others <br />
because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy <br />
kiss which is in the old testament the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet <br />
others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of <br />
the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others <br />
enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two <br />
equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br />
Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal <br />
equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that <br />
in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source <br />
language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and <br />
Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the complete<br />
transcript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on <br />
the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a <br />
equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a <br />
glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then <br />
we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing <br />
gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal <br />
equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that <br />
sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. <br />
For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br />
Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the <br />
first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation <br />
filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, <br />
namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation <br />
study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model <br />
in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a <br />
practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam <br />
Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the <br />
linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam <br />
Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that <br />
talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory <br />
about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form <br />
grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms <br />
to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks that<br />
language is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more <br />
focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to <br />
reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal <br />
rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of <br />
human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br />
Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br />
between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations <br />
between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language <br />
would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that <br />
deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of <br />
translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big <br />
contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br />
<br />
<br />
II Analysis of Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications <br />
As for the second book: Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br />
Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br />
Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br />
Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the New Testament and later the Old Testament. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br />
The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his "picture" the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br />
Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of Evolution and Ethnic.<br />
“Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br />
It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br />
Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br />
It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br />
Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br />
Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br />
<br />
<br />
III Comparison between the book of Contemporary Translation Theories and Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications <br />
1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content<br />
Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the contemporary translation studies, the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the Contemporary Translation Studies. These added parts to the book Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br />
2.From the content of the material<br />
Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the contemporary Translation Theories, the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications, the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br />
Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the Contemporary Translation Theories, the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br />
Conclusion:<br />
All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br />
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Works Cited<br />
Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br />
Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br />
Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br />
Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br />
Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br />
Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br />
Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br />
Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br />
Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br />
Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br />
Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br />
Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br />
Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br />
Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br />
Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br />
Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br />
Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br />
Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br />
Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br />
Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Influence of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi==<br />
<br />
==An analysis of main factors influencing the choice of translation strategies, the example of Hongloumeng 解帆 Xie Fan==<br />
<br />
==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi==<br />
<br />
==Reflections on the Development of Chinese Cultural Self-confidence in Translation from the Perspective of Chinese Translation History 郑华君 Zheng Huajun==<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Four translation climaxes in Chinese translation History'''===<br />
<br />
==='''The expression and development of Chinese cultural self-confidence in the four translation climaxes'''===<br />
<br />
==='''The characteristics of Chinese cultural self-confidence in Chinese translation History'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Discussion'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Bibliography'''===<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== Analysis of Skills Strategies in Interpretation: Starting from The Interpretive Theory of Translation (ITT) 肖双玲 Xiao Shuangling==<br />
<br />
='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==An Analysis of Untranslatability and Equivalence from the perspective of Catford,Nida and Newmark’s Translation theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi==<br />
<br />
==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br />
<br />
==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
===Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br />
<br />
===Chapter One===<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
==Roger T.Bell’s Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning==<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida 杨晨婷 Yang Chenting==<br />
<br />
==On the differences of Nida's and Newmark's theory 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng==<br />
<br />
='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Comparison between Chinese and Western translation theories—based on A brief history of Western countries and The draft of Chinese translation theories 杨逸 Yang Yi==<br />
<br />
==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br />
<br />
==Translation Thoughts and Theories in China 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan==<br />
<br />
==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br />
<br />
==Reflections of Translation Theory Books 李丽琴 Li Liqin==<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Lu Xun's Translation Theories 张瑜 Zhang Yu==<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
'''Key Words'''<br />
<br />
'''摘要'''<br />
<br />
'''关键词'''<br />
<br />
'''1.Introduction'''<br />
<br />
'''2.Lu Xun's Translation Theories'''<br />
<br />
'''3.The Formation and Development of Lu Xun's Translaton Theories'''<br />
<br />
'''4.The Application of the Translation Theories'''<br />
<br />
'''5.Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
'''Bibliography'''<br />
<br />
==Comparison of two books “Translation the basics” and A Contrastive Study of English and Chinese and English Translation 姚诚 Yao Cheng==<br />
<br />
==Comparison of two books “Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice” by ROGER T. BELL and “Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond by Gideon Toury 谢子熠 Xie Ziyi==<br />
<br />
='''Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Brief Analysis of Bell's Translation Process Model and Schema Theory 曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan==<br />
<br />
==A study on a History of Translation Theory 李梦 Li Meng==<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between Bell and Liu Zhongde 林鑫 Lin Xin==<br />
<br />
==Translation , Translating and interpreting 漆凯 Qi Kai==<br />
<br />
== Study on the English Translation from the Perspective of Error Analysis Theory 张琪 Zhang Qi ==<br />
<br />
==Introduction to Translation Theories 郭露 Guo Lu==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
==='''key words'''===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical poems of departure, Translation aesthetics<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
==='''关键字'''===<br />
<br />
===Chinese Translation Theories===<br />
<br />
===Early Western Translation Theories===<br />
<br />
===Modern Western Translation Theories===<br />
<br />
===Discussion===<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
==The Influence of Cultural Differences on Translation Methods 张宇星 Zhang Yuxing==<br />
<br />
='''Comparison of Translation Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Comparison Of Translation Theory Between Yan Fu And Tytler 陈涵 Chen Han==<br />
<br />
'''Abstract''': <br />
<br />
'''摘要'''：泰特勒的“翻译三原则”与严复的“信达雅”分别是中西翻译史上最重要的翻译理论之一。严复与泰特勒二人虽处于不同的时代，但他们的翻译理论却十分相似，从而引起许多争议。本文将系统阐述二人的翻译理论，从这两种理论产生的历史文化背景等方面比较二者的相似点和不同点，并探究产生异同的原因，旨在理清两个理论之间的关系，正确对待中西翻译理论异同，从而推动中国翻译的发展。<br />
<br />
'''关键词'''：泰特勒；翻译三原则；严复；信达雅<br />
<br />
'''I. Introduction'''--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 12:56, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Chinese and Western Feminist Translation Theories-- a case study of Simon and Eileen Chang's translation Theories 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian==<br />
<br />
==Comparison Nida-Newmark 李丽丽 Li Lili==<br />
<br />
==A study on the division of western translation theories 刘柳 Liu Liu==<br />
<br />
==A comparative study on the translation theory of Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford 陈莎 Chen Sha==<br />
<br />
==Comparison of translation theories--a case study of Liu Zhongde's translation theory(faithfulness,expressiveness and closeness) and skopos theory 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining==<br />
<br />
='''Theories'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Passive and hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and CE translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong==<br />
===1.Concepts of Passive in Chinese and English===<br />
<br />
==On metaphors 游雨婷 You Yuting==<br />
<br />
==The Brief Introduction of Linguistic School and its Representatives 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
<br />
==Polysystem and Cultural Turn 吴琪 WuQi==<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br />
<br />
='''Translation Aesthetics'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's Niao Ming Jian from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin==<br />
<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 石迪文 Shi Diwen==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian philosophy of poetry education attains prosperity and dominates. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The study is focused on its Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai （李白）, including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". What's more, it puts Pound's version in comparison with Li Bai's original one and intends to explore the aesthetic values of translation by virtue of Confucian aesthetic philosophy and Qian zhongshu's Hua Jing.<br />
<br />
==='''Key Words'''===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical poems of departure, Confucian aesthetic philosophy, Hua Jing<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗教观兴盛,成为古代中国主流诗教观。这部作品既反维多利亚式夸大其词、矫揉造作的文风，推动了西方诗歌发展，又成为了中西文化交流史上的重要成果。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，其均来自李白，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文通过将庞德译文与原文进行对比，试图借用儒家美学观点和钱钟书先生的化境论对四首离别诗进行翻译美学价值的探索。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典离别诗, 儒家美学，化境论<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation since the first appearance of his ''Cathay'', a collection of nineteen poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. Cathay was published in 1915 when the Western countries suffered an alarming death toll in the First World War. Most of literary men were so drown in the darkness of terror and suspicion that they felt lost and trapped in despair while during this period Pound found his muse in Chinese classic poetry. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The study is focused on its Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai （李白）, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》). What's more, it puts Pound's version in comparison with Li Bai's original one and intends to explore the aesthetic values of translation by virtue of Confucian aesthetic philosophy and Qian Zhongshu's Hua jing. The former (Confucian aesthetic thoughts) mainly involves two aspects: one is the neutralization beauty of "gentleness" and "sincerity“ (温柔敦厚）; the other is the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded and record emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way, and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander” (乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤). On the other hand, a variety of images are employed to help moderate poets' powerful emotions and echoes the neutralization beauty of poetic content. The latter (Hua Jing)<br />
==='''Aesthetic Representation of "Separation on the River Kiang"'''===<br />
==='''Aesthetic Representation of "Taking Leave of a Friend"'''===<br />
==='''Aesthetic Representation of "Leave-taking near Shoku"'''===<br />
==='''Aesthetic Representation of "The City of Choan"'''===<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
==='''Bibliography'''===<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling==<br />
<br />
===18.3.1 Abstract===<br />
===18.3.2 Key Words===<br />
===18.3.3 摘要===<br />
===18.3.4 关键词===<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan==<br />
<br />
==On Untranslatability and Compensations 朱旭 Zhu Xu==<br />
<br />
==Study on translations of Vanity Fair from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei==<br />
==='''Abstract:'''This article aims to explore poetic values in translations of Vanity Fair from the perspective of poetics.===<br />
==='''摘要：'''===<br />
==='''Key words:'''Literary translation;''Vanity Fair''=== <br />
==='''关键词：'''文学翻译；名利场===<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
='''Culture Loaded Words'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Foreignizing Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese Food Culture 全美欣 Quan Meixin==<br />
<br />
==Translation of Cultural words Based on Interpretive Theory 何长琦 He Changqi==<br />
<br />
==Study on the translation of culture-loaded words from the view of cultural self-confidence. 刘博 Liu Bo==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
Today, China's growing international influence is inseparable from cultural development. Without a high degree of cultural self-confidence, no country or nation can flourish. Language is an important carrier of cultural inheritance, development and prosperity, so in the context of cultural self-confidence, the translation of culture- loaded words is of great significance to the spread of Chinese traditional culture.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
culture-loaded words, cultural self-confidence, translation strategy<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
如今中国的国际影响力日益提升，离不开文化的发展。没有高度的文化自信，便没有一个国家和民族的兴盛。而语言又是文化传承、发展、繁荣的重要载体,因此在文化自信的语境下，文化负载词的翻译对中国传统文化的传播具有重要的意义。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
文化负载词，文化自信，翻译策略<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
China is a major cultural nation, and its long cultural history gives it reason to be confident in its own culture. As Xi Jinping said, "In today's world, if any political party, country or nation can be confident, the Communist Party of China, the People's Republic of China and the Chinese nation have the best reason to be so. With the courage to 'live a life of 200 years with confidence, we will be able to face all difficulties and challenges without fear, and we will be able to open up new horizons and create new miracles with unswerving determination. However, in the course of China's development, we have also absorbed Western culture while neglecting the development of Chinese culture. This phenomenon is still going on today. As China's economic development has entered a new stage, and reform has also entered a critical period, social values have become complex and diverse. The mainstream and the non-mainstream co-exist, and the advanced and the backward are intertwined, presenting a pluralistic and changeable character. Therefore, China needs a force to unite the complex and diverse social consciousness, and the importance of traditional Chinese culture is once again highlighted. Therefore, the Communist Party of China (CPC) has proposed the concept of "firm cultural confidence", which has been widely accepted by the Chinese people. Against this backdrop, English language learners should take on the task of communicating the cultural loaded words of Chinese culture to the world, so that the world can learn more about Chinese culture through language, and thus increase China's international influence.<br />
<br />
==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu Jinxingqi==<br />
==Translation Strategies of Words under the Guidance of Translation Methodology 肖婷 Xiao Ting==<br />
<br />
== Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Vanity Fair 常慧月 Chang Huiyue==<br />
<br />
='''Skopos and Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==On the Relationship among Translation Theories, Strategies and Techniques ——From the Perspective of Skopos Theory 谌孙福 Chen Sunfu==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
==='''I.Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
==Contemporary Study on Nida's Functional Equivalence and Skopos Theory 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou==<br />
<br />
==On the concept of equivalence in translation 彭娟 Peng Juan==<br />
<br />
==The Application of Functional Equivalence to Translation of Rhetorical Devices in The Nightingale and the Rose 彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling==<br />
<br />
==Exploration of Translation Studies and Comparison Between Skopos Theory and Nida’s Functional Theory 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
==On Evan King's written Ending of Lotus Xiangzi from Vermeer's Skopos Theory 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie==<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Skopos theory was introduced into China in 1987 and it is warmly welcomed by Chinese scholars in solving intercultural problems in translation. This paper will analyze the problem in purpose-oriented translation, as well as “fidelity” problem of translators, with Evan King’s written ending part of Luotuo Xiangzi as an example.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
Vermeer; Skopos theory; Luotuo Xiangzi; Evan King<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
1987年,目的论进入中国，该理论在解决翻译中的跨文化问题方面，受到了中国学者的热烈欢迎。本文以埃文·金英译版《骆驼祥子》中的结尾部分为例，来分析目的性翻译中存在的问题，以及译者的“忠实”问题。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
弗米尔；目的论；骆驼祥子；埃文·金<br />
<br />
==='''I.Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
==='''II.Literature Review'''===<br />
<br />
==='''III.Methodology'''===<br />
<br />
==='''IV.Discussion '''===<br />
<br />
==='''V.Reference'''===<br />
<br />
='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
== On functional equivalence and formal equivalence and their application in translation 陈静静 Chen Jingjing==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
==='''key words'''===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence, formal equivalence, translation<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
==='''关键字'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
===Functional Equivalence===<br />
<br />
===Formal equivalence===<br />
<br />
===Application of functional equivalence and functional equivalence in translation===<br />
<br />
===Discussion===<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
== My understanding of Translation Equivalence Nguyen,Thuy Hien Nguyen, Thuy Hien ==<br />
<br />
== Functional Equivalence in the Translation of Ken Liu 肖茜 Xiao Xi==<br />
<br />
='''Applicaton of Translation Theories'''=<br />
==Study of Application of Interpretive Theory in Escort Interpretation 韩宛真 Han Wanzhen==<br />
<br />
==The Skopos Theory Becomes Stronger When Translation Equivalence is Failing 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu==<br />
<br />
='''Theory and Practise'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures and Western Biblical Scriptures 陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin==<br />
<br />
==Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook VS Comparative Study on Chinese and western translation 成于思 Cheng Yusi==<br />
<br />
==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation 方洁玲 Fang Jieling==<br />
<br />
==The development and future trend of translation Theory 张慧 Zhang Hui==<br />
<br />
==A Cultural Critique of Foreignization and Domestication 吴子佳 Wu Zijia==<br />
<br />
='''Contemporary Translation Studies'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==On the Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology 孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui==<br />
<br />
==Translation, History and Culture and Introducing Interpreting Studies 李璐伊 Li Luyi==<br />
<br />
==Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China 许晶 Xu Jing==<br />
<br />
==The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation 周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan==<br />
<br />
==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan's works 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu==<br />
<br />
==Yan Fu from descriptive translation studies 曹润鑫 Cao Runxin==<br />
<br />
<br />
='''Translation Thoughts'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==An Analysis of Translator’s Subjectivity from the Western Metaphorical Perception of Translation 李玉 Li Yu==<br />
<br />
==On the study and analysis of three kinds of beauty and transformation in the mid autumn festival prelude to water melody under the guidance of functional equivalence 林敏 Lin Min==<br />
<br />
==Lexical Gap between English and Chinese and its translation strategies 孟莹 Meng Ying==<br />
<br />
==On Form and Spirit in Translation 文偲荇 Wen Sixing==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
translation methods，form，sprit<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
翻译方法，翻译的形与神<br />
<br />
===The form of translation===<br />
<br />
===The sprit of translation===<br />
<br />
===Discussion===<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
==Comparison of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories——Taking "2017 APEC Speech" as sample 周诗卿 Zhou Shiqing==<br />
<br />
='''Translation Strategies'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Study on the Translation Strategies, Translation Methods and Translation Techniques in Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years 朱素瑶 Zhu Suyao==<br />
<br />
==A Brief Analysis of Translation Strategies for Chinese and English Proverbs 管钦清 Guan Qinqing==<br />
<br />
==Translator's invisibility vs. Translation Studies 胡百辉 Hu Baihui==<br />
<br />
==On E-C Translation of Newspapers from the Perspective of Verities and Translation 胡瑾 Hu Jin==<br />
<br />
==The translator's invisibility 张毓婕 Zhang Yujie==<br />
<br />
==Study of Domestication and foreignization in Cross-cultural Translation 顾东方 Gu Dongfang==<br />
<br />
='''Translation Appreciation'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Appreciation of Translation from the Stylistic Perspective - Use Walden as a Case Study 袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi==<br />
<br />
==A Comparison Beteewn the Translation Systems Proposed by Tan Zai and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao==<br />
<br />
==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation. 王美玲 Wang Meiling==<br />
<br />
==Comparison between Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation and practices in tourism texts translation 康浩宇 Kang Haoyu==<br />
Abstract<br />
Since the launching of the Reform and Opening Up, China’s has opened its door wider to the outside world. More and more tourists from the rest of the world choose to take a trip to China for pleasure. In intercultural communication, translation plays a significant role in this industry. However, quiet a few of those tourism texts translations are poor in quality, which may lead to the misunderstanding of the foreign tourists towards the scenic spot. Therefore, it’s necessary to have a study on these tourism texts and conclude proper strategies on tourism texts translation. Peter Newmark is one of the most famous translation theorists and educators in the world. He raised two famous translation , semantic translation and communicative translation.<br />
<br />
==The Discussion of Literal and Free Translation from the Perspective of Linguistic Value 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br />
<br />
== Appreciation of Translation from the Stylistic Perspective - Use Walden as a Case Study 王轩 Wang Xuan==<br />
<br />
='''Machine Translation'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==On the C-E Translation of Traditional Chinese Medicine Instructions from the Perspective of Adaptation Theory - A Case Study of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company 陈永相 Chen Yongxiang==<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
Traditional Chinese Medicine (hereinafter referred to as TCM), the precious property of Chinese medicine culture, boasts the favorable curative effect and a good reputation across the world. With the smooth development of “The Belt and Road Initiative” and national economy, TCM has been playing an increasingly significant role in international trade, attracting more attention of foreign medical experts and consumers. As the essential attachment of a medicine, medicine instructions belong to the genre of practical writing, characterized by the unique language structure and stylistic features, guiding doctors and patients to learn and understand the medicines, such as usage and dosage, actions and indications, contraindication, etc. The translation of TCM instructions is a significant part of TCM translation, the quality of which determines whether the Chinese medicines could be understood and used properly by doctors and patients, as well as the prosperity of TCM in international trade. Due to the inevitable differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, however, plenty of problems appear on the C-E translation of TCM instructions. <br />
<br />
According to Adaptation Theory proposed by the Belgian pragmatist Jef Verschueren, language use is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. Translation is a cross-cultural communication activity, which involves language usage and requires translators to make choices of words, translation strategies and so on between source language and target language, and to adapt with different contexts, mentalities, cultures, etc. so as to achieve the ideal goal, from which the Adaptation Theory can be applied exactly into the study of translation. This paper will apply Adaptation Theory, therefore, as the theoretical framework, to study the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company. Employing the core concepts and investigating aspects of Adaptation Theory, the author tries to further discuss how to better translate TCM instructions. <br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' Traditional Chinese Medicine instruction translation, Adaptation Theory, Yulin Pharmaceutical Company <br />
<br />
'''摘要'''<br />
<br />
中药是我国医药文化的瑰宝，有着良好的疗效和口碑。随着“一带一路倡议”的稳步推进和中国经济的平稳发展，中药药品在国际贸易中所占比重日益增加，得到了国外许多医疗专家和消费者的关注。药品说明书作为药品的重要附件，是一种实用文体，有其自身的语言结构和文体特点，能够指导医生与患者了解和熟悉药品作用、用法用量、适应症和禁忌等。而中医药品说明书英译作为中医英译的一个重要组成部分，其英译质量决定了药品能否被医生和患者正确理解和使用，以及中医药产品的国际贸易繁荣。然而，由于英语和汉语之间存在着不可避免的语言和文化差异，中医药品说明书英译依然存在着较大问题。<br />
<br />
比利时语用学家维索尔伦提出的语言顺应论认为，语言的使用是一个不断作出选择和顺应的动态过程。翻译作为一项跨文化交际活动，需要在源语与目的语之间，就用词、翻译策略等方面进行选择，对不同语境、心理、文化等层面作出顺应。可见顺应论适用于翻译研究。因此本文以顺应论作为理论依据，通过对广西玉林制药公司中医药品说明书英译进行分析研究，运用顺应论的核心概念和研究视角，进一步探讨如何更好地翻译中医药品说明书。<br />
<br />
'''关键词：'''中医药品说明书翻译，顺应论，玉林制药公司<br />
<br />
1. Introduction <br />
2. Literature Review <br />
3. Theoretical Framework <br />
4. Adaptation Theory Applied in Traditional Chinese Medicine Instruction Translation of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company<br />
5. Conclusion <br />
References <br />
Acknowledgemen<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:41, 31 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation or not? 莫玲 Mo Ling==<br />
<br />
Abstract<br />
<br />
Key Words:<br />
<br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
<br />
关键词<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Introduction<br />
<br />
==A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation 袁天翼 Yuan Tianyi==<br />
<br />
Abstract: In this economic globalization, political polarization, cultural globalization, technological modernization and informative sharing age, the global economy is deeply developing, and the human community with a shared future is coming into shape day by day. The relations among people and among countries are increasing day by day. At this time, the problems of Chinese-English public sign translation become the topic of us. Though the number of Chinese-English public sign translators in China grows daily, the problems of Chinese-English public sign translation emerge endlessly. This passage offers a brief analysis of the definition of Chinese-English public sign, points out some typical problems in Chinese-English public sign translation we see in daily life, analyzes some methods and strategies of Chinese-English public sign translation, and gives some outlooks on the future of Chinese-English public sign translation. <br />
<br />
Key Words: Chinese-English translation; public sign; translation strategies<br />
<br />
摘 要：在这个经济全球化、政治多极化、文化全球化、科技现代化、信息共享化的时代，全球经济纵深发展，人类命运共同体日趋形成，人与人、国家与国家间的联系日益密切，这时，汉语公示语的英译问题便被提上了议程。尽管中国汉语公示语的英译翻译员越来越多，但是汉语公示语的英译问题层出不穷。本文简析了汉语公示语定义，例举了生活中常见的一些汉语公示语的英译典型问题，并针对此给出了一些翻译方法与策略，并进行了未来展望。<br />
<br />
关键词：汉英翻译；公示语；翻译策略<br />
<br />
I.Introduction<br />
<br />
The public sign is a specially applied literary form that was formed in modern times, which has a long history. It is used in public places and seen by the masses thus realizing unique communicative purposes. The public sign has become a crucial link in the communication between China and other countries in the international community. In the meantime, there are increasingly more experts and scholars paying attention to the translation of Chinese public signs into English. (Reiss, 2004). <br />
<br />
As an important tool for international communication, Chinese-English public sign translation plays an extremely important role in foreign friends’ understanding of Chinese culture（Wang Huili, 2019）. Its applied range is so wide that nearly covers every aspect of our daily life, including: Introductions of tourism trips, propaganda languages, warning languages, road signs, shop signs and advertising boards. It is mostly used on public infrastructure: Subway, airport, taxi, pier, tourist spot, park, street, community, shop, supermarket, restaurant, bank, hotel, cinema, hospital and etc. It uses simple words or sentences, or pictures only, or combines words and pictures to pass useful information to the masses, which not only serves Chinese people, but also is shown to the foreigners, which can help foreigners in China study, work and live.<br />
<br />
='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==Comparison between domestication and foreignizing translation 汤蓓 Tang Bei==<br />
<br />
==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br />
<br />
<br />
==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopostheorie 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br />
<br />
==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br />
Abstract<br />
Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two methods to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce the two translation methods of domestication and foreignization and explore how to reasonably use them in cross-cultural translation.<br />
<br />
Key words: Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation <br />
<br />
摘要<br />
语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译方法，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择这两种翻译方法。<br />
<br />
关键词：归化 异化 跨文化翻译--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 00:55, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Comparison of Nida’s Reader’s Response Theory and Venuti’s Foreignizing Translation 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia==<br />
<br />
= '''Title Translation''' =<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br />
<br />
==A study of Translation of Movie Titles in the Light of Venuti's and Nida's theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
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==='''Key words'''===<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
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==='''I.Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
==A Study on Film Subtitle Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 杨悦 Yang Yue==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
==='''I.Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
='''Translation of Cultural Words'''=<br />
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<br />
==Translation of Cultural Words Based on Scopos Theory 周思庆 Zhou Siqing==<br />
===31.1.1 '''Abstract'''===<br />
===31.1.2 '''Key words'''===<br />
===31.1.3 '''摘要'''===<br />
===31.1.4 '''关键词'''===<br />
===31.1.5 '''Introduction of Scopos theory'''===<br />
===31.1.6 '''Introduction of cultural words'''===<br />
===31.1.7 '''The application of Scopos theory in the translation of cultrural words'''===<br />
===31.1.8 '''Discussion'''===<br />
===31.1.9 '''Conclusion'''===<br />
===31.9.10 '''Bibliography'''===<br />
<br />
==A Communicative Translation Approach to Idioms Translation in Volume One of A Dream of Red Mansions--A Case Study of Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang’s Version 蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei==<br />
<br />
==How to keep "Chineseness " in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English 瞿淼 Qu Miao==<br />
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==Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 Han Haiyang==<br />
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==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi==<br />
<br />
='''Translation of Dish Names'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==On the C-E translation of Chinese dish names:From a Functional Equivalence Perspective 刘洋诺 Liu Yangnuo==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a media plays a important role in cultural communication. A Bite of China, a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The essay discusses theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some point of views from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. Combined with translation examples, we discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names.<br />
<br />
==='''Key Words'''===<br />
<br />
Chinese-English translation; Chinese dish names; functional equivalence;<br />
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==='''摘要'''===: 中国国际影响力不断提高，文化交流的使命更加艰巨。翻译作为文化交流媒介，其重要性也不容忽视。中国饮食文化节目《舌尖上的中国》在海内外热播也进一步推动了中国特色饮食文化的传播，但是其丰富的文化内涵和多样的烹饪技巧也给译者带来不少困难。本文探讨研究中国菜名翻译的理论和实践意义，总结中国菜名翻译目前的研究成果。从功能对等理论出发，分析中国菜名翻译的困难，同时也结合翻译实例，提出三个中国菜名翻译的策略。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===：中译英；中国菜名；功能对等<br />
<br />
==='''I.Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
As an old saying goes in China, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations and cultural connotation. In the essay, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structure in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names. It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the later part of this essay. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, few of us can translate Chinese dish names very well. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes.<br />
<br />
The essay takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we discuss the importance and significance of researches on Chinese-English translation of Chinese dish names. At the same time, we summarize current results on this topic. In the second part, we look back on functional equivalence theory and discuss the possibility of applying the theory into researches on Chinese dish names in order to lay theoretical foundation for our research. The third part try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the last part, we put forward some strategies for Chinese cuisine translation combined with translation examples in reality. The last part is to summarize what we have discussed before and to point out limitations of this essay. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. <br />
<br />
There are some scholars who have paved the way for our further researches. Zhang Tingli (2015) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on A Bite of China, a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors and cultural elements. Li Weiwei (2017) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (2019) summarize three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication and aesthetics. Under the guidance of their papers, we are able to explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tributed to great efforts they have paid. In the next part, we turn to theories on functional equivalence.<br />
<br />
==='''II.Functional Equivalence Theory'''===<br />
<br />
==='''III.Difficulties in Translating Chinese Dish Names'''===<br />
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3.1Difficulty in Transmitting Basic Information of Chinese Dish Names<br />
<br />
Different translation versions of a Chinese dish always make foreigners confused. For example, there are at least three versions of 炮弹鱼, including Shell fish, bullet mackerel and trigger fish. We often blur the lines between scientific name and general name in our translation. Also, sometimes we seem to ignore distinct difference between two things by using the same name to define them. For example, some translators use bamboo fungus and edible tree fungus to stand for竹笋 and 木耳 respectively, but in reality 竹笋is completely different from 木耳. There are some subtle differences among Chinese dishes. As Mo Chuanxia and Yue Lin (2020) mentioned in their essay, 水米籺is cooked rice pounded into paste with stuffing inside for worship or diet. 籺is a defining food for South China, especially in Guangdong provinces. It is totally different from cake or pastry in Western culture. The best way to translate it is to use explanatory words. Below are some C-E translations related to Chinese dishes: 黄馍馍yellow steamed bun, 肉夹馍the marinated meat in baked bun, 榴莲酥crispy durian cake and蒿子粑粑crown daisy rice cake. Everyone who has ever eaten these four kinds of food will have an inkling of knowledge about the different flavor and shape between 黄馍馍and肉夹馍. It seems to be nonessential part in translating Chinese dish names because we often are encouraged to create our own translation. But for long-term effects, chaos can lead to negative impact on economic benefits of those Chinese dishes and cross-cultural communication.<br />
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3.2Difficulty in Considering Different Cultural Backgrounds<br />
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==='''IV.Strategies for translating Chinese Dish Names'''===<br />
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==='''V.Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
What I discussed in the essay is only a panoramic view of Chinese dish names. There are eight classifications of Chinese famous cuisines ranging from Lu Cuisine and Chuan Cuisine, Yue Cuisine and Min Cuisine, Su Cuisine and Zhe Cuisine, Xiang Cuisine and Hui Cuisine. Under these eight Chinese cuisines, there are distinct difference in dish names considering region and ethnic group. As we know, one size can’t fit all. Aside from researches on Chinese dish names, cultural elements behind idioms related to Chinese dishes deserve more attention. <br />
<br />
==='''Bibliography'''===<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names Translation 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
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==='''Key words'''===<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
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==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Bibliography'''===<br />
<br />
==A Study of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization -- Taking Hunan Dish Names an Example 邬香 Wu Xiang==<br />
<br />
='''Translation Studies'''=<br />
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==A Review and Reflection of Holmes and Toury’s Descriptive Translation Studies 曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu==<br />
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==Foreignizing Tanslation and National Culture Development 邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia==<br />
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==The Translator’s Invisibility vs Translation Studies 姜好 Jiang Hao==<br />
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==Comparisons of Translation in China and Western Countries from Different Historical Perspectivesr 彭丹 Peng Dan==<br />
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==Analysis on the Key problems in Chinese-English Translation and Corresponding Solutions ----- Based on Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation 唐铭 Tang Ming==<br />
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==The Breakthrough and Innovation of Dong Qiusi’s Translation Thoughts 娄灿灿 Lou Cancan==<br />
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<br />
='''Translation Criticism'''=<br />
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==On Translation Criticism-based on back-translationTranslation 丁代凤 Ding Daifeng==<br />
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==The analysis of translation methods and their application 司妤 Si Yu==<br />
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==Analysis of Liang Shiqiu's domestication and Foreignization translation strategies on the Shakespeare's plays. 苏琳 Su Lin==<br />
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==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br />
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==Contrast between literal translation and free translation 刘艺 Liu Yi==<br />
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==On Chinese-English Translaiton of Brand Names in Hunan From the Perspective of Skopos Theory 吴一露 Wu Yilu==<br />
<br />
='''Cultural Differences'''=<br />
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<br />
==The Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences 李凌月 Li Lingyue==<br />
<br />
==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 马娟 Ma Juan==<br />
Abstract: English interpretation as a cross-cultural social activity refers to the cultural differences between English and Chinese. Because of cultural differences in these asapects such as historical background , customs, religion and the way of thinking, English interpretation is necessary to take all of these influences into consideration and the interpreter must have a penetrating mind of the cultural differences.When the interpreter does English interpretation, he must know the coping strategies to grapple with these problems caused by cultural differnences so as to transmit the proper,correct and decent information to the target audiences.<br />
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Key words: Cultural differences; English interpratation; Coping strategies;--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:15, 31 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Polysystem Theory and Cultural Turn 吴琪 Wu Qi==<br />
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==The influence of cultural differences on translation methods 姚佳 Yao Jia==<br />
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==Study of Domestication and Foreignization in Cross—Culture Translation 李海泉 Li Haiquan==<br />
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==Characteristics of Cultural Differences in Interpreting and Corresponding 吴琼 Wu Qiong==<br />
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<br />
='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
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==On the study and analysis of three kinds of beauty and transformation in the mid autumn festival prelude to water melody under the guidance of functional equivalence 林敏 Lin Min==<br />
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==A Comparative Study of Functional Equivalence - Theory and Skopostheorie 高明珠 Gao Mingzhu==<br />
<br />
Abstract:The Functional Equivalence put forward by Eugene Nida and the Scopos theory originating from the German school of functionalist translation are two major western translation theories, both of which have great impact on the development of western translation theories. The two theories have similarities as well as differences. Both of them take the functions of languages and the reaction of readers into consideration which created a new perspective in translation study, while they are different in theory basis, the status of the original text and the translator, translation standards, attitude towards cultural factors and the scope of application. In this paper, I will introduce the two theories and make a comparision between them on above-mentioned aspects to analyze their strengthes and weaknesses respectively for the purpose of helping translators choose the best translation method according to different circumstances. <br />
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Key words: Functional Equivalence Scopos theory Comparison<br />
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==Research on C-E Translation of Corporate Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong==<br />
<br />
摘 要：随着全球经济一体化进程的不断发展，越来越多的中国企业开始走向全球市场，企业外宣文本的英译文本成为了国内企业与国外客户联系的桥梁。查阅我国企业外宣文本的英译本，其中不乏大量优秀译作；但同时,也有不少企业外宣英译文本的质量有待提高。在翻译企业外宣文本实践中，奈达的功能对等理论能够很好地指导企业外宣资料的翻译。因此本文将中外外宣文本进行对比，并对中外企业外宣文本的英译做深入的分析探讨。<br />
<br />
关键词：功能对等理论；企业外宣文本；翻译方法<br />
<br />
Abstract: With the further deepening of global economic integration, more and more Chinese enterprises are going to the global market and the English translation of enterprise publicity text becomes the bridge between domestic enterprises and foreign customers. The English translation of the publicity texts of Chinese enterprises includes a large number of excellent translations; But at the same time, there are many enterprises publicity English translation with bad quality. In the practice of translation of publicity texts of enterprises, Nida’s functional equivalence theory can well guide the translation of publicity materials of enterprises. Therefore, this paper compares China’s corporate publicity texts with foreign corporate publicity texts and makes deep discussion and exploration in C-E translation of corporate publicity texts.<br />
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Key Words: corporate promotional materials; Functional equivalence; translation methods--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 03:12, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A study of Functional Equivalence in Translating the Prose——A Case Study on Cong Cong 汤伊然 Tang Yiran==<br />
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==Functional Equivalence Theory and Functional Translation in Translation Studies 阳慧 Yang Hui==<br />
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==A Study of Functional Equivalence in Translating Children's Literature---A Case Study on ''Lion King'' 刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei==<br />
摘要：儿童期是人生发育最重要的阶段，而儿童文学对于儿童的教育影响处于前位且是第一性的。儿童文学特别要求通俗易懂，生动活泼，这也就要求儿童文学翻译作品应根据儿童心理发展特点、基于功能对等翻译理调整翻译策略。本文主要是通过儿童特点、儿童文学特点，同时结合《狮子王》翻译策略与方法，对翻译对等理论进行更加深刻的解析。<br />
<br />
Abstract: Childhood is the most important stage of life development, and the influence of children's literature on children's education is in the first place. Children's literature is particularly required to be vivid and easy to understand, which requires that translation strategies should be adjusted according to the characteristics of children's psychological development and on the basis of functional equivalence translation theory. Based on the characteristics of children and children's literature, and combined with the translation strategies and methods of ''Lion King'', the thesis makes a more profound analysis of translation equivalence theory.<br />
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Key Words: Children's Psychological Characters, Children's Literature, Equivalence Theory --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 01:59, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
='''History of Translation'''=<br />
==Quality evaluation of translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
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==='''key words'''===<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
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==='''关键字'''===<br />
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===Complete transcript of the content of the original work ===<br />
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===Same style and manner of writing===<br />
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===Equivalent effect===<br />
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===Discussion===<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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===Bibliography===<br />
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==A Comparative Study on the Translation History in Western Countries and China 王煜 Wang Yu==<br />
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==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation 方洁玲 Fang Jieling==<br />
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==Translation manipulated by ideology 许静 Xu Jing==<br />
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==Comparison between the History of Chinese and Western Translation 周书尧 Zhou Shuyao==<br />
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='''Literal and Free Translation'''=<br />
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==Rethink Literal and Free Translation 彭永亮 Peng Yongliang==<br />
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==Examine the display of translators’ subjectivity in literary translation from the translation outlook of cognitive linguistics 宋建茹 Song Jianru==<br />
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==On the Relationship among Literal Translation, Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization 韦洪朗 Wei Honglang==<br />
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==Peter Newmark’s Improved Views on Literal Translation and Free Translation 魏亚菲 Wei Yafei==<br />
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==Contrast between Literal Translation and Free Translation 张雪仪 Zhang Xueyi==<br />
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==Dialectical thinking in arguments between literal translation and free translation 甘奉玉 Gan Fengyu==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
===Key words===<br />
===摘要===<br />
===关键字===<br />
===1.Word-for-word translation===<br />
'''41.3.1 Abstract<br />
41.3.2 Key words<br />
41.3.3 摘要<br />
41.3.4 关键词<br />
41.3.5 The background and meaning of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics<br />
42.3.6 The present situation of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics<br />
42.3.7 What we can improve in English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics<br />
42.3.8 Conclusion<br />
42.3.9 Bibliography'''<br />
<br />
===2.Over free translation===<br />
===3.Eclectic translation===<br />
===4.Contradiction and unity in the process===<br />
===5.Conclusion===<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
<br />
='''Document Translation'''=<br />
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==On translation of official documents of CangNan County 吴恺 Wu Kai==<br />
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==The Translation Process and Methods of Translating English Long Sentences 周艺文 Zhou Yiwen==<br />
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==On Translation of Official Documents 杨子泠 Yang Ziling==<br />
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==Chinese-English Translation of News Headlines From the Perspective of Skopos Theory 张维虹 Zhang Weihong==<br />
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='''Comparative Studies'''=<br />
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==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br />
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==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang==<br />
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==A Comparative Study on Nida’s Functional Equivalence and Skop 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br />
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==Comparison between domestication and foreinizing translation 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu==<br />
<br />
==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling==<br />
<br />
'''Abstract:''' Nida and Cartford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective. Nida put forward two types of equivalence as two methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(芒迪，42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(奈达，12). The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Cartford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore proposed the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Cartford,1). The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Cartford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br />
<br />
'''Key words:''' Nida, Cartford, equivalence theory, nature of translation<br />
<br />
'''摘要：'''<br />
<br />
'''关键词：'''<br />
<br />
'''1.Introduction'''<br />
<br />
'''1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence'''<br />
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Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the Bible. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(芒迪，42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors. By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(芒迪，42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence'''<br />
<br />
Cartford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Cartford stated in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Cartford, 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Cartford, 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Cardford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Cartford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies. <br />
<br />
'''2.Similarities and Differences'''<br />
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2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories<br />
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2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories<br />
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3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories<br />
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4.Conclusion<br />
<br />
==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao==<br />
<br />
==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br />
<br />
='''Art of Translation'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Art and Science of Translation --Take the Literary Translation as an Example 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br />
<br />
==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 Liu Ou==<br />
<br />
==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication 余妮 Yu Ni==<br />
===41.3.1 Abstract===<br />
===41.3.2 Key words===<br />
===41.3.3 摘要===<br />
===41.3.4 关键词===<br />
===41.3.5 The background and meaning of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics===<br />
===42.3.6 The present situation of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics===<br />
===42.3.7 What we can improve in English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics===<br />
===42.3.8 Conclusion===<br />
===42.3.9 Bibliography===<br />
<br />
==The Visible Images and Invisible Hands: An Analysis of Lefevere’s ManipulationTheory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility 祝美梅 Zhu Meimei==<br />
<br />
==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan==<br />
<br />
==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br />
==Translation Manipulated by Ideology 李泳珊 Li Yongshan==</div>Hu Huifanghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201026_trans&diff=10212720201026 trans2020-10-28T08:48:58Z<p>Hu Huifang: /* Hu Huifang 胡慧芳 */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
'''The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication'''<br />
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As we all know, translation plays an important role in intercultural communication. A good translator can help to promote the communication between two different cultures. With the process of globalization, intercultural communication is becoming more and more frequent. However, there exist plenty of cultural differences between different cultures, especially between the East and the West. Cultural differences make it hard for translators to translate well. Culture-loaded words belong to one of the differences between different cultures. Therefore, it is of great significance to be aware of the appropriate translation of culture-loaded words. This is because it can help translators translate better and thus make two different cultures communicate better.<br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
'''1 The Definition of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
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Before discussing what are culture-loaded words, we should know what is culture first. “Culture, in a broad sense, means the total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community. As culture is so inclusive, it permeates virtually every aspect of human life and influences predominantly people’s behavior, including linguistic behavior.<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
In a narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs, which can mostly be found in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture etc.” (Dai Weidong 2002:127) Culture is learned by human beings. A child is born without any certain kind of culture. A child gets its culture through learning. For example, a Chinese kid will speak, act and think like a Chinese if it grows up in China. An American kid will speak, act and think like an American if it is raised in the United States. Meanwhile, if a Chinese kid is raised by an American family in the USA, he will think, act and speak like American people do and vice versa.<br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
Culture is owned by all the social members. The special behavior and habit of a single person is not culture because it is not owned by every member of the society. Culture can be transmitted from generation to generation. During the transmission, culture will also develop. “Generally speaking, there are two types of culture: material and spiritual. While material culture, as the term itself suggests, is concrete, substantial and observable. Most of spiritual culture, the products of mind (ideologies, beliefs, values and concepts of time and space, for example), is abstract, ambiguous, and hidden.<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
In contrast with nature in the sense of what is born and grows, culture refers to what has been grown and brought up with, in other words, what can be nurtured. Culture, especially material culture, is reproduced and preserved through the maintaining of beliefs, traditions, education and other institutional mechanisms, meanwhile, it changes slowly with the development of the society.” (Dai Weidong 2002:127-128) <br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
“Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and disseminating culture. As the basic unit of language, word is of course the most direct reflection of culture. Culture-loaded words refer to the words, phrases, and idioms only contained in a culture. These words reflect the uniqueness of certain nations. This kind of uniqueness develops from the long historical process.” (Liao Qiyi 2002:232) Culture-loaded words can make a distinction between two different cultures.<br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
Culture-loaded words can also reflect a country’s social background, financial base and culture in a certain period of time. During different historical periods, different culture-loaded words occur. Different countries differ from each other because every country has its uniqueness that makes it special. Ordinarily speaking, a literary work, which shows a lot of national characteristics, contains plenty of culture-loaded words. Culture-loaded words make it difficult for translators to translate. <br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
'''2 Difficulties in the Translation of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
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Every country has its own cultural origin. And “every nation has its own cultural focus. So its vocabulary always develops according to the cultural focus and becomes more and more detailed and complex.” (Liao Qiyi 2002:232)As we all know, Chinese culture and western culture have different origins. Chinese culture came from the Chinese mainland. There exist two big rivers, the Yellow River and the Huanghe River, across China. So Chinese people fed themselves by fishing, hunting and farming. The vast territory provided Chinese people enough resources to support themselves.<br />
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==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
The lofty mountains and high ranges, on the one hand, protected ancient China from the invasion of other countries, while on the other hand, also prevented China from communicating with other countries. Therefore, Chinese people is more conservative and emphasize harmony. <br />
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“There is a great difference of the physio geographic condition between China and the western countries, especially the relationship between sea and land. If we say that Chinese civilization came from the land, western civilization came from the sea.”(Huang Yongyuan and Zhang Jing 2011:237)<br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
Europe is surrounded by the sea on the west, south and north, and borders on Asia in the east. The whole Europe continent is close to the sea, and the maritime climate is very significant. As the cradle of Western culture, the ancient Greece, was more connected with the sea. Greece was transportation center of the eastern Mediterranean. It had many ports and mountains but had a barren land. This kind of condition forced the ancient Greeks to operate maritime trade very early to support themselves. Therefore, people from western countries are easy to accept foreign cultures.<br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
China’s national spirit is different from that of the western countries. For example, China’s definition of “dragon” is so far away from that of the western countries. “The dragon, in Chinese myths and legends, is a kind of god . It is a symbol of the Chinese nation. The Chinese all call themselves "the descendants of the dragon"; it is also a symbol of the ancient imperial power, and the emperors of all ages considered themselves to be the true dragon. Each feature of the dragon represents an advantage.<br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
The wide forehead represents intelligence, the sword-like eyebrows represent courage, the tiger eyes represent majesty, the lion nose represents prosperity, the horse teeth represent diligence and kindness, the crocodile mouth represents swallowing, the shrimp mustache represents free water absorption , the cattle ears represent the leadership, the antlers represent health and longevity, the fish and clam represent defense, the camel head represents drought resisting, the eagle claws represent the ability to fly, and the snake neck represents the ability of accomplishing a task with ease. <br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
The Chinese dragon can be said to be a favorite to Chinese people. In the Western world, the dragon is called Drakon in Greek, Dragon in English, and Draco is in Latin. The dragon is a derogatory term in the West and a symbol of evil. In Western mythology, the dragon is the demon that makes people fear. The Bible illustrates dragon as a demon, and the devil Satan, who is opposite to God, is called the "great dragon"; the Old Dragon is the Devil, or Satan. In a biological perspective, dragon is a kind of particularly ferocious animal. In many cases, western literature describes the dragon as a monster to be eradicated by the hero.”(Huang Yongyuan and Zhangjing 2011:238) <br />
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
Apart from the examples above, there are still many example containing different meanings in different countries because of cultural differences. For example, the color “red” represents happiness, auspiciousness and success. This is because the color red came from the sun. Ancient Chinese people worshiped the sun. Thus, when getting married, Chinese bride’s wedding dress is red. People will hang red lanterns and paste red couplets in Spring festival. However, in western countries, although they have words like, “red-letter day” and “the red carpet”, which contain positive meanings, the color “red” is a kind of taboo.<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
In English, the color “red” is the association of fire and blood. It represents the radical and violent revolutions. So many English phrases containing red have negative meaning, like red-headed, red-light district, red-handed, red ruin, red ink, in the red etc. Similarly, the color “white” contains different meanings in the East and the West. In western countries, white means innocence, honesty, kindness and so on. When getting married, the bride will white wedding dress. <br />
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
Although the color white contains the meaning of purity and innocence, like “白衣天使”(white angel) which represents doctors and nurses in Chinese, white is a kind of taboo color in China. The color white represents death and ill omen. When a family member died, they will hang white cloth inside and outside the house. We can also realize the different meanings of the same word in different countries. For instance, the word “狗”(dog) contains a negative meaning. However, in western countries, dog always contains a positive meaning, like a lucky dog.<br />
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
'''3 Approaches to Translate Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
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Under the great progress of globalization, different cultures have more accesses to communicate with each other. According to Eugene Nida, “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” (Nida Eugene A and Charles Taber R 1969:13) “Ordinarily speaking, there are three approaches to translate culture-loaded words, namely foreignization, domestication and translation compensation.<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
The translation of culture-loaded words belongs to the micro aspect of cultural translation. In the context of globalization, the fundamental standpoint of exploring the translation approach is to preserve the unique cultural significance carried by culture-loaded words, which determines that we should use foreignization and translation compensation as the main translation approaches to translation culture-loaded words”.(Wang Xiang 2017:75)<br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
'''3.1 Foreignization'''<br />
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Venuti(1995: 20) considers the foreignizing method to be ‘an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad’. It is ‘highly desirable’, he says, in an effort ‘to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation’. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the ‘violently’ domesticating cultural values of the English-language world.<br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
The foreignizing method of translating, a strategy Venuti also terms ‘resistancy’ (1995: 305-6), is a non-fluent or estranging translation style designed to make visible the presence of the translator by highlighting the foreign identity of the ST and protecting it from the ideological dominance of the target culture.<br />
Foreignization can preserve the uniqueness of the source language’s culture because respecting the source language culture is starting point. Compared with domestication approach, foreignization considers more about the source language’s cultural background and is more faithful to the source language’s culture. <br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
It can keep the exotic flavor of the source language text. However, foreignization is not a perfect translation approach. If the translation doesn’t pay enough attention, the foreignization approach will be abused easily. If the translator misuse the foreignization approach, the target text will be awkward and hard to understand.<br />
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异化能保存源文文本的特有风格。然而，异化也不是万能的，一不小心就容易使用不当。而一旦没有用好异化，译文就会变得晦涩难懂。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 07:42, 28 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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异化能够保留原文本的异域特色。然而，异化也不是万能的，译者稍不注意就会误用，导致原文本晦涩难懂。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 08:08, 28 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
The food culture contains great national characteristics. It shows the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. The words related to the food culture are rich in Chinese culture. Many examples of using foreignization approach can be found in the translation of traditional Chinese food. Firstly, the translation of traditional Chinese food can be related to Chinese allusions. Let’s take the translation of Yuanxiao or Tang-yuan(glue pudding) as an example. <br />
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
“It’s said that a lady-in-waiting called Yuanxiao during the Han dynasty missed her parents so much that she cried with tears in her face every single day. In order to help her, a minister named Dongfang Shuo lied to Emperor of the Han dynasty that the god of fire with the order of the Jade Emperor would burn Changan(the Capital of China in Han dynasty) on the 15th of the first lunar month. The solution to avoid this disaster was to ask the lady-in-waiting named Yuanxiao to make Tang-yuan, the favorite food of the god of fire, and to ask all the people in Changan to hang lanterns.<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
Emperor Wu approved this plan. Finally, the girl named Yuanxiao met her parents. Thus, the tradition of Lantern Festival ( pronounced Yuanxiao Jie in Chinese, “jie” in Chinese means festival) appeared.” ( Xu Xianling and Li Xiangzhaung 2005:230) Therefore, if we translate the Chinese food “元宵” into Yuanxiao by the foreignization approach instead of translating into the glue pudding, the special Chinese culture in the food can be preserved well.<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
Secondly, the translation of Chinese food can be related to Chinese customs. Chinese people eat special traditional food in special Chinese festivals. For instance, people will eat double-ninth cake on the Double Ninth Festival. The Double Ninth Festival is on the 9th day of the 9th lunar month. The translation of double-ninth cake can keep the traditional Chinese culture well. Thirdly，the translation of traditional Chinese food can be related with Chinese people’s appreciation of beauty.<br />
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其次，中餐名的翻译与中国的风俗习惯有关。中国人在特殊的中国节日吃特殊的传统食物。例如，人们会在重阳节吃重阳糕。重阳节在农历九月初九。重阳糕的翻译能很好地保留中国传统文化。第三，中国传统美食的翻译与中国人的审美情趣有关。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:25, 28 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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第二，中餐名的翻译与风俗习惯息息相关。中国人在重要的节日里会吃特定的传统食物。例如，在农历九月初九也就是重阳节吃重阳糕。重阳糕的名称的翻译很好地保留了中国传统文化。第三，中国传统美食的翻译还与中国人的审美情趣有关。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 07:45, 28 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
For example, “the Chinese cuisine ‘鸟语花香’, can be translated into ‘Singing Birds and Fragrant Flowers(Steamed mandarin fish and bird-shaped shrimps)’’ and ‘青龙过海’ can be translated into ‘Green Dragons Crossing the Sea(Soup with green onion)’”. (Zhang Jiachen 2014:106) By using the foreignization approach, this kind of translation can preserve the beautiful image of these cuisines and the explanatory note can also prevent foreigners from being confused. What’s more, the translation of some Chinese cuisine can be related to the traditional Chinese medical science.<br />
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例如，“中国菜'鸟语花香'可以翻译成'唱歌的鸟和香花（（鱼和鸟形虾）'，'青龙过海'可以翻译成'绿色的龙穿越大海'（ 葱汤）'”。 （张家臣2014：106）通过使用异化方法，这种翻译可以保留这些美食的美丽形象，解释性说明也可以防止外国人感到困惑。 而且，某些中餐的翻译可能与传统中医科学有关。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 08:48, 28 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
For example, “‘八珍食品’ can be translated into ‘Eight Delicacies (Stimulate your baby’s appetite and better his or her growth) and ‘当归生姜羊肉汤’ can be translated into ‘ Angelica Ginger Lamb Soup(Replenish your blood and warm your spleen and stomach)’”. (Zhang Jiachen 2014:106) Translating in this way can pass the traditional Chinese medical culture to readers.<br />
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
Although the foreignization approach can be of great help to pass the source language’s culture to the target readers, it requires the translator’s great knowledge between the two cultures. Therefore, translators have to do a good preparation before translating.<br />
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'''3.2 Translation compensation'''<br />
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George Steiner divides the process of translation into four parts and “By ensuring the translation is possible, compensation is the last step in the whole procedure”.(2001: 176) It should be acknowledged that translation compensation occurs and accompanies translation activity as early as cultural difference exists. It possesses a history as long as translation activity does.<br />
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
Scholar Mona Baker holds the view that compensation is a translation skill, which can be applied when “target language is impossible to directly make up for the losses in meaning, language style or emotional force”.(1992: 33) Due to the translation difficulties caused by cultural default and cultural differences, translators have to employ different compensation strategies to make sure their translation outcome can be totally understood by the TL readers. Hervey and Higgins divided translation compensation mainly into four kinds, namely compensation in kind, compensation by splitting, compensation by merging and compensation in place.<br />
==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
The translation compensation approach can be often used to translate the name of Chinese teas. China is the birthplace of tea culture. The record about tea appeared in the era of Shennong about 4700 years ago. Since ancient times, the tradition of providing to guests has been preserved. There are various kinds of teas in China like Longjing tea from Hangzhou , Oolong tea from Fujian etc. Chinese tea culture are also involved in Chinese Confucianism, Buddhism, Taoism and so on. Chinese tea culture is a treasure in traditional Chinese culture. <br />
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
Chinese and English belong to different language systems. There are great differences between the two languages. Due to the different social environment , life style and vocabulary, sometimes it is impossible for translators to achieve complete equivalence. Chinese people’s ways to name teas are various. Sometimes, the Chinese character “茶” (tea in English) doesn’t even exit in the name of a tea. For example, some teas exhibited in the China Tea Museum in Hangzhou, like “羊岩勾青”(Yangyan Gouqing), “庐山云雾”(Lushan Yunwu), the names of these teas don’t contain the character of tea. <br />
==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
If translators show the English names of these teas to the target readers without explanation, readers may feel confused. Sometimes, the names of some teas are the same as the names of other stuff. For example, “ ‘茉莉花茶’ is translated into Jasmine Tea. This kind of translation mixes the tea name with the flower name. Actually, ‘茉莉花茶’ is a kind of green tea which has the aroma of jasmine. Some kind of ‘茉莉花茶’ contains jasmine flower, some don’t. Similarly, ‘竹叶青’ is translated into Bamboo Leaf Green and ‘玉露’ is translated into Jade Dew.<br />
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
Although the translation of these names of teas used the literal translation approach and realized the verbal equivalence, translators neglected the features of the teas. This kind of translation will mislead the target reader to think of ‘竹叶青’ as the tea made of bamboo leaves and ‘玉露’ as the tea made of jade and dew, which is totally impossible”. (Cui Shan 2019:125) The translation of tea names is also a part of intercultural communication. It can directly influence the transmission of Chinese culture in the world and can also influence the business result.<br />
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
If a translator doesn’t pay enough attention to the cultural differences, it may lead to bad consequences. For example, a Chinese tea called “龙虎斗” was translated into “The Fighting Between Dragon and Tiger ”.Although the translation kept the verbal meaning of the tea, it violated the western taboo. This is because dragon is referred as a kind of evil and fierce beast. A reader without the knowledge of Chinese culture will have the image of two fierce beasts fighting and killing each other when reading the translation of the tea.<br />
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==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
The target reader will feel uncomfortable to read the name of the tea, let alone buy and drink it. “珠茶” is a kind of special tea from Shaoxing, Zhejiang Province. It is round and bullet-shaped. So it was translated into “gun power”. This kind of translation can easily make people think about the violent images of war. Therefore, when being sold to India, Indian purchasers strongly asked the seller to change the translation of the tea name.<br />
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==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
Due to cultural differences, sometimes literal translation cannot express the true meaning of the tea name well. During this circumstance, translator should compensate the important information under the verbal meaning of the tea name. This kind of purpose can be achieved through the explanation of connotation under the tea name. Let’s take the tea names we have mentioned in the last paragraph as an example.<br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
According to the background information of the tea “玉露”, “ the shape of the tea is round and its color is white like jade. So it’s better to translate ‘玉露’ into ‘Jade-green Tea’ instead of ‘Jade Dew’”. (Cui Shan 2019:126) This kind of translation can show the color and type of the tea. It is more acceptable and less confusing for the target readers.<br />
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==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
Similarly, “‘茉莉花茶’ can be translated into ‘Jasmine Scented Tea’ instead of ‘Jasmine Tea’ and ‘竹叶青’ can be translated into ‘Bamboo-Leaf-Shaped Green Tea’ instead of ‘Bamboo Leaf ’”. (Cui Shan, 2019:126) “Jasmine Scented Tea” can show the true features of the tea and distinguish the tea from jasmine flower. And “Bamboo-Leaf-Shaped Green Tea” can tell the target readers the type and features of the tea and stop misleading readers to think of it as the tea made of bamboo leaves.<br />
==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
'''4 Untranslatability of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
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Catford thought that untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. When translating culture-loaded words, it is hard for translator to translate the culture behind these words in a perfect way. For example, “纸老虎” is translated into “Paper Tiger” in English.<br />
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==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
But if people don’t have a knowledge of Chinese culture, when they read the phrase “paper tiger”, they will think of it as a kind of artistic work. Similarly, “八股文” is translated into “Eight-part Essay”. When people read this kind of translation, they will only think of it as a kind of article containing eight parts. They cannot understand the moral imprisonment this kind of writing style brought to Chinese people.<br />
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==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
When the famous sinologist David Hawkes was translating the famous Chinese novel ''A Dream of Red Mansions'', he translated a servant girl in the novel called “紫鹃” into “Nightingale” instead of “cuckoo”. This is because the word “cuckoo” in western countries can be used to refer the woman who cheated in a relationship. In the novel, “紫鹃” is a quite innocent girl.<br />
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在翻译中国著名小说《红楼梦》时，著名汉学家大卫·霍克斯把书中一个名为“紫娟”的女仆翻译成“夜莺(nightingale)”而不是“杜鹃(cuckoo)”。他这样做的原因是，在西方国家，“杜鹃(cuckoo)”通常指在感情中背信弃义的女方，而《红楼梦》中的“紫娟”是个天真烂漫的女孩儿。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 08:39, 28 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
So the word “cuckoo”, although is literally equivalent to “紫鹃”, it was still not chosen by David Hawkes to be the girl’s name. In English, “nightingale” refers to a small brown bird, the male of which has a beautiful song. It can also refer people who can sing beautifully. Although the translator avoided cultural conflict by translating “紫鹃” into “Nightingale”, “nightingale” still cannot show the innocence of that girl.<br />
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==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
Sometimes, translators will borrow words from other cultures to help themselves translate better. For example, translators translate “a beauty in ancient China named Xi Shi into ‘Chinese Cleopatra’. However, Cleopatra is more like the first and the only female emperor in Chinese history Wu Zetian in Chinese people’s mind to western people.<br />
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==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
In Chinese phrase ‘蝙蝠迎宾’， the word ‘蝙蝠’ is translated into ‘bird’ in English instead of ‘bat’. This is because bat represents vampires in western culture. This kind of translation avoided the violation of western taboo. But it also doesn’t translate the inner ‘happiness’ behind the phrase in Chinese culture.”(Chen Junming 2013:29)<br />
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==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences. Although it is hard to translate culture-loaded words into target language in a perfect way, translators still need to try to discover the translation of culture-loaded words. Translators can also add some explanations after the translated sentences or words to make the meaning and culture behind the source language text be understood by target readers.<br />
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==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
'''5 The Interpreter’s Translation of Culture-loaded Words'''<br />
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Unlike translators, interpreters have much shorter time to translate. Sometimes, it is a great challenge for interpreters to translate in such a short time. As we have discussed above, culture-loaded words make it hard for translators to translate. So during the interpreting, it may be even harder for interpreters to translate utterances with culture-loaded words. An interpreter’s translation can be divided into three steps, namely comprehension, de-verbalization and reformulation. If an interpreter wants to interpret successfully, he should understand what the speaker has said.<br />
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==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
The interpreter will keep the content of what the speaker just said in his mind. During step two, the interpreter will forget the structure of these linguistic signs which formed what the speaker said and only remembers the ideas these linguistics signs wanted to express. During the last step, the interpreter uses another language to form new utterances to express the speaker’s ideas. The interpreter has to try to express all the information the speaker mentioned as possible and the interpreter also needs to try to make the translated language easy to be understood by target hearers.<br />
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==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
The striking feature of interpreting is its timeliness. Since the interpreter’s memory is limited, interpretation is more about translating the overall meaning of the discourse. Sometimes interpreters have to identify the key information of someone’s utterances and discard the unimportant information. The approach we have discussed above can also be used to interpret. For example, the interpreter can use literal translation approach to translate.<br />
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==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
By using the literal translation approach, “ ‘莫道今年春将尽，明年春色倍欢人。我期待着明年中国和世界都会变得更好’，can be translated into ‘Do not regret that the spring is departing, come next year as it will be twice as enchanting. I really hope to see that next year in China and in the whole world people will be better off.’”(Guo Huiqing 2018:94)<br />
<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
It’s worth mentioning that interpreters have to translate in a limited time. So when confronting some special expression that is hard to find the equivalent in the target language. They will try to explain the meaning of these expression. For example, the interpreter can translate “ ‘山重水复疑无路，柳暗花明又一村’ into ‘After encountering all kinds of difficulties and experiencing all kinds of hardships, at the end of the day we will see light at the end of tunnel’”.(Guo Huiqing 2018:95)<br />
<br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
This expression is from ancient Chinese poet Tao Yuanming’s poem. This sentence just express the scenery of the countryside. But combing the poem with the utterances the speaker has said, the interpreter translates the sentence into the translation above. This kind of explanation approach can be often used in interpreting.<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
Translation and interpreting share a lot in common like the approaches to translate. But interpreting has the feature of timeliness while translation doesn’t. This feature brings more challenges for interpreters to translate. It requires interpreter to have to quick response and a better sensibility to cultural differences.<br />
<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
'''6 Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
“Since the knowledge and beliefs that constitute a people’s culture are habitually encoded and transmitted in the language of the people, it is extremely difficult to separate the two. On the one hand, language as an integral part of human being, permeates his thinking and way of viewing the world, language both expresses and embodies cultural reality. On the other, language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture, and the changes in language uses reflect the cultural changes in return.” (Dai Weidong 2002:130)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
Language and culture are interdependent during the process of evolution. Language belongs to culture. Translators, who translate the information from one language to another, have the responsibility to promote the communication between different countries. A good translator can help the transmission of cultures. The cultural differences among different countries lead to different culture-loaded words in different countries. The reason why we call a culture-loaded word a culture-loaded word is because it contains the special meaning of a culture.<br />
<br />
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
It is exactly this kind of uniqueness which makes a culture different from other cultures. Although culture-loaded words make it hard for translators to translate well, translators still have to find strategies to overcome this kind of difficulty. As long as cultural differences exist, culture-loaded words will still be there. As a bridge between two language or even two cultures, translators still have to work hard to discover better approaches to translate culture-loaded words well. If translators can translate better, the cultural communication between two countries will be better.<br />
<br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
'''A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories'''<br />
<br />
<br />
'''(1)Introduction'''<br />
<br />
'''1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
<br />
In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”.<br />
<br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”.<br />
<br />
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text.<br />
<br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence.<br />
<br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br />
<br />
'''1.2. Skopos Theory'''<br />
<br />
Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br />
<br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br />
<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”.<br />
<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br />
<br />
Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br />
<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
'''II.Similarities and Differences'''<br />
<br />
'''2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories'''<br />
<br />
'''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br />
<br />
Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language.<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br />
<br />
While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means.<br />
<br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br />
<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
'''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br />
<br />
Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
'''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br />
<br />
'''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br />
<br />
From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response.<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br />
<br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”.<br />
<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory.<br />
<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
'''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br />
<br />
Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text.<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br />
<br />
In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers.<br />
<br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br />
<br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
'''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br />
<br />
In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation.<br />
<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms.<br />
<br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br />
<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes.Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers.<br />
<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. <br />
<br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. <br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes." instead of “man proposals, God disposes”.<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
'''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br />
<br />
In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. <br />
<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br />
<br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. <br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br />
<br />
'''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br />
<br />
In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144).<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br />
<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br />
然而，目的论不同于功能对等理论，它没有提出具体的翻译步骤。目的论没有对词语、短语、段落和文本的翻译给出详细的指导，但它从宏观的角度给予译者一定的启示，赋予译者更多的翻译自主权，使译者能够自由地翻译文本。<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 07:51, 28 October 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
'''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br />
<br />
'''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
<br />
'''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
<br />
Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br />
<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation.<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases.<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language.<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries.<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br />
<br />
'''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
<br />
Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. <br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br />
Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. <br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br />
<br />
In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. <br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious.<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br />
<br />
'''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br />
<br />
我们虽然都清楚功能对等理论对于整个翻译学的深远影响，但是它并不是一个普遍适用的理论。我们必须辩证地看待功能对等理论的优缺点。因为它是特定历史时期的产物，所以它与现代翻译理论可能前后矛盾。因此我们要用全面的观点看待奈达的翻译理论。总的来说，奈达的翻译思想是西方翻译研究宝库中的璀璨明珠。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 07:56, 28 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
'''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br />
<br />
'''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br />
<br />
Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br />
<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
'''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br />
<br />
However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br />
<br />
Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context.<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br />
<br />
Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. <br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br />
<br />
Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards.<br />
<br />
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br />
<br />
'''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br />
<br />
<br />
==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies.<br />
<br />
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br />
<br />
'''IV.Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. <br />
<br />
==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
'''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Introduction'''<br />
<br />
'''Research background'''<br />
<br />
Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely "functional equivalence theory". With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. <br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br />
<br />
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
'''Significance of the study'''<br />
<br />
By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br />
<br />
'''Layout of this chapter'''<br />
<br />
This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. <br />
<br />
==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br />
第二章包括三个部分：目的论的发展、目的论的定义和目的论的三个原则。最后一章分为两部分：这两个理论的不同和相同之处。<br />
'''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br />
1.功能对等理论的简介<br />
'''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br />
1.1功能对等理论的定义<br />
Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response.<br />
功能对等理论是著名美国译者尤金·奈达翻译理论的核心部分。该理论重视目标语接受者的反应，也就是说，目标语接受者和原语言接受者的阅读反应一致。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 08:32, 28 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation.<br />
<br />
==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br />
<br />
'''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br />
<br />
Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br />
<br />
'''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br />
<br />
==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br />
<br />
Example: “presidential historian...”<br />
<br />
“总统的史学家......”<br />
<br />
It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br />
<br />
==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
<br />
'''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br />
<br />
From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text.<br />
<br />
Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br />
<br />
==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
<br />
It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br />
<br />
'''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br />
<br />
==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
<br />
This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text.<br />
<br />
Example：“车来了！”<br />
<br />
“Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br />
<br />
==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
<br />
In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br />
<br />
==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
<br />
'''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br />
<br />
The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader.<br />
Example: “as white as snow.”<br />
<br />
==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
<br />
It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br />
<br />
'''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
<br />
Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory.<br />
<br />
'''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
<br />
Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. <br />
<br />
==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
<br />
So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br />
<br />
The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. <br />
<br />
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
<br />
On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
<br />
The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. <br />
<br />
==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
<br />
The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory.<br />
<br />
The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of "function plus loyalty", which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
<br />
'''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br />
<br />
Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). <br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
<br />
Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
<br />
<br />
'''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br />
<br />
In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br />
<br />
'''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br />
<br />
In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
<br />
''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
<br />
Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br />
<br />
Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br />
<br />
无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
<br />
If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
<br />
'''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br />
<br />
Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view.<br />
通顺原则<br />
通顺原则又叫文体内部通顺原则。这一原则下，文本内容必须通顺，读得懂并且合乎情理。换句话说，译文读者读译文时，可以结合自身已有的知识文化背景来理解译文。任何一种文本都能传递信息，有它自己的功能。但是从语言学角度来讲，文本背后要表达的信息和功能并不能被读者一眼看出。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 07:46, 28 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
2.3.2 连贯性原则<br />
连贯性原则又叫文内连贯原则。这一原则要求译文必须具有连贯性、可读性以及可接受性。也就是说，译文接受者能够根据自身文化和知识背景理解译文。任意一篇文本都能传递信息有其功能，但从语言学角度来看，文本的信息和功能不是一直都一目了然的。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 08:42, 28 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
<br />
The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br />
<br />
Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br />
<br />
这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
<br />
This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose.<br />
<br />
'''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br />
<br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
<br />
Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br />
<br />
Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br />
<br />
OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br />
<br />
农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br />
<br />
开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
<br />
The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists.<br />
<br />
There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br />
<br />
'''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
<br />
This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br />
<br />
'''3.1 The differences'''<br />
<br />
'''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br />
<br />
The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
<br />
German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. <br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of "action", and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br />
<br />
'''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. "Equivalence" here, he clearly stated that it is not "equivalence" in mathematics, but "approximation", that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. <br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
<br />
From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve "close and natural equivalence": (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
<br />
Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be "coherent within the text," that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. <br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
<br />
The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br />
<br />
But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. <br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
<br />
Nord believes that "there is no translation without the original text", and free rewriting does not belong to translation; "Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation." This responsibility of the translator is "loyalty"(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of "function plus loyalty" avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
<br />
'3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br />
<br />
Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the "mirror reflection" of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
<br />
Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br />
<br />
'''3.2 The Similarities'''<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br />
<br />
'''3.2 The Similarities'''<br />
<br />
'''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
<br />
The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is "skopos theory" or "functional equivalence theory", both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. <br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
<br />
Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br />
<br />
Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that "the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural." <br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
<br />
In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br />
<br />
'''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br />
<br />
Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. <br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
<br />
Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of "coherence within the text" that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
<br />
'''Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. <br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
<br />
Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.</div>Hu Huifanghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201019_trans&diff=10182120201019 trans2020-10-25T11:47:02Z<p>Hu Huifang: /* Kong Yanan 孔亚楠 */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
Acknowledgement<br />
<br />
I am indebted to the more than 300 students of the Master Course "Introduction to Translation Studies" conducted in the two fall terms 2019/2020 and 2020/2021 at Hunan Normal University, Foreign Studies College. They have enriched this monograph with their ideas, their creativity and the top students even have contributed short passages to this book on single aspects. They have also helped to arrange that the monograph could appear in different languages simultaneously.<br />
The Foreign Studies College is one of the top places of Translation and Interpreting Studies in China.<br />
<br />
致谢<br />
<br />
我衷心感谢在湖南师范大学外国语学院两个秋季学期（2019/2020和2020/2021）开设的“翻译学概论”硕士学位课程的300多名学生。他们用自己的想法和创造力丰富了这本专著的内容，尖子生们甚至还为书中的章节撰写了简短的文章。这些学生还负责将这本专著翻译成不同的语言。湖南师范大学外国语学院在中国翻译与口译研究的顶尖领域具有一席之地。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 03:40, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
致谢<br />
<br />
我衷心感谢三百多名学生在湖南师范大学外国语学院2019年和2020年秋季修读了“翻译学概论”这门硕士课程。这些学生用自己的想法以及创造使本书更为丰富，其中，甚至一些尖子生还为本书的某些内容撰写了简短的文章，他们帮助安排这本书能同时以不同的语言进行出版，湖南师范大学外国语学院已成为中国翻译和口译研究的最高学府之一。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 05:09, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
Foreword<br />
<br />
Interpretation theories and interpretation studies are as old as human languages, since interpretation practise is not just necessary between full fledged languages, but is practised as soon as two different individuals meet, like a grandmother and her grandchild. The first lay interpreters naturally reflected on their interpreting work and this was the start of theories and studies. As soon as written language was invented, critical reflection also started and with it translation theories and translation studies.<br />
<br />
序言<br />
<br />
与人类语言一样，口译理论与口译研究也很古老，因为在完全成熟的语言之间，口译实践不仅是必要的，而且只要两个个体相遇，比如祖母和孙子，实践就会产生。最初的外行口译人员很自然地会反思他们的翻译工作，这就是理论和研究的起点。书面语言一经发明，批判反思也就开始了，随之而来的就是翻译理论和翻译研究。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 12:05, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
序言<br />
<br />
口译实践并不只会出现在两种完全成熟的语言之间，其实，只要两个不同的个体相遇，比如祖孙之间，就会产生这一实践，因此，口译理论以及口译研究同人类语言一样古老。第一批缺乏经验的口译人员本能地反映他们的口译工作，这也就促成了理论和研究的诞生。书面语言产生后，批判反思也随即应运而生，紧随其后的还有翻译理论以及翻译研究。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 02:17, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
The first thoughts about transponing the meaning of one language into a similar one of another language were prescriptive with precepts and principles, sometimes exaggerated into dogma and people not adhering to them being tortured or murdered.<br />
<br />
In the 1960s, the translation studies started to become aware of itself as an academic discipline.<br />
<br />
起初，关于将一种语言转化为另一种类似语言的观点是受一定戒律与原则规范的，这种观点有时还被夸大为教条，而不遵循这一约束的人则遭到酷刑或谋杀。<br />
<br />
到20世纪60年代，翻译学开始意识到自己是一门学科。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 12:54, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
起初，将一种语言转化为另一种类似语言是受一定戒律、原则、甚至是教条所规范的，而不遵循这些约束的人则遭到酷刑或谋杀。<br />
到20世纪60年代，翻译学开始意识到自己是一门学术学科。<br />
--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 05:10, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
'''I. Introduction'''<br />
<br />
Translating sets forth on its journey a long time ago. It has been over 2200 years since Livius Andronicus translated Homer’s Odyssey from Greek into Latin around 250 BC, which is the earliest activity of translating from recorded history. Throughout history, translation is not only involved in politics,culture, religion, language and so forth, but also keeps changing as times and social conditions roll on. On grounds of the changes of targets and contents of translation history, considering the specific periods of people’s apprehension of translation and the roles translation plays in society of different times, researchers divided the history of western translation into 3 parts, translation of religious materials, translation of literary classics and translation of non-literary materials. <br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
The division of western translation history varies from person to person in circles of translation. Generally speaking, from about 250 BC when people translated ''Septuagint'' into Greek to the 16th century when the translation of the Bible prevailed, it is the historical period of translating religious materials, followed by period of translation of literature mainly from literary classics and great works of social sciences.(Wu & Shu 2011:76) After the Second World War, however, translation of non-literary and practical materials began to exert influence as a major force.在翻译界，人们对西方翻译史的划分各不相同。一般来说，从大约公元前250年，人们把《圣经旧约》翻译成希腊语，到十六世纪圣经翻译的盛行，这一时期是宗教素材翻译的历史时期，紧随其后的是文学翻译时期，主要以文学经典著作以及社会科学巨著为主。（吴&纾 2011:76）但是，第二次世界大战以后，非文学翻译和实用材料的翻译开始发挥主要作用。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 01:48, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
西方翻译史的划分在翻译界因人而异。一般来说，从公元前250年左右，人们把《圣经旧约》翻译成希腊语，到16世纪圣经翻译开始盛行。这一时期是宗教素材翻译的历史性时期，其次是主要以文学经典和社会科学巨著为素材的翻译时期。(吴淑仪，2011：76)第二次世界大战后，非文学材料和实用材料的翻译开始作为主力产生影响。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 07:43, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
In the west, studies on translation practices and theories have walked through the recorded history of over two thousand years, which is very close to the one in China. Nevertheless, China had made little progress with translation studies because of closed-door policy. Before years around 1980s, the systematic study on theories of western translation had been left incomplete in China, where few books and papers related were published. And even in the western countries, there existed similar situations. However, studies on theories of western translation has made appreciable development since 1980s, especially the books on history of western translation theory written by Rener, Robinson, etc.<br />
有历史记载以来，西方有关翻译实践和理论的研究已有2000多年的历史，中国也差不多。然而，由于闭关锁国政策，中国在翻译研究方向并没有取得什么进展。大约1980年代以前，中国有关西方翻译理论的系统性研究并不完整，只有少量的书和相关论文发表。甚至一些西方国家也有类似的情况。然而自1980年代起西方翻译理论的研究取得了良好的进展，尤其是Rener，Robinson等人有关西方翻译理论历史的书籍。<br />
<br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
These books and materials are indisputably of great value for us to take a closer look at theories of western translation, yet it is very hard for people of Chinese cultures to search, unearth and analyse the history of translation theories in the backgrounds of western cultures. As Tan Zaixi put it in his book ''The Brief History of Western Translation'', “From ancient times, translation in the west has been proceeding for over two thousand years, along with extraordinary translators and divergent theories, which can not be expound within twenty or thirty thousand words.”(Tan 1991:1) And for translation studies as a independent discipline, it is a very meaningful job to study translation and its theories from all over the world, which includes the western translation theories.<br />
<br />
在我对西方翻译理论进行更为深入的了解过程中，这些书和材料无疑有着极大的价值，然而对于中国文化背景的人来说，在西方文化背景下查找，挖掘以及分析翻译理论发展历史是非常不容易的。正如谭载喜在《西方翻译简史》中所提到的那样：“从古至今，西方翻译和杰出翻译家及不同翻译理论已经经历了2000多年的历史，仅用2万或是3万字是阐述不清楚的。”（谭 1991:1）翻译学作为一门独立学科对于研究翻译和世界各国翻译理论（包括西方翻译理论）是极具意义的。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 06:40, 23 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
这些书籍和资料无疑对我们深入研究西方翻译理论具有重要价值，但对于中国文化界人士来说，在西方文化背景下对翻译理论的历史进行探索、发掘和分析是非常困难的。正如谭载喜在其《西方翻译简史》中所写：“西方翻译从古至今已有两千多年的历史，有着杰出的译者和不同的理论，这不是两三万字就能解释清楚的。”(谭1991:1)翻译研究作为一门独立的学科，研究包括西方翻译理论在内的世界各国的翻译及其理论，是一项非常有意义的工作。--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 01:53, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
Accordingly, while studying the history of western translation theories, we must understand the necessity of describing the development of western translation theories in a proper way and figure out how they are classified, especially for theories of modern and contemporary times. Based on the fundamental way of studying translation or ideologies of various schools, now people would usually divide translation studies into literary school, linguistic school and cultural school.<br />
<br />
因此，在研究西方翻译理论的历史时，我们必须认识到正确描述西方翻译理论发展及明确其分类的必要性，尤其是近现代的翻译理论。基于研究翻译或各流派的意识形态的基本方式，现在人们通常会将翻译研究分为文学学派、语言学派和文化学派。--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 01:32, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
因此，我们在研究西方翻译理论发展史时，必须明白合理描述西方翻译理论发展并弄清其分类（尤其是现代西方翻译理论和当代西方翻译理论）的必要性。基于翻译学研究的基本方法和各大学派的意识形态，当今的翻译学研究可分为文学学派、语言学学派和文化学派。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 02:13, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
因此，在研究西方翻译理论发展史的时候，我们必须深谙，用合理方式描述西方翻译理论的发展，弄清楚如何将翻译理论分类，是非常必要的。在研究现代和当代翻译理论的时候，更需要如此。基于各流派研究翻译或者意识形态的基本方式，人们现在通常把翻译研究分为文学学派、语言学派和文化学派。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:27, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
因此，在研究西方翻译理论发展史时，我们必须认识到，以适当的方式描述西方翻译理论发展以及弄清楚它们的分类方式是十分有必要的，特别是那些现当代的理论。根据研究翻译的基本方法或各种学派的思想，现在人们通常将翻译研究分为文学学派、语言学派和文化学派。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 08:34, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
The literary school includes the traditional philological approach and the hermernutic approach; the linguistic school consists of the equivalence approach, the functional approach and the cognitive approach; the cultural school covers translation studies approach, deconstruction approach, feminism approach, post-colonial approach and the integrated approach, of which translation studies approach can be further divided into polysystem theory, the norm theory and the manipulation theory. By contributing new thoughts to this discussion, the study aims to reach more consensus among translation studies scholars in this aspect.<br />
<br />
文学学派包括传统的语文学方法和解释学方法；语言学学派包括对等法、功能法和认知学方法；文化学派涵盖翻译学研究方法、解构法、女性主义方法、后殖民主义方法和合成法。其中翻译学研究方法又可再分为多元系统理论、标准理论和控制理论。上述理论为本研究提供了很多新理念。故本研究旨在让翻译学研究者在这一方面达成更多共识。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 02:05, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
文学学派包括传统语文学方法和解释学方法：语言学学派包括对等方法、功能性方法和认知学方法； 文化学派包括翻译学研究、解构法、女性主义法、后殖民方法和整合法，翻译学研究又可再分为多元系统理论，标准理论和操控理论。通过在这个论述中注入更多的新思想，这个研究旨在使更多的翻译学研究学者在这方面达成共识。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 14:37, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
'''II. School Classification''' <br />
<br />
Beyond dispute, it’s practicable that people describe the history of western translation theories by dividing them into different schools in light of theories and ideologies of translation studies. With the modernization and integration of economy in western society, western translation theories also begin to get over the hurdles in the way of mutual development and blur the distinction among nationalities, which makes it harder to owe some ideology or theory of translation to a certain country or area. For instance, Gideon Toury was famous in the west but lived in Israel.<br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
In contrast, when some ideology or theory is proposed by someone in some place, it can probably be responded to or supported by scholars from all corners of the world. They hold it up totally out of agreement with the points someone makes, not necessarily where the points come from. Another example, Eugene A. Nida, who put forward the idea of “functional equivalence”, is American, but Kade, who is his supporter, comes from German. Therefore, it might be easier to understand the present situation and trends of western translation theories from levels of translation schools and ideologies, especially for theories of contemporary and modern times.<br />
<br />
相反，某个地区某位学者提出某种观念或者理论的时候，会受到世界各地学者的回应和支持。他们支持这一观点仅仅是因为认同，而非刻意地关注其来源。再如，提出“功能对等”理论的学者尤金·奈达（Eugene A. Nida）是美国人，而他的支持者凯德（Kade）却来自德国。因此，从翻译流派和意识形态，尤其是现当代理论的层面来理解西方翻译理论的现状和趋势也许会更容易一点。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 11:26, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
相反，当某个地方的某个人提出某种意识形态或理论时，很有可能会得到来自全世界各地学者的响应和支持。他们同意别人的观点，而不考虑这些观点的出处。再如，提出“功能对等”思想的尤金•奈达是美国人，而支持他的是德国人凯德。因此，从翻译流派和意识层面，特别是近现代的翻译理论层面来理解西方翻译理论现状和发展趋势会更容易。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 06:00, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
As one would expect, it is just one of the methods to classify western translation theories on the basis of translation schools or ideologies. From a perspective of historical development, it would be a more traditional way to classify western translation theories by times and nations. This diachronic way of studying it helps to organize the historical materials clearly and make profitable comparisons among traditions and characteristics of translation theories among western countries and regions, which enables people to understand the distribution and trends of western translation theories with an open mind. On the other hand, the diachronic way also describes the divergence and amalgamation of western translation theories.<br />
<br />
正如人们所期望的那样，它只是根据翻译学派或意识形态对西方翻译理论进行分类的方法之一。 从历史发展的角度来看，将西方翻译理论按时间和国家分类是一种更为传统的方法。 这种历时性的研究方法有助于清晰地整理历史资料，并在西方国家和地区之间对翻译理论的传统和特征进行有益的比较，使人们能够以开放的思想来理解西方翻译理论的分布和趋势。 另一方面，历时性方法也表现了西方翻译理论的分歧和融合。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:52, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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正如人们所想，根据翻译流派或意识形态对西方翻译理论进行分类只是其中一种方法。从历史发展的角度看，将西方翻译理论按时代和民族分类是一种比较传统的方法。这种历时性的研究方法有助于理清史料，也有利于对西方国家和地区翻译理论的传统和特点进行比较，这使人们能够虚心地了解西方翻译理论的分布和发展趋势。另一方面，这种研究方法也描述了西方翻译理论的分歧与融合。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 05:29, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
To give an example, the debate between free and literal translation never ends during which the eclecticism occurred and then literal translation was overtaken by free translation; the transfer from regarding the words as translation units to viewing sentences, discourses and even the whole passages as translation units... and so on. Despite that, as for studies on western translation theories, it is not the best way to do it only by a certain means. If we completely choose the way of describing the history of western translation theories by dividing them into different schools in light of theories and ideologies of translation studies, the relation between translation theories and specific cultural environment of society may be ambiguous and so is the relation between diachronic and synchronic development of translation.<br />
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举个例子，意译与直译之间的争论从未停止。在这个争论的期间，先是出现了折衷主义，然后又是意译占领了主导地位；翻译也从以词为单位，转变到了以句子、语篇甚至整篇文章为单位...诸如此类。尽管如此，在我们研究西方翻译理论的时候，仅采用某种单一的手段并不是最好的方法。如果我们完全按照翻译研究的理论和意识形态来将西方翻译理论划分为不同的流派，从而阐述西方翻译理论史的话，可能会模糊翻译理论与特定的社会文化环境之间的关系，同样也可能模糊翻译的历时性发展和共时性发展之间的关系。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 08:18, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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例如，意译与直译之争从未结束，直到折衷主义的出现，直译才被意译取代；翻译单位也在发生转变，从以词为翻译单位转变为以句子，语篇乃至整篇文章为翻译单位······等等。 尽管如此，仅靠某种方法去研究西方翻译理论并不是最好的方法。 如果完全按照翻译研究的理论和意识形态将西方翻译理论划分为不同的流派并研究其发展历史，那么翻译理论与特定社会文化环境的关系，翻译的历时发展与共时发展的关系就可能是模糊不清的。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 10:57, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
If we only decide on a more traditional way to classify western translation theories by times and nations, our research and description will inevitably be in need of subjects of translation theories. To avoid such deficiencies, we must adopt a way combining both means mentioned above to study western translation theories. In other words, we must take into consideration not only the historical connection between theories and ideas of translation but also the relation of translation theories with the specific social and cultural environment. Only by doing so, our research would be able to describe the whole process of western translation theories from an objective perspective. <br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
From what we have mentioned above, we view western translation theories from two sides. First, we view it from the respect of historical development steadily. Cicero, was the first translation theorist in the west during times of Roman empire. As a rhetorician and orator, he categorized translation into ones by “ut interpres” and “ut orator” for the first time. Translation by “ut interpres” means translation of no creativity but translation by “ut orator” means translation of creativity which may even rival the original.<br />
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根据上诉所言，我们可以从两方面看待翻译理论。首先：我们从历史发展角度来看，西塞罗是罗马帝国时期，第一个西方翻译理论家。西塞罗是个修辞学家，也是个演说家，他第一次把翻译分成“解释员”式和“演说家”式。“解释员”式翻译在翻译过程中没有创造性,而“演说家式”翻译富有创造性，这种译文甚至能媲美原文。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 02:16, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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如上所述，我们可以从两方面看待翻译理论。首先，我们从历史发展角度来看，西塞罗是罗马帝国时期，第一个西方翻译理论家。作为修辞学家，同时也是演说家，西塞罗第一次把翻译分成“解说员”式和“演说家”式。“解说员”式翻译在翻译过程中没有创造性,而“演说家式”翻译富有创造性，甚至可能媲美原文。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 02:12, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
通过如上所述，我们可以从两方面看待西方翻译理论。 首先，从历史稳定发展的角度看，西塞罗是罗马帝国时期的第一位西方翻译理论家。作为一名修辞家和演说家，西塞罗首次将翻译分为“解说员”式和“演说家”式。前者的翻译意味着翻译过程中没有创造性的翻译，而后者的翻译则包含创造性翻译，这样的翻译甚至能与原文相媲美。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 02:30, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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根据上诉所言，我们可以从两方面看待西方翻译理论。首先是历史发展的角度。西塞罗是罗马帝国时期第一个西方翻译理论家。他不仅是个修辞学家，也是个演说家，首次把翻译分成“解释员”式和“演说家”式。“解释员”式翻译在翻译过程中没有创造性,而“演说家式”翻译富有创造性，这种译文甚至能媲美原文。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 02:22, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
As a matter of fact, Cicero put forward two fundamental ways of translating and pioneered the study of theories and methods of translation. Since Cicero’s studies on translation, western translation theories have been dealing with arguments between free translation and literal translation, word-for-word translation and excessively free translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness and so forth.<br />
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实际上，西塞罗提出了两种基本翻译方法，是翻译理论研究和翻译方法研究的先锋。自西塞罗的翻译研究开始，西方翻译理论在意译还是直译、字对字的翻译还是大篇幅意译、遵循忠实原则还是不忠实原则等方面众说纷纭。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:18, 22 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
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实际上，西塞罗提出了两种基本翻译方法，率先研究翻译理论和翻译方法。自从西塞罗进行翻译研究后，西方翻译理论就意译与直译、逐字翻译与过度意译、忠实与不忠实等方面一直争论不休。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 01:54, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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事实上，西塞罗提出了两种基本的翻译方法并且率先进行了翻译理论和翻译方法的研究。自从西塞罗进行了翻译的研究以后，西方翻译理论就意译与直译、逐字翻译与过度意译、忠实与不忠等问题一直争论不休。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:30, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
Besides Cicero, there are an abundance of excellent translation theorists in western translation history, who have proposed assorted theories and ideas from different angles in different times. In ancient times, aside from Cicero’s categorization of “literal translation” and “free translation”, Marcus Fabius Quintlianus thought that the target ought to compete with the original; St. Jerome believed that people were supposed to follow the rules of literal translation when translating ''the Bible'' and use free translation when it came to literary classics; St. Augustine held the view that translation was inspired by God.<br />
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在西方翻译史上，除了西塞罗之外，还有许多优秀的翻译理论家，他们在不同时期从不同角度提出了各种各样的理论和思想。在古代，除了西塞罗对“直译”和“意译”的分类外，马库斯·法比尤斯·昆体良（Marcus Fabius Quntinlianus）主张译文应该与原文竞争；圣杰罗姆（St. Jerome）认为人们在翻译圣经时应该遵循直译的原则，而翻译经典文学作品时应该遵循意译的原则；圣奥古斯丁（St. Augustine）认为翻译是凭上帝的启示。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:58, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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除了西塞罗，西方翻译史上还有许多杰出的翻译理论家，他们在不同时期从不同角度提出了各种理论和观点。在古代，除了西塞罗对“直译”和“意译”的分类外，马库斯·法比尤斯·昆体良（Marcus Fabius Quntinlianus）主张目标语应当和源语不相上下。圣·杰罗姆（St. Jerome）认为圣经的翻译应遵循直译原则，而翻译文学经典时则采用意译。圣·奥古斯丁（St. Augustine）认为翻译受到了上帝的启示。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 16:13, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
In the Middle Ages, Manlius Boethius promoted the literal translation that would rather keep “faithful” than “elegant”; Dante was of the opinion that “works of literature are untranslatable”. During the Renaissance, Desiderius Erasmus believed that translation was not a subjection to authority of religious beliefs and translation of ''the Bible'' depended on the language of a translator; Martin Luther held the view of humanism that texts must be rendered in the people’s language; Etienne Dolet reckoned that people translated on “five principles” of understanding the content of the original, being proficient in the original language and the target language, avoiding word-for-word translation, expounding in simple languages and focusing on the style of the target text.<br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
From the 17th to 19th century, Charles Batteux was of the opinion that author was the master and translator was the servant, whose work were not allowed to be amplified, to omit and change the wording of the original; John Dryden categorized translating into metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation and he thought translation was some kind of art; Tytler put forward three principles that the target reflected the ideas exactly the original conveyed, the style and skills the target used should be of the same characteristics of the original and the target should be as expressive as the original; Friedrich Schleiermacher made a distinction between translation and interpretation, literal translation and mechanical translation; Humboldt believed his theories that language decided the translatability and untranslatability of the world; Matthew Arnold thought whether a translation was good or not depended on the experts; Francis W. Newman had the idea that it were common readers, not the experts,who determined the criteria of translation.<br />
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从17世纪到19世纪，不少翻译家谈到了原作者与译者之间的关系，夏尔·巴托便是其中之一。在他看来，原作者应为主人，译者为仆人。但凡放大译者职能、遗漏或篡改原文文意等行为，都是不被允许的；约翰·德莱顿将翻译分为直译、意译和拟译，他认为翻译是一种艺术；泰特勒推演出翻译的三条原则，即1）译文应当准确反映出原文想表达的意义；2）译文中采用的风格和技巧应当与原文一致；3）译文应当像原文一样具有感染力。弗里德里希·施莱尔马赫将口译和笔译、直译和机翻区别开来；洪保德认为语言决定了可译性或不可译性；马修·阿诺德觉得一篇译文的好坏与否掌握在评判专家手中；而纽曼则认为制定翻译标准的不是专家们，而是普通读者。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 11:20, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
In the 20th century, we have Fedolov’s theories that people should study translation theories from linguistics first and translation theories is categorized into history, introduction and arguments of translation; we have Roman Jakobson’s three classification of interlingual translation, intralingual translation and intersemiotic translation; we have Levy’s thoughts that “translating should make reader have an illusion of the original”, “translating is a deciding process”; we have Gachechiladze’s theories on literary translation that “translation is always a artistic and realistic reflection of the original” and “ translation of literature and art is a artistic work”; <br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
we have Carford’s theories of linguistics that translation should reach an equivalence of context; Nida thought “translating is a science”, “translating is communicating” and there exists equivalence between the readers of the original and the target; Mounin’s view of modern linguistics on translation theories; emphasized that the target needed to break the limits of the original. All the thoughts and ideas mentioned above have constituted the most essential parts of western translation theories.<br />
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卡福德认为翻译需追求文本对等；奈达认为翻译是一门科学也是一门交际，原文读者和译文读者应获得同样的理解；缪宁认为当代语言学在于翻译理论；保尔•瓦雷里认为译文需打破原文的限制。各翻译家的见解构成了西方翻译主要理论。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 07:00, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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卡福德的语言学理论认为，翻译需追求文本对等；奈达认为翻译是一门科学也是一门交际，好的译文应当使译文读者与原文读者有同样的反应；缪宁则从现代语言学角度来分析翻译理论；保尔·瓦雷认为译文需打破原文的束缚。上述各见解构成了西方翻译的基本理论。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 07:14, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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卡福德的语言学理论认为，翻译应文本对等；奈达认为翻译是一门科学也是一门交际，好的译文应当使译文读者与原文读者有同样的反应；缪宁则从现代语言学角度来分析翻译理论；保尔·瓦雷认为译文需打破原文的束缚。上述观点是西方翻译理论的主要观点。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 07:46, 22 October 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
Furthermore, we could look at the whole system of western translation theories from the other side, which is the schools of ideology. There are two branches of it: translation theories of literature and art and linguistics theories of translation. The school of translation of literature and art stems from the early drama by Terentius in Ancient Rome, ucceeded by Levy and Gachechiladze in modern times, and continues to thrive in the 21st century.<br />
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甚者，我们可以从另一面-也就是理想学派，来整体的看西方翻译理论。其中存在两个分支：文学与艺术翻译理论和翻译的语言学理论。文学与艺术翻译学派起源于早期的戏剧由古罗马泰伦提乌斯提出和现代的<br />
利维和加切奇拉泽继承并且在21世纪继续繁荣发展。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 14:24, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
此外，我们还可以从另一个角度来看待西方翻译理论的整个体系，即意识形态流派。它有两个分支：文艺翻译理论和语言学翻译理论。文艺翻译学派起源于古罗马特伦提乌斯的早期戏剧，近代以利维和加契拉泽为代表，并在21世纪继续蓬勃发展。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 03:09, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
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==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
People of this branch perceive translation as a kind of literary art, which draws attention to recreation of literature. Theorists have been discussing the defects and merits between faithfulness and unfaithfulness, word-for-word translation and excessively free translation, literal translation and free translation and so on. Besides, they also foreground the purposes and effects of translation. They stress both the original and the literary attributes of the language of it., as well as the idiomatic expression and tradition of literature of the original that people must respect whiling translating. They not only zero in on the style and literariness of the text very much but the talent of literature a translator or interpreter should possess.<br />
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这个分支的人把翻译作为一种文学艺术，引起了人们对文学娱乐的关注。理论家们一直在讨论忠实与不忠、逐字翻译和过度自由翻译、直译和自由翻译之间的缺陷和优点。除此之外，他们也强调翻译的目的和效果。他们也都强调翻译语言的原创性和文学性，以及成语性词语。在翻译时，人们必须尊重原始表达和文学传统。他们不仅非常重视文本的风格和文学性，而且笔译或者口译人员应具备文学才能。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:18, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这一分支的人把翻译看作是一种文学艺术，这就引起了对文学再创造的关注。理论家们一直在讨论忠实与不忠实、逐字翻译与过度意译、直译与意译等方面的优缺点。此外，他们还强调了翻译的目的和效果。他们同时强调翻译语言的原始属性和文学属性，以及在翻译时，人们必须尊重原文的惯用表达和文学传统。他们不仅十分注重文本的风格和文学性，还注重译者应具备的文学才能。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 06:02, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
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The school of linguistic theories of translation is from Augustine and people of traditional linguistics or philology in Ancient Rome to various schools of modern linguistics in the 20th and 21st century. For this situation, the core lies in language. People of this school, who think that the goal of translating is to reach the equivalence between the original and the target, combine translation theories with analysis of semantic and syntactic functions and talk on issues of translation from the characteristics of structure and sentence-making skills of a language so as to show how the equivalent texts are made from words, grammars and other features of a language.<br />
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语言学翻译理论学派包从古罗马的奥古斯丁和学习传统语言学或语言学的人，到20世纪和21世纪现代语言学的各个学派。从这一点来看，这一学派的核心在于语言。这一学派的学者，认为翻译的目的是达到原文与目标语之间的等值，他们把翻译理论与语义、句法功能的分析结合起来，从语言的结构特点和造句技巧来谈论翻译问题，从而说明对等文本是如何由词语、语法等其他语言特点构成的。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 07:06, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
From either branches we can see that they have their own advantages and disadvantages. Translation theories of literature and art give an emphasis to the purposes and results of translating and the artistic effects from a macroscopic view, but neither pay much heed to practical process of translating and skills of using a language nor care about whether the target and the original reach the equivalence of structures. Linguistics theories of translation is also not spotless because some theories don’t stress the aesthetic functions and ignore the recurrences of works of literature and art. They mostly focus on the structure of a language to and theoretically are limited to word, sentence or syntax only, which disregards the main structure of a text and the structure of discourse and the cultural features to a larger extent.<br />
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从这两个分支中我们可以看出它们各有优缺点。文艺翻译理论从宏观上强调翻译的目的、结果和艺术效果，但既不注重翻译的实际过程和语言运用技巧，也不关心译文和原文是否达到了结构的对等。语言学的翻译理论也并不完善，因为有些翻译理论没有强调文学艺术作品的审美功能，忽视了文学艺术作品的再现性。它们大多着眼于一种语言的结构，理论上仅限于词、句或句法，而忽视了语篇的主体结构和语篇结构以及文化特征。<br />
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==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
However, no matter it is the branch of translation theories of literature and art or linguistics theories of translation, they are not completely isolated but complement each other. Although either of two branches has its own shortcomings, there is no translation theorist of literature and art who could talk about the artistic value of literary works divorced from linguistic issues; there is no theorist of linguistics who could be immersed in linguistic structures of a text without issues of aesthetics.<br />
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但是，无论是文学艺术翻译理论的分支还是翻译语言学理论的分支，它们都不是完全孤立的而是相辅相成的。 尽管两个分支中的任何一个都有其自身的缺点，但是没有文学和艺术的翻译理论家可以谈论与语言问题脱节的文学作品的艺术价值。 没有语言学的理论家可以沉浸在文本的语言结构中而没有美学问题。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 11:44, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
'''III. About ''The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish'''''<br />
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Joan Pinkham, a professional translator from the U.S., published the book ''The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish'' in 2000. She worked for the Foreign Languages Press and Central Compilation and Translation Bureau in China for 8 years from 1980s to 1990s. It is one of the few books by westerners that systematically discuss the “Chinglish” issues in China. In the years working for the Foreign Languages Press and Central Compilation and Translation Bureau, her job was to revise and polish the drafts from Chinese translators, which was inevitably affected by Chinese and mindset of Chinese people. For that reason, Pinkham got to know many English translations with “Chinese characteristics” and wrote this book.<br />
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
''The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish'' consists of three parts, Unnecessary Words, Sentence Structure and Supplementary Examples, which reveal lots of mistakes Chinese translators tend to make. <br />
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First of all let’s take a look at examples given in the fist chapter:<br />
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promoting the cause of peaceful reunification;<br />
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reforms in the sphere of economy;<br />
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to ensure a relationship of close cooperation between.<br />
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《中式英语翻译指南》包含了三个部分，分别是赘词、句子结构以及补充例子，这三部分向我们呈现了中国翻译者常常会犯的各种错误。<br />
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首先，在第一章中给出了以下几个例子：<br />
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推进和平统一事业；（原句中“事业”的对应词“the cause of”赘余）<br />
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经济领域的改革；（原句中“领域”的对应词“the sphere of”赘余）<br />
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确保双方关系密切合作。(原句句子结构错误)--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 02:00, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
Phrases like these can often be seen in some English papers or periodicals and they seem to make sense to English learners or translators in China. But the author regards them as negative examples in the first chapter of the first part, Unnecessary Nouns. The author mentioned that “Many of these nouns are easy to recognize. They are plainly redundant because their sense is already included or implied in some other element of sentence.”(Liu 2002:34) in the book. Here the author perceives nouns like “cause”, “sphere” and “relationship” as “category nouns”, which are the general nouns that sever only to introduce a specific noun to follow. <br />
==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
Let’s take the first phrase as an example. In such constructions, the first noun announces the category of the second; in this case, it tells the readers that “promoting” falls into the category of “cause.” That is something they already know. Accordingly, the first noun should be deleted: “ promoting peaceful reunification.”(Pinkham 2000:16) It is the same for other two examples. What’s more, the first chapter also involves “Unnecessary Verbs.” Examples are as follows:<br />
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to bring about a change in this state of affairs;<br />
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until China realizes its modernization;<br />
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trying to entice the Korean army to launch an attack against them.<br />
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
“Like unnecessary nouns, most unnecessary verbs in Chinglish occur in phrases. Usually they are combined with nouns (plus the inevitable articles and prepositions that nouns bring with them).”(Pinkham 2000:34) The commonest type is phrases like these. As for “to bring about a change in this state of affairs”, here the verb (“bring about”) is a weak, colorless, all purpose word having no very specific meaning of its own, while the real action is expressed in the noun(“change”). Since the verb is not contributing anything to the sense, it can be edited out: “change this state of affairs.”<br />
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“与赘余的名词类似，中式英语中大多数赘余的动词也出现在短语中，且通常和名词同时出现（以及依附于名词又必不可少的冠词和介词）。” （平卡姆 2000:34） 最常见的类型见以下短语。在短语“为这种情况带来改变”中，动词“带来”显得无力、无趣、缺乏具体含义，而名词“改变”传达出了具体的动作。鉴于这个动词没有起到达意的作用，可将其删去得到短语“改变这种情况”。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:42, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
In the second chapter, the author talks about Unnecessary Modifiers, which is not a problem easy to cope with for Chinese translators because it covers the issue of whether they should be used and using the modifiers properly. Five types of unnecessary modifiers are listed, redundant modifiers, self-evident modifiers, intensifiers, qualifiers and cliches. But the author especially points out that it is not appropriate to revise some accepted phrases, which are related to some national policies, even if they have unnecessary modifiers in the sentences, because this may cover political affairs.<br />
作者在第二章中论述了非必要的修饰语。要知道，是否应该使用以及如何正确使用这些修饰语，对中国译者来说并非易事。本章列举了五类非必要修饰语，分别是赘余修饰语，废话（不言而喻）修饰语，加强词，限定词和套话。但作者同时也指出，一些与国家政治有关的短语如果已被认同，即便句子里面有非必要限定词，也不要轻易去修改了，因为这可能涉及政治事务。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 01:48, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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第二章中，作者讨论了不必要的修饰语，由于它包含了是否需要使用修饰语，以及合理使用地问题，所以修饰语的问题对中国译者来说是难以处理的。作者列举了五种不必要的修饰语，包括冗余修饰语、显而易见的修饰语、强调修饰语、限定修饰语以及陈腐的套语。但是作者特别指出，即使句子中存在不必要的修饰语，修改与某些国家政策相关的既定短语也是不合适的，因为这可能涉及政治事务。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 12:42, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
In the third and forth chapter the author talks on Redundant Twins and Saying the Same Thing Twice. For instance, views and opinions, help and assistance, stir up and incite, sentiments and feelings, prudent and cautious. The author classifies the redundant words into three groups according to the relation between synonyms and clauses and offers corresponding reversion. And she adds that examples of redundant synonyms are too many to list even for native English speakers; for example, rules and regulations, bits and pieces, by leaps and bounds, betwixt and between, by hook or by crook, huffing and puffing.<br />
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作者在第三章和第四章列举了同义赘余词対和同义词对，例如：观点和看法，帮忙与协助，挑起与煽动，情感与感情，小心和谨慎。根据同义词和分句的关系，作者将这些赘余词分为三组，并且提供了相应的回复。她还补充说，赘余同义词的例子太多了，甚至以英语为母语的人都难以列举完，例如：规章和制度，零碎和片段，飞跃和跳跃，之间和中间，不折手段和千方百计，喘息和喘气。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 04:37, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
After centuries of development, these phrases are now accepted by native English speakers or learners probably because of their jaunty alliteration or rhythm. But the author believes that these phrases unavoidably “exert an influence not only on native speakers of English (including foreign polishers) but on Chinese translators as well, reinforcing the habits of their own language. No doubt this influence contributes to the abundance of twins in Chinglish.”<br />
经过几个世纪的发展，这些短语可能是因为很强的幽默感和节奏感现在已经被英语母语者或学习者接受。但作者认为，这些短语不可避免地“会影响英语母语者（包括外国的波兰人），以及中国翻译者，从而强化他们母语使用的习惯。 毫无疑问，这种影响促使相对应的中式英语表达增多。”--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:26, 25 October 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:26, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
The first chapter of the second part is mainly about The Noun Plague. Here the author shows a draft: “The prolongation of the existence of this temple is due to the solidity of its construction.” She also gives a revision: “The temple has endured because it was solidly built.” The first version contains four abstract nouns, while the second has none. Not only do the nouns make the statement nearly twice as long, but they also make it pretentious, wooden and hard to understand.(Pinkham 2000:56) Yet, the author doesn’t think that “noun plague” only occurs in Chinglish but in English by native speakers, especially in theses and government documents where abstract nouns can often be seen, because they want their theses or documents to seem more “authoritative” or “scientific.”<br />
<br />
第二部分的第一章主要内容是名词之殇。在这一章里，作者展现了一份草稿：“寺庙稳固的结构延长了它的存在期限。”同时也提供了一份修订版：“寺庙长存的原因是因为它建造稳固。”第一个版本包含了四个抽象名词，而第二个一个也没有。名次不仅使句子长度长了近两倍，而且使句子更做作、死板、使人难以理解。（Pinkham 2000:56）但是，作者认为“名词之殇”不止存在于中式英语里，还存在于以英语为母语的人中，特别是在文章和政府文献里，经常会运用抽象名词，这是因为他们想让自己的文章或者文献看起来更具权威性，或者更具科学性。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 02:35, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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第二部分的第一章主要是关于名词瘟疫。 作者在这里展示了一个草稿：“这座庙宇的存在之所以延长，是因为其坚固的结构。” 她还作了一个修改：“圣殿之所以能忍受，是因为它是坚固的。” 第一个版本包含四个抽象名词，而第二个则没有。 名词不仅使陈述的时间长了将近两倍，而且使句子变得自命不凡，木质且难以理解。（Pinkham 2000：56）然而，作者并不认为“名词瘟疫”仅发生在中式英语中，而是 以英语为母语的人，尤其是在论文和政府文件中，通常可以看到抽象名词，因为他们希望论文或文件看起来更“权威”或“科学”。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 11:47, 25 October 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 11:47, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
The author thinks this is a dangerous trend which we should all fight against. And she advocates to use more verbs, gerunds or adverbs instead of abstract nouns. From the eighth to the twelfth chapter, the author gives some instruction to tell English learners and translators in China how to get rid of the mindset of Chinglish by putting pronouns and antecedents first, then the adjuncts and its purposes, in a logical way. The eighth chapter discussed the improper collocation of pronouns and antecedents. In this condition, personal pronouns, relative pronouns or demonstrative pronouns show up without antecedents or are too far away from antecedents.<br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
This is exactly what the uncertainty and lack of rigor of Chinese has brought about. The ninth chapter mainly talks about where we should set phrases or clause in an English sentence. The author is of the opinion that translators should pay attention to where the phrases or clauses are in a sentence so that the logic is clear and key points are highlighted. She also thinks that the phrases or clauses ought to modify what is close to them, otherwise in the sentence may occur the illogical parts. In addition, to stress the key points, the most important information should be imparted at the end of a sentence.<br />
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这正是汉语的不确定性和缺乏严谨性所带来的问题。第九章主要讨论的是在英语句子中应该在哪里设置短语或从句。作者认为，译者应该注意短语或分句在句子中的位置，使句子逻辑清晰，重点突出。她还认为短语或从句应该修饰那些意思接近它们的东西，否则在句子中可能会出现不合逻辑的部分。此外，为了强调重点，最重要的信息应该放在句末。<br />
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==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
<br />
'''IV. Discussion'''<br />
<br />
From Introduction and School Classification, we have leaned that in western translation history, there are traditionally two branches: translation theories of literature and art and linguistics theories of translation. In 1959, the book, ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation'' by Roman Jakobson, analyzed comprehensively the relation bewteen language and translation, the importance of translation and some existing problems of translating from an angle of linguistics, which had made groundbreaking contribution to linguistics theories of translation. Eugene A. Nida put forward a concept of “Translating is science” and he also applied Theory of Communication into translation on the basis of linguistics, believing that translating is communicating.<br />
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四、讨论<br />
从介绍和流派分类中，我们了解到西方翻译史在传统上有两个分支:文艺翻译理论和翻译语言学理论。1959年，罗曼·雅各布森(Roman Jakobson)的《论翻译的语言学方面》一书从语言学的角度全面分析了语言与翻译的关系、翻译的重要性以及翻译中存在的一些问题，对翻译的语言学理论做出了开创性的贡献。尤金·奈达提出了“翻译是科学”的概念，并在语言学的基础上将交际理论应用到翻译中，认为翻译就是交际。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 01:50, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
四、讨论 <br />
我们从介绍和流派分类中可以了解到西方翻译史在传统上有两个分支:文艺翻译理论学派和翻译语言学理论学派。1959年，罗曼·雅各布森(Roman Jakobson)在《论翻译的语言学方面》一书中从语言学的角度全面综合地分析了语言与翻译的关系、翻译的重要性以及翻译中存在的一些问题，对翻译的语言学理论做出了开创性的贡献。尤金·奈达提出了“翻译是一门科学”的概念，并在语言学的基础上将交际理论应用到翻译中，认为翻译就是交际。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:41, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
<br />
He proposed the principle of “Dynamic Equivalence” and further submitted “Functional Equivalence” from the perspective of social linguistics and communicative function of language, which was instrumental in modern history of translation theories in the west as well. Nonetheless, Nida’s theories paid too much heed to content rather than form. To make up the deficiency, Peter Newmark put forward “Communicative Translation” and “Semantic Translation.” The former aimed at restructuring the language of the target in order to make it expressive and underline the effects of information; the latter emphasized the formal resemblance between the original and the target.<br />
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他提出了“动态对等”原则，并从社会语言学和语言交际功能的角度提出了“功能对等”，这在西方现代翻译理论史上也具有重要意义。尽管如此，奈达的理论过于注重内容而非形式。为了弥补这一不足，纽马克提出了“交际翻译”和“语义翻译”，交际翻译旨在重构目标语的语言，使之具有表现力，突出信息的作用；而语义翻译强调原文与译文形式上的相似性。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 01:21, 21 October 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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他提出了“动态对等”原则，并从社会语言学和交际功能的角度进一步发展提出了“功能对等”原则，这在西方现代翻译理论史上也具有指导意义。然而，奈达的理论过于注重内容而非形式。为了弥补这一不足，纽马克提出了“交际翻译”和“语义翻译”，交际翻译旨在重构目标语的语言，使之具有表现力，突出信息的作用；而语义翻译强调原文与译文形式上的相似性。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:20, 21 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
<br />
他提出了“动态对等”原则，并从社会语言学和语言交际功能的角度提出了“功能对等”的原则，这在西方现代翻译理论史上也具有重要意义。尽管如此，奈达的理论过于注重内容而非形式。为了弥补这一不足，纽马克提出了“交际翻译”和“语义翻译”，前者旨在重构目标语的语言，使之具有表现力，突出信息的作用；后者强调原文与译文形式上的相似性。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 12:22, 21 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
<br />
From theories and ideas above, the core issue they care about is how the source language is transferred into the target language and “equivalence” is what they have in common. Katharina Reiss, Hans Vermeer, Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord from Germany started to use communicative theories, theories of communication, discourse linguistics and ideology of aesthetics to switch the focus of their studies from source texts to target texts, which made it an influential school in international translation circles.<br />
从以上理论和观点来看，他们关心的核心问题是源语言如何转化为目的语，“对等”是他们的共同之处。来自德国的凯瑟琳娜·赖斯、汉斯·弗米尔、胡斯塔·霍尔兹·曼塔里和克里斯蒂娜·诺德开始运用交际理论、交际理论、话语语言学和美学思想，将研究重心从原文转向目标语篇，成为国际翻译界颇具影响力的流派。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 04:35, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
<br />
In 1971 in the book ''Translation and Limitations in Translation Criticism'', Reiss’s functional theories of translation was in embryonic state, where she believed that translation should reach equivalence in respects of conceptual content, forms of language and communication and name it “integral communicative performance.” In practice, however, she realized that the equivalence was not what people expected so relation between function of the original and the target was the priority.<br />
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在1971年出版的《翻译批评的可能性与局限性》一书中，赖斯的翻译功能理论暂处于萌芽状态。在此书中，他提出翻译应当在思想内容、语言形式和交际功能等方面达到对等，这样的翻译才可以称为“完整的交际行为”。然而，她意识到在实践中，人们并不期待这种对等状态，因此应该把源语与目的语功能之间的关系放在首位。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 07:43, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在1971年出版的《翻译批评：潜力与制约》一书中，赖斯的翻译功能派理论思想暂处于萌芽状态。在此书中，她提出翻译在概念性的内容、语言形式和交际功能上与原文对等，她称这种翻译为“综合性交际翻译”。然而，在实践中，她意识到这种对等并不是人们所期待的那样，因此应该把源语与目的语功能之间的关系放在首位。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 12:25, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
<br />
Hans Vermeer proposed skopos theory for that matter, which looked on translating as a process with purposes and results of the original. The skopos theory has three rules: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Skopos rule is considered as the primary one. It means that in the context and culture of target language, translation ought to work in a way exactly the recipient of target language expects and the purpose of translation actions determines the whole process of translating, that is, “the end justifies the means.”<br />
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就此，汉斯·弗米尔提出了目的论，把翻译看作是一个以原文为基础的有目的和结果的行为过程。目的论遵循三个原则:目的原则、连贯性原则和忠实性原则。其中目的原则被认为是最首要的原则，即翻译应该在目的语的语境和文化中，以目的语接受者所期望的方式进行，翻译行为所要达到的目的决定了整个翻译行为的过程，即“结果决定方法”。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 05:27, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
汉斯-维米尔为此提出了目的论（skopos theory），他把翻译看成在原作基础上产生目的和结果的过程。目的论遵循三个规则：目的性、连贯性和忠实性。其中目的性被认为是最主要的规则。它是指在目标语言的语境和文化中，翻译应该以目标语言接受者所期望的方式进行，翻译行为的目的决定了整个翻译过程，即 "结果决定方法"。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 07:15, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
<br />
Coherence rule is that translation must accord with the standard of intratextual coherence, which means that translation has readability and acceptability to the recipient and makes sense in communicative context and culture of the target language. The fidelity rule means that there exists intertextual coherence between the original and the target. This is actually what other theories have talked about faithfulness in translation but the faithfulness depends on the purpose of the target and how translator understand the original.<br />
连贯性是指译文必须符合语内连贯的标准，即译文具有可读性和可接受性，并在目标语言的交流语境和文化中具有意义。忠实性原则指原文与译文之间应该存在语际连贯一致。这相当于其他翻译理论提到的所谓的忠实于原文，但与原文忠实的程度和形式取决于译文的目的和译者对原文的理解。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 04:57, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
连贯原则是指翻译必须符合语篇内连贯的标准，即译文对接受者具有可读性和可接受性，在交际语境和目的语文化中有意义。忠实原则是指原文与译文之间存在互文连贯。这实际上是其他理论所说的翻译中的忠实，但忠实取决于目的地和译者如何理解原文。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 05:28, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
<br />
Here we also have talked about the book The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish. This book has discussed some problems English learners and translators in China have in grammar and vocabulary. For discourse and semantics, there also exits some issues. And the author is American who has the typical mindset of the west and is able to find out some problems of translation by Chinese translators. And the author tends to revise those translations in an aspect of linguistics theories of translation.<br />
<br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
<br />
the editorial calls on the Chinese people to fully implement the CPC’s basic line, deepen reform and further opening to the outside, so as to further push forward the political, economic and social development of the country in a steady way;<br />
<br />
The author revises it into:<br />
<br />
the editorial calls on the Chinese people to implement the CPC’s basic line, deepen the reform, and promote the opening to the outside, so as to steadily push forward the political, economic and social development of the country.<br />
<br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
<br />
In this sentence, “fully” is deleted because the author thinks it is unnecessary for its sense can be taken for granted: policies should always be fully carried out. If the word conveys something more specific in Chinese, that must be spelled out for the reader of English. We must say, for example, “to implement CPC’s basic line in all its aspects,” or “in every respect.”<br />
<br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
<br />
As for “further”, it is obvious that at this point in history any push given to development will be a “further” push. The repetition of “further” in the draft is particularly undesirable because the word is used in two different senses. It appears first as a verb (“to further opening”), then immediately after as an adverb (“to further push ahead”), so that the reader is obliged to go back and read the sentence again in order to make sense of it.(Pinkham 2000:74)<br />
至于“进一步”，很明显，在这一历史时刻，为了发展的任何举措都将是“进一步”的推动。 草案中对“进一步”的重复使用是特别不合意的，因为该词有两种不同的含义。 它首先作为动词（“进一步打开”），然后立即被用作副词（“进一步推动”），因此读者必须回过头来再次阅读该句子才能理解。（Pinkham 2000：74）。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 05:21, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
至于说“进一步，”很明显，在这个历史节点上，任何推动发展的举措都可以称之为“进一步。”草案中“进一步”的重复出现是非常没有不可取的，因为这个词包含两种意思。首先，它作为动词（“促进开放”）出现，然后立即又作副词用（“进一步推进”），以至于读者为了弄清楚句子的意思，不得不回过头重读。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 08:19, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
<br />
Even though the author doesn’t talk on any translation theories directly in her book, her discussion on Chinglish and the revision she offers do involve some translation criteria, for example, domestication and foreignization. Translating is the transfer process from one language to another, during which it carries wide backgrounds of culture. To be specific, it is also the process of transferring cultures among each one. In general, there are two ways when it comes to this process: domestication and foreignization.<br />
<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
<br />
Domestication is that features of the original are abandoned, that is to say, characteristics of translation follow ones of the target, which would, to some degree, make it easier to understand for recipients of the target language and contributory to culture exchanges. Foreignization is that translator translates in a way the original does, translation remaining characteristics of the original language.<br />
归化就是摒弃原文的特征，即翻译的特征遵循译文的特点，这在一定程度上使译文的读者更容易理解，也有助于文化交流。异化是指译者以原文的方式进行翻译，保留原文的特征--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 07:36, 24 October 2020 (UTC)。<br />
<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
<br />
The author defines “Chinglish” as “Chinglish, of course, is that misshapen, hybrid language that is neither English nor Chinese but that might be described as ‘English with Chinese characteristics’”in the book. And she also points out that “this book is intended to help them turn their work into real English such as might have been written by an educated native English speaker of the language.” It means that the author is in favor of domestication during the process of translating.<br />
书中，作者将“中式英语”定义为“Chinglish”，其指的是既不是英语也不是中文的变形语言或是混合语言”，但它或许是“具有中国特色的英语”。 她还指出：“这本书旨在帮助他们将中式英语转变成真正的英语，转换成像是受过良好教育的英语母语者写的那样。” 这意味着作者在翻译过程中赞成归化。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 10:14, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
<br />
Here’s an another example: <br />
<br />
we should draw up correct development and construction plans for all these zones;<br />
<br />
The author revises it into:<br />
<br />
we should draw up correct plans for the development of all these zones.<br />
<br />
The author thinks that two large abstractions plainly used here mean the same thing. And to avoid using the noun “development” as an adjective, we should say: “ for the development of all these zones.” That would be the simplest, most natural word order in English.(Pinkham 2000:87)<br />
<br />
再举一个例子：我们应该为所有这些区域制定正确的开发建设规划。作者将其修改为：我们应该为所有这些区域的发展制定正确的规划。作者认为这里所使用的两个大的抽象概念是一个意思。为了避免把名词“发展”用作形容词，我们应该说：“为了所有这些区域的发展”。这是英语中最简单、最自然的词序。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 12:29, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
再举一个例子：我们应该为所有区域拟订正确的开发建设的计划。作者将其修改为：我们应该为所有区域的发展拟订正确的计划。作者认为这里所使用的两个大的抽象概念意思相同，为了避免把名词“发展”用作形容词，我们应该说：“为了所有区域的发展”，这才是英语中最简单、最自然的词序。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:58, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
<br />
'''V. Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
In summary, ''A Brief History of Western Translation Theories'' by Tan Zaixi recounts the history of western translation theories from ancient times by introducing main characters, translation works, translation schools and other events in the west in historical stages. The book also takes preliminary analysis and discussion into development between theories and practices of translation. There are two different directions in terms of translation theories in the west: translation theories of literature and art and linguistics theories of translation.<br />
<br />
简而言之，谭载喜所著的《西方翻译理论简史》一书，通过介绍主要的翻译人物、翻译作品、翻译流派以及西方历史舞台上的翻译事件的方式，记录了西方翻译历史。此书还对翻译理论和实践的发展作了初步的分析和讨论。在西方，翻译理论研究分为两个方向，一是文学艺术翻译理论，一是语言学翻译理论。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 14:56, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
<br />
The former one extends from the ancient dramas to modern translations. In this regard, translation is considered as literary art, which focuses on recreation of the original. Theorist mostly emphasize culture, style and literariness of the target and the literary talent of the translator. The latter direction is linguistics theories of translation, which combine theories with semantics and syntax, and believe that translating should reach semantic equivalence between the original and the target through vocabulary, grammar and skills of using a language.<br />
文学艺术翻译理论包含了古代戏剧到当代翻译。从这个方面来看，翻译被看作是一种对源文本进行再创造的文学艺术。这些理论家特别强调目标语的文化、风格和文学性的同时，也很强调译者的文学修养。语言学翻译理论则结合翻译理论与语义句法，他们认为翻译应当通过恰当运用词汇、语法、和语言技巧，从而达到源文本和目标语的语义对等。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 03:38, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
前者涵盖内容从古代戏剧到现代翻译。在这里，翻译被认为是一种文学艺术，其重点在于对原文的再创作。理论家们主要强调译语的文化性，风格和文采以及译者的文学才能。后者指语言学翻译理论，它将理论与语义和句法相结合，并主张翻译应通过词汇，语法和语言技巧的使用达到原文和译文之间的语义对等。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 05:44, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
<br />
In the long term, linguistics theories of translation has had predominance of studies of modern translation theories. Theorists hold the view that translation studies ranges from applied linguistics and contrastive linguistics and is closely related to semantics, along with literature and art studies, sociology, anthropology, psychology, theories of communication and so forth.<br />
<br />
长期以来，语言学的翻译理论在现代翻译理论的研究中占有主导地位。理论家认为，翻译研究的范围包括应用语言学和对比语言学，与语义学以及文学艺术研究、社会学、人类学、心理学、传播理论等密切相关。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:16, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
从长远来看，翻译语言学理论在现代翻译理论研究中占主导地位。理论家认为，翻译研究不仅涉及应用语言学和对比语言学，而且还与语义学以及文学和艺术研究，社会学，人类学，心理学，传播理论等密切相关。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:59, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
长期以来，语言学理论在现代翻译理论中占有主导地位。理论学家认为翻译研究包含应用语言学和对比语言学，同时也与语义学、文学艺术研究、社会学、人类学、心理学、传播理论等相关联。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 07:20, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
<br />
''The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish'' by Joan Pinkham summarizes the evidence of the common issues in English translation, which are ones translators in China are usually neglectful of. As Jacques Barzun, Dean of the Graduate Faculties of Columbia University, put it, “The clarity of her explanation is equaled only by the deftness with which she states the point of the English usages and the simplicity of the revisions made in faulty sentences.<br />
<br />
琼·平卡姆所著的《中式英语之鉴》总结了中国翻译常见问题的例证，这些问题是中国译者常常所忽略的。哥伦比亚大学研究生院院长雅克·巴尔赞表示，“琼的论证清晰明了，灵活熟练，在阐述英语用法要点和指出错误句修订的简洁性方面也是如此。”--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:57, 23 October 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
<br />
琼·平卡姆所著的《中式英语之鉴》总结了英语翻译中常见的问题的例证，而这些问题正是中国的翻译者通常所忽视的。正如哥伦比亚大学研究生院院长雅克·巴尔赞所言："她的解释之清晰，只有她对英语用法的阐述之灵巧和对错误句子的修改之简洁才能与之媲美。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:19, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
<br />
I know of no books as well adapted as hers to the needs of clumsy writers.” Even though the author doesn’t talk on any translation theories directly in her book, her discussion on Chinglish and the revision she offers do involve some translation criteria and the author tends to uphold domestication in this book. And we can’t deny that as a professional translator from America, with the typical western mindset, the author is inevitably influenced in the spectacular background of western translation history.More importantly, the two books this article refers to have demonstrated that theories must be applied into practice, guide practice and reveal the objective patters inside translating, otherwise theories would lose its vitality.<br />
<br />
据我所知，没有一本书能像她的书那样，满足一些笨拙作家的需求。”虽然本书作者没有在书里直接谈及翻译理论，但她对于中式英语的讨论及修订中就涉及了一些翻译原则，同时她在书中也倾向于支持归化。我们不得不承认，作为一名具有西式典型谦逊特点的美籍专业译者，这个作者难免受到西方翻译史背景的影响。而更为重要的是这本杂志提及到的两本书都提出：理论必须付诸实践、指导实践并揭示翻译的客观模式，否则理论将失去生机活力。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 07:44, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
References:<br />
<br />
[1]巫阿苗,束学军.西方翻译理论流派划分探索.[J].合肥工业大学学报.2011.12.25<br />
<br />
[2]谭载喜.西方翻译简史.[M].北京.商务印书馆.1991.05<br />
<br />
[3]刘银燕.中式英语, 你在使用吗?——《中式英语之鉴》评介.[J].外语教学.2002.09.30<br />
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[4]-[8] Joan Pinkham.The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish. [M].北京。外语教学与研究出版社.2000.05<br />
<br />
主要参考书目:《西方翻译简史》、《中式英语之鉴》<br />
<br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
<br />
'''Derrida and Benjamin'''<br />
<br />
'''Comparison of Derrida’s and Benjamin’s Translation View'''<br />
<br />
'''1.Pure Language and Difference'''<br />
<br />
In its essence, translation is a kind of linguistic activity. Therefore, all translation theories involve linguistic issues. Benjamin has presumed a perfect original language as the origin of subsistent languages in real world after summarizing the deflects of subsistent languages. This original language is from God, and has full creativity and cognition, in which, language and spirit, meaning and form, signifier and signified have been united to show the truth through self-manifestation.<br />
<br />
“德里达和本杰明。”<br />
<br />
"德里达和本雅明翻译观的比较"<br />
<br />
"纯粹的语言和差异"<br />
<br />
翻译本质上是一种语言活动。因此，所有的翻译理论都涉及到语言问题。本雅明在总结现存语言偏差的基础上，假设有一种完美的原始语言作为现实世界中现存语言的起源。这种原始的语言来自上帝，具有充分的创造性和认知能力，其中，语言与精神、意义与形式、能指与所指有机地结合在一起，通过表现自我以展现真理。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:54, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
德里达和本杰明<br />
德里达和本杰明翻译观的比较<br />
纯语言与差异<br />
翻译本质上是一种语言活动。因此，所有的翻译理论都涉及到语言问题。本杰明在总结现存语言偏差的基础上，假设有一种完美的原始语言作为现实世界中现存语言的起源。这种原始的语言来自上帝，具有充分的创造性和认知能力，其中，语言与精神、意义与形式、能指与所指有机地结合在一起，通过表现自我以展现真理。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 07:30, 24 October 2020 (UTC)MaShuya<br />
<br />
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
<br />
Benjamin has pointed out that with the corruption of human, the language has no longer been one but multiple. Naming language has corrupted into the abstract conceptual language. '''(Cao Danhong 6)''' In this way, it descended to instrumental signs. It refers to things in various manual systems but it can never covey the universality through self-manifestation, so the relationship between the human and world has changed from the intersubjectivity into subject-object dichotomy where human dominates.'''(Wei Jiangang & Sun Yingchun 75)'''<br />
<br />
本雅明指出，由于人类进化，语言已不再只有一种，而是多种多样。命名语言遭到破坏，成为抽象概念性语言。（曹丹红）这样，语言就从命名语言降为符号语言，指各种人工系统中的事物，但永远不能通过自我表现来追求普遍性，因此人与世界的关系从主体间性转变为由人主导的主客体二分法。（魏建刚，孙迎春）--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 07:55, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
本杰明指出，由于人类的堕落，语言已不再只有一种，而是多种多样的。命名语言遭到破坏，成为抽象概念性语言。（曹丹红）这样，语言就降为指示符号，指各种人工系统中的事物，但永远不能通过自我表现来追求普遍性，因此人与世界的关系从主体间性转变为由人主导的主客体二分法。（魏建刚，孙迎春）--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 02:41, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
<br />
In another word, due to language descended from the original “being” into lower “having”. Therefore, it has become the synonyms of “abstract”, “judgement” and “meaning”. Language has never been a medium but a kind of means used in communication of “subjects” '''(Wohlfarth 27)'''. As a result, meaning has been the external reference out of sign itself, instead of spirits of self-manifestation of pure language.<br />
<br />
换句话说，由于语言从原始的“成为”下降到更低层次的“拥有”。因此，它成为“抽象”、“判断”、“意义”的同义词。语言从来就不是一种媒介，而是一种“主体”交流的手段。（沃尔法思27）因此，意义已不再是单纯语言的自我表现精神，而是符号本身的外在参照。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:55, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
换言之，由于语言从最初的“有”演变为更低级的“有”。因此，它成为“抽象”“判断”以及“意义”的同义词。语言从来都不是媒介，而是“主体”交流时使用的一种手段。（沃尔法斯 27）.因此，意义已经成为符号本身之外的外部参照，而不是纯粹语言自我修炼的精神。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 10:23, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
<br />
And the relationship between signified and signifier is actually external instead of being original, direct and internal. Paul De Man has said that we think we use our language freely. We feel comfortable and familiar with the dwelling place within our language, in which we thought we weren’t alienated, but we don’t notice that this kind of alienation has been shown strongly in our relationship with our original language. It has been disintegrated already, which bring a special alienation, a peculiar pain. '''(Paul De Man, 99)'''<br />
所指与能指之间的关系实际上是外在的而不是原先就有的直接内在联系。保罗德曼曾说过，我们认为自己可以自由地使用语言。在我们自己的语言社区，我们感到舒适和熟悉。在这里，我们感到我们没有被疏远。但是我们没注意到这种疏远已经强烈地表现在我们与源语言的关系中。而且这种关系已经分裂了，这带来了一种特殊的疏离，一种奇怪的痛苦。（保罗德曼，99）--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 10:08, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
<br />
Benjamin has set the transcendental existence of pure language in order to make the path of salvation to human clear, that’s to say to find the lost pure language is to unite the world together. Benjamin thinks that, all practical languages have a common origin and among themselves a kind of affinity that goes beyond the history. As, Benjamin once said, “The reference of pure language just like each language that exists as an entirety, is identical.<br />
本杰明为了使人类的救赎之路更明晰而设定了纯语言的先验存在，这就是说，找到遗失的纯语言是将整个世界统一。 本杰明认为，所有实用语言都有一个共同的渊源，并且彼此之间有着超越历史的紧密关联。 正如本杰明曾经说过的：“纯语言的引用就像实体存在的某种语言一样。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 07:25, 24 October 2020 (UTC)MaShuya<br />
文学艺术翻译理论包含了古代戏剧到当代翻译。从这个方面来看，翻译被看作是一种对源文本进行再创造的文学艺术。这些理论家特别强调目标语的文化、风格和文学性的同时，也很强调译者的文学修养。语言学翻译理论则结合翻译理论与语义句法，他们认为翻译应当通过恰当运用词汇、语法、和语言技巧，从而达到源文本和目标语的语义对等。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 03:39, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
<br />
However, this reference cannot be achieved through one single language, but through the complement of various languages” '''(Benjamin 61)''' That’s to say, if we want to reconstruct pure language, we have to eliminated the external relationship of linguistic reference and restore the identical relationship between spirit and language, which means to promote the linguistic reference of all languages to form an integral complementary, which call duty on translation.<br />
<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
<br />
Only through translation can the mode of reference of source language enter into the target language. Therefore, to Benjamin, the significance of translation is not to covey the basic meaning and content of source language but the changes to both languages after translation, thereby translation can make us to know more about the differences and complementation of each language.<br />
<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
<br />
What is different between Benjamin and Derrida is that Derrida has invented the concept of “la differánce", which uses infinitely flowing stream of meaning to overthrow the western logocentrism. Thereout, it has assured the translation view that advocates difference and opposes the identity. Derrida has pointed out that la differánce is the precondition of possibility of multiple meanings so that meaning is the result of its moving. While meaning cannot precedes la differánce, there would be no existence of pure and completely identical origin of meaning, just like what the Babel story reminds us. '''(Davis 10)'''<br />
<br />
班杰明与德里达的不同之处在于，后者提出了“差异”这一概念，它以无限变换的意义流来推翻了西方的逻各斯中心主义。由此，提倡差异、反对同一性的翻译观得以确立。德里达指出:差异是多义可能性的前提，意义是多义运动的结果。虽然意义不能凌驾于差异，但也不会存在纯粹的、完全相同的意义起源，正如圣经故事所示的那样。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 04:28, 23 October 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
班杰明与德里达的不同之处在于，后者提出了“差异”这一概念，它以意义是无限流动的观点推翻了西方的逻各斯中心主义。由此，提倡差异、反对同一性的翻译观得以确立。德里达指出:差异为多义提供了可能性，意义是多义运动的结果。意义不能凌驾于差异，与此同时，也不会存在纯粹的、完全相同的意义起源，这正如巴别塔的故事所示的那样。（戴维斯，第十页）--Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
本雅明与德里达的不同之处在于，后者提出了“差异”这一概念，它以意义是无限流动的观点推翻了西方逻各斯中心主义。由此，提倡差异、反对同一性的翻译观得以确立。德里达指出:差异是多义的先决条件，因此意义是多义运动的结果。意义不能凌驾于差异，与此同时，也不会存在纯粹的、完全相同的意义起源，这正如巴别塔的故事所示。（戴维斯，第十页）--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 07:35, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
<br />
In another word, as meaning is in la differánce so that there cannot be any conceptual or theoretic systems no matter it is in one language or in several languages. Meaning always presents its fluidity, uncertainty and diversity. We cannot make meaning independent of language nor can we make language independent of meaning. On the contrary, meaning is already in language so meaning is the linguistic meaning.<br />
<br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
<br />
Due to the language is so complicated, fickle, ambiguous and different with itself, thus, meaning is also unclear ambiguous and even mysterious. '''(Cai Xinle 200)''' What we can discuss is only the relationship of difference instead of the transcendental identity. In Derrida’s view, word is in a dynamic state, we can only understand it, describe it or listen to its voice in such a dynamic condition. <br />
<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
<br />
If we must establish an origin, the difference will be it. Derrida has regarded the difference as the origin, aiming to explain that in the very beginning where meaning formed, that’s to say the source has already had initial difference among meanings. The so-called purity has been contaminated and the source is rather complicated. '''(Zhu Gang 20)'''<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
<br />
Derrida and Benjamin all oppose to structural linguistic view. What is different is that Benjamin opposed the human control and domination of language by emphasizing the identity of language and spirit. We’d rather to say that it’s opposed to structuralism but to the opposite relation between the subject and object. In essence, Benjamin is not against the concepts like structure, order, and center etc. He just opposes the structure, order and center etc. that are based on the interference to language done by the subject-object relationship, emphasizing that language will not be constrained by the fetter of any subject-object relationship.<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
<br />
If we consider more carefully, he doesn’t disapprove the logocentrism completely as he just emphasizes that logocentrism cannot be constructed and learned by the subject and object relation. It must be built and realized by the way of unintentionality or the “presence” of logos will be delusive. On the contrary, Derrida is refusing any metaphysics during the process of his deconstruction of any conceptual system. In his opinion, Benjamin has not cast off the set pattern of logocentrism because Benjamin’s “Pure language” is still a construction of a concept, no matter how transcendental and absolute identity it is.<br />
<br />
通过进一步的思考，我们会发现本雅明并不是完全不认同逻各斯中心主义，他强调不能仅依靠主客体关系来构建和学习逻各斯中心主义，必须通过非目的性的方式建立起逻各斯，否则逻各斯的存在将毫无意义。与之相对的，德里达则反对在概念系统的解构中一切形而上学的观念，他认为本雅明提出的“纯语言”观点是又一形而上学概念的构建，不论此概念体现出了超验主义或是绝对同一性，它都没有丢弃逻各斯中心主义的固定模式。--Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
如果我们更仔细地想想，我们会发现本雅明并非完全反对逻各斯中心主义，他只是强调不能依靠主客体关系来构建和学习该中心主义，我们必须通过非故意的方式建立起逻各斯中心主义，否则它只会迷惑人。相反，德里达在解构任何概念系统的过程中拒绝任何形而上学的观点。他认为本杰明并没有摆脱逻各斯中心主义的模式，因为无论本杰明的"纯语言"达到何种程度的超验性和绝对同一性，它仍然是概念构建。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 14:48, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
<br />
Videlicet, if God were the person who deconstructs, we would see that rationality dominates everything and logos will be the deconstruction in the speaker’s status. It would not be the deconstruction of deconstruction. Once there is an unshakable center, logos will take the domination and everything will obey the authority in the center. Therefore, in order to avoid constructing any central system or structure, Derrida take the difference as the origin of everything. <br />
<br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
<br />
There will be no identity and everything is constantly reproducing and differentiating, so it presents nothing but difference. At any moment, it’s different from others as well as itself. In this way, the identity doesn’t exist. All we can observe is the dynamic stuff, which constantly changes.<br />
<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
<br />
'''2. Metaphrase and Relevant Translation'''<br />
<br />
As Benjamin and Derrida has different linguistic view, their comprehension about the translation criterion are also different from each other’s. Benjamin thinks that in various languages, the ultimate essence, pure language, is only relevant to the linguistic factors and its changes. In linguistic works, it bears heavy alien meaning. Translation’s unique function is to make the pure language get rid of this heavy burden, to turn the symbolic action into symbolic objects itself, to make the pure language reoccur during the linguistic transition. '''(Benjamin, 67)'''<br />
<br />
2.短语和相关翻译<br />
由于本杰明和德里达的语言观点不同，因此他们对翻译标准的理解也有所不同。 本杰明认为，在各种语言中，最终的本质，即纯语言，仅与语言因素及其变化有关。 在语言作品中，它带有沉重的外来意义。 翻译的独特功能是使纯净的语言摆脱繁重的负担，将符号动作转化为符号对象本身，并使纯净的语言在语言转换过程中重新出现。 （本杰明，67）--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 10:12, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
<br />
In other words, real languages, without exception, refer to things externally. To recover the identity of language and spirit, we must let the language to break the shackle of meaning while the effects of translation are to make the two languages free of the heavy burden by making the modes of reference of the two languages complementary of each other. To judge whether translation of a work is successful is to observe the combination of signifier and signified of language.<br />
<br />
换句话说，纯语言全都指代外部事物。要恢复语言和精神的同一性，我们必须让语言打破意义的枷锁，而翻译的作用是通过让两种语言的指代方式互补从而摆脱这种繁重的负担。判断作品的翻译是否成功，就要观察语言能指和所指的组合关系。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:13, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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换句话说，纯语言全都指代外部事物。要恢复语言和精神的同一性，我们必须让语言打破意义的枷锁。翻译所要达到的效果就是利用两种语言之间的互补，让这两种语言从翻译的束缚中解放出来。判断一篇翻译作品是否成功，就是看其语言能指和所指之间的组合关系。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 01:46, 22 October 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
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换句话说，无一例外，所有纯语言全都指代外部事物。如果我们想要恢复语言和精神的同一性，就必须让语言打破意义层面上的枷锁。翻译是通过建立两种语言之间的互补性让它们摆脱摆脱重负。判断一篇翻译作品是否成功的标志，就是看其语言能指和所指之间的组合关系是否准确。<br />
--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 02:31, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
<br />
Benjamin thinks Hölderlin’s translation work is the perfect sample of for instance, his works are almost perfect transition of texts because they are absolutely literal translation and metaphrase but also not readable. It dismembered the sentences, leading to the consequence that meaning is missing. '''(Paul De Man 104)''' To Benjamin, the translation that gets the language out of the shackle of meaning, and makes the language manifest itself to covey the spirits is the best translation. <br />
<br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
<br />
Anyway, translation has to turn back to language itself, to the reference of language, to reach pure language commonly shared by the two languages by complementing the modes of reference of source language and target language. Benjamin declares that the interlinear version of Babel is the prototype of all translation due to the reason that Babel is the words of God, which are so true that language identifies with spirit.<br />
<br />
无论如何，翻译必须回归语言本身，回到语言的指称中去，直达纯语言。这种纯语言通过源语和目的语指称模式的互补而由这两种语言所共享。本雅明称，不同文字隔行对照版的巴别，是所有翻译的原型。因为巴别是上帝的语言，它是绝对正确的，因而它即是精神。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 13:00, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
无论如何，翻译必须回归语言本身，回到语言的指称中，去达到所谓的纯语言。这种纯语言就是通过源语和目的语指称模式的互补，并由这两种语言所共有。本雅明认为，隔行对照版的巴别塔就是所有翻译的原型。这是因为巴别塔是上帝的语言，它是绝对正确的， 与精神保持一致。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 03:08, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
<br />
Derrida is totally different from Benjamin’s proposition that he proposes the relevant translation. In general, “relevant” is the best translation in Derrida’s view, which is also the sort of translation expected by people. It’s a kind of translation that fulfills its duty and finishes its mission. It’s that kind of translation that finds the most comparatively accurate words for the expressions in the source text, that language used is the most correct, appropriate, relevant, direct and apropos…<br />
<br />
德里达与本杰明提出相关翻译的主张完全不同。一般来说，在德里达看来，“相关”是最好的翻译，也是人们期待的那种翻译。它是一种尽职尽责、完成使命的翻译。这种翻译能为原文中的表达找到最准确的词语，所用的语言就是最正确、最恰当、最相关、最直接、最恰当的…--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 03:04, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
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德里达与本杰明的翻译主张完全不同。德里达提出了对照翻译。一般来说，在德里达看来，“对照”是最好的翻译，也是读者们想要的翻译。这种翻译方法尽职尽责且能完成其翻译使命，它会（在目标语言中）找到能够最准确表达原文的词语，它所使用的（目标）语言是最正确、最恰当、最中肯、最直接、最合适……--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:33, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
<br />
Obviously, Derrida is trying to use a series of words to set standard for the best translation or the ideal translation. What’ a pity is that many scholars believe the literal meaning that such is what set by Derrida, ignoring the implication. '''(Wang Yingchong 15)''' However, if we reflect on the “relevant”, we can hardly make what it means clear, and Derrida himself has made no ostension on “relevant”, thus, this is actually the word game of Derrida that meaning being not assured makes translation impossible.<br />
很明显，德里达正努力用一系列的词设立一个标准，来鉴定最好的翻译或者最理想的翻译。遗憾的是 ，许多学者都认为德里达所定义的字面意义忽略了暗含意义（王英冲 15）。然而，如果我们仔细考虑“相关性”，就很难弄清楚意思，而德里达本人并未明确定义“相关性”，因此，意义的不确定使翻译不可能，这实际上是德里达的语言游戏。--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 02:33, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
显而易见，德里达在尝试用一些词来设立一个标准，从而来评判出最佳翻译或者最理想的翻译。遗憾的是 ，许多学者都认为德里达所定义的标准在字面意义上忽略了其内在意义。（王英冲 15）。然而，如果我们仔细考虑“相关性”，就很难弄清楚意思。而德里达本人并未明确定义“相关性”，因此，意义的不确定使得翻译不可能存在，这实际上是德里达的文字游戏。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 09:03, 23 October 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
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==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
<br />
With the trick of the untranslatability of the word “relevant”, Derrida implies the deconstruction of his standard of translation. What Derrida really wants to express is that if there was a standard of translation, and the standard would work as the same, then would the standard still support itself? The untranslatability of “relevant” has already told us the untranslatability, not mentioning the translation standard. In Derrida’s point of view, meaning is already the delayed presence, leading to the result that translation is a debt that translator can never pay off, a mission that translator can never finish. Therefore, can text really not be translated?<br />
<br />
借助“相关性”一词不可翻译性这一诀窍，德里达（Derrida）隐晦地解构了解构了他的翻译标准。德里达真实想表达的是，如果存在一个翻译标准，并且该标准生效，那么这个标准能否继续支撑自己？“相关性”的不可翻译性已经告诉了我们不可翻译性的存在，更不用说翻译标准了。在德里达看来，意义已经是延迟的存在，导致翻译是一种译者永远无法还清的债务和永远无法完成的使命。所以，文本真的不可翻译吗？--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 15:25, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
<br />
Derrida says that we have to know what relevant translation is, what relevant translation means and what the essence of translation is, its mission, ultimate purpose and final mission. On one hand, relevant translation, no matter wrong or right, is generally better than irrelevant translation, and is likely to be viewed as the best translation. The definition of translation skopostheorie and the definition of the essence of realization in translation are contained in the definition of relevant translation. Therefore, the question that what relevant translation is goes back to what translation is or what should the translation be. While what the translation should be seems to be equal to what the possible best translation would be. '''(Derrida 429)'''<br />
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==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
<br />
Therefore, Derrida’s discussion about the standard of translation goes back to the translatability and untranslatability. Actually, what Derrida wants to prove is that translation itself is a paradox, that is, just in the untranslatability can translation exist and go on. The original text always owes to translation, and constantly summons translation, and in a larger sense, anything meaningful calls for interpretation. '''(Wang Yingchong 17).''' Whereas, the good translation or the translation standard can only be discussed in absolute translatability; pursuit of translation in absolute untranslatability will be nonsense, and it can only be infinitely approached but never reached as once it become absolute translatability, which means translation presents the meaning in limitless differánce in presence, the identity occurs, then the translation will be unnecessary. <br />
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==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
<br />
In short, Derrida and Benjamin have different view on translation. Benjamin worships metaphrase through which two languages can supplement each other’s referential pattern to manifest the pure language, whose spirits are the best translation. While Derrida plays a small fraud that he sets relevant translation as translation criterion but he doesn’t make it clear, in which way he indicates his ideas of untranslatability and that pursuit of translation in absolute untranslatability will be nonsense, and it can only be infinitely approached but never reached.<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
'''3. Afterlife and Rebirth'''<br />
<br />
Benjamin also differs most from Derrida in the insight of the relationship between the original work and translation work. In Benjamin’s perspective, the purpose of translation is to promote the complementation of referential modes of different languages so as to restore the identity. Therefore, translation work is never the copy or reappearance of the original work, but the supplement and succession of the original work and in turn, original work can only rely on its translation work to refresh its vitality and go on its subsistence. <br />
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==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
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Various forms of life closely correlate with biological phenomena though it has no great significance to biological phenomena. Translation work grows out of original work or we’d rather say it originates from the afterlife. Due to the fact that original work precedes the translation work, and in the range of world literature, no great works meets a perfect translator when its author is still alive, so translation work only marks the continuity of the original work. '''(Benjamin 76)''' Benjamin has regarded the original work as vigorous organism so that translation is viewed as the continuity of original work, which is also the afterlife of original work. Benjamin stresses that life is a historical concept instead of the existential concept. Life doesn’t limit within biological body. Only when we view life as a historical process of organism survival, can the concept of life be understood correctly.<br />
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不同的生活方式与生物现象密切相关，尽管前者对后者影响不大。译作源于原作，或者我们可以说译作源于原作的来世。由于原作先于译作而存在，世界文学中的伟大作品在其作者在世时都遇不到完美译员，因此译作仅仅标志着原作在延续。（班杰明76）班杰明把原作看作充满活力的有机体，因而译文视为原作的延续，也就是原作的来世。班杰明强调，生命是一个历史概念，而非存在主义概念。生命不受限于生物体而存在。只有当我们把生命看作有机体存活的历史进程，生命的概念才能得以正确理解。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 08:15, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
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With this sense, translation work being the continuity of original work can be comprehended. Those that was flashy will corrupt and those that was fashionable will become old. So does the linguistic form. The linguistic form of the original work will die out with time passing by, but the life of original work will not die with the existential form of original work. With the help of translation work, the life of original work will be continued, updated and expanded, thus being constantly succeeded in its life history. Hence, translation was like the source of rejuvenation. '''(Kramer 24)'''<br />
在这个意义下，我们可以理解翻译作品是对原作的延续。那些浮华的终将腐败，那些时尚的也终将落伍。语言学的形式也是如此。原作的语言形式会随着时间的流逝而褪去，但原作的生命却不会因它的存在形式消亡，在翻译这项工作的扶持下，原作的生命得以延续、更新和扩展，从而在其生命史上不断取得成功。因此，翻译就像是复兴的源泉。--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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从这个意义上讲，我们可以把译作理解为原作的延续。那些浮华俗丽的译作将会腐化，那些时尚流行的将会落伍。译作的语言形式也是如此。随着时间的流逝，原作的语言形式将会逐渐消失，但原作的生命却不会随其存在形式而消亡。译作使得原作的生命得以延续，得以更新，得以延伸，因而原作能在其生命历程中不断取得成功。因此，翻译就好比是活力之源。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 08:49, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
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The final purpose of language is to meet our needs to show that the relation among languages is quite close. Translation cannot reveal or build such hidden relation, but translation can reoccur it by intensification and embryotic appearance. Right through the expression of embryotic form, it makes relation among languages reoccur. (Benjamin,60) Accordingly, translation is not the birth of original work nor the death of original work but the living on of the original. It’s the birth after death and death after birth. In this way, Benjamin has assured the position of the original work which is higher than the translation work, on which the original work depends to continue its life. Translation can never be equal to the original work because only the original language has the vigor to embody the fruit of pure language.<br />
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语言的最终目的是满足我们的需求，以展示语言之间的关系是非常密切的。翻译不能揭示或建立这种隐藏的关系，但翻译可以通过强化和再生的形式重现这种关系。正是通过再生形式的表达，使语言之间的关系得以重现。（本杰明，60）因此，译作不是原作的诞生，也不是原作的消亡，而是原作生命的延续。译作成为原作永恒的来世。这样，本雅明就确定了原作的地位高于译作，而原作依靠译作得以继续生存。译作不可能等同于原作，因为只有原作才有活力体现纯语言的成果。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 15:20, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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语言的最终目的是满足我们的需求，以展示语言之间的关系是非常密切的。翻译不能揭示或建立这种隐藏的关系，但翻译可以通过强化和再生的形式重现这种关系。正是通过再生形式的表达，使语言之间的关系得以重现。（本杰明，60）因此，译作不是原作的诞生，也不是原作的消亡，而是原作生命的延续。译作是生死的轮回。这样，本杰明就确定了原作的地位高于译作，而原作依靠译作得以继续生存。译作不可能等同于原作，因为只有原作才有活力体现纯语言的成果。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 13:20, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
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Compared to that, Derrida thinks that translation work is the rebirth of the original work and notes that there are two implications in “rebirth”, which are given by “Fortleben and Uberleben” in Benjamin’s The Task of Translator, indicating that life will continue, consistent and survival continues, but it also indicates resurrection after death. Derrida emphasizes that original work has equal and independent position with translation work, which are complementary for each other. If the original text calls for supplement, that’s because it’s not flawless, complete, entire and self-identified. The original texts to be translated fell into exile from the very beginning. '''(Derrida 2003)'''<br />
相比这个，德里达认为，翻译作品是再生的原创作品并指出“再生”有两个含义。这个在本雅明的《译者的任务》一书中有提到。这表明生活还将继续，一致和生存继续。但它也表明了死后复活。德里达强调原文和翻译作品具有平等和独立的地位，两者相辅相成。如果原文需要补充的话，那是因为它是不完美的、不完整的和没有自我认同的。从一开始原文就被放逐。（德里达2003）--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 05:21, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
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All in all, Derrida and Benjamin have shown their distinctive comprehension about the original work and translation work. Benjamin has claimed that translation work is the afterlife of original work and original work also depends on translation to continue its life. Due to the fact that only the original work can deliver birth to pure language, although the very relations among languages can be reoccurred in translation work, original work ranks first. Derrida holds another opinion that the two, original work and translation work are equal and complementary.<br />
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总之，德里达和本杰明对原作和翻译工作表现出了他们独特的理解。本雅明曾说，翻译是原作的来世，原作也要靠翻译来延续其生命。由于只有原作才能表达出纯语言，虽然语言之间的关系可以在翻译工作中重现，但原作是排在第一位的。德里达则持另一种观点，认为原作和翻译工作二者是平等互补的关系。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 02:29, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
总之，德里达和本杰明对原作和译作都表达了他们独特的见解。本雅明认为译作是原作的来世，原作靠译作来延续其生命力。虽然语言之间的关系可以在译文中重现，但是只有原作才能产生纯粹的语言，所以原作排在第一位。德里达却认为原作和译作二者是平等互补的关系。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 02:08, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
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Secondly, on the aspect of the author, deconstructivism emphasizes the intertextuality instead of the author, declaring that God was already dead and trying to overthrow the concept that author is the source of meaning from the ground level, so translation views of deconstructivism denies the originality of the author and even the copyright of the author(Jiang Xiaohua & Zhang Jinghua 42). However, Benjamin advocates the originality of the author. Though he has not mentioned the issues about author’s copyright, we can infer from the emphasis of originality of original work and creativity of the author that he should admit the copyright of the author.<br />
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==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
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Thirdly, on the aspect of translator, translation view of deconstructivism places the translator in the equal position of author, but at the meantime, it denies the creativity and copyright of translator. What Derrida does is to completely ignore the subjectivity of translator but focus on text. On the contrary, Benjamin does not only emphasize the position of translator and consider that translator contributes creativity as well as author, which just differs in the way of wok and he also points it out that the success of translation depends on the ability of translator.<br />
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==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
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Fourthly, on the aspect of translation work, translation view of deconstructivism has eliminated the difference between the original work and translation work, believing that original work and translation work supplements each other and coexists with each other; the original work lives on with the help of translation work while the translation work becomes independent text because it succeeds the semantic differánce of the original work.<br />
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第四，译作方面，解构主义的翻译观消除了原作与译作的差异，认为原作与译作相互补充、相互共存，原作借助于译作而生存，而译作因继承了原作的语义差异而成为独立的文本。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 06:34, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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第四，在译作方面，解构主义翻译观消除了原作与译作的差异，认为原作与译作相辅相成、相互共存；原作在译作的帮助下得以延续，而译作因继承了原作的语义差异而成为独立的文本。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 08:00, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
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Fifthly, on the aspect of translation criterion, translation view of deconstructivism has deconstructed the traditional translation view that seeks loyalty and equivalence and it has deconstructed the comprehension, extraction and transmission proposed by itself. '''(Wang Yingchong 18)''' As a result, it has treated the translatability and untranslatability in an equal way, indicating that any text can be translatable and untranslatable. Accordingly, the criterion of translation has been dissolved. Compared to Derrida, Benjamin prefers literal translation, advocating that we should promote the supplement of the referential modes of original work and translation work in the general purpose of realizing pure language. <br />
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==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
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'''Translation Aesthetics<br />
Study on Gladys’ Translation of The Border Town from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics'''<br />
Translation, especially literary translation, is a creative activity in nature. Translation is the pursuit of beauty and truth, and it involves philosophical concerns. Aesthetics, the study of beauty, is an eternal theme of Chinese literature. Ever since the emergence of translation, aesthetics and translation have been closely bonded together. Translation Aesthetics is a perfect combination of translation and aesthetics.<br />
翻译美学<br />
从美学角度研究格拉迪斯的译著《边城》<br />
翻译，尤其是文学翻译，其本质上是一种创造性的活动。翻译追求美，向往真理，它还涉及到哲学的有关重点内容。美学，顾名思义，研究美，它是中国文一项永恒的主题。翻译自出现以来，便于美学紧密相连。翻译美学是翻译与美学的一种完美结合。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 12:33, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
翻译美学 <br />
从美学角度研究格拉迪斯的《边城》翻译，尤其是文学翻译，本质上是一种创造性的活动。翻译是对美与真的追求，它涉及到哲学问题。美学是对美的研究，是中国文学永恒的主题。自翻译出现以来，美学与翻译就紧密地联系在一起。翻译美学是翻译与美学的完美结合。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 02:18, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
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'''1 About Translation Aesthetics'''<br />
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翻译美学<br />
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Translation Aesthetics is to analyze, explain and solve the aesthetic problems emerging in interlingual conversion. Its main contents are aesthetic subjects, aesthetic objects, the aesthetic subject’s experience of aesthetic objects, the methods of representing beauty in translating process, the criteria of translation aesthetics and so forth.<br />
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翻译美学是分析、解读并且解决不同语种对话间出现的问题，主要包括美学主体、美学客体、美学主体的客体经验、翻译过程中传递美的途径、翻译美学标准等等。<br />
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'''1.1 Development of Translation Aesthetics in China'''<br />
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中国的翻译美学发展脉络--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 01:20, 22 October 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
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翻译美学是分析、解释和解决语言转换中出现的美学问题。它的主要包括美学主体、美学对象、审美主体的对象经验、翻译过程中表达美的方式以及翻译美学标准等。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:41, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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翻译美学用于分析、解读和解决语言转换中出现的美学问题，主要包括美学主体、美学客体、审美体验、在翻译过程中如何呈现美感以及翻译美学标准等等。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 11:28, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
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The traditional translation theory in China originated from the translation of Buddhist scriptures more than 1700 years ago. Chinese translation theory has a close relationship with philosophy and aesthetics. In China, aesthetic thoughts have a long history. Confucius, Mencius, Laozi and other famous ancient thinkers put forward their views on aesthetics. In the process of the formation and development of literary translation, ancient aesthetic thoughts provided the ideological basis for it. Classical aesthetic thoughts made subtle influence on Chinese literary translation theories. The translation theories which contain classical aesthetics are naturally different from other countries' translation theories.<br />
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中国传统翻译理论起源于1700多年前的佛经翻译。该理论与哲学、美学有着紧密的联系。在中国，美学思想有着悠久的历史。孔子、孟子、老子等古代著名思想家都曾提出自己的美学观。古代美学思想为文学翻译的形成和发展过程提供了思想基础。古典美学思想对中国文学翻译理论产生了潜移默化的影响。这种包含古典美学思想的翻译理论与其他国家的翻译理论有着天然的区别。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 08:28, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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中国传统翻译理论起源于1700多年前的佛经翻译,而这种翻译理论同哲学、美学有着密切的联系。在中国，美学思想有着悠久的历史。孔子、孟子、老子等古代著名思想家都提出了自己的美学观。并且在文学翻译的形成和发展过程中，古典美学思想为其提供了思想基础，产生了潜移默化的影响。因此，这种包含古典美学思想的翻译理论自然不同于其他国家的翻译理论。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:35, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
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According to Liu Miqing, “Aesthetic constituents of source text can be classified into two systems: formal aesthetic constituents and non-formal aesthetic constituents.”[4]. Formal aesthetic system include the scope of phonetics, morphology and syntax. While the non-formal aesthetic system is non-material, non-natural sensible. It is an indefinite, non-quantitative system. So it is also called “fuzzy sets” or “sets of fuzziness”. All kinds of beauty in the two systems are aesthetic objects, which we will experience in translation.<br />
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基于刘宓庆的翻译理论，“源文本的美学成分可以分为两个系统：正式美学成分和非正式美学成分。”【4】.正式美学系统包括语音学、形态学和句法学的范畴。而非正式美学系统则是非物质、非自然的内容。这是一种不明确，非量化的系统。因此它也被称之为“模糊集”或者“集的模糊性”。在这两个系统中的所有种类的美都是美学目标，而这一体验则会在翻译中体现出来。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 14:47, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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刘宓庆认为，“源文本的审美客体可以分为两个系统：形式系统和非形式系统。”【4】.形式系统包括语音学、形态学和句法学的范畴。而非形式系统则包含非物质、非自然的成分，它是一种不明确，非量化的系统。因此它也被称之为“审美模糊集”或者“集的模糊性”。在这两个系统中，不同种类的美都属于审美客体，这也是我们在翻译中将要感受到的。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 15:39, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
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Yan Fu, a Chinese scholar, once put forward the theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, and Qian Zhongshu also put forward the theory of transformation, and so on. All these theories reflect the influence of classical aesthetics on Chinese writers. Reviewing its development, it is not difficult to find that almost all Chinese translation theories have their aesthetic origin.<br />
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中国学者严复提出“信”、“达”、“雅”的翻译原则，钱钟书则提出翻译的转化理论等等，这些理论的提出体现出中国作家受到了不少古典美学的影响。回顾其发展，不难看出几乎所有的中国翻译理论都可从中追溯其美学之源。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 11:09, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
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'''1.2 Lin Yutang’s theory of Translation Aesthetics'''<br />
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In 1933, Lin Yutang put forward three principles for translation: faithfulness, smoothness and beauty in the article of On Translation. The three principles of translation represent three responsibilities respectively: that toward the original author, that toward the reader, and that toward art. Here, fidelity becomes threefold. It is not only the fidelity to the original author, but also fidelity to the target reader and to art. In Lin Yutang’s opinion, translation is a kind of art. The main difference between art and science is that science is guided by the rule, while art is not. As for the standard of beauty in translation, he thought that “Every writing has its beauty in sound, meaning, spirit and style.”<br />
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'''1.2林语堂的翻译美学理论”<br />
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1933年，林语堂在《论翻译》一文中提出了翻译的三个原则：忠实标准，通顺标准，美。 翻译的三个原则分别代表三个责任：对原作者的责任，对读者的责任和对艺术的责任。 这里，能保证三重真实性。 这不仅是对原作者的忠诚，而且也是对目标读者和艺术的忠诚。 林语堂认为翻译是一种艺术，而 艺术与科学之间的最大不同之处在于科学以规则为导向，而艺术则不是这样。 至于翻译的美学标准，他认为“每一篇文章在声音，含义，精神和风格上都有其美感。”<br />
--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 02:19, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
1933年，林语堂在《论翻译》一文中提出了翻译的三个原则：忠实、通顺和美。这三个翻译原则分别代表了对原作者、读者和艺术的责任。同时，忠诚也变成了三重奏。忠诚不只是对原作者的忠诚，还包括对读者和艺术的忠诚。在林语堂看来，翻译就是一门艺术。艺术与科学最大的不同就是科学讲究规则，而艺术则无规则可言。他认为翻译中的美的标准就是“任何一篇文章无论是在音韵和意义还是在神采和风格上都有着独特的美。”--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 11:31, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
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[1] The ideal translator should make his work an art. He should love it with the heart of art, be careful with it and regard translation as fine art. Especially when translating literary works, translator should pay more attention to the beauty of words. Lin Yutang believes that the most important thing in literary translation is to embody the style of the original work. That is, “not only what it says, but also how to say it”. From this point of view, Lin Yutang's translation thought is mainly aimed at literary translation. Among his three translation principles (faithfulness, smoothness and beauty), the third principle--beauty is regarded as the most important point in literary translation. Therefore, Lin Yutang's translation thought is also recognized as “translation of aesthetics” by some scholars.<br />
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理想的译者应该使他的翻译成为一种艺术。他应该以一种艺术之心去爱它，小心对待他，并且将翻译当成艺术。尤其是在翻译文学作品的时候，译者应当花更多心思在词汇的优美与否上。林语堂认为在文学作品翻译时最重要的事是体现作品的风格。也就是说，“不仅是看他说了什么，还要看他怎么说的。”从这个角度来看，林语堂的翻译思想主要着眼于文学翻译。在他的三个翻译原则（忠实性，流畅性，和优美程度），第三原则——优美程度，则被看作文学作品翻译中最重要的一点。因此林语堂的翻译思想也被一些学者视为“美学的翻译”。<br />
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 07:34, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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理想的译者应该让自己的译文成为一件艺术作品。他/她应该以一颗艺术之心去爱它，小心照料，并且将翻译当成艺术。尤其是在翻译文学作品的时候，译者应当花更多心思在选词优美上。林语堂认为，文学作品翻译时最重要的事莫过于体现作品的风格。也就是说，“不仅是体现原文的内容，还要体现其表达方式。”从这个角度来看，林语堂的翻译思想主要着眼于文学翻译。在他的三个翻译标准（忠实，通顺，美）中，其中第三条美的标准，便成为文学作品翻译中最重要的一条标准。因此林语堂的翻译思想也被一些学者视为“美学的翻译”。<br />
--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:16, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
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So in the article of '''On Translation''' written by Lin Yutang, the main content is about the discussion on translation standards, and the core idea of the full text is that translation is an art. The most important thing in literary translation is to express the beauty of the original work, and to embody the original author's “how to say” in the translation. At the same time, Lin Yutang also affirmed that translation is creation. The translation with beauty features can make the original work be loved by the readers in the foreign culture, spread widely to the other countries, and achieve its equivalent effect in the source language environment to the greatest extent, which is the greatest responsibility and loyalty to the original text, the author, the readers and the art.<br />
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因此，林语堂在《论翻译》一文中主要讨论了翻译标准的问题，全文的核心思想就是翻译是一门艺术。文学翻译最重要的就是要表达原作的美，并在译文中体现原作者是如何表达这种美的。同时，林语堂也认为翻译是一种创作。有美学特点的译作才能够使外国的读者也能喜欢上原作，能够使原作流传更广，也能够尽量达到与原作在原语言环境等同的效果。这也是对原作、作者、读者以及艺术最大的责任和忠诚。--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 11:14, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
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'''1.3 Liu Miqing’s theory of Translation Aesthetics'''<br />
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In 1995, Liu Miqing offers a theoretical framework of Translation Aesthetics in detail in his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics. “Translation Aesthetics refers to the study on aesthetic object (the source text and the target text), the aesthetic subject (translators and readers) and aesthetic activities in translation, such as aesthetic judgments, aesthetic appreciation, and creative aesthetic representation in translation.”[2]<br />
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1.3刘宓庆的翻译美学理论<br />
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1995年，刘宓庆在其著作《翻译美学理论》中详细介绍了翻译美学的理论框架。“翻译美学是指对翻译中审美对象（原文和译文）、审美主体（译者和读者）以及翻译中的审美活动的研究，如翻译中的审美判断、审美欣赏和创造性的审美表现。”[2]--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 12:26, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.3 刘宓庆的翻译美学理论<br />
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1995年，刘宓庆在《翻译美学导论》一书中详细阐述了翻译美学的理论框架。“翻译美学是指对翻译中的审美客体(原文和译文)、审美主体(译者和读者)和审美活动的研究，如审美判断、审美欣赏、翻译中的创造性审美表征等。”--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 02:26, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
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“Aesthetic object (AO) refers to the objective matters that human's aesthetic activity targets at.[3] However, not everything in the objective world is aesthetic object. For instance, The Book of Songs on the bookshelf is not an aesthetic object until translator buys and translate it. In the aesthetic process, the translator appreciate the beauty in sound, beauty in form and beauty in sense in the book.<br />
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审美客体（AO）是指人们审美活动所针对的客观事物。【3】然而，在客观世界里，并非所有事物都是审美对象。例如，书架上的诗经只有被译者买下并翻译了，才是一个审美对象。再审美过程中，译者欣赏到了这本书的音美、形美、意美。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 14:42, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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审美对象（AO）是指人们在审美活动中所针对的客观事物。【3】然而，在客观世界里并非所有事物均是审美对象。比如，书架上的诗经只有在被译者买下并翻译之后才能称之为审美对象。在审美过程中，译者体会到了这本书的音美，形美和意美。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 14:58, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
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It clings to the aesthetic constituents and the aesthetic effects of the ST. If one pursues or analyzes the beauty in translation without adequate consideration of the ST, it equals to fish in the air and yields nothing but vainness. The attribute of TAO is different from the attribute of AO. On the one hand, it is attached to the aesthetic composition of SL. That is to say, translator cannot add something that is not in the aesthetic constituents of ST.<br />
审美客体与源语翻译的审美因素及其效果紧密相关。如果一个人追求或分析翻译之美而未曾妥当考虑结构化文本，那就像是鱼在天空那样颗粒无收、徒劳无功。翻译的审美客体因素与审美客体因素是不同的。一方面，翻译审美客体要考虑到源语的审美组成。即译者不能凭空添加不符合结构化文本审美组成的成分--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 01:46, 23 October 2020 (UTC)。<br />
审美客体与源语翻译的美学因素和美学效果关系紧密。 如果人们在没有充分考虑审美客体的的情况下追求或分析翻译的美，那么它就等于在空中钓鱼，徒劳无益。翻译的审美客体因素与审美客体因素是不同的。一方面，翻译审美客体要考虑到源语的审美组成。 也就是说，译者不能添加不符合结构化文本审美的内容。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 10:26, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
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According to Liu Miqing, “Aesthetic constituents of source text can be classified into two systems: formal aesthetic constituents and non-formal aesthetic constituents.”[4]. Formal aesthetic system include the scope of phonetics, morphology and syntax. While the non-formal aesthetic system is non-material, non-natural sensible. It is an indefinite, non-quantitative system. So it is also called “fuzzy sets” or “sets of fuzziness”. All kinds of beauty in the two systems are aesthetic objects, which we will experience in translation.<br />
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刘宓庆认为，源语的审美客体包括两种体系：形式审美客体和非形式审美客体。形式审美体系包含语音、形态和句法。而非审美体系是非物质的、非自然的、感性的，是一个不确定的、非定量的体系。因此非审美体系也被称为“模糊集”。这两种体系中的美均是审美客体，我们在翻译中会碰见这种客体。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:38, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
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The aesthetic subject (AS) refers to people who carry out aesthetic appreciation activity on the aesthetic object; and translation aesthetic subject (TAS) refers to the translator. When translating, translator plays a dual role. For one thing, he is the recipient of the SL text who should first decode the aesthetic information in the SL text. In this process, his role is both passive and subjective. For another, he is identified as the creator of the target text. Being so, he undertakes the task of aesthetic representation to the target text readers. Hence he ought to play his dynamic role as the aesthetic subject.<br />
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审美主体是指对审美客体进行审美欣赏活动的人;翻译审美主体则指的是译者。在翻译中，译者扮演着双重角色。一方面，他作为文本的接受者，首先要对文本中的美学信息进行解码。在这个过程中，他的角色既是被动的，也是主观的。另一方面，他也是目标文本的创造者。所以，他承担着对目标文本读者进行审美再现这一任务。因此，他应该发挥自己作为审美主体的能动作用。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 02:47, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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审美主体是指对审美客体进行审美欣赏活动的人;翻译审美主体则指的是译者。在翻译中，译者扮演着双重角色。一方面，他作为文本的接受者，首先要对文本中的美学信息进行解码。在这个过程中，他的角色既是被动的，也是主观的。另一方面，他也是目标文本的创造者。所以，他承担着对目标文本读者进行审美再现这一任务。因此，译者应该发挥自己作为审美主体的能动作用。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 09:52, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
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Comparing Lin Yutang’s theory with Liu Miqin’s theory, we can find that their thoughts have something in common. They both agree that Translation Aesthetics plays a significant role in translation, especially literary translation. Lin Yutang believes that literary translation is a creative art with beauty as its soul, so translators should always keep a heart of beauty-pursuit during the process of translating. While Liu Miqing offers a theoretical framework of Translation Aesthetics in detail. He regards source language and target language as aesthetic objects, treats translators as aesthetic subjects, and constructs basic framework of Translation Aesthetics in a dynamic role of subject and object.<br />
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将林语堂的翻译理论与刘宓庆的对比，可以发现他们在思想方面有一些共同点。他们都认可翻译美学在翻译，特别是在文学翻译中的重要地位。林语堂认为文学翻译就是对其灵魂美丽之处的再一次创造，所以译员在翻译时应以追求美感为目的，而刘宓庆则提出了一个关于翻译美学的具体框架，他将源语言与目标语设定为翻译客体，译员为翻译主体，以主客体的动态变化构建一个翻译美学基础框架。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 11:15, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
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'''2 A case study of The Border Town from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics'''<br />
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''The Border Town'' is Shen Congwen’s masterpiece, which is also the supporting pillar for him to construct Xiangxi. He adopted a pristine love story to display the pursuit of his ideal life. The love story set in a town of Hunan province which is beside Sichuan province. In the 1930s, it is a quite tranquil place without lots of people in rural area. People there live a simple and honest life. The language of the novel is simple, deep, implicit and subtle, and it is in harmony with the content. It contains rich poetic feelings and produces a beautiful and graceful beauty.<br />
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2.从翻译美学的角度看《边城》个案研究<br />
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《边城》是沈从文的代表作，也是他建设湘西的支柱。他通过一个纯朴的爱情故事来表现他对理想生活的追求。这个爱情故事发生在湖南省的一个小镇，与四川省相邻。在20世纪30年代，由于没有什么人住在农村，这是一个相当安静的地方。那里的人过着简单而又实在的生活。小说的语言简单，深邃，含蓄而又微妙，与内容融为一体。它给人以诗情画意般的感受，产生了一种优雅美。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 02:17, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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2.从翻译美学的角度看《边城》个案研究<br />
《边城》是沈从文的代表作，也是他建设湘西的主要作品。他通过一个纯朴的爱情故事表现了他对理想生活的追求。这个爱情故事发生在与四川省交界的一个湖南小镇。那是20世纪30年代里的一个人少宁静的乡村地区，村里的人过着简单而又实在的生活。小说的语言朴实，深邃，含蓄而又微妙，与其内容相得益彰。它给人以诗情画意般的感受，散发着一种优雅美。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 04:10, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
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Literary translation is a very important part in translation studies, and it’s a complicated process that requires many different skills. On the one hand, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very necessary for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should pick up the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. On the other hand, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty in the context of the target language. In this part, a case study is conducted in detail based on Gladys Yang’s English translation of ''The Border Town'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics.<br />
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文学翻译是翻译研究中非常重要的一个环节，它也是一个复杂的过程，需要很多不同的技巧。 一方面，作者在创作过程中，审美风格和审美感受的揉入是非常必要的。 因此，译者在翻译的过程中，要拾掇好文学词汇，转化源文本的美感。 另一方面，文学翻译是全方位艺术品质的表现，它可以使目标读者在目标语言的语境中得到类似于原作美感的欣赏体验。 在这部分，从翻译美学的角度，以格莱迪 杨的英译版《边城》为基础，进行了详细的分析。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 03:05, 22 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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文学翻译是翻译研究中非常重要的一部分，这是一个复杂的过程，需要运用很多不同的技巧。 一方面，作者在创作过程中，审美风格和审美感受的揉入是非常必要的。 因此，译者在翻译的过程中，要精心挑选文学词汇来转化源文本的美感。 另一方面，文学翻译是全方位艺术品质的表现，它可以使目标读者在目标语言的语境中也能欣赏到类似于原作的美感。 在这方面有一个专题研究：从翻译美学的角度，以格莱迪杨的英译版《边城》为基础，对其进行了详尽的分析。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 04:41, 23 October 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
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The combination of translation theory and aesthetics is traditional Chinese feature, and Translation Aesthetics carry forward traditional translation theory. With the increasingly close communication between China and other countries, Chinese classical aesthetics and Western aesthetics have developed a certain degree of integration, which is also a special form of mutual learning between China and the West in a sense. This kind of reference promotes the development and application of Translation Aesthetics.<br />
翻译理论与美学的结合是中国的传统特色，而翻译美学则是传统翻译理论的传承。随着中外交流的日益密切，中国古典美学与西方美学发展出了一定程度的融合，从某种意义上说，这也是中西相互学习的一种特殊形式。这种借鉴促进了翻译美学的发展和应用。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 02:12, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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翻译理论与美学的结合是中国的传统特色，而翻译美学则是对传统翻译理论的传承。随着中外交流的日益密切，中国古典美学与西方美学在一定程度上有融合的部分。从某种意义上说，这也是中西相互学习的一种特殊形式。这种相互借鉴促进了翻译美学的发展和应用。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:23, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
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The aesthetic subject (AS) refers to people who carry out aesthetic appreciation activity on the aesthetic object; and translation aesthetic subject (TAS) refers to the translator. When translating, translator plays a dual role. For one thing, he is the recipient of the SL text who should first decode the aesthetic information in the SL text. In this process, his role is both passive and subjective. For another, he is identified as the creator of the target text. Being so, he undertakes the task of aesthetic representation to the target text readers. Hence he ought to play his dynamic role as the aesthetic subject.<br />
审美主体是指对审美客体进行审美欣赏活动的人;翻译审美主体指的是译者。在翻译中，译者扮演着双重角色。一方面，作为文本的接受者，他首先要对文本中的审美信息进行解码。在这个过程中，他的角色既有被动的，也有主观的。另一方面，他被认为是目标文本的创造者。因此，他承担着对目标文本读者进行审美再现的任务。因此，他应该发挥自己作为审美主体的能动作用。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 12:17, 21 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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审美主体指的是审美活动的执行者；所以翻译审美主体就是译者。译者在翻译中有着双重角色。其一，作为原文文本的接收者，他首先需要解码原文中的审美信息。在这个过程中，他同时扮演主观和被动的角色。其二，人们认为他是目标文本的创作者。因此，他承担了为目标读者实现审美再现的任务。所以，作为审美主体，译者的角色是能动的。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 12:47, 21 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
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There is a doubt that why Benjamin insists that the fruit of pure language is on the original work’s side, as we mentioned in the beginning that Benjamin want to realize the identity of language and spirit through exhausting all the referential modes of all languages, and making them melt with each other. Though translation is the living-on of original work which just like the baby from a mother, affiliated to the original. Why the final result will be on the original side still needs our attention. During the differánce of texts, original text can become the translation of former text while the translation can be the original text of later text, thus the chain of textual differánce are built.<br />
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==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
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However, in Benjamin’s points, translation work is the afterlife of original work doesn’t mean it’s the end of original work’s life nor that translation work replaces the original one to be an independent organism. Benjamin stresses that continuity of life doesn’t pay much attention to the survival of organism, which means that translation is a medium that pushes the original’s life process, a medium that provides a chance for the continuity of original’s life instead of substitution. The mission of translation is to promote the original work’s linguistic life growing until it ripens and fruit the pure language.<br />
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==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
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The relationship of the two can only be understood in the whole purpose of realizing pure language. What Benjamin expects is through constant translation, we can make the referential modes of original work and translation work interflow until we exhaust all the referential modes to realize the final identity of language and spirit in entity. To the relationship of original work and translation work, Benjamin interprets from the perspective of organism and survival.<br />
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我们只有通过实现纯语言意图的总体性才能理解这两者之间的关系。本雅明希望通过不断的翻译，可以实现原作的意指方式与翻译作品的意指方式相互交融，直至用尽所有的意指方式，最终达到语言与精神在实体上的一致。对于原文与译文的关系，本雅明从有机体和生存的角度进行了阐释。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 03:49, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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二者的关系只有在实现纯语言的整个目的中才能被理解。本雅明所期望的是通过不断的翻译，使原作的意指方式与译作的意指方式相互交融，直至用尽所有的意指方式，实现语言与精神在实体上的最终统一。对于原文和译文的关系，本雅明从有机体和生存的角度进行了阐释。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:01, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
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Whereas, Benjamin stresses that translation is the continuity and supplement of original life but at the same time, he disapproves the independence of translation work as the effect of translation work is only to promote the growth of “pure language” existing in original work and translation itself contains no organism of pure language so translation work has not been equipped with translatability.<br />
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但是，本杰明强调翻译是对原作的延续和补充，与此同时，他不认可译作的独立性，因为译作的作用仅仅是促进原作中“纯语言”的成长，并且，翻译本身不包含纯语言有机体，因此译作不具有可译性。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:29, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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然而，本杰明强调翻译是对原著生命的延续和补充，但同时他不赞成翻译工作的独立性，因为翻译工作的作用只是促进原著中存在的“纯语言”的生长，而翻译本身又不包含纯语言的有机体，所以翻译工作不具备可译性。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 04:41, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
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Except for paying attention to the elements of translation, translation aims to find out the ways to produce wonderful works and principles in assessing the quality of translation. Generally speaking, Translation Aesthetics does research on translation theory and practice from the perspective of aesthetics. Its major task is to analyze and elucidate the aesthetic principles, with which we can guide translation practices and assess the literary translation. Moreover, a satisfying version needs some other elements, such as the aesthetic experience of a translator, comprehension of source text, and evaluation and reproduction of beauty.<br />
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翻译除了关注翻译要素外，还要弄清楚用什么方法可以创造出精彩的作品，有哪些原则可以用来评价翻译作品的质量。 一般来说，翻译美学是从美学的角度对翻译理论和实践进行研究的。 它的主要任务是分析和阐明美学原则，用这些原则来指导翻译实践，评价文学翻译。 此外，一个满意的翻译版本还需要一些其他要素，如译者的审美体验、对源文本的理解、对美的评价和再现等。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 09:44, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
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In aesthetics, aesthetic subject and aesthetic object are two concepts and two categories that cannot be separated. There is a dialectical relationship between them. Therefore, a qualified translator should possess the dual characters as the translation aesthetic subject: objectivity and subjectivity.<br />
在美学中，审美主体和审美客体是两个不可分割的概念和范畴。两者之间存在一种辩证关系。因此，一名合格的译者应该具备翻译审美主体的双重特征：主观性和客观性。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 12:29, 21 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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在美学范畴中，审美主体和客体是两个不可分割的概念。主体和客体之间存在一种辩证关系。因此，一名合格的译者应具备翻译审美主体的双重特征：主观性和客观性。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 07:03, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
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If there are no rhymes in the original, translators should not add rhymes. If there is no irony in the original, translator should not add irony. If there is no hyperbole, translator should not add hyperbole, and so on. On the other hand, it has flexibility for aesthetic subject. In some circumstances, we can’t find an appropriate word to translate which is in line with the ST. Under these circumstances, we should translate it in a flexible way.<br />
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如果原文中没有押韵，译者不应自己添加；如果原文中没有讽刺，译者不应自己添加；如果原文中没有夸张，译者也不应自己添加，以此类推。另一方面，出于美学考虑翻译具有灵活性。在某些情况下，我们无法找到合适的与原文相符的词来翻译。在这些情况下，我们应当用灵活的方式来翻译。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:21, 21 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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如果原文中没有押韵，译者不应该添加押韵；如果原文中没有反语，译者不应该添加反语；如果原文中没有夸张，译者（也）不应该自行添加夸张，等等。另一方面，美学主体具有灵活性。在某些情况下，我们无法找到某个合适的与原文相符的词来翻译。在这些情况下，我们（就）应当用灵活的方式来翻译。<br />
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 07:40, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
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These beauty in various forms is called “aesthetic object”. Translation aesthetic object (TAO) is the source text (ST) which the translator is about to translate. But not every source text can be TAO. For example, if the source text is inconsistent, empty and has no value to translate, it cannot be translation aesthetic object. TAO possesses aesthetic values and is designed to satisfy human's aesthetic needs.<br />
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不同形式的美都是“美学对象”。翻译美学对象（TAO）就是译者需要进行翻译的原文（ST）。但并不是所有的原文都是翻译审美对象。例如，如果原文自相矛盾，语言空洞，没有翻译的价值的话，它就不是一个翻译美学对象。翻译美学对象不仅需要具备美学价值，还需要迎合人类的美学需要。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 02:37, 23 October 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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这些形式各异的美被称为“审美对象”。翻译审美对象（TAO）就是译者需要进行翻译的原文（ST）。但并不是所有的原文都是翻译审美对象。例如，如果原文自相矛盾，语言空洞，没有翻译的价值的话，它就不是一个翻译审美对象。翻译审美对象不仅需要具备美学价值，还需要旨在满足人类的审美需要。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 12:33, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
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'''2.1 Beauty in sound'''<br />
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Sound is one of the fundamental forms which carries the aesthetic information of language, either in poetry, drama or fiction. Guided by the principle of preserving the beauty on the phonetic beauty as much as possible without hindering readers’ understanding, Gladys Yang not only reproduces the original rhyme but also tries to preserve the original sound effect of the onomatopoeias.<br />
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2.1声美<br />
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声音是承载诗歌，戏剧或小说中语言美感信息的基本形式之一。 在不妨碍读者理解的前提下，和尽可能在语音美中保留美的原则指导下，杨韵诗不仅再现了原韵，而且还试图保留拟声词的原声效果。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 01:48, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在诗歌，戏剧或小说中，声音是承载着语言审美信息的基本形式之一。在不妨碍读者理解的前提下，格拉迪斯·杨（Gladys Yang）原则上尽可能保持语音的美感，不仅再现了原韵，而且还设法保留了拟声词的原声效果。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 15:27, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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无论是在诗歌、喜剧还是小说中，声音都是传递语言美的信息的基本形式之一。在遵循尽可能保留语音美且不影响读者理解原文的原则上，戴乃迭（Gladys Yang）不仅还原了原本的韵律，还设法保留了原稳重拟声词的声音效果。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 01:55, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
'''2.1.1 Rhyme'''<br />
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Generally speaking, rhymes are applied into songs and poems. However, it doesn't mean there is no rhyme in fictions. Technical fiction writers also attempt to select word and phrase patterns so as to make their works imbued with a regular beat. In regard to fiction, rhyme refers to the general way in which a passage moves and flows. “Rhythm, the beauty in sound, often takes the form of wave movement in prose”[5].<br />
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韵律<br />
一般说来，韵脚被应用到歌曲和诗歌中。然而，这并不意味着小说中没有押韵。技术小说作家也试图选择词语和短语模式，以使他们的作品充满规律的节拍。在小说方面，韵脚指的是一篇文章移动和流动的一般方式。“节奏，声音中的美，常以散文中的波浪运动的形式” [5]--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 11:57, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1.1 韵律<br />
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一般来说，歌曲和诗歌中会有韵律。但这并不意味着小说中没有韵律。技法小说作家也试图选择词句模式，使作品充满规律的节拍。就小说而言，韵律指的是段落迁移和流动的一般方式。"节奏，是声音中的美，在散文中往往以波浪运动的形式出现"。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 02:49, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
To be specific, rhyme is a linguistic phenomenon referring to the repetition of the same or similar syllable sounds. It is achieved by the means of repetition, phrase structure, sentence structure and pause. The function of rhyme is mainly of the aesthetic aspect and the semantic meaning. On the one hand, the use of rhyme adds musicality to the literary .On the other hand, it arouses the readers' resonance and satisfaction. Since the rhythmic features contribute greatly to the aesthetic flavor, translators should take them into consideration and try to present the rhyme in the source text.<br />
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（中英举例不用翻译）<br />
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Example 1: 无人过渡时，等着祖父又不来，便尽只反复温习这些女孩子的神气，且轻轻的无所谓的唱着：“白鸡关出老虎咬人，不咬别人，团总的小姐派第一……大姐戴副金簪子，二姐戴副银钏子，只有我三妹没得什么戴，耳朵上长年蜜条豆芽菜。”[6]<br />
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Translation: When no one comes she waits for her grandfather, and when he fails to come she compares the looks of the girls and chants softly: The tiger eats the captain’s daughter first; Most girls have gold and silver for their hair; Poor Emerald is the one who comes off worst-No trinkets, nothing but beansprouts to wear![7]<br />
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具体来说，韵律是一种语言现象，指的是相同或相似音节的重复。它是通过重复、短语结构、句子结构和停顿来实现的。押韵的功能主要表现在审美方面和语义方面。押韵的运用，一方面为作品增添了节奏感，另一方面又能引起读者的共鸣和满足。韵律特征大大提高了诗歌的审美性，译者应充分考虑韵律特征，努力体现原文中的韵味。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 08:24, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
This folk song sings Cuicui’s heart at that moment. The density of the rhythm contributes a lot to the reflection of Cuicui’s mood. Owing to the poor condition in her family, she could only admire the landlord's daughter's dress and ornaments. The sound / i / and / ai / repeat five times and emerge in different positions of the original text.<br />
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那时，这首民歌唱出了翠翠的心声。紧密的节奏有助于反映翠翠的情绪。由于家庭条件恶劣，她只能羡慕地主家女儿的衣服和饰品呢。/ i / and / ai / 音重复了五次，并出现在了原始文本的不同位置。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:30, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这首民歌唱出了翠翠那时的心声。紧密的节奏有助于反映翠翠的情绪。由于家庭条件差，她只能羡慕地主家女儿的衣服和饰品呢。/ i / and / ai / 音重复了五次，并出现在了原始文本的不同位置。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 13:07, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
When singing, people should open and narrow their mouths forming a beautiful rhythmical meter. In Chinese the sound / i / vividly imitates the sound of weeping, and / ai / is like the sound of sighing. So the shift of the rhyme produces a sort of self-mockery effect to the audience, meanwhile arouses deep sympathy toward the pure girl in the readers’ heart.<br />
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==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
'''2.1.2 Onomatopoeia'''<br />
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Onomatopoeia means that an object or something is related to some actions which can be imitated by some vivid words. It is one of the rhetorical devices that are widely used in literary works, which makes great efforts to let speech sound vivid and lifelike. There are plenty of onomatopoeias in English and Chinese, though they have different expression forms, they are all used to imitate the sound. Onomatopoetic words can add interest to the work, which also can create aesthetic effect in literary works.<br />
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'''2.1.2 拟声'''<br />
拟声指与能用生动词语来模仿的动作相关的对象或物体。它是文学作品中广泛使用的修辞手段之一，通过不懈努力，让声音听起来生动逼真。 中英文中有许多拟声词，虽然表达形式不同，但都用来模仿声音。 拟声词可以增加作品的趣味性，也可以在文学作品中创造美学效果。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:45, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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拟声是指用一些生动的词汇来模仿某个对象或与动作相关的物体。拟声是在文学作品中广泛运用的修辞手法之一，尽其所能地让演讲听起来更加生动形象。在英语和中文中都有大量的拟声词，尽管它们的表达方式不同，但都用来模仿声音。拟声词能让作品更具趣味性，也可以在文学作品中创造美学效果。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 02:06, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
The onomatopoeias in ''The Border Town'' demonstrate readers with a lively picture and put them in the scene by themselves. Meanwhile, the use of the onomatopoeias also enhances the aesthetic effect of Shen’s literal expressions. It is fortunate that in many cases English and Chinese onomatopoeias can be inter-translated.<br />
《边城》中的拟声词将栩栩如生的画面呈于读者眼前，而且能让读者置身其中。同时，拟声词的运用也增强了沈从文文字表达的审美效果。幸运的是，在很多情况下，英语和汉语的拟声词可以互译。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 13:45, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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通过使用拟声词，《边城》将栩栩如生的画面呈现在读者眼前，让读者仿佛置身其中。同时，运用拟声词也增强了沈氏文学表达中的美学效果。英汉拟声词在很多情况下可以互译，这实属大幸。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:54, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
However, sometimes it is impossible to achieve. So it is often hard for aesthetic subjects to render the onomatopoeias accurately and appropriately. In some translations, Gladys Yang has selected appropriate onomatopoeias of other appropriate words not only to imitate the sound but also to denote the original meanings. In the end, the description becomes more concrete and vivid, as it is showed in examples.<br />
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'''（中英文举例不用翻译）'''<br />
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Example 2: 那黄狗汪汪的吠着，受了惊似的绕屋乱走，有人过渡时，便随船渡过东岸且跑到那小山头向城里一方面大吠。[8]<br />
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Translation: Barking wildly, he dashes round the house. Next time, passengers are ferried across he follows them up the east bank and races up the hill overlooking town, yapping frantically.[9]<br />
然而，有时也很难实现拟声词的英汉互译。因此，对审美主体来说，将拟声词译得精准无误而又恰到好处，这是十分困难的。在戴乃迭的一些翻译中，他会在合适的词语中挑选出合适的拟声词，这不仅模仿了声音形象还传达了原意。最后，这段描写就会更加明确具体，栩栩如生。正如下面例子所示，--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 09:35, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
'''（中英文举例不用翻译）'''<br />
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Example 3: 黄狗为了表示同主人的意见一致，也在翠翠身边汪汪的吠着。[10]<br />
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Translation: To show his agreement, Brownie sets up a furious barking.[11]<br />
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In the two examples, there are three “吠”(fèi, meaning bark)，which is as a modifier of the verb “叫”. In the first translation, Gladys uses “barking wildly” to show the dog’s scare. And the second one is translated into “yapping frantically”, which shows that it’s on duty. And the third one is “furious barking” to show its anger. In Chinese, we can only use different adverbs to modify the same verb. However, the same character in Chinese is translated into three different expressions. In this way, the target readers can understand the original clearly.<br />
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==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
'''2.2 Beauty in lexis'''<br />
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Beauty in lexis is associated with word choice, register, and collocation, and there are many rhetorical devices that contribute to the formal beauty on the lexical level, such as euphemism, zeugma, oxymoron, etc. Shen Congwen, with deep affection to his hometown, writes his fiction in a language as genuine and beautiful as the frontier folk songs in his hometown. His language, which has also enriched the modern vernacularism in China, is imbued with metaphors, local jokes and ballads.<br />
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词汇美与词的选择、语域和搭配有关，词汇层面的形式美有许多修辞手段，如委婉表达、对格法、矛盾修饰法等。沈从文怀着对家乡的深厚感情，用家乡边塞民歌一样真挚美丽的语言，撰写了自己的小说。他的语言中充满了隐喻、地方笑话和民谣，也丰富了中国的现代白话文化。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 01:35, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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词汇美<br />
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词美与词的选择、配位、搭配有关，在词汇层面上，委婉语、理喻、矛盾修辞等修辞手段对形式美有很大贡献。沈从文对家乡有着深厚的感情，他的小说创作语言真实而优美，就像他家乡的边民歌曲。他的语言，也丰富了中国的现代魔术，充满了隐喻，地方笑话和歌谣。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 12:00, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
As for the aesthetic representation on the lexical level, Yang’s English translation have done a satisfactory job in that she attempts to retain the aesthetic features of original lexis as much as possible, though when it comes to the lexis loaded with heavy cultural connotations, due to the cultural untranslatability, the translator has employed domestication to avoid misunderstanding.<br />
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在词汇层面上的审美呈现中，杨的英译做得很好。她尽可能地保留了原文词汇的美学特征。但由于文化的不可译性，词汇有着浓厚的文化内涵，译者采用了归化来避免产生误解。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:13, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''（中英文举例不用翻译）'''<br />
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Example 4: 翠翠在风日里长着，故把皮肤变得黑黑的，触目为青山绿水，故眸子清明如水晶。自然既长养她且教育她，为人天真活泼，处处俨然如一只小怪兽。人又那么乖，如山头黄麂一样，从不想到残忍事情，从不发愁，从不动气。[12]<br />
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Translation: Wind and sun have tanned this growing girl’s skin，her eyes rest on green hills are as clear as crystal. Nature is her mother and teacher, making her innocent, lively and untamed as some small wild creature. She has the gentleness of a fawn and seems not to know the meaning of cruelty, anxiety or anger.[13]<br />
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==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
Shen Congwen's description of Cuicui is based on the perfect combination of a pure little girl and nature. Shen Congwen used “dark black” to describe the natural and healthy skin color of Cuicui. She described the clear and bright eyes of Cuicui as “as clear as crystal”. Only through the description of skin and eyes, the youthful image of Cuicui was vivid. In translation, like “small wild creature” and “fawn”, it shows the lively side of Cuicui.<br />
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沈从文对翠翠的描写是基于单纯小女孩与自然的完美结合。沈从文用“黑”来形容翠翠自然健康的肤色。他形容翠翠清澈明亮的眼睛“像水晶一样清澈”。只有通过对皮肤和眼睛的描写，翠翠青春的形象才显得生动。在翻译中，“小野兽”和“小鹿”这样的词，展现了翠翠活泼的一面。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:59, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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沈从文对翠翠的描写是基于单纯小女孩与自然的完美结合。他用“黝黑”一词来形容翠翠自然健康的肤色，用“像水晶一样清澈”来形容翠翠清澈明亮的眼睛。也只有通过对皮肤和眼睛的描写，翠翠青春的形象才显得生动。在译本中，像“小野兽”和“小鹿”这样的表达也展现了翠翠活泼可爱的一面。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 09:25, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
Therefore, whether or not the aesthetic value of the source language image can be reproduced in the translation becomes the key to the reader's ability to understand Cuicui’s character. For example, “dark black” Gladys Yang uses “tanned” to indicate that her skin is a natural and healthy beauty after the sun has shined.<br />
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因此，译文中源语言形象的美学价值是否能重现，成为了读者理解翠翠性格的关键。比如，格拉迪斯·杨（Gladys Yang）使用“晒黑的”（tanned）这个词来表示自己的皮肤经过阳光的照射以后产生了一种自然美与健康美。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:57, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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因此，原文中的美学价值能否在译文中再现成为了读者能否理解翠翠性格的关键。例如，格拉迪斯·杨（Gladys Yang）使用 “tanned”一词来表示“dark black"（晒黑的），以描述她的皮肤经过太阳照射后，是一种健康自然的美。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 02:42, 23 October 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
'''2.3 Beauty in form'''<br />
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Like sound and lexis transmitting beauty, syntax and paragraphs also carry lots of aesthetic information. There are many differences existing in Chinese and English sentence structures. Chinese sentence is like a bamboo that all structures come out from the base, while English sentence is like a grape tree with branches from the stem and twigs from the branches and the clauses are strictly arranged by the grammatical rules.<br />
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2.3形式美<br />
就像传达美的声音和词语一样，句法和段落也携带着大量的审美信息。汉语和英语在句子结构上存在很大的差异。汉语句子就像竹子一样，所有结构是从地底冒出来。而英语句子就像一棵葡萄树，无论是从枝干到主干，还是从主干到枝干，从句严格按照语法规则整合而成。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 15:25, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.3形式美<br />
正如声音和词汇传递美感一样，句法和段落也携带着大量的美学信息。汉语和英语在句子结构上存在许多差异。汉语句子结构如竹子从其根基长出来一般，而英语句子结构则像是葡萄的主干连着枝干，枝干又连着小分支一样，从句严格按照语法规则整合而成。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 12:12, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
Sentences can express a comprehensive meaning and carries certain aesthetic information. The successful translation is always with a figure, and most works have their own way of using figures of speech to form their own characteristic style. Thus the beauty in form came into being.<br />
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句子可以表达一个完整的意思，并带有一定的美学信息。成功的翻译常常具有一个轮廓，而且大多数作品都有各自运用修辞手法的方式，从而形成其独有的风格。因此，形式美变应运而生了。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:52, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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句子可以表意完整，并带有一定的美学信息。成功的翻译通常会运用修辞，大多数作品都有自己适用的修辞手法，从而形成其独有风格。因此，形式美变应运而生。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 14:15, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
Structural balance and harmony is one of the basic aesthetic principles, and it is obtained with the use of right rhetorical devices. Here the author chooses three typical rhetorical devices: antithesis, parallelism and repetition to express the beauty of sentences in translation. What’s more, the three rhetorical devices have been used in Shen’s ''The Border Town''.<br />
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结构平衡与和谐是基本的美学原则之一，它是通过正确使用修辞手法而获得的。在此，作者选择三种典型的修辞手法：对比、排比和反复来表达翻译中的句子之美。此外，这三种修辞手法已经在沈从文的《边城》中得以使用。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 02:58, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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结构的平衡与和谐是美学的基本原则之一，它是通过正确的修辞手法来实现的。在翻译中，为了表达句子之美，作者选择了三种典型的修辞手法:对偶、排比和重复。此外，这三种修辞手法在《边城》中也有所运用。--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 07:45, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
'''2.3.1 Parallelism'''<br />
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Parallelism is to use repetition in equivalent positions to enhance language expression and pay attention to emphasis, clarity and coherence of opinions. In parallel construction, it is necessary for writers to balance word with word, phrase with phrase, clause with clause, and sentence with sentence. At the same time, importance of grammar should be concerned to strengthen coherence of the sentence. In terms of the syntactic level, parallelism is a sprightly succinct rhetorical device.<br />
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排比是在相同位置重复，以加强语言表达，注重意见的强调、明确及连贯。在排比结构中，作者有必要平衡字与字、词与词、段与段、句与句。与此同时，为加强语句的连贯，还需要考虑语法。在句法层次，排比是一种活跃简明的修辞手段。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 02:36, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Zeng Xinyuan<br />
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==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
The identical meaning, structure or tone appeals to the readers’ eyes and ears, and heightens the readers’ aesthetic experience. It is one of the valid ways to satisfy aesthetic demands of language: balance and concordance in structure, while rhythm and harmony in tonality. The aesthetic information in parallelism is largely showed in the reoccurrence of a specific pattern, which carries lots of aesthetic value to make the original more lively and impressive. So it is widely employed in literary works. There’s no exception in ''The'' ''Border Town''.<br />
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==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
'''（中英举例不用翻译）'''<br />
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Look at the example:<br />
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Example 5: 这事情在本地人并不希奇，边地俗语说：“火是各处可烧的，水是各处可流的，日月是各处可照的，爱情是可各处可到的。”[14]<br />
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Translation: There is nothing strange in these parts, where folk have a saying, “There is no place on earth where fire cannot spread, water flow, sun and moon shine, or love make its way.”[15]<br />
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In this example, the same concise and symmetric sentence structure reoccurred many times. The repetition “各处可”(meaning everywhere) produces rhythm, making the sentence read like a song. By comparing love to fire, water, the sun and the moon, it vividly depicts the honesty, and straightforwardness of the local people.<br />
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==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
In Gladys’ version, she transforms the original parallel structure into a simple sentence and an attributive clause. Concise as it is, it isn’t in line with the writer’s intention and obviously disobeys the style of the original. Although it has transmitted the meaning of the original sentences, it fails to render the aesthetic features of this local saying.<br />
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在格莱迪斯的版本中，她将原来的并列结构转化为一个简单的句子和一个归属句。虽然简洁，但并不符合作者的意图，显然不符合原文的风格。虽然它传递了原句的意思，但却没有渲染出这个地方俗语的审美特征。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 09:15, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在格莱迪斯的版本中，她将原来的并列结构转化为一个简单的句子和一个从属句。虽然简洁，但并不符合作者的意图，显然违背了原文的风格。虽然它传递了原句的意思，但却没有译出这个地方俗语的审美特征。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:18, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在格莱迪斯的译文中，她将原文的平行结构转换成了一个简单句带从属句的句型结构。尽管译文读来较为简洁，但却不符合作者的意图，并且明显违背了原作的风格。虽然传递出了原文的含义，但却没有译出地方俗语的审美特征。--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 09:35, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
'''2.3.2 Antithesis'''<br />
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Antithesis, a rhetoric technique with symmetric form and harmonious tonality, is designed to illustrate different things or aspects of the identical thing by comparison, and the symmetric components can replenish and contrast each other.<br />
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2.3.2 对照<br />
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对照一种形式对称、语调和谐的修辞手法，旨在通过比较来说明同一事物的不同之处或不同方面，对称的部分可以互相补充和对比。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:23, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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对照是一种形式对称、语调和谐的修辞手法，旨在通过比较来说明同一事物的不同之处或不同方面，对照部分可相互补充对比。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 02:43, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Zeng Xinyuan<br />
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==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
'''（中英举例不用翻译）'''<br />
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Look at the example below.<br />
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Example 6: 轻轻的自言自语：“每只船要有个码头，每只雀儿得有个巢。”[16]<br />
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Translation: “Boats have a wharf, birds have a nest.” he murmurs.[17]<br />
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In this sentence, “船”(chuán, meaning boat) and “雀儿”(què ér, meaning bird), “码头”(mǎ tóu, meaning wharf ) and “巢”(cháo, meaning nest) in the Chineses version make an antithesis with each other, and it is well balanced in form. The writer expresses the grandpa’s care to Cuicui. Gladys’s version is structurally well-balanced. However, the utilization of the word “have” in English version fails to show the strong sense of belonging, reducing the aesthetic value of the original. If she use “need” to replace it, I think the aesthetic enjoyment could be realized better.<br />
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请看下面的例子<br />
例6: 轻轻的自言自语：“每只船要有个码头，每只雀儿得有个巢。”[16]<br />
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Translation: “Boats have a wharf, birds have a nest.” he murmurs.[17]<br />
在这个句子中，船”(chuán, meaning boat) and “雀儿”(què ér, meaning bird), “码头”(mǎ tóu, meaning wharf ) and “巢”(cháo, meaning nest) 这几个词都符合对偶的形式，在形式上也非常的平衡。作者用这样一句话体现了爷爷对翠翠的关心。格拉迪斯的版本在结构上很平衡。然而，“have”这个词，在英文中使用时更强调“占有，归属”，这会让句子失去原有的美感。如果作者用“need”一词来代替“have”，橘子便会更赋有美感。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 11:34, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
'''2.3.3 Repetition'''<br />
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From the word of repetition, we know that the same word can be used several times in one sentence. The main function of this rhetoric is to emphasize some things or information. It may help to produce strong aesthetic effect. In The Border Town, Shen Congwen employs repetition deliberately to achieve his purpose of emotive intensification. The intensive repetition can be used as a powerful thematic device.<br />
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==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
'''（中英举例不用翻译）'''<br />
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Here is an example:<br />
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Example 7: 老船夫说：“翠翠我看了个好碾坊，碾盘是新的，水车是新的，屋上稻草也是新的！”[18]<br />
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Translation: “Emerald,” he tells her, “I've just seen a fine mill. Brand-new from the millstone and water-wheel to the thatch on the roof.”[19]<br />
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This sentence vividly reproduces grandfather's psychological state after he has visited the new mill. The repetition of “是新的”(meaning new) for three times echoes each other to highlight how the mill knocks the breath out of grandpa, and strengthen his envy and longing for the mill. Gladys translates it into “Brand-new from... to...”<br />
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这句话生动地再现了爷爷参观完新磨坊后的心理状态。“是新的”三次重复，相互呼应，凸显爷爷看到磨坊后的惊讶，强调其对磨坊的羡慕与憧憬。格拉迪斯（Gladys）将其译成“全新的”。<br />
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==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
Though it fails to keep the symmetric form of the original, it still succeeds in recreating the particular aesthetic effect of the original text. The inverted sentence pattern, the shifted perspective and the emphatic words make up for the loss of the repetition to great extent. Meanwhile, the concise and paralleled sentence structure represents the aesthetic information of the original more appropriately.<br />
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它虽然没有保持原本的对称形式，但却成功地再现了原文特有的审美效果。倒装句式、视角的转换以及强调词在很大程度上弥补了重复的缺失。同时，简体和并列的句子结构更恰当地体现了原文的审美信息。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 04:45, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
'''2.4 Beauty in image'''<br />
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Image in the literary text refers to the output of the subjective intrinsic emotion of the author and the extrinsic objective substances or the incarnation of emotion produced out of language narration. It is the unity of finity and infinity, the unity of the latent and the outstanding.<br />
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2.4 意象美<br />
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文学文本中的意象是指作者的主观内在情感和外在客观物质的输出，或者是由语言叙述产生的情感的化身。 它是无限与无限的统一，潜伏与卓越的统一。--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 16:17, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
'''（中英举例不用翻译）'''<br />
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Example 8: 翠翠温习着两次过节所见所闻的一切，心中很快乐，好像目前有一个东西，同早间在床上闭了眼睛所看到的那种捉摸不定的黄葵花一样，这东西仿佛明朗地在眼前，却看不准，抓不住。[20]<br />
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Translation: Going over two festivals in her mind, happily savoring what she had seen and heard, Emerald has the same sensation as when she closed her eyes in bed in the morning and sees yellow sunflowers just out of reach. Something exciting lies ahead as yet indistinct and intangible, but too lovely to let go.[21]<br />
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This sentence is a psychological description of Cuicui. She recalled the days of last two Dragon Boat Festivals when she encountered Nuosong. Her heart was filled with unnamable expectation. She wished to see Nuosong again.<br />
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这句话是翠翠的心理描写。当她遇到傩送时，她回忆起前两次端午节。她的心充满不可名状的期待。她希望能再次遇到傩送。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:25, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这句话是对翠翠的心理描述。她回忆起前两次端午遇到傩送的日子。她的心里充满了难以形容的期待。她希望能再见到诺宋。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 01:53, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这句话是对翠翠的心理描写。当她回忆起前两次端午节遇到傩送的情景时，心里满是莫名的期待。她多希望能再次见到傩送啊。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 03:12, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
The above sentence describes the sprout of love in Cuicui’s heart which is implicit but brings her sweetness and dream.<br />
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这句话描绘了翠翠心中爱意的萌发，这种爱虽含蓄，却能给她带来甜蜜和希望。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 03:00, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这句话描述了翠翠心中爱情的萌芽，这萌芽虽然含蓄，却给她带来了甜蜜和憧憬。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 08:05, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 10:44, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
The image “黄葵花”(huáng kuí huā, meaning yellow sunflower) symbolizes that the love has planted its seed in Cuicui’s heart, and is in full blossoms which brings Cuicui happiness and which she would like to pluck. In the translated versions, Yang makes uses of literal translation by preserving the image of “黄葵花”and puts it into “yellow sunflower”.<br />
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“黄葵花”象征着爱情在翠翠心中播下了种子，这份爱意盛开着，给翠翠带来幸福，让她直想采撷。 在英译本中，杨元庆采用直译的方法，保留了“黄葵花”的意象，将其译为“yellow sunflower”。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 10:44, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
With the help of the context, it is easy for the target readers to understand the image of “yellow sunflower” and acquire the implicit aesthetic value in it in Yang’s version.<br />
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在语境的帮助下，译文读者理解“黄葵花”的意境以及获取杨的译文中其暗含的审美价值是轻而易举的。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:43, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在语境的帮助下，目标读者易于理解“黄葵花”的形象，并获取杨译文中隐含的审美价值。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:08, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在语境的帮助下，译文读者很容易理解杨的译本中的“黄葵花”形象，并获得其中隐含的审美价值。 --[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 06:02, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
It depicts the hope and happiness in Cuicui’s heart and brings the same enjoyment to target readers as it does to the source readers.<br />
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这描述了翠翠内心的希望和幸福，也给目标语读者带来和源语读者相同的感受。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:12, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
这描写了翠翠心中的希望和幸福，给目标读者带来和源语读者相同的感受。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 09:17, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
这体现出了翠翠内心的期望和喜悦，同时也让目标语读者与源语读者有相同的感受。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 11:38, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
'''2.5 Beauty in ideorealm'''<br />
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Artistic ideorealm is defined as an artistic realm in lyric poetry and other literary works, which is an integration of subjective emotion and objective images and feelings.<br />
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2.5意境美<br />
意境是指抒情诗和其他文学作品中主观情感和客观形象、情感结合的一种艺术境界。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 08:01, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.5意境美<br />
意境是指在抒情诗和其他文学作品中出现的一种艺术境界，是主观情感、客观物体和所感的融合。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 11:25, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
It is characterized as beautiful and implicit as a traditional Chinese painting, which can evoke readers’ association and imagination, and surpasses the concrete vision and ascends an extensive artistic space.<br />
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==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
'''（中英举例不用翻译）'''<br />
<br />
Example 9: 由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这官路将近湘西边境到了一个地方名为‘茶峒’的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只一个老人，一个女孩子，一只黄狗。[22]<br />
<br />
Translation: The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chadong, a small town in the hills. Nearby a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl, and a dog.[23]<br />
<br />
This is the first paragraph of the novel. Like telling a story, it is slow and plain. From what Shen Congwen has described, we can see that he has a special writing style which expresses the beauty of nature.<br />
这是小说的第一段。像讲故事一样，娓娓道来、平铺直叙。根据沈从文的描述，我们发现他对于表现自然之美有着独特的写作风格。--[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 15:23, 21 October 2020 (UTC)Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
Here, the writer uses seven “一”(yī, meaning one) in all, and every one describes different images. What’s more, “一”represents Shen’s melancholy aesthetic sentiment and creation view.<br />
<br />
作者在这里总共使用了七个“一”（yī，一个），每个描述了不同的图像。更重要的是，“一”代表了沈忧郁的审美情怀和创作观。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 09:05, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在这里，作者总共使用了七个“一”（yī，意为一个），每个“一”都描述了不同的图像。 更重要的是，“一”代表了沈他忧郁的审美情怀和创作观。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 10:22, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
Shen uses the rhetorical device of anadiplosis which means repeating the ending words of the precedent sentence in the following sentence. This kind of discourse progression mode is not only good for the coherence of narrative and understanding of discourse but also full of interest.<br />
深使用顶针的修辞手法，这种修辞指的是在下一句中重复上一句的尾字。这种语篇推进的模式不仅有利于叙述的连贯和语篇的理解，而且富有趣味。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 02:05, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
沈使用顶针的修辞手法，顶针是指在下一句中重复上一句的尾词。这种语篇推进模式不仅对叙述的连贯性和语篇的理解有益，而且趣味盎然。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:17, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
Gladys thoroughly adverts to the aesthetic connotation and narrative techniques contain in “一” of the original text and strive for “formal similarity” and “spiritual similarity”. In sentence structure, Gladys retains the anadiplosis rhetorical device like “一”.<br />
<br />
<br />
格拉迪斯特别注重审美内涵和叙事技巧在原文中包含于一，努力达到“形似”和“神似”。在句子结构上，格拉迪斯也保留了顶真修辞手法。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:52, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
格拉迪斯特别注重原文“一”所蕴含的美学内涵和叙事技巧，力求达到“形似”和“神似”。在句子结构上，格拉迪斯保留了“一”这样的顶真修辞手法。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 08:49, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
More importantly, the static beauty of the original text has been changed into dynamic beauty by the recreation of the translator. To sum up, the whole translation is simple and fluent which correspond to the intangible and solitary artistic conception in the original text.<br />
<br />
更值得一提的是，通过译者的再创造，原文的静态美被转换成了动态美。总的说来，整段译文简洁而又流畅，没有破坏原文孤独朦胧的意境。--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 09:36, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
更重要的是，经过译者的再创造，原文的静态美变成了动态美。总的来说，整个译文简洁流畅，与原文中无形而孤独的意境相对应。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:30, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
'''（中英举例不用翻译）'''<br />
<br />
Example 10: 那首歌声音既极柔和，快乐中又微带忧郁，唱完了歌，翠翠觉得心上有一丝儿凄凉。她想起秋末酬神还愿时田坪中的火燎同鼓角。远处鼓声已起来了，她知道绘有朱红长线的龙船这时节已下河了。细雨依然落个不止，溪面一片烟.[24]<br />
<br />
Translation: This gay, haunting melody has an undertone of sadness, making Emerald feel a pang of loneliness. Her thoughts fly to the bonfires and drumming in the fields to welcome the spirits at the end of autumn. Meanwhile drums sound up in the distance. The long crimson dragon boats will soon be staring their race. A light rain falls steadily, the stream is misted over.[25]<br />
<br />
In this example, Gladys’ translation almost reaches the realm of “spirit likeness”. In the wording, she not only carefully uses some expressive words but blends her own aesthetic attitude and aesthetic ideas into translation. Cuicui has stirred her love since she met Nousong two years ago on Dragon Boat Festival.<br />
在这个例子中，格拉迪斯的翻译几乎达到了“神似”的境界。 在措词上，她不仅小心翼翼地使用一些表达性词语，而且将自己的审美态度和审美观念融合到了翻译当中。 自两年前在端午节遇见Nousong以来，翠翠就爱上了他。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 10:17, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
Henceforth, she has a load in her mind, which is nothing to do with her grandfather. Dragon Boat Festival comes again, and Cuicui sits alone on the ferryboat, waiting for her grandfather. Then she go to see the dragon boat race together with him in town, where she may meet Nuosong again.<br />
<br />
因此，她便有了一桩心事，这件事不关祖父。龙舟节再次到了，翠翠一人坐在渡船上，等着祖父。然后他们一起进城去看龙舟比赛，在那里她可能再次碰到挪送。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 02:09, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
从此以后，她便有了一桩心事，这事与祖父无关。龙舟节又到了，翠翠一人坐在渡船上等着祖父。然后他们一起进城去看龙舟比赛，或许在那儿，她还能碰到傩送。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 13:06, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
The example above come about after Cuicui chanted a folk song on the ferryboat. The lonely and gloomy scenic description to some degree symbolizes that Cuicui’s love will end in tragedy. The repetition, though merely a few characters, forms an echo which achieves the artistic effect of inexhaustible sadness and sympathy of the readers toward Cuicui.<br />
<br />
上述例子中的事情发生在翠翠在渡船上吟唱起了民谣之后。这冷清孤寂的景象描写在一定程度上象征了翠翠的爱情将以悲剧结尾。尽管只有寥寥几个字，而其重复引起的共鸣就实现了艺术效果，引发了读者对翠翠无尽的悲伤与同情。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 01:48, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
上述例子发生于翠翠在渡筏上吟唱民谣之后。这孤寂阴郁的景象描写在一定程度上象征了翠翠的爱情将以悲剧结尾。尽管寥寥数语，但这重复引起了共鸣，实现了读者对翠翠无尽悲伤与同情的艺术效果。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 03:20, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
上述例子发生于翠翠在渡筏上吟唱民谣之后，其孤寂阴郁的景象描写在一定程度上象征了翠翠的爱情将以悲剧结尾。尽管寥寥数语，但这重复引起了读者的共鸣，达到了让读者对翠翠的境遇产生无尽悲伤与同情的艺术效果。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 08:47, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
'''3 Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
After the research and analysis, the author has found that Translation Aesthetics can be regarded as a criteria to evaluate literary works. The unique aesthetic characteristics in literature indicate that Translation Aesthetics is an effective and practical theory to analyze literature translation. A good literary translation should fully express the literary features and artistic connotations of literary works, embody the aesthetic value of the works, and make the readers realize the infinite charm of oriental art and the great vitality of literary works.<br />
<br />
3.结语<br />
通过研究和分析，笔者发现翻译美学可以作为评价文学作品的一个标准。文学独特的审美特征表明，翻译美学是分析文学翻译时有效而实用的理论。一个好的文学翻译应该充分表现文学作品的文学特征和艺术内涵，体现作品的审美价值，让读者认识到东方艺术的无限魅力和文学作品的伟大生命力。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 11:17, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
On the one hand, it is necessary to reproduce the linguistic features of literary works in a proper and flexible way. On the other hand, it is necessary to take into account the cognitive level and understanding ability of readers in different countries, so as to maximize the aesthetic charm of literary works.<br />
<br />
一来，要用恰到好处，灵活应变的方式再现文学作品的语言特点。再者，要考虑到不同国家读者的认知水平和理解能力，使文学作品的美学魅力发挥到极致。--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 09:47, 23 October 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
一方面，有必要用恰到好处，灵活应变的方式再现文学作品的语言特征。 另一方面，有必要考虑不同国家读者的认知水平和理解能力，使文学作品的美学魅力发挥到极致。--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 16:21, 23 October 2020 (UTC)</div>Hu Huifanghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201019_trans&diff=10182020201019 trans2020-10-25T11:44:05Z<p>Hu Huifang: /* Hu Huifang 胡慧芳 */ --~~~~--~~~~</p>
<hr />
<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
Acknowledgement<br />
<br />
I am indebted to the more than 300 students of the Master Course "Introduction to Translation Studies" conducted in the two fall terms 2019/2020 and 2020/2021 at Hunan Normal University, Foreign Studies College. They have enriched this monograph with their ideas, their creativity and the top students even have contributed short passages to this book on single aspects. They have also helped to arrange that the monograph could appear in different languages simultaneously.<br />
The Foreign Studies College is one of the top places of Translation and Interpreting Studies in China.<br />
<br />
致谢<br />
<br />
我衷心感谢在湖南师范大学外国语学院两个秋季学期（2019/2020和2020/2021）开设的“翻译学概论”硕士学位课程的300多名学生。他们用自己的想法和创造力丰富了这本专著的内容，尖子生们甚至还为书中的章节撰写了简短的文章。这些学生还负责将这本专著翻译成不同的语言。湖南师范大学外国语学院在中国翻译与口译研究的顶尖领域具有一席之地。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 03:40, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
致谢<br />
<br />
我衷心感谢三百多名学生在湖南师范大学外国语学院2019年和2020年秋季修读了“翻译学概论”这门硕士课程。这些学生用自己的想法以及创造使本书更为丰富，其中，甚至一些尖子生还为本书的某些内容撰写了简短的文章，他们帮助安排这本书能同时以不同的语言进行出版，湖南师范大学外国语学院已成为中国翻译和口译研究的最高学府之一。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 05:09, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
Foreword<br />
<br />
Interpretation theories and interpretation studies are as old as human languages, since interpretation practise is not just necessary between full fledged languages, but is practised as soon as two different individuals meet, like a grandmother and her grandchild. The first lay interpreters naturally reflected on their interpreting work and this was the start of theories and studies. As soon as written language was invented, critical reflection also started and with it translation theories and translation studies.<br />
<br />
序言<br />
<br />
与人类语言一样，口译理论与口译研究也很古老，因为在完全成熟的语言之间，口译实践不仅是必要的，而且只要两个个体相遇，比如祖母和孙子，实践就会产生。最初的外行口译人员很自然地会反思他们的翻译工作，这就是理论和研究的起点。书面语言一经发明，批判反思也就开始了，随之而来的就是翻译理论和翻译研究。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 12:05, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
序言<br />
<br />
口译实践并不只会出现在两种完全成熟的语言之间，其实，只要两个不同的个体相遇，比如祖孙之间，就会产生这一实践，因此，口译理论以及口译研究同人类语言一样古老。第一批缺乏经验的口译人员本能地反映他们的口译工作，这也就促成了理论和研究的诞生。书面语言产生后，批判反思也随即应运而生，紧随其后的还有翻译理论以及翻译研究。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 02:17, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
The first thoughts about transponing the meaning of one language into a similar one of another language were prescriptive with precepts and principles, sometimes exaggerated into dogma and people not adhering to them being tortured or murdered.<br />
<br />
In the 1960s, the translation studies started to become aware of itself as an academic discipline.<br />
<br />
起初，关于将一种语言转化为另一种类似语言的观点是受一定戒律与原则规范的，这种观点有时还被夸大为教条，而不遵循这一约束的人则遭到酷刑或谋杀。<br />
<br />
到20世纪60年代，翻译学开始意识到自己是一门学科。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 12:54, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
起初，将一种语言转化为另一种类似语言是受一定戒律、原则、甚至是教条所规范的，而不遵循这些约束的人则遭到酷刑或谋杀。<br />
到20世纪60年代，翻译学开始意识到自己是一门学术学科。<br />
--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 05:10, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
'''I. Introduction'''<br />
<br />
Translating sets forth on its journey a long time ago. It has been over 2200 years since Livius Andronicus translated Homer’s Odyssey from Greek into Latin around 250 BC, which is the earliest activity of translating from recorded history. Throughout history, translation is not only involved in politics,culture, religion, language and so forth, but also keeps changing as times and social conditions roll on. On grounds of the changes of targets and contents of translation history, considering the specific periods of people’s apprehension of translation and the roles translation plays in society of different times, researchers divided the history of western translation into 3 parts, translation of religious materials, translation of literary classics and translation of non-literary materials. <br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
The division of western translation history varies from person to person in circles of translation. Generally speaking, from about 250 BC when people translated ''Septuagint'' into Greek to the 16th century when the translation of the Bible prevailed, it is the historical period of translating religious materials, followed by period of translation of literature mainly from literary classics and great works of social sciences.(Wu & Shu 2011:76) After the Second World War, however, translation of non-literary and practical materials began to exert influence as a major force.在翻译界，人们对西方翻译史的划分各不相同。一般来说，从大约公元前250年，人们把《圣经旧约》翻译成希腊语，到十六世纪圣经翻译的盛行，这一时期是宗教素材翻译的历史时期，紧随其后的是文学翻译时期，主要以文学经典著作以及社会科学巨著为主。（吴&纾 2011:76）但是，第二次世界大战以后，非文学翻译和实用材料的翻译开始发挥主要作用。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 01:48, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
西方翻译史的划分在翻译界因人而异。一般来说，从公元前250年左右，人们把《圣经旧约》翻译成希腊语，到16世纪圣经翻译开始盛行。这一时期是宗教素材翻译的历史性时期，其次是主要以文学经典和社会科学巨著为素材的翻译时期。(吴淑仪，2011：76)第二次世界大战后，非文学材料和实用材料的翻译开始作为主力产生影响。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 07:43, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
In the west, studies on translation practices and theories have walked through the recorded history of over two thousand years, which is very close to the one in China. Nevertheless, China had made little progress with translation studies because of closed-door policy. Before years around 1980s, the systematic study on theories of western translation had been left incomplete in China, where few books and papers related were published. And even in the western countries, there existed similar situations. However, studies on theories of western translation has made appreciable development since 1980s, especially the books on history of western translation theory written by Rener, Robinson, etc.<br />
有历史记载以来，西方有关翻译实践和理论的研究已有2000多年的历史，中国也差不多。然而，由于闭关锁国政策，中国在翻译研究方向并没有取得什么进展。大约1980年代以前，中国有关西方翻译理论的系统性研究并不完整，只有少量的书和相关论文发表。甚至一些西方国家也有类似的情况。然而自1980年代起西方翻译理论的研究取得了良好的进展，尤其是Rener，Robinson等人有关西方翻译理论历史的书籍。<br />
<br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
These books and materials are indisputably of great value for us to take a closer look at theories of western translation, yet it is very hard for people of Chinese cultures to search, unearth and analyse the history of translation theories in the backgrounds of western cultures. As Tan Zaixi put it in his book ''The Brief History of Western Translation'', “From ancient times, translation in the west has been proceeding for over two thousand years, along with extraordinary translators and divergent theories, which can not be expound within twenty or thirty thousand words.”(Tan 1991:1) And for translation studies as a independent discipline, it is a very meaningful job to study translation and its theories from all over the world, which includes the western translation theories.<br />
<br />
在我对西方翻译理论进行更为深入的了解过程中，这些书和材料无疑有着极大的价值，然而对于中国文化背景的人来说，在西方文化背景下查找，挖掘以及分析翻译理论发展历史是非常不容易的。正如谭载喜在《西方翻译简史》中所提到的那样：“从古至今，西方翻译和杰出翻译家及不同翻译理论已经经历了2000多年的历史，仅用2万或是3万字是阐述不清楚的。”（谭 1991:1）翻译学作为一门独立学科对于研究翻译和世界各国翻译理论（包括西方翻译理论）是极具意义的。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 06:40, 23 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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这些书籍和资料无疑对我们深入研究西方翻译理论具有重要价值，但对于中国文化界人士来说，在西方文化背景下对翻译理论的历史进行探索、发掘和分析是非常困难的。正如谭载喜在其《西方翻译简史》中所写：“西方翻译从古至今已有两千多年的历史，有着杰出的译者和不同的理论，这不是两三万字就能解释清楚的。”(谭1991:1)翻译研究作为一门独立的学科，研究包括西方翻译理论在内的世界各国的翻译及其理论，是一项非常有意义的工作。--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 01:53, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
Accordingly, while studying the history of western translation theories, we must understand the necessity of describing the development of western translation theories in a proper way and figure out how they are classified, especially for theories of modern and contemporary times. Based on the fundamental way of studying translation or ideologies of various schools, now people would usually divide translation studies into literary school, linguistic school and cultural school.<br />
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因此，在研究西方翻译理论的历史时，我们必须认识到正确描述西方翻译理论发展及明确其分类的必要性，尤其是近现代的翻译理论。基于研究翻译或各流派的意识形态的基本方式，现在人们通常会将翻译研究分为文学学派、语言学派和文化学派。--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 01:32, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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因此，我们在研究西方翻译理论发展史时，必须明白合理描述西方翻译理论发展并弄清其分类（尤其是现代西方翻译理论和当代西方翻译理论）的必要性。基于翻译学研究的基本方法和各大学派的意识形态，当今的翻译学研究可分为文学学派、语言学学派和文化学派。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 02:13, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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因此，在研究西方翻译理论发展史的时候，我们必须深谙，用合理方式描述西方翻译理论的发展，弄清楚如何将翻译理论分类，是非常必要的。在研究现代和当代翻译理论的时候，更需要如此。基于各流派研究翻译或者意识形态的基本方式，人们现在通常把翻译研究分为文学学派、语言学派和文化学派。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:27, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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因此，在研究西方翻译理论发展史时，我们必须认识到，以适当的方式描述西方翻译理论发展以及弄清楚它们的分类方式是十分有必要的，特别是那些现当代的理论。根据研究翻译的基本方法或各种学派的思想，现在人们通常将翻译研究分为文学学派、语言学派和文化学派。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 08:34, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
The literary school includes the traditional philological approach and the hermernutic approach; the linguistic school consists of the equivalence approach, the functional approach and the cognitive approach; the cultural school covers translation studies approach, deconstruction approach, feminism approach, post-colonial approach and the integrated approach, of which translation studies approach can be further divided into polysystem theory, the norm theory and the manipulation theory. By contributing new thoughts to this discussion, the study aims to reach more consensus among translation studies scholars in this aspect.<br />
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文学学派包括传统的语文学方法和解释学方法；语言学学派包括对等法、功能法和认知学方法；文化学派涵盖翻译学研究方法、解构法、女性主义方法、后殖民主义方法和合成法。其中翻译学研究方法又可再分为多元系统理论、标准理论和控制理论。上述理论为本研究提供了很多新理念。故本研究旨在让翻译学研究者在这一方面达成更多共识。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 02:05, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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文学学派包括传统语文学方法和解释学方法：语言学学派包括对等方法、功能性方法和认知学方法； 文化学派包括翻译学研究、解构法、女性主义法、后殖民方法和整合法，翻译学研究又可再分为多元系统理论，标准理论和操控理论。通过在这个论述中注入更多的新思想，这个研究旨在使更多的翻译学研究学者在这方面达成共识。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 14:37, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
'''II. School Classification''' <br />
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Beyond dispute, it’s practicable that people describe the history of western translation theories by dividing them into different schools in light of theories and ideologies of translation studies. With the modernization and integration of economy in western society, western translation theories also begin to get over the hurdles in the way of mutual development and blur the distinction among nationalities, which makes it harder to owe some ideology or theory of translation to a certain country or area. For instance, Gideon Toury was famous in the west but lived in Israel.<br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
In contrast, when some ideology or theory is proposed by someone in some place, it can probably be responded to or supported by scholars from all corners of the world. They hold it up totally out of agreement with the points someone makes, not necessarily where the points come from. Another example, Eugene A. Nida, who put forward the idea of “functional equivalence”, is American, but Kade, who is his supporter, comes from German. Therefore, it might be easier to understand the present situation and trends of western translation theories from levels of translation schools and ideologies, especially for theories of contemporary and modern times.<br />
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相反，某个地区某位学者提出某种观念或者理论的时候，会受到世界各地学者的回应和支持。他们支持这一观点仅仅是因为认同，而非刻意地关注其来源。再如，提出“功能对等”理论的学者尤金·奈达（Eugene A. Nida）是美国人，而他的支持者凯德（Kade）却来自德国。因此，从翻译流派和意识形态，尤其是现当代理论的层面来理解西方翻译理论的现状和趋势也许会更容易一点。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 11:26, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
相反，当某个地方的某个人提出某种意识形态或理论时，很有可能会得到来自全世界各地学者的响应和支持。他们同意别人的观点，而不考虑这些观点的出处。再如，提出“功能对等”思想的尤金•奈达是美国人，而支持他的是德国人凯德。因此，从翻译流派和意识层面，特别是近现代的翻译理论层面来理解西方翻译理论现状和发展趋势会更容易。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 06:00, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
As one would expect, it is just one of the methods to classify western translation theories on the basis of translation schools or ideologies. From a perspective of historical development, it would be a more traditional way to classify western translation theories by times and nations. This diachronic way of studying it helps to organize the historical materials clearly and make profitable comparisons among traditions and characteristics of translation theories among western countries and regions, which enables people to understand the distribution and trends of western translation theories with an open mind. On the other hand, the diachronic way also describes the divergence and amalgamation of western translation theories.<br />
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正如人们所期望的那样，它只是根据翻译学派或意识形态对西方翻译理论进行分类的方法之一。 从历史发展的角度来看，将西方翻译理论按时间和国家分类是一种更为传统的方法。 这种历时性的研究方法有助于清晰地整理历史资料，并在西方国家和地区之间对翻译理论的传统和特征进行有益的比较，使人们能够以开放的思想来理解西方翻译理论的分布和趋势。 另一方面，历时性方法也表现了西方翻译理论的分歧和融合。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:52, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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正如人们所想，根据翻译流派或意识形态对西方翻译理论进行分类只是其中一种方法。从历史发展的角度看，将西方翻译理论按时代和民族分类是一种比较传统的方法。这种历时性的研究方法有助于理清史料，也有利于对西方国家和地区翻译理论的传统和特点进行比较，这使人们能够虚心地了解西方翻译理论的分布和发展趋势。另一方面，这种研究方法也描述了西方翻译理论的分歧与融合。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 05:29, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
To give an example, the debate between free and literal translation never ends during which the eclecticism occurred and then literal translation was overtaken by free translation; the transfer from regarding the words as translation units to viewing sentences, discourses and even the whole passages as translation units... and so on. Despite that, as for studies on western translation theories, it is not the best way to do it only by a certain means. If we completely choose the way of describing the history of western translation theories by dividing them into different schools in light of theories and ideologies of translation studies, the relation between translation theories and specific cultural environment of society may be ambiguous and so is the relation between diachronic and synchronic development of translation.<br />
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举个例子，意译与直译之间的争论从未停止。在这个争论的期间，先是出现了折衷主义，然后又是意译占领了主导地位；翻译也从以词为单位，转变到了以句子、语篇甚至整篇文章为单位...诸如此类。尽管如此，在我们研究西方翻译理论的时候，仅采用某种单一的手段并不是最好的方法。如果我们完全按照翻译研究的理论和意识形态来将西方翻译理论划分为不同的流派，从而阐述西方翻译理论史的话，可能会模糊翻译理论与特定的社会文化环境之间的关系，同样也可能模糊翻译的历时性发展和共时性发展之间的关系。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 08:18, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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例如，意译与直译之争从未结束，直到折衷主义的出现，直译才被意译取代；翻译单位也在发生转变，从以词为翻译单位转变为以句子，语篇乃至整篇文章为翻译单位······等等。 尽管如此，仅靠某种方法去研究西方翻译理论并不是最好的方法。 如果完全按照翻译研究的理论和意识形态将西方翻译理论划分为不同的流派并研究其发展历史，那么翻译理论与特定社会文化环境的关系，翻译的历时发展与共时发展的关系就可能是模糊不清的。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 10:57, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
If we only decide on a more traditional way to classify western translation theories by times and nations, our research and description will inevitably be in need of subjects of translation theories. To avoid such deficiencies, we must adopt a way combining both means mentioned above to study western translation theories. In other words, we must take into consideration not only the historical connection between theories and ideas of translation but also the relation of translation theories with the specific social and cultural environment. Only by doing so, our research would be able to describe the whole process of western translation theories from an objective perspective. <br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
From what we have mentioned above, we view western translation theories from two sides. First, we view it from the respect of historical development steadily. Cicero, was the first translation theorist in the west during times of Roman empire. As a rhetorician and orator, he categorized translation into ones by “ut interpres” and “ut orator” for the first time. Translation by “ut interpres” means translation of no creativity but translation by “ut orator” means translation of creativity which may even rival the original.<br />
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根据上诉所言，我们可以从两方面看待翻译理论。首先：我们从历史发展角度来看，西塞罗是罗马帝国时期，第一个西方翻译理论家。西塞罗是个修辞学家，也是个演说家，他第一次把翻译分成“解释员”式和“演说家”式。“解释员”式翻译在翻译过程中没有创造性,而“演说家式”翻译富有创造性，这种译文甚至能媲美原文。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 02:16, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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如上所述，我们可以从两方面看待翻译理论。首先，我们从历史发展角度来看，西塞罗是罗马帝国时期，第一个西方翻译理论家。作为修辞学家，同时也是演说家，西塞罗第一次把翻译分成“解说员”式和“演说家”式。“解说员”式翻译在翻译过程中没有创造性,而“演说家式”翻译富有创造性，甚至可能媲美原文。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 02:12, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
通过如上所述，我们可以从两方面看待西方翻译理论。 首先，从历史稳定发展的角度看，西塞罗是罗马帝国时期的第一位西方翻译理论家。作为一名修辞家和演说家，西塞罗首次将翻译分为“解说员”式和“演说家”式。前者的翻译意味着翻译过程中没有创造性的翻译，而后者的翻译则包含创造性翻译，这样的翻译甚至能与原文相媲美。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 02:30, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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根据上诉所言，我们可以从两方面看待西方翻译理论。首先是历史发展的角度。西塞罗是罗马帝国时期第一个西方翻译理论家。他不仅是个修辞学家，也是个演说家，首次把翻译分成“解释员”式和“演说家”式。“解释员”式翻译在翻译过程中没有创造性,而“演说家式”翻译富有创造性，这种译文甚至能媲美原文。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 02:22, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
As a matter of fact, Cicero put forward two fundamental ways of translating and pioneered the study of theories and methods of translation. Since Cicero’s studies on translation, western translation theories have been dealing with arguments between free translation and literal translation, word-for-word translation and excessively free translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness and so forth.<br />
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实际上，西塞罗提出了两种基本翻译方法，是翻译理论研究和翻译方法研究的先锋。自西塞罗的翻译研究开始，西方翻译理论在意译还是直译、字对字的翻译还是大篇幅意译、遵循忠实原则还是不忠实原则等方面众说纷纭。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:18, 22 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
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实际上，西塞罗提出了两种基本翻译方法，率先研究翻译理论和翻译方法。自从西塞罗进行翻译研究后，西方翻译理论就意译与直译、逐字翻译与过度意译、忠实与不忠实等方面一直争论不休。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 01:54, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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事实上，西塞罗提出了两种基本的翻译方法并且率先进行了翻译理论和翻译方法的研究。自从西塞罗进行了翻译的研究以后，西方翻译理论就意译与直译、逐字翻译与过度意译、忠实与不忠等问题一直争论不休。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:30, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
Besides Cicero, there are an abundance of excellent translation theorists in western translation history, who have proposed assorted theories and ideas from different angles in different times. In ancient times, aside from Cicero’s categorization of “literal translation” and “free translation”, Marcus Fabius Quintlianus thought that the target ought to compete with the original; St. Jerome believed that people were supposed to follow the rules of literal translation when translating ''the Bible'' and use free translation when it came to literary classics; St. Augustine held the view that translation was inspired by God.<br />
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在西方翻译史上，除了西塞罗之外，还有许多优秀的翻译理论家，他们在不同时期从不同角度提出了各种各样的理论和思想。在古代，除了西塞罗对“直译”和“意译”的分类外，马库斯·法比尤斯·昆体良（Marcus Fabius Quntinlianus）主张译文应该与原文竞争；圣杰罗姆（St. Jerome）认为人们在翻译圣经时应该遵循直译的原则，而翻译经典文学作品时应该遵循意译的原则；圣奥古斯丁（St. Augustine）认为翻译是凭上帝的启示。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 10:58, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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除了西塞罗，西方翻译史上还有许多杰出的翻译理论家，他们在不同时期从不同角度提出了各种理论和观点。在古代，除了西塞罗对“直译”和“意译”的分类外，马库斯·法比尤斯·昆体良（Marcus Fabius Quntinlianus）主张目标语应当和源语不相上下。圣·杰罗姆（St. Jerome）认为圣经的翻译应遵循直译原则，而翻译文学经典时则采用意译。圣·奥古斯丁（St. Augustine）认为翻译受到了上帝的启示。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 16:13, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
In the Middle Ages, Manlius Boethius promoted the literal translation that would rather keep “faithful” than “elegant”; Dante was of the opinion that “works of literature are untranslatable”. During the Renaissance, Desiderius Erasmus believed that translation was not a subjection to authority of religious beliefs and translation of ''the Bible'' depended on the language of a translator; Martin Luther held the view of humanism that texts must be rendered in the people’s language; Etienne Dolet reckoned that people translated on “five principles” of understanding the content of the original, being proficient in the original language and the target language, avoiding word-for-word translation, expounding in simple languages and focusing on the style of the target text.<br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
From the 17th to 19th century, Charles Batteux was of the opinion that author was the master and translator was the servant, whose work were not allowed to be amplified, to omit and change the wording of the original; John Dryden categorized translating into metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation and he thought translation was some kind of art; Tytler put forward three principles that the target reflected the ideas exactly the original conveyed, the style and skills the target used should be of the same characteristics of the original and the target should be as expressive as the original; Friedrich Schleiermacher made a distinction between translation and interpretation, literal translation and mechanical translation; Humboldt believed his theories that language decided the translatability and untranslatability of the world; Matthew Arnold thought whether a translation was good or not depended on the experts; Francis W. Newman had the idea that it were common readers, not the experts,who determined the criteria of translation.<br />
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从17世纪到19世纪，不少翻译家谈到了原作者与译者之间的关系，夏尔·巴托便是其中之一。在他看来，原作者应为主人，译者为仆人。但凡放大译者职能、遗漏或篡改原文文意等行为，都是不被允许的；约翰·德莱顿将翻译分为直译、意译和拟译，他认为翻译是一种艺术；泰特勒推演出翻译的三条原则，即1）译文应当准确反映出原文想表达的意义；2）译文中采用的风格和技巧应当与原文一致；3）译文应当像原文一样具有感染力。弗里德里希·施莱尔马赫将口译和笔译、直译和机翻区别开来；洪保德认为语言决定了可译性或不可译性；马修·阿诺德觉得一篇译文的好坏与否掌握在评判专家手中；而纽曼则认为制定翻译标准的不是专家们，而是普通读者。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 11:20, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
In the 20th century, we have Fedolov’s theories that people should study translation theories from linguistics first and translation theories is categorized into history, introduction and arguments of translation; we have Roman Jakobson’s three classification of interlingual translation, intralingual translation and intersemiotic translation; we have Levy’s thoughts that “translating should make reader have an illusion of the original”, “translating is a deciding process”; we have Gachechiladze’s theories on literary translation that “translation is always a artistic and realistic reflection of the original” and “ translation of literature and art is a artistic work”; <br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
we have Carford’s theories of linguistics that translation should reach an equivalence of context; Nida thought “translating is a science”, “translating is communicating” and there exists equivalence between the readers of the original and the target; Mounin’s view of modern linguistics on translation theories; emphasized that the target needed to break the limits of the original. All the thoughts and ideas mentioned above have constituted the most essential parts of western translation theories.<br />
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<br />
卡福德认为翻译需追求文本对等；奈达认为翻译是一门科学也是一门交际，原文读者和译文读者应获得同样的理解；缪宁认为当代语言学在于翻译理论；保尔•瓦雷里认为译文需打破原文的限制。各翻译家的见解构成了西方翻译主要理论。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 07:00, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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卡福德的语言学理论认为，翻译需追求文本对等；奈达认为翻译是一门科学也是一门交际，好的译文应当使译文读者与原文读者有同样的反应；缪宁则从现代语言学角度来分析翻译理论；保尔·瓦雷认为译文需打破原文的束缚。上述各见解构成了西方翻译的基本理论。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 07:14, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
卡福德的语言学理论认为，翻译应文本对等；奈达认为翻译是一门科学也是一门交际，好的译文应当使译文读者与原文读者有同样的反应；缪宁则从现代语言学角度来分析翻译理论；保尔·瓦雷认为译文需打破原文的束缚。上述观点是西方翻译理论的主要观点。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 07:46, 22 October 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
Furthermore, we could look at the whole system of western translation theories from the other side, which is the schools of ideology. There are two branches of it: translation theories of literature and art and linguistics theories of translation. The school of translation of literature and art stems from the early drama by Terentius in Ancient Rome, ucceeded by Levy and Gachechiladze in modern times, and continues to thrive in the 21st century.<br />
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甚者，我们可以从另一面-也就是理想学派，来整体的看西方翻译理论。其中存在两个分支：文学与艺术翻译理论和翻译的语言学理论。文学与艺术翻译学派起源于早期的戏剧由古罗马泰伦提乌斯提出和现代的<br />
利维和加切奇拉泽继承并且在21世纪继续繁荣发展。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 14:24, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
此外，我们还可以从另一个角度来看待西方翻译理论的整个体系，即意识形态流派。它有两个分支：文艺翻译理论和语言学翻译理论。文艺翻译学派起源于古罗马特伦提乌斯的早期戏剧，近代以利维和加契拉泽为代表，并在21世纪继续蓬勃发展。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 03:09, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
<br />
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
People of this branch perceive translation as a kind of literary art, which draws attention to recreation of literature. Theorists have been discussing the defects and merits between faithfulness and unfaithfulness, word-for-word translation and excessively free translation, literal translation and free translation and so on. Besides, they also foreground the purposes and effects of translation. They stress both the original and the literary attributes of the language of it., as well as the idiomatic expression and tradition of literature of the original that people must respect whiling translating. They not only zero in on the style and literariness of the text very much but the talent of literature a translator or interpreter should possess.<br />
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这个分支的人把翻译作为一种文学艺术，引起了人们对文学娱乐的关注。理论家们一直在讨论忠实与不忠、逐字翻译和过度自由翻译、直译和自由翻译之间的缺陷和优点。除此之外，他们也强调翻译的目的和效果。他们也都强调翻译语言的原创性和文学性，以及成语性词语。在翻译时，人们必须尊重原始表达和文学传统。他们不仅非常重视文本的风格和文学性，而且笔译或者口译人员应具备文学才能。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:18, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这一分支的人把翻译看作是一种文学艺术，这就引起了对文学再创造的关注。理论家们一直在讨论忠实与不忠实、逐字翻译与过度意译、直译与意译等方面的优缺点。此外，他们还强调了翻译的目的和效果。他们同时强调翻译语言的原始属性和文学属性，以及在翻译时，人们必须尊重原文的惯用表达和文学传统。他们不仅十分注重文本的风格和文学性，还注重译者应具备的文学才能。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 06:02, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
<br />
The school of linguistic theories of translation is from Augustine and people of traditional linguistics or philology in Ancient Rome to various schools of modern linguistics in the 20th and 21st century. For this situation, the core lies in language. People of this school, who think that the goal of translating is to reach the equivalence between the original and the target, combine translation theories with analysis of semantic and syntactic functions and talk on issues of translation from the characteristics of structure and sentence-making skills of a language so as to show how the equivalent texts are made from words, grammars and other features of a language.<br />
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语言学翻译理论学派包从古罗马的奥古斯丁和学习传统语言学或语言学的人，到20世纪和21世纪现代语言学的各个学派。从这一点来看，这一学派的核心在于语言。这一学派的学者，认为翻译的目的是达到原文与目标语之间的等值，他们把翻译理论与语义、句法功能的分析结合起来，从语言的结构特点和造句技巧来谈论翻译问题，从而说明对等文本是如何由词语、语法等其他语言特点构成的。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 07:06, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
From either branches we can see that they have their own advantages and disadvantages. Translation theories of literature and art give an emphasis to the purposes and results of translating and the artistic effects from a macroscopic view, but neither pay much heed to practical process of translating and skills of using a language nor care about whether the target and the original reach the equivalence of structures. Linguistics theories of translation is also not spotless because some theories don’t stress the aesthetic functions and ignore the recurrences of works of literature and art. They mostly focus on the structure of a language to and theoretically are limited to word, sentence or syntax only, which disregards the main structure of a text and the structure of discourse and the cultural features to a larger extent.<br />
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从这两个分支中我们可以看出它们各有优缺点。文艺翻译理论从宏观上强调翻译的目的、结果和艺术效果，但既不注重翻译的实际过程和语言运用技巧，也不关心译文和原文是否达到了结构的对等。语言学的翻译理论也并不完善，因为有些翻译理论没有强调文学艺术作品的审美功能，忽视了文学艺术作品的再现性。它们大多着眼于一种语言的结构，理论上仅限于词、句或句法，而忽视了语篇的主体结构和语篇结构以及文化特征。<br />
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==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
However, no matter it is the branch of translation theories of literature and art or linguistics theories of translation, they are not completely isolated but complement each other. Although either of two branches has its own shortcomings, there is no translation theorist of literature and art who could talk about the artistic value of literary works divorced from linguistic issues; there is no theorist of linguistics who could be immersed in linguistic structures of a text without issues of aesthetics.<br />
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但是，无论是文学艺术翻译理论的分支还是翻译语言学理论的分支，它们都不是完全孤立的而是相辅相成的。 尽管两个分支中的任何一个都有其自身的缺点，但是没有文学和艺术的翻译理论家可以谈论与语言问题脱节的文学作品的艺术价值。 没有语言学的理论家可以沉浸在文本的语言结构中而没有美学问题。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 11:44, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
'''III. About ''The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish'''''<br />
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Joan Pinkham, a professional translator from the U.S., published the book ''The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish'' in 2000. She worked for the Foreign Languages Press and Central Compilation and Translation Bureau in China for 8 years from 1980s to 1990s. It is one of the few books by westerners that systematically discuss the “Chinglish” issues in China. In the years working for the Foreign Languages Press and Central Compilation and Translation Bureau, her job was to revise and polish the drafts from Chinese translators, which was inevitably affected by Chinese and mindset of Chinese people. For that reason, Pinkham got to know many English translations with “Chinese characteristics” and wrote this book.<br />
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
''The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish'' consists of three parts, Unnecessary Words, Sentence Structure and Supplementary Examples, which reveal lots of mistakes Chinese translators tend to make. <br />
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First of all let’s take a look at examples given in the fist chapter:<br />
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promoting the cause of peaceful reunification;<br />
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reforms in the sphere of economy;<br />
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to ensure a relationship of close cooperation between.<br />
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《中式英语翻译指南》包含了三个部分，分别是赘词、句子结构以及补充例子，这三部分向我们呈现了中国翻译者常常会犯的各种错误。<br />
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首先，在第一章中给出了以下几个例子：<br />
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推进和平统一事业；（原句中“事业”的对应词“the cause of”赘余）<br />
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经济领域的改革；（原句中“领域”的对应词“the sphere of”赘余）<br />
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确保双方关系密切合作。(原句句子结构错误)--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 02:00, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
Phrases like these can often be seen in some English papers or periodicals and they seem to make sense to English learners or translators in China. But the author regards them as negative examples in the first chapter of the first part, Unnecessary Nouns. The author mentioned that “Many of these nouns are easy to recognize. They are plainly redundant because their sense is already included or implied in some other element of sentence.”(Liu 2002:34) in the book. Here the author perceives nouns like “cause”, “sphere” and “relationship” as “category nouns”, which are the general nouns that sever only to introduce a specific noun to follow. <br />
==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
Let’s take the first phrase as an example. In such constructions, the first noun announces the category of the second; in this case, it tells the readers that “promoting” falls into the category of “cause.” That is something they already know. Accordingly, the first noun should be deleted: “ promoting peaceful reunification.”(Pinkham 2000:16) It is the same for other two examples. What’s more, the first chapter also involves “Unnecessary Verbs.” Examples are as follows:<br />
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to bring about a change in this state of affairs;<br />
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until China realizes its modernization;<br />
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trying to entice the Korean army to launch an attack against them.<br />
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
“Like unnecessary nouns, most unnecessary verbs in Chinglish occur in phrases. Usually they are combined with nouns (plus the inevitable articles and prepositions that nouns bring with them).”(Pinkham 2000:34) The commonest type is phrases like these. As for “to bring about a change in this state of affairs”, here the verb (“bring about”) is a weak, colorless, all purpose word having no very specific meaning of its own, while the real action is expressed in the noun(“change”). Since the verb is not contributing anything to the sense, it can be edited out: “change this state of affairs.”<br />
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“与赘余的名词类似，中式英语中大多数赘余的动词也出现在短语中，且通常和名词同时出现（以及依附于名词又必不可少的冠词和介词）。” （平卡姆 2000:34） 最常见的类型见以下短语。在短语“为这种情况带来改变”中，动词“带来”显得无力、无趣、缺乏具体含义，而名词“改变”传达出了具体的动作。鉴于这个动词没有起到达意的作用，可将其删去得到短语“改变这种情况”。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:42, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
In the second chapter, the author talks about Unnecessary Modifiers, which is not a problem easy to cope with for Chinese translators because it covers the issue of whether they should be used and using the modifiers properly. Five types of unnecessary modifiers are listed, redundant modifiers, self-evident modifiers, intensifiers, qualifiers and cliches. But the author especially points out that it is not appropriate to revise some accepted phrases, which are related to some national policies, even if they have unnecessary modifiers in the sentences, because this may cover political affairs.<br />
作者在第二章中论述了非必要的修饰语。要知道，是否应该使用以及如何正确使用这些修饰语，对中国译者来说并非易事。本章列举了五类非必要修饰语，分别是赘余修饰语，废话（不言而喻）修饰语，加强词，限定词和套话。但作者同时也指出，一些与国家政治有关的短语如果已被认同，即便句子里面有非必要限定词，也不要轻易去修改了，因为这可能涉及政治事务。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 01:48, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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第二章中，作者讨论了不必要的修饰语，由于它包含了是否需要使用修饰语，以及合理使用地问题，所以修饰语的问题对中国译者来说是难以处理的。作者列举了五种不必要的修饰语，包括冗余修饰语、显而易见的修饰语、强调修饰语、限定修饰语以及陈腐的套语。但是作者特别指出，即使句子中存在不必要的修饰语，修改与某些国家政策相关的既定短语也是不合适的，因为这可能涉及政治事务。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 12:42, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
In the third and forth chapter the author talks on Redundant Twins and Saying the Same Thing Twice. For instance, views and opinions, help and assistance, stir up and incite, sentiments and feelings, prudent and cautious. The author classifies the redundant words into three groups according to the relation between synonyms and clauses and offers corresponding reversion. And she adds that examples of redundant synonyms are too many to list even for native English speakers; for example, rules and regulations, bits and pieces, by leaps and bounds, betwixt and between, by hook or by crook, huffing and puffing.<br />
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作者在第三章和第四章列举了同义赘余词対和同义词对，例如：观点和看法，帮忙与协助，挑起与煽动，情感与感情，小心和谨慎。根据同义词和分句的关系，作者将这些赘余词分为三组，并且提供了相应的回复。她还补充说，赘余同义词的例子太多了，甚至以英语为母语的人都难以列举完，例如：规章和制度，零碎和片段，飞跃和跳跃，之间和中间，不折手段和千方百计，喘息和喘气。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 04:37, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
After centuries of development, these phrases are now accepted by native English speakers or learners probably because of their jaunty alliteration or rhythm. But the author believes that these phrases unavoidably “exert an influence not only on native speakers of English (including foreign polishers) but on Chinese translators as well, reinforcing the habits of their own language. No doubt this influence contributes to the abundance of twins in Chinglish.”<br />
经过几个世纪的发展，这些短语可能是因为很强的幽默感和节奏感现在已经被英语母语者或学习者接受。但作者认为，这些短语不可避免地“会影响英语母语者（包括外国的波兰人），以及中国翻译者，从而强化他们母语使用的习惯。 毫无疑问，这种影响促使相对应的中式英语表达增多。”--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:26, 25 October 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:26, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
The first chapter of the second part is mainly about The Noun Plague. Here the author shows a draft: “The prolongation of the existence of this temple is due to the solidity of its construction.” She also gives a revision: “The temple has endured because it was solidly built.” The first version contains four abstract nouns, while the second has none. Not only do the nouns make the statement nearly twice as long, but they also make it pretentious, wooden and hard to understand.(Pinkham 2000:56) Yet, the author doesn’t think that “noun plague” only occurs in Chinglish but in English by native speakers, especially in theses and government documents where abstract nouns can often be seen, because they want their theses or documents to seem more “authoritative” or “scientific.”<br />
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第二部分的第一章主要内容是名词之殇。在这一章里，作者展现了一份草稿：“寺庙稳固的结构延长了它的存在期限。”同时也提供了一份修订版：“寺庙长存的原因是因为它建造稳固。”第一个版本包含了四个抽象名词，而第二个一个也没有。名次不仅使句子长度长了近两倍，而且使句子更做作、死板、使人难以理解。（Pinkham 2000:56）但是，作者认为“名词之殇”不止存在于中式英语里，还存在于以英语为母语的人中，特别是在文章和政府文献里，经常会运用抽象名词，这是因为他们想让自己的文章或者文献看起来更具权威性，或者更具科学性。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 02:35, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
The author thinks this is a dangerous trend which we should all fight against. And she advocates to use more verbs, gerunds or adverbs instead of abstract nouns. From the eighth to the twelfth chapter, the author gives some instruction to tell English learners and translators in China how to get rid of the mindset of Chinglish by putting pronouns and antecedents first, then the adjuncts and its purposes, in a logical way. The eighth chapter discussed the improper collocation of pronouns and antecedents. In this condition, personal pronouns, relative pronouns or demonstrative pronouns show up without antecedents or are too far away from antecedents.<br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
This is exactly what the uncertainty and lack of rigor of Chinese has brought about. The ninth chapter mainly talks about where we should set phrases or clause in an English sentence. The author is of the opinion that translators should pay attention to where the phrases or clauses are in a sentence so that the logic is clear and key points are highlighted. She also thinks that the phrases or clauses ought to modify what is close to them, otherwise in the sentence may occur the illogical parts. In addition, to stress the key points, the most important information should be imparted at the end of a sentence.<br />
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这正是汉语的不确定性和缺乏严谨性所带来的问题。第九章主要讨论的是在英语句子中应该在哪里设置短语或从句。作者认为，译者应该注意短语或分句在句子中的位置，使句子逻辑清晰，重点突出。她还认为短语或从句应该修饰那些意思接近它们的东西，否则在句子中可能会出现不合逻辑的部分。此外，为了强调重点，最重要的信息应该放在句末。<br />
<br />
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
<br />
'''IV. Discussion'''<br />
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From Introduction and School Classification, we have leaned that in western translation history, there are traditionally two branches: translation theories of literature and art and linguistics theories of translation. In 1959, the book, ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation'' by Roman Jakobson, analyzed comprehensively the relation bewteen language and translation, the importance of translation and some existing problems of translating from an angle of linguistics, which had made groundbreaking contribution to linguistics theories of translation. Eugene A. Nida put forward a concept of “Translating is science” and he also applied Theory of Communication into translation on the basis of linguistics, believing that translating is communicating.<br />
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四、讨论<br />
从介绍和流派分类中，我们了解到西方翻译史在传统上有两个分支:文艺翻译理论和翻译语言学理论。1959年，罗曼·雅各布森(Roman Jakobson)的《论翻译的语言学方面》一书从语言学的角度全面分析了语言与翻译的关系、翻译的重要性以及翻译中存在的一些问题，对翻译的语言学理论做出了开创性的贡献。尤金·奈达提出了“翻译是科学”的概念，并在语言学的基础上将交际理论应用到翻译中，认为翻译就是交际。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 01:50, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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四、讨论 <br />
我们从介绍和流派分类中可以了解到西方翻译史在传统上有两个分支:文艺翻译理论学派和翻译语言学理论学派。1959年，罗曼·雅各布森(Roman Jakobson)在《论翻译的语言学方面》一书中从语言学的角度全面综合地分析了语言与翻译的关系、翻译的重要性以及翻译中存在的一些问题，对翻译的语言学理论做出了开创性的贡献。尤金·奈达提出了“翻译是一门科学”的概念，并在语言学的基础上将交际理论应用到翻译中，认为翻译就是交际。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:41, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
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He proposed the principle of “Dynamic Equivalence” and further submitted “Functional Equivalence” from the perspective of social linguistics and communicative function of language, which was instrumental in modern history of translation theories in the west as well. Nonetheless, Nida’s theories paid too much heed to content rather than form. To make up the deficiency, Peter Newmark put forward “Communicative Translation” and “Semantic Translation.” The former aimed at restructuring the language of the target in order to make it expressive and underline the effects of information; the latter emphasized the formal resemblance between the original and the target.<br />
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他提出了“动态对等”原则，并从社会语言学和语言交际功能的角度提出了“功能对等”，这在西方现代翻译理论史上也具有重要意义。尽管如此，奈达的理论过于注重内容而非形式。为了弥补这一不足，纽马克提出了“交际翻译”和“语义翻译”，交际翻译旨在重构目标语的语言，使之具有表现力，突出信息的作用；而语义翻译强调原文与译文形式上的相似性。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 01:21, 21 October 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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他提出了“动态对等”原则，并从社会语言学和交际功能的角度进一步发展提出了“功能对等”原则，这在西方现代翻译理论史上也具有指导意义。然而，奈达的理论过于注重内容而非形式。为了弥补这一不足，纽马克提出了“交际翻译”和“语义翻译”，交际翻译旨在重构目标语的语言，使之具有表现力，突出信息的作用；而语义翻译强调原文与译文形式上的相似性。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:20, 21 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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他提出了“动态对等”原则，并从社会语言学和语言交际功能的角度提出了“功能对等”的原则，这在西方现代翻译理论史上也具有重要意义。尽管如此，奈达的理论过于注重内容而非形式。为了弥补这一不足，纽马克提出了“交际翻译”和“语义翻译”，前者旨在重构目标语的语言，使之具有表现力，突出信息的作用；后者强调原文与译文形式上的相似性。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 12:22, 21 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
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From theories and ideas above, the core issue they care about is how the source language is transferred into the target language and “equivalence” is what they have in common. Katharina Reiss, Hans Vermeer, Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord from Germany started to use communicative theories, theories of communication, discourse linguistics and ideology of aesthetics to switch the focus of their studies from source texts to target texts, which made it an influential school in international translation circles.<br />
从以上理论和观点来看，他们关心的核心问题是源语言如何转化为目的语，“对等”是他们的共同之处。来自德国的凯瑟琳娜·赖斯、汉斯·弗米尔、胡斯塔·霍尔兹·曼塔里和克里斯蒂娜·诺德开始运用交际理论、交际理论、话语语言学和美学思想，将研究重心从原文转向目标语篇，成为国际翻译界颇具影响力的流派。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 04:35, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
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In 1971 in the book ''Translation and Limitations in Translation Criticism'', Reiss’s functional theories of translation was in embryonic state, where she believed that translation should reach equivalence in respects of conceptual content, forms of language and communication and name it “integral communicative performance.” In practice, however, she realized that the equivalence was not what people expected so relation between function of the original and the target was the priority.<br />
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在1971年出版的《翻译批评的可能性与局限性》一书中，赖斯的翻译功能理论暂处于萌芽状态。在此书中，他提出翻译应当在思想内容、语言形式和交际功能等方面达到对等，这样的翻译才可以称为“完整的交际行为”。然而，她意识到在实践中，人们并不期待这种对等状态，因此应该把源语与目的语功能之间的关系放在首位。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 07:43, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在1971年出版的《翻译批评：潜力与制约》一书中，赖斯的翻译功能派理论思想暂处于萌芽状态。在此书中，她提出翻译在概念性的内容、语言形式和交际功能上与原文对等，她称这种翻译为“综合性交际翻译”。然而，在实践中，她意识到这种对等并不是人们所期待的那样，因此应该把源语与目的语功能之间的关系放在首位。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 12:25, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
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Hans Vermeer proposed skopos theory for that matter, which looked on translating as a process with purposes and results of the original. The skopos theory has three rules: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Skopos rule is considered as the primary one. It means that in the context and culture of target language, translation ought to work in a way exactly the recipient of target language expects and the purpose of translation actions determines the whole process of translating, that is, “the end justifies the means.”<br />
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就此，汉斯·弗米尔提出了目的论，把翻译看作是一个以原文为基础的有目的和结果的行为过程。目的论遵循三个原则:目的原则、连贯性原则和忠实性原则。其中目的原则被认为是最首要的原则，即翻译应该在目的语的语境和文化中，以目的语接受者所期望的方式进行，翻译行为所要达到的目的决定了整个翻译行为的过程，即“结果决定方法”。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 05:27, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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汉斯-维米尔为此提出了目的论（skopos theory），他把翻译看成在原作基础上产生目的和结果的过程。目的论遵循三个规则：目的性、连贯性和忠实性。其中目的性被认为是最主要的规则。它是指在目标语言的语境和文化中，翻译应该以目标语言接受者所期望的方式进行，翻译行为的目的决定了整个翻译过程，即 "结果决定方法"。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 07:15, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
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Coherence rule is that translation must accord with the standard of intratextual coherence, which means that translation has readability and acceptability to the recipient and makes sense in communicative context and culture of the target language. The fidelity rule means that there exists intertextual coherence between the original and the target. This is actually what other theories have talked about faithfulness in translation but the faithfulness depends on the purpose of the target and how translator understand the original.<br />
连贯性是指译文必须符合语内连贯的标准，即译文具有可读性和可接受性，并在目标语言的交流语境和文化中具有意义。忠实性原则指原文与译文之间应该存在语际连贯一致。这相当于其他翻译理论提到的所谓的忠实于原文，但与原文忠实的程度和形式取决于译文的目的和译者对原文的理解。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 04:57, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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连贯原则是指翻译必须符合语篇内连贯的标准，即译文对接受者具有可读性和可接受性，在交际语境和目的语文化中有意义。忠实原则是指原文与译文之间存在互文连贯。这实际上是其他理论所说的翻译中的忠实，但忠实取决于目的地和译者如何理解原文。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 05:28, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
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Here we also have talked about the book The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish. This book has discussed some problems English learners and translators in China have in grammar and vocabulary. For discourse and semantics, there also exits some issues. And the author is American who has the typical mindset of the west and is able to find out some problems of translation by Chinese translators. And the author tends to revise those translations in an aspect of linguistics theories of translation.<br />
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==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
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For example:<br />
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the editorial calls on the Chinese people to fully implement the CPC’s basic line, deepen reform and further opening to the outside, so as to further push forward the political, economic and social development of the country in a steady way;<br />
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The author revises it into:<br />
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the editorial calls on the Chinese people to implement the CPC’s basic line, deepen the reform, and promote the opening to the outside, so as to steadily push forward the political, economic and social development of the country.<br />
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==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
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In this sentence, “fully” is deleted because the author thinks it is unnecessary for its sense can be taken for granted: policies should always be fully carried out. If the word conveys something more specific in Chinese, that must be spelled out for the reader of English. We must say, for example, “to implement CPC’s basic line in all its aspects,” or “in every respect.”<br />
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==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
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As for “further”, it is obvious that at this point in history any push given to development will be a “further” push. The repetition of “further” in the draft is particularly undesirable because the word is used in two different senses. It appears first as a verb (“to further opening”), then immediately after as an adverb (“to further push ahead”), so that the reader is obliged to go back and read the sentence again in order to make sense of it.(Pinkham 2000:74)<br />
至于“进一步”，很明显，在这一历史时刻，为了发展的任何举措都将是“进一步”的推动。 草案中对“进一步”的重复使用是特别不合意的，因为该词有两种不同的含义。 它首先作为动词（“进一步打开”），然后立即被用作副词（“进一步推动”），因此读者必须回过头来再次阅读该句子才能理解。（Pinkham 2000：74）。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 05:21, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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至于说“进一步，”很明显，在这个历史节点上，任何推动发展的举措都可以称之为“进一步。”草案中“进一步”的重复出现是非常没有不可取的，因为这个词包含两种意思。首先，它作为动词（“促进开放”）出现，然后立即又作副词用（“进一步推进”），以至于读者为了弄清楚句子的意思，不得不回过头重读。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 08:19, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
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Even though the author doesn’t talk on any translation theories directly in her book, her discussion on Chinglish and the revision she offers do involve some translation criteria, for example, domestication and foreignization. Translating is the transfer process from one language to another, during which it carries wide backgrounds of culture. To be specific, it is also the process of transferring cultures among each one. In general, there are two ways when it comes to this process: domestication and foreignization.<br />
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==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
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Domestication is that features of the original are abandoned, that is to say, characteristics of translation follow ones of the target, which would, to some degree, make it easier to understand for recipients of the target language and contributory to culture exchanges. Foreignization is that translator translates in a way the original does, translation remaining characteristics of the original language.<br />
归化就是摒弃原文的特征，即翻译的特征遵循译文的特点，这在一定程度上使译文的读者更容易理解，也有助于文化交流。异化是指译者以原文的方式进行翻译，保留原文的特征--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 07:36, 24 October 2020 (UTC)。<br />
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==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
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The author defines “Chinglish” as “Chinglish, of course, is that misshapen, hybrid language that is neither English nor Chinese but that might be described as ‘English with Chinese characteristics’”in the book. And she also points out that “this book is intended to help them turn their work into real English such as might have been written by an educated native English speaker of the language.” It means that the author is in favor of domestication during the process of translating.<br />
书中，作者将“中式英语”定义为“Chinglish”，其指的是既不是英语也不是中文的变形语言或是混合语言”，但它或许是“具有中国特色的英语”。 她还指出：“这本书旨在帮助他们将中式英语转变成真正的英语，转换成像是受过良好教育的英语母语者写的那样。” 这意味着作者在翻译过程中赞成归化。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 10:14, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
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Here’s an another example: <br />
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we should draw up correct development and construction plans for all these zones;<br />
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The author revises it into:<br />
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we should draw up correct plans for the development of all these zones.<br />
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The author thinks that two large abstractions plainly used here mean the same thing. And to avoid using the noun “development” as an adjective, we should say: “ for the development of all these zones.” That would be the simplest, most natural word order in English.(Pinkham 2000:87)<br />
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再举一个例子：我们应该为所有这些区域制定正确的开发建设规划。作者将其修改为：我们应该为所有这些区域的发展制定正确的规划。作者认为这里所使用的两个大的抽象概念是一个意思。为了避免把名词“发展”用作形容词，我们应该说：“为了所有这些区域的发展”。这是英语中最简单、最自然的词序。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 12:29, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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再举一个例子：我们应该为所有区域拟订正确的开发建设的计划。作者将其修改为：我们应该为所有区域的发展拟订正确的计划。作者认为这里所使用的两个大的抽象概念意思相同，为了避免把名词“发展”用作形容词，我们应该说：“为了所有区域的发展”，这才是英语中最简单、最自然的词序。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:58, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
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'''V. Conclusion'''<br />
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In summary, ''A Brief History of Western Translation Theories'' by Tan Zaixi recounts the history of western translation theories from ancient times by introducing main characters, translation works, translation schools and other events in the west in historical stages. The book also takes preliminary analysis and discussion into development between theories and practices of translation. There are two different directions in terms of translation theories in the west: translation theories of literature and art and linguistics theories of translation.<br />
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简而言之，谭载喜所著的《西方翻译理论简史》一书，通过介绍主要的翻译人物、翻译作品、翻译流派以及西方历史舞台上的翻译事件的方式，记录了西方翻译历史。此书还对翻译理论和实践的发展作了初步的分析和讨论。在西方，翻译理论研究分为两个方向，一是文学艺术翻译理论，一是语言学翻译理论。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 14:56, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
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The former one extends from the ancient dramas to modern translations. In this regard, translation is considered as literary art, which focuses on recreation of the original. Theorist mostly emphasize culture, style and literariness of the target and the literary talent of the translator. The latter direction is linguistics theories of translation, which combine theories with semantics and syntax, and believe that translating should reach semantic equivalence between the original and the target through vocabulary, grammar and skills of using a language.<br />
文学艺术翻译理论包含了古代戏剧到当代翻译。从这个方面来看，翻译被看作是一种对源文本进行再创造的文学艺术。这些理论家特别强调目标语的文化、风格和文学性的同时，也很强调译者的文学修养。语言学翻译理论则结合翻译理论与语义句法，他们认为翻译应当通过恰当运用词汇、语法、和语言技巧，从而达到源文本和目标语的语义对等。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 03:38, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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前者涵盖内容从古代戏剧到现代翻译。在这里，翻译被认为是一种文学艺术，其重点在于对原文的再创作。理论家们主要强调译语的文化性，风格和文采以及译者的文学才能。后者指语言学翻译理论，它将理论与语义和句法相结合，并主张翻译应通过词汇，语法和语言技巧的使用达到原文和译文之间的语义对等。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 05:44, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
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In the long term, linguistics theories of translation has had predominance of studies of modern translation theories. Theorists hold the view that translation studies ranges from applied linguistics and contrastive linguistics and is closely related to semantics, along with literature and art studies, sociology, anthropology, psychology, theories of communication and so forth.<br />
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长期以来，语言学的翻译理论在现代翻译理论的研究中占有主导地位。理论家认为，翻译研究的范围包括应用语言学和对比语言学，与语义学以及文学艺术研究、社会学、人类学、心理学、传播理论等密切相关。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:16, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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从长远来看，翻译语言学理论在现代翻译理论研究中占主导地位。理论家认为，翻译研究不仅涉及应用语言学和对比语言学，而且还与语义学以及文学和艺术研究，社会学，人类学，心理学，传播理论等密切相关。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:59, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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长期以来，语言学理论在现代翻译理论中占有主导地位。理论学家认为翻译研究包含应用语言学和对比语言学，同时也与语义学、文学艺术研究、社会学、人类学、心理学、传播理论等相关联。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 07:20, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
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''The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish'' by Joan Pinkham summarizes the evidence of the common issues in English translation, which are ones translators in China are usually neglectful of. As Jacques Barzun, Dean of the Graduate Faculties of Columbia University, put it, “The clarity of her explanation is equaled only by the deftness with which she states the point of the English usages and the simplicity of the revisions made in faulty sentences.<br />
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琼·平卡姆所著的《中式英语之鉴》总结了中国翻译常见问题的例证，这些问题是中国译者常常所忽略的。哥伦比亚大学研究生院院长雅克·巴尔赞表示，“琼的论证清晰明了，灵活熟练，在阐述英语用法要点和指出错误句修订的简洁性方面也是如此。”--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:57, 23 October 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
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琼·平卡姆所著的《中式英语之鉴》总结了英语翻译中常见的问题的例证，而这些问题正是中国的翻译者通常所忽视的。正如哥伦比亚大学研究生院院长雅克·巴尔赞所言："她的解释之清晰，只有她对英语用法的阐述之灵巧和对错误句子的修改之简洁才能与之媲美。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:19, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
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I know of no books as well adapted as hers to the needs of clumsy writers.” Even though the author doesn’t talk on any translation theories directly in her book, her discussion on Chinglish and the revision she offers do involve some translation criteria and the author tends to uphold domestication in this book. And we can’t deny that as a professional translator from America, with the typical western mindset, the author is inevitably influenced in the spectacular background of western translation history.More importantly, the two books this article refers to have demonstrated that theories must be applied into practice, guide practice and reveal the objective patters inside translating, otherwise theories would lose its vitality.<br />
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据我所知，没有一本书能像她的书那样，满足一些笨拙作家的需求。”虽然本书作者没有在书里直接谈及翻译理论，但她对于中式英语的讨论及修订中就涉及了一些翻译原则，同时她在书中也倾向于支持归化。我们不得不承认，作为一名具有西式典型谦逊特点的美籍专业译者，这个作者难免受到西方翻译史背景的影响。而更为重要的是这本杂志提及到的两本书都提出：理论必须付诸实践、指导实践并揭示翻译的客观模式，否则理论将失去生机活力。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 07:44, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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References:<br />
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[1]巫阿苗,束学军.西方翻译理论流派划分探索.[J].合肥工业大学学报.2011.12.25<br />
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[2]谭载喜.西方翻译简史.[M].北京.商务印书馆.1991.05<br />
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[3]刘银燕.中式英语, 你在使用吗?——《中式英语之鉴》评介.[J].外语教学.2002.09.30<br />
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[4]-[8] Joan Pinkham.The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish. [M].北京。外语教学与研究出版社.2000.05<br />
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主要参考书目:《西方翻译简史》、《中式英语之鉴》<br />
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==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
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'''Derrida and Benjamin'''<br />
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'''Comparison of Derrida’s and Benjamin’s Translation View'''<br />
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'''1.Pure Language and Difference'''<br />
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In its essence, translation is a kind of linguistic activity. Therefore, all translation theories involve linguistic issues. Benjamin has presumed a perfect original language as the origin of subsistent languages in real world after summarizing the deflects of subsistent languages. This original language is from God, and has full creativity and cognition, in which, language and spirit, meaning and form, signifier and signified have been united to show the truth through self-manifestation.<br />
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“德里达和本杰明。”<br />
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"德里达和本雅明翻译观的比较"<br />
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"纯粹的语言和差异"<br />
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翻译本质上是一种语言活动。因此，所有的翻译理论都涉及到语言问题。本雅明在总结现存语言偏差的基础上，假设有一种完美的原始语言作为现实世界中现存语言的起源。这种原始的语言来自上帝，具有充分的创造性和认知能力，其中，语言与精神、意义与形式、能指与所指有机地结合在一起，通过表现自我以展现真理。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 07:54, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
德里达和本杰明<br />
德里达和本杰明翻译观的比较<br />
纯语言与差异<br />
翻译本质上是一种语言活动。因此，所有的翻译理论都涉及到语言问题。本杰明在总结现存语言偏差的基础上，假设有一种完美的原始语言作为现实世界中现存语言的起源。这种原始的语言来自上帝，具有充分的创造性和认知能力，其中，语言与精神、意义与形式、能指与所指有机地结合在一起，通过表现自我以展现真理。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 07:30, 24 October 2020 (UTC)MaShuya<br />
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==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
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Benjamin has pointed out that with the corruption of human, the language has no longer been one but multiple. Naming language has corrupted into the abstract conceptual language. '''(Cao Danhong 6)''' In this way, it descended to instrumental signs. It refers to things in various manual systems but it can never covey the universality through self-manifestation, so the relationship between the human and world has changed from the intersubjectivity into subject-object dichotomy where human dominates.'''(Wei Jiangang & Sun Yingchun 75)'''<br />
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本雅明指出，由于人类进化，语言已不再只有一种，而是多种多样。命名语言遭到破坏，成为抽象概念性语言。（曹丹红）这样，语言就从命名语言降为符号语言，指各种人工系统中的事物，但永远不能通过自我表现来追求普遍性，因此人与世界的关系从主体间性转变为由人主导的主客体二分法。（魏建刚，孙迎春）--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 07:55, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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本杰明指出，由于人类的堕落，语言已不再只有一种，而是多种多样的。命名语言遭到破坏，成为抽象概念性语言。（曹丹红）这样，语言就降为指示符号，指各种人工系统中的事物，但永远不能通过自我表现来追求普遍性，因此人与世界的关系从主体间性转变为由人主导的主客体二分法。（魏建刚，孙迎春）--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 02:41, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
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In another word, due to language descended from the original “being” into lower “having”. Therefore, it has become the synonyms of “abstract”, “judgement” and “meaning”. Language has never been a medium but a kind of means used in communication of “subjects” '''(Wohlfarth 27)'''. As a result, meaning has been the external reference out of sign itself, instead of spirits of self-manifestation of pure language.<br />
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换句话说，由于语言从原始的“成为”下降到更低层次的“拥有”。因此，它成为“抽象”、“判断”、“意义”的同义词。语言从来就不是一种媒介，而是一种“主体”交流的手段。（沃尔法思27）因此，意义已不再是单纯语言的自我表现精神，而是符号本身的外在参照。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 07:55, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
换言之，由于语言从最初的“有”演变为更低级的“有”。因此，它成为“抽象”“判断”以及“意义”的同义词。语言从来都不是媒介，而是“主体”交流时使用的一种手段。（沃尔法斯 27）.因此，意义已经成为符号本身之外的外部参照，而不是纯粹语言自我修炼的精神。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 10:23, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
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And the relationship between signified and signifier is actually external instead of being original, direct and internal. Paul De Man has said that we think we use our language freely. We feel comfortable and familiar with the dwelling place within our language, in which we thought we weren’t alienated, but we don’t notice that this kind of alienation has been shown strongly in our relationship with our original language. It has been disintegrated already, which bring a special alienation, a peculiar pain. '''(Paul De Man, 99)'''<br />
所指与能指之间的关系实际上是外在的而不是原先就有的直接内在联系。保罗德曼曾说过，我们认为自己可以自由地使用语言。在我们自己的语言社区，我们感到舒适和熟悉。在这里，我们感到我们没有被疏远。但是我们没注意到这种疏远已经强烈地表现在我们与源语言的关系中。而且这种关系已经分裂了，这带来了一种特殊的疏离，一种奇怪的痛苦。（保罗德曼，99）--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 10:08, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
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Benjamin has set the transcendental existence of pure language in order to make the path of salvation to human clear, that’s to say to find the lost pure language is to unite the world together. Benjamin thinks that, all practical languages have a common origin and among themselves a kind of affinity that goes beyond the history. As, Benjamin once said, “The reference of pure language just like each language that exists as an entirety, is identical.<br />
本杰明为了使人类的救赎之路更明晰而设定了纯语言的先验存在，这就是说，找到遗失的纯语言是将整个世界统一。 本杰明认为，所有实用语言都有一个共同的渊源，并且彼此之间有着超越历史的紧密关联。 正如本杰明曾经说过的：“纯语言的引用就像实体存在的某种语言一样。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 07:25, 24 October 2020 (UTC)MaShuya<br />
文学艺术翻译理论包含了古代戏剧到当代翻译。从这个方面来看，翻译被看作是一种对源文本进行再创造的文学艺术。这些理论家特别强调目标语的文化、风格和文学性的同时，也很强调译者的文学修养。语言学翻译理论则结合翻译理论与语义句法，他们认为翻译应当通过恰当运用词汇、语法、和语言技巧，从而达到源文本和目标语的语义对等。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 03:39, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
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However, this reference cannot be achieved through one single language, but through the complement of various languages” '''(Benjamin 61)''' That’s to say, if we want to reconstruct pure language, we have to eliminated the external relationship of linguistic reference and restore the identical relationship between spirit and language, which means to promote the linguistic reference of all languages to form an integral complementary, which call duty on translation.<br />
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==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
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Only through translation can the mode of reference of source language enter into the target language. Therefore, to Benjamin, the significance of translation is not to covey the basic meaning and content of source language but the changes to both languages after translation, thereby translation can make us to know more about the differences and complementation of each language.<br />
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==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
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What is different between Benjamin and Derrida is that Derrida has invented the concept of “la differánce", which uses infinitely flowing stream of meaning to overthrow the western logocentrism. Thereout, it has assured the translation view that advocates difference and opposes the identity. Derrida has pointed out that la differánce is the precondition of possibility of multiple meanings so that meaning is the result of its moving. While meaning cannot precedes la differánce, there would be no existence of pure and completely identical origin of meaning, just like what the Babel story reminds us. '''(Davis 10)'''<br />
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班杰明与德里达的不同之处在于，后者提出了“差异”这一概念，它以无限变换的意义流来推翻了西方的逻各斯中心主义。由此，提倡差异、反对同一性的翻译观得以确立。德里达指出:差异是多义可能性的前提，意义是多义运动的结果。虽然意义不能凌驾于差异，但也不会存在纯粹的、完全相同的意义起源，正如圣经故事所示的那样。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 04:28, 23 October 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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班杰明与德里达的不同之处在于，后者提出了“差异”这一概念，它以意义是无限流动的观点推翻了西方的逻各斯中心主义。由此，提倡差异、反对同一性的翻译观得以确立。德里达指出:差异为多义提供了可能性，意义是多义运动的结果。意义不能凌驾于差异，与此同时，也不会存在纯粹的、完全相同的意义起源，这正如巴别塔的故事所示的那样。（戴维斯，第十页）--Ouyang Ling<br />
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本雅明与德里达的不同之处在于，后者提出了“差异”这一概念，它以意义是无限流动的观点推翻了西方逻各斯中心主义。由此，提倡差异、反对同一性的翻译观得以确立。德里达指出:差异是多义的先决条件，因此意义是多义运动的结果。意义不能凌驾于差异，与此同时，也不会存在纯粹的、完全相同的意义起源，这正如巴别塔的故事所示。（戴维斯，第十页）--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 07:35, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
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In another word, as meaning is in la differánce so that there cannot be any conceptual or theoretic systems no matter it is in one language or in several languages. Meaning always presents its fluidity, uncertainty and diversity. We cannot make meaning independent of language nor can we make language independent of meaning. On the contrary, meaning is already in language so meaning is the linguistic meaning.<br />
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==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
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Due to the language is so complicated, fickle, ambiguous and different with itself, thus, meaning is also unclear ambiguous and even mysterious. '''(Cai Xinle 200)''' What we can discuss is only the relationship of difference instead of the transcendental identity. In Derrida’s view, word is in a dynamic state, we can only understand it, describe it or listen to its voice in such a dynamic condition. <br />
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==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
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If we must establish an origin, the difference will be it. Derrida has regarded the difference as the origin, aiming to explain that in the very beginning where meaning formed, that’s to say the source has already had initial difference among meanings. The so-called purity has been contaminated and the source is rather complicated. '''(Zhu Gang 20)'''<br />
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==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
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Derrida and Benjamin all oppose to structural linguistic view. What is different is that Benjamin opposed the human control and domination of language by emphasizing the identity of language and spirit. We’d rather to say that it’s opposed to structuralism but to the opposite relation between the subject and object. In essence, Benjamin is not against the concepts like structure, order, and center etc. He just opposes the structure, order and center etc. that are based on the interference to language done by the subject-object relationship, emphasizing that language will not be constrained by the fetter of any subject-object relationship.<br />
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==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
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If we consider more carefully, he doesn’t disapprove the logocentrism completely as he just emphasizes that logocentrism cannot be constructed and learned by the subject and object relation. It must be built and realized by the way of unintentionality or the “presence” of logos will be delusive. On the contrary, Derrida is refusing any metaphysics during the process of his deconstruction of any conceptual system. In his opinion, Benjamin has not cast off the set pattern of logocentrism because Benjamin’s “Pure language” is still a construction of a concept, no matter how transcendental and absolute identity it is.<br />
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通过进一步的思考，我们会发现本雅明并不是完全不认同逻各斯中心主义，他强调不能仅依靠主客体关系来构建和学习逻各斯中心主义，必须通过非目的性的方式建立起逻各斯，否则逻各斯的存在将毫无意义。与之相对的，德里达则反对在概念系统的解构中一切形而上学的观念，他认为本雅明提出的“纯语言”观点是又一形而上学概念的构建，不论此概念体现出了超验主义或是绝对同一性，它都没有丢弃逻各斯中心主义的固定模式。--Ouyang Ling<br />
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如果我们更仔细地想想，我们会发现本雅明并非完全反对逻各斯中心主义，他只是强调不能依靠主客体关系来构建和学习该中心主义，我们必须通过非故意的方式建立起逻各斯中心主义，否则它只会迷惑人。相反，德里达在解构任何概念系统的过程中拒绝任何形而上学的观点。他认为本杰明并没有摆脱逻各斯中心主义的模式，因为无论本杰明的"纯语言"达到何种程度的超验性和绝对同一性，它仍然是概念构建。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 14:48, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
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Videlicet, if God were the person who deconstructs, we would see that rationality dominates everything and logos will be the deconstruction in the speaker’s status. It would not be the deconstruction of deconstruction. Once there is an unshakable center, logos will take the domination and everything will obey the authority in the center. Therefore, in order to avoid constructing any central system or structure, Derrida take the difference as the origin of everything. <br />
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==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
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There will be no identity and everything is constantly reproducing and differentiating, so it presents nothing but difference. At any moment, it’s different from others as well as itself. In this way, the identity doesn’t exist. All we can observe is the dynamic stuff, which constantly changes.<br />
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==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
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'''2. Metaphrase and Relevant Translation'''<br />
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As Benjamin and Derrida has different linguistic view, their comprehension about the translation criterion are also different from each other’s. Benjamin thinks that in various languages, the ultimate essence, pure language, is only relevant to the linguistic factors and its changes. In linguistic works, it bears heavy alien meaning. Translation’s unique function is to make the pure language get rid of this heavy burden, to turn the symbolic action into symbolic objects itself, to make the pure language reoccur during the linguistic transition. '''(Benjamin, 67)'''<br />
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2.短语和相关翻译<br />
由于本杰明和德里达的语言观点不同，因此他们对翻译标准的理解也有所不同。 本杰明认为，在各种语言中，最终的本质，即纯语言，仅与语言因素及其变化有关。 在语言作品中，它带有沉重的外来意义。 翻译的独特功能是使纯净的语言摆脱繁重的负担，将符号动作转化为符号对象本身，并使纯净的语言在语言转换过程中重新出现。 （本杰明，67）--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 10:12, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
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In other words, real languages, without exception, refer to things externally. To recover the identity of language and spirit, we must let the language to break the shackle of meaning while the effects of translation are to make the two languages free of the heavy burden by making the modes of reference of the two languages complementary of each other. To judge whether translation of a work is successful is to observe the combination of signifier and signified of language.<br />
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换句话说，纯语言全都指代外部事物。要恢复语言和精神的同一性，我们必须让语言打破意义的枷锁，而翻译的作用是通过让两种语言的指代方式互补从而摆脱这种繁重的负担。判断作品的翻译是否成功，就要观察语言能指和所指的组合关系。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:13, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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换句话说，纯语言全都指代外部事物。要恢复语言和精神的同一性，我们必须让语言打破意义的枷锁。翻译所要达到的效果就是利用两种语言之间的互补，让这两种语言从翻译的束缚中解放出来。判断一篇翻译作品是否成功，就是看其语言能指和所指之间的组合关系。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 01:46, 22 October 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
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换句话说，无一例外，所有纯语言全都指代外部事物。如果我们想要恢复语言和精神的同一性，就必须让语言打破意义层面上的枷锁。翻译是通过建立两种语言之间的互补性让它们摆脱摆脱重负。判断一篇翻译作品是否成功的标志，就是看其语言能指和所指之间的组合关系是否准确。<br />
--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 02:31, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
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==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
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Benjamin thinks Hölderlin’s translation work is the perfect sample of for instance, his works are almost perfect transition of texts because they are absolutely literal translation and metaphrase but also not readable. It dismembered the sentences, leading to the consequence that meaning is missing. '''(Paul De Man 104)''' To Benjamin, the translation that gets the language out of the shackle of meaning, and makes the language manifest itself to covey the spirits is the best translation. <br />
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==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
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Anyway, translation has to turn back to language itself, to the reference of language, to reach pure language commonly shared by the two languages by complementing the modes of reference of source language and target language. Benjamin declares that the interlinear version of Babel is the prototype of all translation due to the reason that Babel is the words of God, which are so true that language identifies with spirit.<br />
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无论如何，翻译必须回归语言本身，回到语言的指称中去，直达纯语言。这种纯语言通过源语和目的语指称模式的互补而由这两种语言所共享。本雅明称，不同文字隔行对照版的巴别，是所有翻译的原型。因为巴别是上帝的语言，它是绝对正确的，因而它即是精神。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 13:00, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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无论如何，翻译必须回归语言本身，回到语言的指称中，去达到所谓的纯语言。这种纯语言就是通过源语和目的语指称模式的互补，并由这两种语言所共有。本雅明认为，隔行对照版的巴别塔就是所有翻译的原型。这是因为巴别塔是上帝的语言，它是绝对正确的， 与精神保持一致。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 03:08, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
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Derrida is totally different from Benjamin’s proposition that he proposes the relevant translation. In general, “relevant” is the best translation in Derrida’s view, which is also the sort of translation expected by people. It’s a kind of translation that fulfills its duty and finishes its mission. It’s that kind of translation that finds the most comparatively accurate words for the expressions in the source text, that language used is the most correct, appropriate, relevant, direct and apropos…<br />
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德里达与本杰明提出相关翻译的主张完全不同。一般来说，在德里达看来，“相关”是最好的翻译，也是人们期待的那种翻译。它是一种尽职尽责、完成使命的翻译。这种翻译能为原文中的表达找到最准确的词语，所用的语言就是最正确、最恰当、最相关、最直接、最恰当的…--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 03:04, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
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德里达与本杰明的翻译主张完全不同。德里达提出了对照翻译。一般来说，在德里达看来，“对照”是最好的翻译，也是读者们想要的翻译。这种翻译方法尽职尽责且能完成其翻译使命，它会（在目标语言中）找到能够最准确表达原文的词语，它所使用的（目标）语言是最正确、最恰当、最中肯、最直接、最合适……--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 07:33, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
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==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
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Obviously, Derrida is trying to use a series of words to set standard for the best translation or the ideal translation. What’ a pity is that many scholars believe the literal meaning that such is what set by Derrida, ignoring the implication. '''(Wang Yingchong 15)''' However, if we reflect on the “relevant”, we can hardly make what it means clear, and Derrida himself has made no ostension on “relevant”, thus, this is actually the word game of Derrida that meaning being not assured makes translation impossible.<br />
很明显，德里达正努力用一系列的词设立一个标准，来鉴定最好的翻译或者最理想的翻译。遗憾的是 ，许多学者都认为德里达所定义的字面意义忽略了暗含意义（王英冲 15）。然而，如果我们仔细考虑“相关性”，就很难弄清楚意思，而德里达本人并未明确定义“相关性”，因此，意义的不确定使翻译不可能，这实际上是德里达的语言游戏。--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 02:33, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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显而易见，德里达在尝试用一些词来设立一个标准，从而来评判出最佳翻译或者最理想的翻译。遗憾的是 ，许多学者都认为德里达所定义的标准在字面意义上忽略了其内在意义。（王英冲 15）。然而，如果我们仔细考虑“相关性”，就很难弄清楚意思。而德里达本人并未明确定义“相关性”，因此，意义的不确定使得翻译不可能存在，这实际上是德里达的文字游戏。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 09:03, 23 October 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
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==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
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With the trick of the untranslatability of the word “relevant”, Derrida implies the deconstruction of his standard of translation. What Derrida really wants to express is that if there was a standard of translation, and the standard would work as the same, then would the standard still support itself? The untranslatability of “relevant” has already told us the untranslatability, not mentioning the translation standard. In Derrida’s point of view, meaning is already the delayed presence, leading to the result that translation is a debt that translator can never pay off, a mission that translator can never finish. Therefore, can text really not be translated?<br />
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借助“相关性”一词不可翻译性这一诀窍，德里达（Derrida）隐晦地解构了解构了他的翻译标准。德里达真实想表达的是，如果存在一个翻译标准，并且该标准生效，那么这个标准能否继续支撑自己？“相关性”的不可翻译性已经告诉了我们不可翻译性的存在，更不用说翻译标准了。在德里达看来，意义已经是延迟的存在，导致翻译是一种译者永远无法还清的债务和永远无法完成的使命。所以，文本真的不可翻译吗？--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 15:25, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
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Derrida says that we have to know what relevant translation is, what relevant translation means and what the essence of translation is, its mission, ultimate purpose and final mission. On one hand, relevant translation, no matter wrong or right, is generally better than irrelevant translation, and is likely to be viewed as the best translation. The definition of translation skopostheorie and the definition of the essence of realization in translation are contained in the definition of relevant translation. Therefore, the question that what relevant translation is goes back to what translation is or what should the translation be. While what the translation should be seems to be equal to what the possible best translation would be. '''(Derrida 429)'''<br />
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==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
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Therefore, Derrida’s discussion about the standard of translation goes back to the translatability and untranslatability. Actually, what Derrida wants to prove is that translation itself is a paradox, that is, just in the untranslatability can translation exist and go on. The original text always owes to translation, and constantly summons translation, and in a larger sense, anything meaningful calls for interpretation. '''(Wang Yingchong 17).''' Whereas, the good translation or the translation standard can only be discussed in absolute translatability; pursuit of translation in absolute untranslatability will be nonsense, and it can only be infinitely approached but never reached as once it become absolute translatability, which means translation presents the meaning in limitless differánce in presence, the identity occurs, then the translation will be unnecessary. <br />
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==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
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In short, Derrida and Benjamin have different view on translation. Benjamin worships metaphrase through which two languages can supplement each other’s referential pattern to manifest the pure language, whose spirits are the best translation. While Derrida plays a small fraud that he sets relevant translation as translation criterion but he doesn’t make it clear, in which way he indicates his ideas of untranslatability and that pursuit of translation in absolute untranslatability will be nonsense, and it can only be infinitely approached but never reached.<br />
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==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
'''3. Afterlife and Rebirth'''<br />
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Benjamin also differs most from Derrida in the insight of the relationship between the original work and translation work. In Benjamin’s perspective, the purpose of translation is to promote the complementation of referential modes of different languages so as to restore the identity. Therefore, translation work is never the copy or reappearance of the original work, but the supplement and succession of the original work and in turn, original work can only rely on its translation work to refresh its vitality and go on its subsistence. <br />
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==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
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Various forms of life closely correlate with biological phenomena though it has no great significance to biological phenomena. Translation work grows out of original work or we’d rather say it originates from the afterlife. Due to the fact that original work precedes the translation work, and in the range of world literature, no great works meets a perfect translator when its author is still alive, so translation work only marks the continuity of the original work. '''(Benjamin 76)''' Benjamin has regarded the original work as vigorous organism so that translation is viewed as the continuity of original work, which is also the afterlife of original work. Benjamin stresses that life is a historical concept instead of the existential concept. Life doesn’t limit within biological body. Only when we view life as a historical process of organism survival, can the concept of life be understood correctly.<br />
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不同的生活方式与生物现象密切相关，尽管前者对后者影响不大。译作源于原作，或者我们可以说译作源于原作的来世。由于原作先于译作而存在，世界文学中的伟大作品在其作者在世时都遇不到完美译员，因此译作仅仅标志着原作在延续。（班杰明76）班杰明把原作看作充满活力的有机体，因而译文视为原作的延续，也就是原作的来世。班杰明强调，生命是一个历史概念，而非存在主义概念。生命不受限于生物体而存在。只有当我们把生命看作有机体存活的历史进程，生命的概念才能得以正确理解。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 08:15, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
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With this sense, translation work being the continuity of original work can be comprehended. Those that was flashy will corrupt and those that was fashionable will become old. So does the linguistic form. The linguistic form of the original work will die out with time passing by, but the life of original work will not die with the existential form of original work. With the help of translation work, the life of original work will be continued, updated and expanded, thus being constantly succeeded in its life history. Hence, translation was like the source of rejuvenation. '''(Kramer 24)'''<br />
在这个意义下，我们可以理解翻译作品是对原作的延续。那些浮华的终将腐败，那些时尚的也终将落伍。语言学的形式也是如此。原作的语言形式会随着时间的流逝而褪去，但原作的生命却不会因它的存在形式消亡，在翻译这项工作的扶持下，原作的生命得以延续、更新和扩展，从而在其生命史上不断取得成功。因此，翻译就像是复兴的源泉。--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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从这个意义上讲，我们可以把译作理解为原作的延续。那些浮华俗丽的译作将会腐化，那些时尚流行的将会落伍。译作的语言形式也是如此。随着时间的流逝，原作的语言形式将会逐渐消失，但原作的生命却不会随其存在形式而消亡。译作使得原作的生命得以延续，得以更新，得以延伸，因而原作能在其生命历程中不断取得成功。因此，翻译就好比是活力之源。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 08:49, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
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The final purpose of language is to meet our needs to show that the relation among languages is quite close. Translation cannot reveal or build such hidden relation, but translation can reoccur it by intensification and embryotic appearance. Right through the expression of embryotic form, it makes relation among languages reoccur. (Benjamin,60) Accordingly, translation is not the birth of original work nor the death of original work but the living on of the original. It’s the birth after death and death after birth. In this way, Benjamin has assured the position of the original work which is higher than the translation work, on which the original work depends to continue its life. Translation can never be equal to the original work because only the original language has the vigor to embody the fruit of pure language.<br />
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语言的最终目的是满足我们的需求，以展示语言之间的关系是非常密切的。翻译不能揭示或建立这种隐藏的关系，但翻译可以通过强化和再生的形式重现这种关系。正是通过再生形式的表达，使语言之间的关系得以重现。（本杰明，60）因此，译作不是原作的诞生，也不是原作的消亡，而是原作生命的延续。译作成为原作永恒的来世。这样，本雅明就确定了原作的地位高于译作，而原作依靠译作得以继续生存。译作不可能等同于原作，因为只有原作才有活力体现纯语言的成果。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 15:20, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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语言的最终目的是满足我们的需求，以展示语言之间的关系是非常密切的。翻译不能揭示或建立这种隐藏的关系，但翻译可以通过强化和再生的形式重现这种关系。正是通过再生形式的表达，使语言之间的关系得以重现。（本杰明，60）因此，译作不是原作的诞生，也不是原作的消亡，而是原作生命的延续。译作是生死的轮回。这样，本杰明就确定了原作的地位高于译作，而原作依靠译作得以继续生存。译作不可能等同于原作，因为只有原作才有活力体现纯语言的成果。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 13:20, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
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Compared to that, Derrida thinks that translation work is the rebirth of the original work and notes that there are two implications in “rebirth”, which are given by “Fortleben and Uberleben” in Benjamin’s The Task of Translator, indicating that life will continue, consistent and survival continues, but it also indicates resurrection after death. Derrida emphasizes that original work has equal and independent position with translation work, which are complementary for each other. If the original text calls for supplement, that’s because it’s not flawless, complete, entire and self-identified. The original texts to be translated fell into exile from the very beginning. '''(Derrida 2003)'''<br />
相比这个，德里达认为，翻译作品是再生的原创作品并指出“再生”有两个含义。这个在本雅明的《译者的任务》一书中有提到。这表明生活还将继续，一致和生存继续。但它也表明了死后复活。德里达强调原文和翻译作品具有平等和独立的地位，两者相辅相成。如果原文需要补充的话，那是因为它是不完美的、不完整的和没有自我认同的。从一开始原文就被放逐。（德里达2003）--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 05:21, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
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All in all, Derrida and Benjamin have shown their distinctive comprehension about the original work and translation work. Benjamin has claimed that translation work is the afterlife of original work and original work also depends on translation to continue its life. Due to the fact that only the original work can deliver birth to pure language, although the very relations among languages can be reoccurred in translation work, original work ranks first. Derrida holds another opinion that the two, original work and translation work are equal and complementary.<br />
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总之，德里达和本杰明对原作和翻译工作表现出了他们独特的理解。本雅明曾说，翻译是原作的来世，原作也要靠翻译来延续其生命。由于只有原作才能表达出纯语言，虽然语言之间的关系可以在翻译工作中重现，但原作是排在第一位的。德里达则持另一种观点，认为原作和翻译工作二者是平等互补的关系。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 02:29, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
总之，德里达和本杰明对原作和译作都表达了他们独特的见解。本雅明认为译作是原作的来世，原作靠译作来延续其生命力。虽然语言之间的关系可以在译文中重现，但是只有原作才能产生纯粹的语言，所以原作排在第一位。德里达却认为原作和译作二者是平等互补的关系。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 02:08, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
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Secondly, on the aspect of the author, deconstructivism emphasizes the intertextuality instead of the author, declaring that God was already dead and trying to overthrow the concept that author is the source of meaning from the ground level, so translation views of deconstructivism denies the originality of the author and even the copyright of the author(Jiang Xiaohua & Zhang Jinghua 42). However, Benjamin advocates the originality of the author. Though he has not mentioned the issues about author’s copyright, we can infer from the emphasis of originality of original work and creativity of the author that he should admit the copyright of the author.<br />
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==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
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Thirdly, on the aspect of translator, translation view of deconstructivism places the translator in the equal position of author, but at the meantime, it denies the creativity and copyright of translator. What Derrida does is to completely ignore the subjectivity of translator but focus on text. On the contrary, Benjamin does not only emphasize the position of translator and consider that translator contributes creativity as well as author, which just differs in the way of wok and he also points it out that the success of translation depends on the ability of translator.<br />
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==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
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Fourthly, on the aspect of translation work, translation view of deconstructivism has eliminated the difference between the original work and translation work, believing that original work and translation work supplements each other and coexists with each other; the original work lives on with the help of translation work while the translation work becomes independent text because it succeeds the semantic differánce of the original work.<br />
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第四，译作方面，解构主义的翻译观消除了原作与译作的差异，认为原作与译作相互补充、相互共存，原作借助于译作而生存，而译作因继承了原作的语义差异而成为独立的文本。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 06:34, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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第四，在译作方面，解构主义翻译观消除了原作与译作的差异，认为原作与译作相辅相成、相互共存；原作在译作的帮助下得以延续，而译作因继承了原作的语义差异而成为独立的文本。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 08:00, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
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Fifthly, on the aspect of translation criterion, translation view of deconstructivism has deconstructed the traditional translation view that seeks loyalty and equivalence and it has deconstructed the comprehension, extraction and transmission proposed by itself. '''(Wang Yingchong 18)''' As a result, it has treated the translatability and untranslatability in an equal way, indicating that any text can be translatable and untranslatable. Accordingly, the criterion of translation has been dissolved. Compared to Derrida, Benjamin prefers literal translation, advocating that we should promote the supplement of the referential modes of original work and translation work in the general purpose of realizing pure language. <br />
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==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
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'''Translation Aesthetics<br />
Study on Gladys’ Translation of The Border Town from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics'''<br />
Translation, especially literary translation, is a creative activity in nature. Translation is the pursuit of beauty and truth, and it involves philosophical concerns. Aesthetics, the study of beauty, is an eternal theme of Chinese literature. Ever since the emergence of translation, aesthetics and translation have been closely bonded together. Translation Aesthetics is a perfect combination of translation and aesthetics.<br />
翻译美学<br />
从美学角度研究格拉迪斯的译著《边城》<br />
翻译，尤其是文学翻译，其本质上是一种创造性的活动。翻译追求美，向往真理，它还涉及到哲学的有关重点内容。美学，顾名思义，研究美，它是中国文一项永恒的主题。翻译自出现以来，便于美学紧密相连。翻译美学是翻译与美学的一种完美结合。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 12:33, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
翻译美学 <br />
从美学角度研究格拉迪斯的《边城》翻译，尤其是文学翻译，本质上是一种创造性的活动。翻译是对美与真的追求，它涉及到哲学问题。美学是对美的研究，是中国文学永恒的主题。自翻译出现以来，美学与翻译就紧密地联系在一起。翻译美学是翻译与美学的完美结合。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 02:18, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
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'''1 About Translation Aesthetics'''<br />
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翻译美学<br />
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Translation Aesthetics is to analyze, explain and solve the aesthetic problems emerging in interlingual conversion. Its main contents are aesthetic subjects, aesthetic objects, the aesthetic subject’s experience of aesthetic objects, the methods of representing beauty in translating process, the criteria of translation aesthetics and so forth.<br />
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翻译美学是分析、解读并且解决不同语种对话间出现的问题，主要包括美学主体、美学客体、美学主体的客体经验、翻译过程中传递美的途径、翻译美学标准等等。<br />
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'''1.1 Development of Translation Aesthetics in China'''<br />
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中国的翻译美学发展脉络--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 01:20, 22 October 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
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翻译美学是分析、解释和解决语言转换中出现的美学问题。它的主要包括美学主体、美学对象、审美主体的对象经验、翻译过程中表达美的方式以及翻译美学标准等。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:41, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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翻译美学用于分析、解读和解决语言转换中出现的美学问题，主要包括美学主体、美学客体、审美体验、在翻译过程中如何呈现美感以及翻译美学标准等等。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 11:28, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
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The traditional translation theory in China originated from the translation of Buddhist scriptures more than 1700 years ago. Chinese translation theory has a close relationship with philosophy and aesthetics. In China, aesthetic thoughts have a long history. Confucius, Mencius, Laozi and other famous ancient thinkers put forward their views on aesthetics. In the process of the formation and development of literary translation, ancient aesthetic thoughts provided the ideological basis for it. Classical aesthetic thoughts made subtle influence on Chinese literary translation theories. The translation theories which contain classical aesthetics are naturally different from other countries' translation theories.<br />
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中国传统翻译理论起源于1700多年前的佛经翻译。该理论与哲学、美学有着紧密的联系。在中国，美学思想有着悠久的历史。孔子、孟子、老子等古代著名思想家都曾提出自己的美学观。古代美学思想为文学翻译的形成和发展过程提供了思想基础。古典美学思想对中国文学翻译理论产生了潜移默化的影响。这种包含古典美学思想的翻译理论与其他国家的翻译理论有着天然的区别。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 08:28, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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中国传统翻译理论起源于1700多年前的佛经翻译,而这种翻译理论同哲学、美学有着密切的联系。在中国，美学思想有着悠久的历史。孔子、孟子、老子等古代著名思想家都提出了自己的美学观。并且在文学翻译的形成和发展过程中，古典美学思想为其提供了思想基础，产生了潜移默化的影响。因此，这种包含古典美学思想的翻译理论自然不同于其他国家的翻译理论。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:35, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
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According to Liu Miqing, “Aesthetic constituents of source text can be classified into two systems: formal aesthetic constituents and non-formal aesthetic constituents.”[4]. Formal aesthetic system include the scope of phonetics, morphology and syntax. While the non-formal aesthetic system is non-material, non-natural sensible. It is an indefinite, non-quantitative system. So it is also called “fuzzy sets” or “sets of fuzziness”. All kinds of beauty in the two systems are aesthetic objects, which we will experience in translation.<br />
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基于刘宓庆的翻译理论，“源文本的美学成分可以分为两个系统：正式美学成分和非正式美学成分。”【4】.正式美学系统包括语音学、形态学和句法学的范畴。而非正式美学系统则是非物质、非自然的内容。这是一种不明确，非量化的系统。因此它也被称之为“模糊集”或者“集的模糊性”。在这两个系统中的所有种类的美都是美学目标，而这一体验则会在翻译中体现出来。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 14:47, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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刘宓庆认为，“源文本的审美客体可以分为两个系统：形式系统和非形式系统。”【4】.形式系统包括语音学、形态学和句法学的范畴。而非形式系统则包含非物质、非自然的成分，它是一种不明确，非量化的系统。因此它也被称之为“审美模糊集”或者“集的模糊性”。在这两个系统中，不同种类的美都属于审美客体，这也是我们在翻译中将要感受到的。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 15:39, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
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Yan Fu, a Chinese scholar, once put forward the theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, and Qian Zhongshu also put forward the theory of transformation, and so on. All these theories reflect the influence of classical aesthetics on Chinese writers. Reviewing its development, it is not difficult to find that almost all Chinese translation theories have their aesthetic origin.<br />
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中国学者严复提出“信”、“达”、“雅”的翻译原则，钱钟书则提出翻译的转化理论等等，这些理论的提出体现出中国作家受到了不少古典美学的影响。回顾其发展，不难看出几乎所有的中国翻译理论都可从中追溯其美学之源。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 11:09, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
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'''1.2 Lin Yutang’s theory of Translation Aesthetics'''<br />
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In 1933, Lin Yutang put forward three principles for translation: faithfulness, smoothness and beauty in the article of On Translation. The three principles of translation represent three responsibilities respectively: that toward the original author, that toward the reader, and that toward art. Here, fidelity becomes threefold. It is not only the fidelity to the original author, but also fidelity to the target reader and to art. In Lin Yutang’s opinion, translation is a kind of art. The main difference between art and science is that science is guided by the rule, while art is not. As for the standard of beauty in translation, he thought that “Every writing has its beauty in sound, meaning, spirit and style.”<br />
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'''1.2林语堂的翻译美学理论”<br />
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1933年，林语堂在《论翻译》一文中提出了翻译的三个原则：忠实标准，通顺标准，美。 翻译的三个原则分别代表三个责任：对原作者的责任，对读者的责任和对艺术的责任。 这里，能保证三重真实性。 这不仅是对原作者的忠诚，而且也是对目标读者和艺术的忠诚。 林语堂认为翻译是一种艺术，而 艺术与科学之间的最大不同之处在于科学以规则为导向，而艺术则不是这样。 至于翻译的美学标准，他认为“每一篇文章在声音，含义，精神和风格上都有其美感。”<br />
--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 02:19, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
1933年，林语堂在《论翻译》一文中提出了翻译的三个原则：忠实、通顺和美。这三个翻译原则分别代表了对原作者、读者和艺术的责任。同时，忠诚也变成了三重奏。忠诚不只是对原作者的忠诚，还包括对读者和艺术的忠诚。在林语堂看来，翻译就是一门艺术。艺术与科学最大的不同就是科学讲究规则，而艺术则无规则可言。他认为翻译中的美的标准就是“任何一篇文章无论是在音韵和意义还是在神采和风格上都有着独特的美。”--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 11:31, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
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[1] The ideal translator should make his work an art. He should love it with the heart of art, be careful with it and regard translation as fine art. Especially when translating literary works, translator should pay more attention to the beauty of words. Lin Yutang believes that the most important thing in literary translation is to embody the style of the original work. That is, “not only what it says, but also how to say it”. From this point of view, Lin Yutang's translation thought is mainly aimed at literary translation. Among his three translation principles (faithfulness, smoothness and beauty), the third principle--beauty is regarded as the most important point in literary translation. Therefore, Lin Yutang's translation thought is also recognized as “translation of aesthetics” by some scholars.<br />
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理想的译者应该使他的翻译成为一种艺术。他应该以一种艺术之心去爱它，小心对待他，并且将翻译当成艺术。尤其是在翻译文学作品的时候，译者应当花更多心思在词汇的优美与否上。林语堂认为在文学作品翻译时最重要的事是体现作品的风格。也就是说，“不仅是看他说了什么，还要看他怎么说的。”从这个角度来看，林语堂的翻译思想主要着眼于文学翻译。在他的三个翻译原则（忠实性，流畅性，和优美程度），第三原则——优美程度，则被看作文学作品翻译中最重要的一点。因此林语堂的翻译思想也被一些学者视为“美学的翻译”。<br />
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 07:34, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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理想的译者应该让自己的译文成为一件艺术作品。他/她应该以一颗艺术之心去爱它，小心照料，并且将翻译当成艺术。尤其是在翻译文学作品的时候，译者应当花更多心思在选词优美上。林语堂认为，文学作品翻译时最重要的事莫过于体现作品的风格。也就是说，“不仅是体现原文的内容，还要体现其表达方式。”从这个角度来看，林语堂的翻译思想主要着眼于文学翻译。在他的三个翻译标准（忠实，通顺，美）中，其中第三条美的标准，便成为文学作品翻译中最重要的一条标准。因此林语堂的翻译思想也被一些学者视为“美学的翻译”。<br />
--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:16, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
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So in the article of '''On Translation''' written by Lin Yutang, the main content is about the discussion on translation standards, and the core idea of the full text is that translation is an art. The most important thing in literary translation is to express the beauty of the original work, and to embody the original author's “how to say” in the translation. At the same time, Lin Yutang also affirmed that translation is creation. The translation with beauty features can make the original work be loved by the readers in the foreign culture, spread widely to the other countries, and achieve its equivalent effect in the source language environment to the greatest extent, which is the greatest responsibility and loyalty to the original text, the author, the readers and the art.<br />
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因此，林语堂在《论翻译》一文中主要讨论了翻译标准的问题，全文的核心思想就是翻译是一门艺术。文学翻译最重要的就是要表达原作的美，并在译文中体现原作者是如何表达这种美的。同时，林语堂也认为翻译是一种创作。有美学特点的译作才能够使外国的读者也能喜欢上原作，能够使原作流传更广，也能够尽量达到与原作在原语言环境等同的效果。这也是对原作、作者、读者以及艺术最大的责任和忠诚。--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 11:14, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
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'''1.3 Liu Miqing’s theory of Translation Aesthetics'''<br />
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In 1995, Liu Miqing offers a theoretical framework of Translation Aesthetics in detail in his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics. “Translation Aesthetics refers to the study on aesthetic object (the source text and the target text), the aesthetic subject (translators and readers) and aesthetic activities in translation, such as aesthetic judgments, aesthetic appreciation, and creative aesthetic representation in translation.”[2]<br />
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1.3刘宓庆的翻译美学理论<br />
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1995年，刘宓庆在其著作《翻译美学理论》中详细介绍了翻译美学的理论框架。“翻译美学是指对翻译中审美对象（原文和译文）、审美主体（译者和读者）以及翻译中的审美活动的研究，如翻译中的审美判断、审美欣赏和创造性的审美表现。”[2]--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 12:26, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.3 刘宓庆的翻译美学理论<br />
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1995年，刘宓庆在《翻译美学导论》一书中详细阐述了翻译美学的理论框架。“翻译美学是指对翻译中的审美客体(原文和译文)、审美主体(译者和读者)和审美活动的研究，如审美判断、审美欣赏、翻译中的创造性审美表征等。”--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 02:26, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
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“Aesthetic object (AO) refers to the objective matters that human's aesthetic activity targets at.[3] However, not everything in the objective world is aesthetic object. For instance, The Book of Songs on the bookshelf is not an aesthetic object until translator buys and translate it. In the aesthetic process, the translator appreciate the beauty in sound, beauty in form and beauty in sense in the book.<br />
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审美客体（AO）是指人们审美活动所针对的客观事物。【3】然而，在客观世界里，并非所有事物都是审美对象。例如，书架上的诗经只有被译者买下并翻译了，才是一个审美对象。再审美过程中，译者欣赏到了这本书的音美、形美、意美。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 14:42, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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审美对象（AO）是指人们在审美活动中所针对的客观事物。【3】然而，在客观世界里并非所有事物均是审美对象。比如，书架上的诗经只有在被译者买下并翻译之后才能称之为审美对象。在审美过程中，译者体会到了这本书的音美，形美和意美。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 14:58, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
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It clings to the aesthetic constituents and the aesthetic effects of the ST. If one pursues or analyzes the beauty in translation without adequate consideration of the ST, it equals to fish in the air and yields nothing but vainness. The attribute of TAO is different from the attribute of AO. On the one hand, it is attached to the aesthetic composition of SL. That is to say, translator cannot add something that is not in the aesthetic constituents of ST.<br />
审美客体与源语翻译的审美因素及其效果紧密相关。如果一个人追求或分析翻译之美而未曾妥当考虑结构化文本，那就像是鱼在天空那样颗粒无收、徒劳无功。翻译的审美客体因素与审美客体因素是不同的。一方面，翻译审美客体要考虑到源语的审美组成。即译者不能凭空添加不符合结构化文本审美组成的成分--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 01:46, 23 October 2020 (UTC)。<br />
审美客体与源语翻译的美学因素和美学效果关系紧密。 如果人们在没有充分考虑审美客体的的情况下追求或分析翻译的美，那么它就等于在空中钓鱼，徒劳无益。翻译的审美客体因素与审美客体因素是不同的。一方面，翻译审美客体要考虑到源语的审美组成。 也就是说，译者不能添加不符合结构化文本审美的内容。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 10:26, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
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According to Liu Miqing, “Aesthetic constituents of source text can be classified into two systems: formal aesthetic constituents and non-formal aesthetic constituents.”[4]. Formal aesthetic system include the scope of phonetics, morphology and syntax. While the non-formal aesthetic system is non-material, non-natural sensible. It is an indefinite, non-quantitative system. So it is also called “fuzzy sets” or “sets of fuzziness”. All kinds of beauty in the two systems are aesthetic objects, which we will experience in translation.<br />
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刘宓庆认为，源语的审美客体包括两种体系：形式审美客体和非形式审美客体。形式审美体系包含语音、形态和句法。而非审美体系是非物质的、非自然的、感性的，是一个不确定的、非定量的体系。因此非审美体系也被称为“模糊集”。这两种体系中的美均是审美客体，我们在翻译中会碰见这种客体。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:38, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
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The aesthetic subject (AS) refers to people who carry out aesthetic appreciation activity on the aesthetic object; and translation aesthetic subject (TAS) refers to the translator. When translating, translator plays a dual role. For one thing, he is the recipient of the SL text who should first decode the aesthetic information in the SL text. In this process, his role is both passive and subjective. For another, he is identified as the creator of the target text. Being so, he undertakes the task of aesthetic representation to the target text readers. Hence he ought to play his dynamic role as the aesthetic subject.<br />
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审美主体是指对审美客体进行审美欣赏活动的人;翻译审美主体则指的是译者。在翻译中，译者扮演着双重角色。一方面，他作为文本的接受者，首先要对文本中的美学信息进行解码。在这个过程中，他的角色既是被动的，也是主观的。另一方面，他也是目标文本的创造者。所以，他承担着对目标文本读者进行审美再现这一任务。因此，他应该发挥自己作为审美主体的能动作用。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 02:47, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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审美主体是指对审美客体进行审美欣赏活动的人;翻译审美主体则指的是译者。在翻译中，译者扮演着双重角色。一方面，他作为文本的接受者，首先要对文本中的美学信息进行解码。在这个过程中，他的角色既是被动的，也是主观的。另一方面，他也是目标文本的创造者。所以，他承担着对目标文本读者进行审美再现这一任务。因此，译者应该发挥自己作为审美主体的能动作用。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 09:52, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
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Comparing Lin Yutang’s theory with Liu Miqin’s theory, we can find that their thoughts have something in common. They both agree that Translation Aesthetics plays a significant role in translation, especially literary translation. Lin Yutang believes that literary translation is a creative art with beauty as its soul, so translators should always keep a heart of beauty-pursuit during the process of translating. While Liu Miqing offers a theoretical framework of Translation Aesthetics in detail. He regards source language and target language as aesthetic objects, treats translators as aesthetic subjects, and constructs basic framework of Translation Aesthetics in a dynamic role of subject and object.<br />
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将林语堂的翻译理论与刘宓庆的对比，可以发现他们在思想方面有一些共同点。他们都认可翻译美学在翻译，特别是在文学翻译中的重要地位。林语堂认为文学翻译就是对其灵魂美丽之处的再一次创造，所以译员在翻译时应以追求美感为目的，而刘宓庆则提出了一个关于翻译美学的具体框架，他将源语言与目标语设定为翻译客体，译员为翻译主体，以主客体的动态变化构建一个翻译美学基础框架。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 11:15, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
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'''2 A case study of The Border Town from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics'''<br />
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''The Border Town'' is Shen Congwen’s masterpiece, which is also the supporting pillar for him to construct Xiangxi. He adopted a pristine love story to display the pursuit of his ideal life. The love story set in a town of Hunan province which is beside Sichuan province. In the 1930s, it is a quite tranquil place without lots of people in rural area. People there live a simple and honest life. The language of the novel is simple, deep, implicit and subtle, and it is in harmony with the content. It contains rich poetic feelings and produces a beautiful and graceful beauty.<br />
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2.从翻译美学的角度看《边城》个案研究<br />
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《边城》是沈从文的代表作，也是他建设湘西的支柱。他通过一个纯朴的爱情故事来表现他对理想生活的追求。这个爱情故事发生在湖南省的一个小镇，与四川省相邻。在20世纪30年代，由于没有什么人住在农村，这是一个相当安静的地方。那里的人过着简单而又实在的生活。小说的语言简单，深邃，含蓄而又微妙，与内容融为一体。它给人以诗情画意般的感受，产生了一种优雅美。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 02:17, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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2.从翻译美学的角度看《边城》个案研究<br />
《边城》是沈从文的代表作，也是他建设湘西的主要作品。他通过一个纯朴的爱情故事表现了他对理想生活的追求。这个爱情故事发生在与四川省交界的一个湖南小镇。那是20世纪30年代里的一个人少宁静的乡村地区，村里的人过着简单而又实在的生活。小说的语言朴实，深邃，含蓄而又微妙，与其内容相得益彰。它给人以诗情画意般的感受，散发着一种优雅美。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 04:10, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
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Literary translation is a very important part in translation studies, and it’s a complicated process that requires many different skills. On the one hand, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very necessary for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should pick up the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. On the other hand, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty in the context of the target language. In this part, a case study is conducted in detail based on Gladys Yang’s English translation of ''The Border Town'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics.<br />
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文学翻译是翻译研究中非常重要的一个环节，它也是一个复杂的过程，需要很多不同的技巧。 一方面，作者在创作过程中，审美风格和审美感受的揉入是非常必要的。 因此，译者在翻译的过程中，要拾掇好文学词汇，转化源文本的美感。 另一方面，文学翻译是全方位艺术品质的表现，它可以使目标读者在目标语言的语境中得到类似于原作美感的欣赏体验。 在这部分，从翻译美学的角度，以格莱迪 杨的英译版《边城》为基础，进行了详细的分析。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 03:05, 22 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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文学翻译是翻译研究中非常重要的一部分，这是一个复杂的过程，需要运用很多不同的技巧。 一方面，作者在创作过程中，审美风格和审美感受的揉入是非常必要的。 因此，译者在翻译的过程中，要精心挑选文学词汇来转化源文本的美感。 另一方面，文学翻译是全方位艺术品质的表现，它可以使目标读者在目标语言的语境中也能欣赏到类似于原作的美感。 在这方面有一个专题研究：从翻译美学的角度，以格莱迪杨的英译版《边城》为基础，对其进行了详尽的分析。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 04:41, 23 October 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
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The combination of translation theory and aesthetics is traditional Chinese feature, and Translation Aesthetics carry forward traditional translation theory. With the increasingly close communication between China and other countries, Chinese classical aesthetics and Western aesthetics have developed a certain degree of integration, which is also a special form of mutual learning between China and the West in a sense. This kind of reference promotes the development and application of Translation Aesthetics.<br />
翻译理论与美学的结合是中国的传统特色，而翻译美学则是传统翻译理论的传承。随着中外交流的日益密切，中国古典美学与西方美学发展出了一定程度的融合，从某种意义上说，这也是中西相互学习的一种特殊形式。这种借鉴促进了翻译美学的发展和应用。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 02:12, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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翻译理论与美学的结合是中国的传统特色，而翻译美学则是对传统翻译理论的传承。随着中外交流的日益密切，中国古典美学与西方美学在一定程度上有融合的部分。从某种意义上说，这也是中西相互学习的一种特殊形式。这种相互借鉴促进了翻译美学的发展和应用。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:23, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
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The aesthetic subject (AS) refers to people who carry out aesthetic appreciation activity on the aesthetic object; and translation aesthetic subject (TAS) refers to the translator. When translating, translator plays a dual role. For one thing, he is the recipient of the SL text who should first decode the aesthetic information in the SL text. In this process, his role is both passive and subjective. For another, he is identified as the creator of the target text. Being so, he undertakes the task of aesthetic representation to the target text readers. Hence he ought to play his dynamic role as the aesthetic subject.<br />
审美主体是指对审美客体进行审美欣赏活动的人;翻译审美主体指的是译者。在翻译中，译者扮演着双重角色。一方面，作为文本的接受者，他首先要对文本中的审美信息进行解码。在这个过程中，他的角色既有被动的，也有主观的。另一方面，他被认为是目标文本的创造者。因此，他承担着对目标文本读者进行审美再现的任务。因此，他应该发挥自己作为审美主体的能动作用。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 12:17, 21 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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审美主体指的是审美活动的执行者；所以翻译审美主体就是译者。译者在翻译中有着双重角色。其一，作为原文文本的接收者，他首先需要解码原文中的审美信息。在这个过程中，他同时扮演主观和被动的角色。其二，人们认为他是目标文本的创作者。因此，他承担了为目标读者实现审美再现的任务。所以，作为审美主体，译者的角色是能动的。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 12:47, 21 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
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There is a doubt that why Benjamin insists that the fruit of pure language is on the original work’s side, as we mentioned in the beginning that Benjamin want to realize the identity of language and spirit through exhausting all the referential modes of all languages, and making them melt with each other. Though translation is the living-on of original work which just like the baby from a mother, affiliated to the original. Why the final result will be on the original side still needs our attention. During the differánce of texts, original text can become the translation of former text while the translation can be the original text of later text, thus the chain of textual differánce are built.<br />
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==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
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However, in Benjamin’s points, translation work is the afterlife of original work doesn’t mean it’s the end of original work’s life nor that translation work replaces the original one to be an independent organism. Benjamin stresses that continuity of life doesn’t pay much attention to the survival of organism, which means that translation is a medium that pushes the original’s life process, a medium that provides a chance for the continuity of original’s life instead of substitution. The mission of translation is to promote the original work’s linguistic life growing until it ripens and fruit the pure language.<br />
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==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
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The relationship of the two can only be understood in the whole purpose of realizing pure language. What Benjamin expects is through constant translation, we can make the referential modes of original work and translation work interflow until we exhaust all the referential modes to realize the final identity of language and spirit in entity. To the relationship of original work and translation work, Benjamin interprets from the perspective of organism and survival.<br />
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我们只有通过实现纯语言意图的总体性才能理解这两者之间的关系。本雅明希望通过不断的翻译，可以实现原作的意指方式与翻译作品的意指方式相互交融，直至用尽所有的意指方式，最终达到语言与精神在实体上的一致。对于原文与译文的关系，本雅明从有机体和生存的角度进行了阐释。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 03:49, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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二者的关系只有在实现纯语言的整个目的中才能被理解。本雅明所期望的是通过不断的翻译，使原作的意指方式与译作的意指方式相互交融，直至用尽所有的意指方式，实现语言与精神在实体上的最终统一。对于原文和译文的关系，本雅明从有机体和生存的角度进行了阐释。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:01, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
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Whereas, Benjamin stresses that translation is the continuity and supplement of original life but at the same time, he disapproves the independence of translation work as the effect of translation work is only to promote the growth of “pure language” existing in original work and translation itself contains no organism of pure language so translation work has not been equipped with translatability.<br />
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但是，本杰明强调翻译是对原作的延续和补充，与此同时，他不认可译作的独立性，因为译作的作用仅仅是促进原作中“纯语言”的成长，并且，翻译本身不包含纯语言有机体，因此译作不具有可译性。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:29, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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然而，本杰明强调翻译是对原著生命的延续和补充，但同时他不赞成翻译工作的独立性，因为翻译工作的作用只是促进原著中存在的“纯语言”的生长，而翻译本身又不包含纯语言的有机体，所以翻译工作不具备可译性。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 04:41, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
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Except for paying attention to the elements of translation, translation aims to find out the ways to produce wonderful works and principles in assessing the quality of translation. Generally speaking, Translation Aesthetics does research on translation theory and practice from the perspective of aesthetics. Its major task is to analyze and elucidate the aesthetic principles, with which we can guide translation practices and assess the literary translation. Moreover, a satisfying version needs some other elements, such as the aesthetic experience of a translator, comprehension of source text, and evaluation and reproduction of beauty.<br />
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翻译除了关注翻译要素外，还要弄清楚用什么方法可以创造出精彩的作品，有哪些原则可以用来评价翻译作品的质量。 一般来说，翻译美学是从美学的角度对翻译理论和实践进行研究的。 它的主要任务是分析和阐明美学原则，用这些原则来指导翻译实践，评价文学翻译。 此外，一个满意的翻译版本还需要一些其他要素，如译者的审美体验、对源文本的理解、对美的评价和再现等。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 09:44, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
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In aesthetics, aesthetic subject and aesthetic object are two concepts and two categories that cannot be separated. There is a dialectical relationship between them. Therefore, a qualified translator should possess the dual characters as the translation aesthetic subject: objectivity and subjectivity.<br />
在美学中，审美主体和审美客体是两个不可分割的概念和范畴。两者之间存在一种辩证关系。因此，一名合格的译者应该具备翻译审美主体的双重特征：主观性和客观性。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 12:29, 21 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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在美学范畴中，审美主体和客体是两个不可分割的概念。主体和客体之间存在一种辩证关系。因此，一名合格的译者应具备翻译审美主体的双重特征：主观性和客观性。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 07:03, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
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If there are no rhymes in the original, translators should not add rhymes. If there is no irony in the original, translator should not add irony. If there is no hyperbole, translator should not add hyperbole, and so on. On the other hand, it has flexibility for aesthetic subject. In some circumstances, we can’t find an appropriate word to translate which is in line with the ST. Under these circumstances, we should translate it in a flexible way.<br />
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如果原文中没有押韵，译者不应自己添加；如果原文中没有讽刺，译者不应自己添加；如果原文中没有夸张，译者也不应自己添加，以此类推。另一方面，出于美学考虑翻译具有灵活性。在某些情况下，我们无法找到合适的与原文相符的词来翻译。在这些情况下，我们应当用灵活的方式来翻译。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:21, 21 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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如果原文中没有押韵，译者不应该添加押韵；如果原文中没有反语，译者不应该添加反语；如果原文中没有夸张，译者（也）不应该自行添加夸张，等等。另一方面，美学主体具有灵活性。在某些情况下，我们无法找到某个合适的与原文相符的词来翻译。在这些情况下，我们（就）应当用灵活的方式来翻译。<br />
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 07:40, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
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These beauty in various forms is called “aesthetic object”. Translation aesthetic object (TAO) is the source text (ST) which the translator is about to translate. But not every source text can be TAO. For example, if the source text is inconsistent, empty and has no value to translate, it cannot be translation aesthetic object. TAO possesses aesthetic values and is designed to satisfy human's aesthetic needs.<br />
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不同形式的美都是“美学对象”。翻译美学对象（TAO）就是译者需要进行翻译的原文（ST）。但并不是所有的原文都是翻译审美对象。例如，如果原文自相矛盾，语言空洞，没有翻译的价值的话，它就不是一个翻译美学对象。翻译美学对象不仅需要具备美学价值，还需要迎合人类的美学需要。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 02:37, 23 October 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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这些形式各异的美被称为“审美对象”。翻译审美对象（TAO）就是译者需要进行翻译的原文（ST）。但并不是所有的原文都是翻译审美对象。例如，如果原文自相矛盾，语言空洞，没有翻译的价值的话，它就不是一个翻译审美对象。翻译审美对象不仅需要具备美学价值，还需要旨在满足人类的审美需要。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 12:33, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
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'''2.1 Beauty in sound'''<br />
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Sound is one of the fundamental forms which carries the aesthetic information of language, either in poetry, drama or fiction. Guided by the principle of preserving the beauty on the phonetic beauty as much as possible without hindering readers’ understanding, Gladys Yang not only reproduces the original rhyme but also tries to preserve the original sound effect of the onomatopoeias.<br />
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2.1声美<br />
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声音是承载诗歌，戏剧或小说中语言美感信息的基本形式之一。 在不妨碍读者理解的前提下，和尽可能在语音美中保留美的原则指导下，杨韵诗不仅再现了原韵，而且还试图保留拟声词的原声效果。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 01:48, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在诗歌，戏剧或小说中，声音是承载着语言审美信息的基本形式之一。在不妨碍读者理解的前提下，格拉迪斯·杨（Gladys Yang）原则上尽可能保持语音的美感，不仅再现了原韵，而且还设法保留了拟声词的原声效果。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 15:27, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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无论是在诗歌、喜剧还是小说中，声音都是传递语言美的信息的基本形式之一。在遵循尽可能保留语音美且不影响读者理解原文的原则上，戴乃迭（Gladys Yang）不仅还原了原本的韵律，还设法保留了原稳重拟声词的声音效果。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 01:55, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
'''2.1.1 Rhyme'''<br />
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Generally speaking, rhymes are applied into songs and poems. However, it doesn't mean there is no rhyme in fictions. Technical fiction writers also attempt to select word and phrase patterns so as to make their works imbued with a regular beat. In regard to fiction, rhyme refers to the general way in which a passage moves and flows. “Rhythm, the beauty in sound, often takes the form of wave movement in prose”[5].<br />
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韵律<br />
一般说来，韵脚被应用到歌曲和诗歌中。然而，这并不意味着小说中没有押韵。技术小说作家也试图选择词语和短语模式，以使他们的作品充满规律的节拍。在小说方面，韵脚指的是一篇文章移动和流动的一般方式。“节奏，声音中的美，常以散文中的波浪运动的形式” [5]--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 11:57, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1.1 韵律<br />
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一般来说，歌曲和诗歌中会有韵律。但这并不意味着小说中没有韵律。技法小说作家也试图选择词句模式，使作品充满规律的节拍。就小说而言，韵律指的是段落迁移和流动的一般方式。"节奏，是声音中的美，在散文中往往以波浪运动的形式出现"。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 02:49, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
To be specific, rhyme is a linguistic phenomenon referring to the repetition of the same or similar syllable sounds. It is achieved by the means of repetition, phrase structure, sentence structure and pause. The function of rhyme is mainly of the aesthetic aspect and the semantic meaning. On the one hand, the use of rhyme adds musicality to the literary .On the other hand, it arouses the readers' resonance and satisfaction. Since the rhythmic features contribute greatly to the aesthetic flavor, translators should take them into consideration and try to present the rhyme in the source text.<br />
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（中英举例不用翻译）<br />
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Example 1: 无人过渡时，等着祖父又不来，便尽只反复温习这些女孩子的神气，且轻轻的无所谓的唱着：“白鸡关出老虎咬人，不咬别人，团总的小姐派第一……大姐戴副金簪子，二姐戴副银钏子，只有我三妹没得什么戴，耳朵上长年蜜条豆芽菜。”[6]<br />
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Translation: When no one comes she waits for her grandfather, and when he fails to come she compares the looks of the girls and chants softly: The tiger eats the captain’s daughter first; Most girls have gold and silver for their hair; Poor Emerald is the one who comes off worst-No trinkets, nothing but beansprouts to wear![7]<br />
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具体来说，韵律是一种语言现象，指的是相同或相似音节的重复。它是通过重复、短语结构、句子结构和停顿来实现的。押韵的功能主要表现在审美方面和语义方面。押韵的运用，一方面为作品增添了节奏感，另一方面又能引起读者的共鸣和满足。韵律特征大大提高了诗歌的审美性，译者应充分考虑韵律特征，努力体现原文中的韵味。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 08:24, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
This folk song sings Cuicui’s heart at that moment. The density of the rhythm contributes a lot to the reflection of Cuicui’s mood. Owing to the poor condition in her family, she could only admire the landlord's daughter's dress and ornaments. The sound / i / and / ai / repeat five times and emerge in different positions of the original text.<br />
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那时，这首民歌唱出了翠翠的心声。紧密的节奏有助于反映翠翠的情绪。由于家庭条件恶劣，她只能羡慕地主家女儿的衣服和饰品呢。/ i / and / ai / 音重复了五次，并出现在了原始文本的不同位置。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:30, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这首民歌唱出了翠翠那时的心声。紧密的节奏有助于反映翠翠的情绪。由于家庭条件差，她只能羡慕地主家女儿的衣服和饰品呢。/ i / and / ai / 音重复了五次，并出现在了原始文本的不同位置。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 13:07, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
When singing, people should open and narrow their mouths forming a beautiful rhythmical meter. In Chinese the sound / i / vividly imitates the sound of weeping, and / ai / is like the sound of sighing. So the shift of the rhyme produces a sort of self-mockery effect to the audience, meanwhile arouses deep sympathy toward the pure girl in the readers’ heart.<br />
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==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
'''2.1.2 Onomatopoeia'''<br />
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Onomatopoeia means that an object or something is related to some actions which can be imitated by some vivid words. It is one of the rhetorical devices that are widely used in literary works, which makes great efforts to let speech sound vivid and lifelike. There are plenty of onomatopoeias in English and Chinese, though they have different expression forms, they are all used to imitate the sound. Onomatopoetic words can add interest to the work, which also can create aesthetic effect in literary works.<br />
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'''2.1.2 拟声'''<br />
拟声指与能用生动词语来模仿的动作相关的对象或物体。它是文学作品中广泛使用的修辞手段之一，通过不懈努力，让声音听起来生动逼真。 中英文中有许多拟声词，虽然表达形式不同，但都用来模仿声音。 拟声词可以增加作品的趣味性，也可以在文学作品中创造美学效果。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:45, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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拟声是指用一些生动的词汇来模仿某个对象或与动作相关的物体。拟声是在文学作品中广泛运用的修辞手法之一，尽其所能地让演讲听起来更加生动形象。在英语和中文中都有大量的拟声词，尽管它们的表达方式不同，但都用来模仿声音。拟声词能让作品更具趣味性，也可以在文学作品中创造美学效果。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 02:06, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
The onomatopoeias in ''The Border Town'' demonstrate readers with a lively picture and put them in the scene by themselves. Meanwhile, the use of the onomatopoeias also enhances the aesthetic effect of Shen’s literal expressions. It is fortunate that in many cases English and Chinese onomatopoeias can be inter-translated.<br />
《边城》中的拟声词将栩栩如生的画面呈于读者眼前，而且能让读者置身其中。同时，拟声词的运用也增强了沈从文文字表达的审美效果。幸运的是，在很多情况下，英语和汉语的拟声词可以互译。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 13:45, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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通过使用拟声词，《边城》将栩栩如生的画面呈现在读者眼前，让读者仿佛置身其中。同时，运用拟声词也增强了沈氏文学表达中的美学效果。英汉拟声词在很多情况下可以互译，这实属大幸。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:54, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
However, sometimes it is impossible to achieve. So it is often hard for aesthetic subjects to render the onomatopoeias accurately and appropriately. In some translations, Gladys Yang has selected appropriate onomatopoeias of other appropriate words not only to imitate the sound but also to denote the original meanings. In the end, the description becomes more concrete and vivid, as it is showed in examples.<br />
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'''（中英文举例不用翻译）'''<br />
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Example 2: 那黄狗汪汪的吠着，受了惊似的绕屋乱走，有人过渡时，便随船渡过东岸且跑到那小山头向城里一方面大吠。[8]<br />
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Translation: Barking wildly, he dashes round the house. Next time, passengers are ferried across he follows them up the east bank and races up the hill overlooking town, yapping frantically.[9]<br />
然而，有时也很难实现拟声词的英汉互译。因此，对审美主体来说，将拟声词译得精准无误而又恰到好处，这是十分困难的。在戴乃迭的一些翻译中，他会在合适的词语中挑选出合适的拟声词，这不仅模仿了声音形象还传达了原意。最后，这段描写就会更加明确具体，栩栩如生。正如下面例子所示，--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 09:35, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
'''（中英文举例不用翻译）'''<br />
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Example 3: 黄狗为了表示同主人的意见一致，也在翠翠身边汪汪的吠着。[10]<br />
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Translation: To show his agreement, Brownie sets up a furious barking.[11]<br />
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In the two examples, there are three “吠”(fèi, meaning bark)，which is as a modifier of the verb “叫”. In the first translation, Gladys uses “barking wildly” to show the dog’s scare. And the second one is translated into “yapping frantically”, which shows that it’s on duty. And the third one is “furious barking” to show its anger. In Chinese, we can only use different adverbs to modify the same verb. However, the same character in Chinese is translated into three different expressions. In this way, the target readers can understand the original clearly.<br />
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==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
'''2.2 Beauty in lexis'''<br />
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Beauty in lexis is associated with word choice, register, and collocation, and there are many rhetorical devices that contribute to the formal beauty on the lexical level, such as euphemism, zeugma, oxymoron, etc. Shen Congwen, with deep affection to his hometown, writes his fiction in a language as genuine and beautiful as the frontier folk songs in his hometown. His language, which has also enriched the modern vernacularism in China, is imbued with metaphors, local jokes and ballads.<br />
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词汇美与词的选择、语域和搭配有关，词汇层面的形式美有许多修辞手段，如委婉表达、对格法、矛盾修饰法等。沈从文怀着对家乡的深厚感情，用家乡边塞民歌一样真挚美丽的语言，撰写了自己的小说。他的语言中充满了隐喻、地方笑话和民谣，也丰富了中国的现代白话文化。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 01:35, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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词汇美<br />
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词美与词的选择、配位、搭配有关，在词汇层面上，委婉语、理喻、矛盾修辞等修辞手段对形式美有很大贡献。沈从文对家乡有着深厚的感情，他的小说创作语言真实而优美，就像他家乡的边民歌曲。他的语言，也丰富了中国的现代魔术，充满了隐喻，地方笑话和歌谣。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 12:00, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
As for the aesthetic representation on the lexical level, Yang’s English translation have done a satisfactory job in that she attempts to retain the aesthetic features of original lexis as much as possible, though when it comes to the lexis loaded with heavy cultural connotations, due to the cultural untranslatability, the translator has employed domestication to avoid misunderstanding.<br />
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在词汇层面上的审美呈现中，杨的英译做得很好。她尽可能地保留了原文词汇的美学特征。但由于文化的不可译性，词汇有着浓厚的文化内涵，译者采用了归化来避免产生误解。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:13, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''（中英文举例不用翻译）'''<br />
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Example 4: 翠翠在风日里长着，故把皮肤变得黑黑的，触目为青山绿水，故眸子清明如水晶。自然既长养她且教育她，为人天真活泼，处处俨然如一只小怪兽。人又那么乖，如山头黄麂一样，从不想到残忍事情，从不发愁，从不动气。[12]<br />
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Translation: Wind and sun have tanned this growing girl’s skin，her eyes rest on green hills are as clear as crystal. Nature is her mother and teacher, making her innocent, lively and untamed as some small wild creature. She has the gentleness of a fawn and seems not to know the meaning of cruelty, anxiety or anger.[13]<br />
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==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
Shen Congwen's description of Cuicui is based on the perfect combination of a pure little girl and nature. Shen Congwen used “dark black” to describe the natural and healthy skin color of Cuicui. She described the clear and bright eyes of Cuicui as “as clear as crystal”. Only through the description of skin and eyes, the youthful image of Cuicui was vivid. In translation, like “small wild creature” and “fawn”, it shows the lively side of Cuicui.<br />
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沈从文对翠翠的描写是基于单纯小女孩与自然的完美结合。沈从文用“黑”来形容翠翠自然健康的肤色。他形容翠翠清澈明亮的眼睛“像水晶一样清澈”。只有通过对皮肤和眼睛的描写，翠翠青春的形象才显得生动。在翻译中，“小野兽”和“小鹿”这样的词，展现了翠翠活泼的一面。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:59, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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沈从文对翠翠的描写是基于单纯小女孩与自然的完美结合。他用“黝黑”一词来形容翠翠自然健康的肤色，用“像水晶一样清澈”来形容翠翠清澈明亮的眼睛。也只有通过对皮肤和眼睛的描写，翠翠青春的形象才显得生动。在译本中，像“小野兽”和“小鹿”这样的表达也展现了翠翠活泼可爱的一面。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 09:25, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
Therefore, whether or not the aesthetic value of the source language image can be reproduced in the translation becomes the key to the reader's ability to understand Cuicui’s character. For example, “dark black” Gladys Yang uses “tanned” to indicate that her skin is a natural and healthy beauty after the sun has shined.<br />
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因此，译文中源语言形象的美学价值是否能重现，成为了读者理解翠翠性格的关键。比如，格拉迪斯·杨（Gladys Yang）使用“晒黑的”（tanned）这个词来表示自己的皮肤经过阳光的照射以后产生了一种自然美与健康美。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:57, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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因此，原文中的美学价值能否在译文中再现成为了读者能否理解翠翠性格的关键。例如，格拉迪斯·杨（Gladys Yang）使用 “tanned”一词来表示“dark black"（晒黑的），以描述她的皮肤经过太阳照射后，是一种健康自然的美。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 02:42, 23 October 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
'''2.3 Beauty in form'''<br />
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Like sound and lexis transmitting beauty, syntax and paragraphs also carry lots of aesthetic information. There are many differences existing in Chinese and English sentence structures. Chinese sentence is like a bamboo that all structures come out from the base, while English sentence is like a grape tree with branches from the stem and twigs from the branches and the clauses are strictly arranged by the grammatical rules.<br />
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2.3形式美<br />
就像传达美的声音和词语一样，句法和段落也携带着大量的审美信息。汉语和英语在句子结构上存在很大的差异。汉语句子就像竹子一样，所有结构是从地底冒出来。而英语句子就像一棵葡萄树，无论是从枝干到主干，还是从主干到枝干，从句严格按照语法规则整合而成。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 15:25, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.3形式美<br />
正如声音和词汇传递美感一样，句法和段落也携带着大量的美学信息。汉语和英语在句子结构上存在许多差异。汉语句子结构如竹子从其根基长出来一般，而英语句子结构则像是葡萄的主干连着枝干，枝干又连着小分支一样，从句严格按照语法规则整合而成。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 12:12, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
Sentences can express a comprehensive meaning and carries certain aesthetic information. The successful translation is always with a figure, and most works have their own way of using figures of speech to form their own characteristic style. Thus the beauty in form came into being.<br />
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句子可以表达一个完整的意思，并带有一定的美学信息。成功的翻译常常具有一个轮廓，而且大多数作品都有各自运用修辞手法的方式，从而形成其独有的风格。因此，形式美变应运而生了。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:52, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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句子可以表意完整，并带有一定的美学信息。成功的翻译通常会运用修辞，大多数作品都有自己适用的修辞手法，从而形成其独有风格。因此，形式美变应运而生。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 14:15, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
Structural balance and harmony is one of the basic aesthetic principles, and it is obtained with the use of right rhetorical devices. Here the author chooses three typical rhetorical devices: antithesis, parallelism and repetition to express the beauty of sentences in translation. What’s more, the three rhetorical devices have been used in Shen’s ''The Border Town''.<br />
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结构平衡与和谐是基本的美学原则之一，它是通过正确使用修辞手法而获得的。在此，作者选择三种典型的修辞手法：对比、排比和反复来表达翻译中的句子之美。此外，这三种修辞手法已经在沈从文的《边城》中得以使用。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 02:58, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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结构的平衡与和谐是美学的基本原则之一，它是通过正确的修辞手法来实现的。在翻译中，为了表达句子之美，作者选择了三种典型的修辞手法:对偶、排比和重复。此外，这三种修辞手法在《边城》中也有所运用。--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 07:45, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
'''2.3.1 Parallelism'''<br />
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Parallelism is to use repetition in equivalent positions to enhance language expression and pay attention to emphasis, clarity and coherence of opinions. In parallel construction, it is necessary for writers to balance word with word, phrase with phrase, clause with clause, and sentence with sentence. At the same time, importance of grammar should be concerned to strengthen coherence of the sentence. In terms of the syntactic level, parallelism is a sprightly succinct rhetorical device.<br />
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排比是在相同位置重复，以加强语言表达，注重意见的强调、明确及连贯。在排比结构中，作者有必要平衡字与字、词与词、段与段、句与句。与此同时，为加强语句的连贯，还需要考虑语法。在句法层次，排比是一种活跃简明的修辞手段。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 02:36, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Zeng Xinyuan<br />
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==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
The identical meaning, structure or tone appeals to the readers’ eyes and ears, and heightens the readers’ aesthetic experience. It is one of the valid ways to satisfy aesthetic demands of language: balance and concordance in structure, while rhythm and harmony in tonality. The aesthetic information in parallelism is largely showed in the reoccurrence of a specific pattern, which carries lots of aesthetic value to make the original more lively and impressive. So it is widely employed in literary works. There’s no exception in ''The'' ''Border Town''.<br />
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==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
'''（中英举例不用翻译）'''<br />
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Look at the example:<br />
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Example 5: 这事情在本地人并不希奇，边地俗语说：“火是各处可烧的，水是各处可流的，日月是各处可照的，爱情是可各处可到的。”[14]<br />
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Translation: There is nothing strange in these parts, where folk have a saying, “There is no place on earth where fire cannot spread, water flow, sun and moon shine, or love make its way.”[15]<br />
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In this example, the same concise and symmetric sentence structure reoccurred many times. The repetition “各处可”(meaning everywhere) produces rhythm, making the sentence read like a song. By comparing love to fire, water, the sun and the moon, it vividly depicts the honesty, and straightforwardness of the local people.<br />
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==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
In Gladys’ version, she transforms the original parallel structure into a simple sentence and an attributive clause. Concise as it is, it isn’t in line with the writer’s intention and obviously disobeys the style of the original. Although it has transmitted the meaning of the original sentences, it fails to render the aesthetic features of this local saying.<br />
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在格莱迪斯的版本中，她将原来的并列结构转化为一个简单的句子和一个归属句。虽然简洁，但并不符合作者的意图，显然不符合原文的风格。虽然它传递了原句的意思，但却没有渲染出这个地方俗语的审美特征。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 09:15, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在格莱迪斯的版本中，她将原来的并列结构转化为一个简单的句子和一个从属句。虽然简洁，但并不符合作者的意图，显然违背了原文的风格。虽然它传递了原句的意思，但却没有译出这个地方俗语的审美特征。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:18, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在格莱迪斯的译文中，她将原文的平行结构转换成了一个简单句带从属句的句型结构。尽管译文读来较为简洁，但却不符合作者的意图，并且明显违背了原作的风格。虽然传递出了原文的含义，但却没有译出地方俗语的审美特征。--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 09:35, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
'''2.3.2 Antithesis'''<br />
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Antithesis, a rhetoric technique with symmetric form and harmonious tonality, is designed to illustrate different things or aspects of the identical thing by comparison, and the symmetric components can replenish and contrast each other.<br />
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2.3.2 对照<br />
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对照一种形式对称、语调和谐的修辞手法，旨在通过比较来说明同一事物的不同之处或不同方面，对称的部分可以互相补充和对比。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:23, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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对照是一种形式对称、语调和谐的修辞手法，旨在通过比较来说明同一事物的不同之处或不同方面，对照部分可相互补充对比。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 02:43, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Zeng Xinyuan<br />
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==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
'''（中英举例不用翻译）'''<br />
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Look at the example below.<br />
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Example 6: 轻轻的自言自语：“每只船要有个码头，每只雀儿得有个巢。”[16]<br />
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Translation: “Boats have a wharf, birds have a nest.” he murmurs.[17]<br />
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In this sentence, “船”(chuán, meaning boat) and “雀儿”(què ér, meaning bird), “码头”(mǎ tóu, meaning wharf ) and “巢”(cháo, meaning nest) in the Chineses version make an antithesis with each other, and it is well balanced in form. The writer expresses the grandpa’s care to Cuicui. Gladys’s version is structurally well-balanced. However, the utilization of the word “have” in English version fails to show the strong sense of belonging, reducing the aesthetic value of the original. If she use “need” to replace it, I think the aesthetic enjoyment could be realized better.<br />
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请看下面的例子<br />
例6: 轻轻的自言自语：“每只船要有个码头，每只雀儿得有个巢。”[16]<br />
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Translation: “Boats have a wharf, birds have a nest.” he murmurs.[17]<br />
在这个句子中，船”(chuán, meaning boat) and “雀儿”(què ér, meaning bird), “码头”(mǎ tóu, meaning wharf ) and “巢”(cháo, meaning nest) 这几个词都符合对偶的形式，在形式上也非常的平衡。作者用这样一句话体现了爷爷对翠翠的关心。格拉迪斯的版本在结构上很平衡。然而，“have”这个词，在英文中使用时更强调“占有，归属”，这会让句子失去原有的美感。如果作者用“need”一词来代替“have”，橘子便会更赋有美感。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 11:34, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
'''2.3.3 Repetition'''<br />
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From the word of repetition, we know that the same word can be used several times in one sentence. The main function of this rhetoric is to emphasize some things or information. It may help to produce strong aesthetic effect. In The Border Town, Shen Congwen employs repetition deliberately to achieve his purpose of emotive intensification. The intensive repetition can be used as a powerful thematic device.<br />
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==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
'''（中英举例不用翻译）'''<br />
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Here is an example:<br />
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Example 7: 老船夫说：“翠翠我看了个好碾坊，碾盘是新的，水车是新的，屋上稻草也是新的！”[18]<br />
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Translation: “Emerald,” he tells her, “I've just seen a fine mill. Brand-new from the millstone and water-wheel to the thatch on the roof.”[19]<br />
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This sentence vividly reproduces grandfather's psychological state after he has visited the new mill. The repetition of “是新的”(meaning new) for three times echoes each other to highlight how the mill knocks the breath out of grandpa, and strengthen his envy and longing for the mill. Gladys translates it into “Brand-new from... to...”<br />
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这句话生动地再现了爷爷参观完新磨坊后的心理状态。“是新的”三次重复，相互呼应，凸显爷爷看到磨坊后的惊讶，强调其对磨坊的羡慕与憧憬。格拉迪斯（Gladys）将其译成“全新的”。<br />
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==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
Though it fails to keep the symmetric form of the original, it still succeeds in recreating the particular aesthetic effect of the original text. The inverted sentence pattern, the shifted perspective and the emphatic words make up for the loss of the repetition to great extent. Meanwhile, the concise and paralleled sentence structure represents the aesthetic information of the original more appropriately.<br />
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它虽然没有保持原本的对称形式，但却成功地再现了原文特有的审美效果。倒装句式、视角的转换以及强调词在很大程度上弥补了重复的缺失。同时，简体和并列的句子结构更恰当地体现了原文的审美信息。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 04:45, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
'''2.4 Beauty in image'''<br />
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Image in the literary text refers to the output of the subjective intrinsic emotion of the author and the extrinsic objective substances or the incarnation of emotion produced out of language narration. It is the unity of finity and infinity, the unity of the latent and the outstanding.<br />
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2.4 意象美<br />
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文学文本中的意象是指作者的主观内在情感和外在客观物质的输出，或者是由语言叙述产生的情感的化身。 它是无限与无限的统一，潜伏与卓越的统一。--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 16:17, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
'''（中英举例不用翻译）'''<br />
<br />
Example 8: 翠翠温习着两次过节所见所闻的一切，心中很快乐，好像目前有一个东西，同早间在床上闭了眼睛所看到的那种捉摸不定的黄葵花一样，这东西仿佛明朗地在眼前，却看不准，抓不住。[20]<br />
<br />
Translation: Going over two festivals in her mind, happily savoring what she had seen and heard, Emerald has the same sensation as when she closed her eyes in bed in the morning and sees yellow sunflowers just out of reach. Something exciting lies ahead as yet indistinct and intangible, but too lovely to let go.[21]<br />
<br />
This sentence is a psychological description of Cuicui. She recalled the days of last two Dragon Boat Festivals when she encountered Nuosong. Her heart was filled with unnamable expectation. She wished to see Nuosong again.<br />
<br />
这句话是翠翠的心理描写。当她遇到傩送时，她回忆起前两次端午节。她的心充满不可名状的期待。她希望能再次遇到傩送。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:25, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这句话是对翠翠的心理描述。她回忆起前两次端午遇到傩送的日子。她的心里充满了难以形容的期待。她希望能再见到诺宋。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 01:53, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这句话是对翠翠的心理描写。当她回忆起前两次端午节遇到傩送的情景时，心里满是莫名的期待。她多希望能再次见到傩送啊。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 03:12, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
The above sentence describes the sprout of love in Cuicui’s heart which is implicit but brings her sweetness and dream.<br />
<br />
这句话描绘了翠翠心中爱意的萌发，这种爱虽含蓄，却能给她带来甜蜜和希望。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 03:00, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
这句话描述了翠翠心中爱情的萌芽，这萌芽虽然含蓄，却给她带来了甜蜜和憧憬。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 08:05, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 10:44, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
The image “黄葵花”(huáng kuí huā, meaning yellow sunflower) symbolizes that the love has planted its seed in Cuicui’s heart, and is in full blossoms which brings Cuicui happiness and which she would like to pluck. In the translated versions, Yang makes uses of literal translation by preserving the image of “黄葵花”and puts it into “yellow sunflower”.<br />
<br />
“黄葵花”象征着爱情在翠翠心中播下了种子，这份爱意盛开着，给翠翠带来幸福，让她直想采撷。 在英译本中，杨元庆采用直译的方法，保留了“黄葵花”的意象，将其译为“yellow sunflower”。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 10:44, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
With the help of the context, it is easy for the target readers to understand the image of “yellow sunflower” and acquire the implicit aesthetic value in it in Yang’s version.<br />
<br />
在语境的帮助下，译文读者理解“黄葵花”的意境以及获取杨的译文中其暗含的审美价值是轻而易举的。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:43, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在语境的帮助下，目标读者易于理解“黄葵花”的形象，并获取杨译文中隐含的审美价值。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:08, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在语境的帮助下，译文读者很容易理解杨的译本中的“黄葵花”形象，并获得其中隐含的审美价值。 --[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 06:02, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
It depicts the hope and happiness in Cuicui’s heart and brings the same enjoyment to target readers as it does to the source readers.<br />
<br />
这描述了翠翠内心的希望和幸福，也给目标语读者带来和源语读者相同的感受。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:12, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
这描写了翠翠心中的希望和幸福，给目标读者带来和源语读者相同的感受。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 09:17, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
这体现出了翠翠内心的期望和喜悦，同时也让目标语读者与源语读者有相同的感受。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 11:38, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
'''2.5 Beauty in ideorealm'''<br />
<br />
Artistic ideorealm is defined as an artistic realm in lyric poetry and other literary works, which is an integration of subjective emotion and objective images and feelings.<br />
<br />
2.5意境美<br />
意境是指抒情诗和其他文学作品中主观情感和客观形象、情感结合的一种艺术境界。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 08:01, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.5意境美<br />
意境是指在抒情诗和其他文学作品中出现的一种艺术境界，是主观情感、客观物体和所感的融合。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 11:25, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
It is characterized as beautiful and implicit as a traditional Chinese painting, which can evoke readers’ association and imagination, and surpasses the concrete vision and ascends an extensive artistic space.<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
'''（中英举例不用翻译）'''<br />
<br />
Example 9: 由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这官路将近湘西边境到了一个地方名为‘茶峒’的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只一个老人，一个女孩子，一只黄狗。[22]<br />
<br />
Translation: The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chadong, a small town in the hills. Nearby a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl, and a dog.[23]<br />
<br />
This is the first paragraph of the novel. Like telling a story, it is slow and plain. From what Shen Congwen has described, we can see that he has a special writing style which expresses the beauty of nature.<br />
这是小说的第一段。像讲故事一样，娓娓道来、平铺直叙。根据沈从文的描述，我们发现他对于表现自然之美有着独特的写作风格。--[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 15:23, 21 October 2020 (UTC)Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
Here, the writer uses seven “一”(yī, meaning one) in all, and every one describes different images. What’s more, “一”represents Shen’s melancholy aesthetic sentiment and creation view.<br />
<br />
作者在这里总共使用了七个“一”（yī，一个），每个描述了不同的图像。更重要的是，“一”代表了沈忧郁的审美情怀和创作观。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 09:05, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在这里，作者总共使用了七个“一”（yī，意为一个），每个“一”都描述了不同的图像。 更重要的是，“一”代表了沈他忧郁的审美情怀和创作观。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 10:22, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
Shen uses the rhetorical device of anadiplosis which means repeating the ending words of the precedent sentence in the following sentence. This kind of discourse progression mode is not only good for the coherence of narrative and understanding of discourse but also full of interest.<br />
深使用顶针的修辞手法，这种修辞指的是在下一句中重复上一句的尾字。这种语篇推进的模式不仅有利于叙述的连贯和语篇的理解，而且富有趣味。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 02:05, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
沈使用顶针的修辞手法，顶针是指在下一句中重复上一句的尾词。这种语篇推进模式不仅对叙述的连贯性和语篇的理解有益，而且趣味盎然。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:17, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
Gladys thoroughly adverts to the aesthetic connotation and narrative techniques contain in “一” of the original text and strive for “formal similarity” and “spiritual similarity”. In sentence structure, Gladys retains the anadiplosis rhetorical device like “一”.<br />
<br />
<br />
格拉迪斯特别注重审美内涵和叙事技巧在原文中包含于一，努力达到“形似”和“神似”。在句子结构上，格拉迪斯也保留了顶真修辞手法。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:52, 21 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
格拉迪斯特别注重原文“一”所蕴含的美学内涵和叙事技巧，力求达到“形似”和“神似”。在句子结构上，格拉迪斯保留了“一”这样的顶真修辞手法。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 08:49, 22 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
More importantly, the static beauty of the original text has been changed into dynamic beauty by the recreation of the translator. To sum up, the whole translation is simple and fluent which correspond to the intangible and solitary artistic conception in the original text.<br />
<br />
更值得一提的是，通过译者的再创造，原文的静态美被转换成了动态美。总的说来，整段译文简洁而又流畅，没有破坏原文孤独朦胧的意境。--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 09:36, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
更重要的是，经过译者的再创造，原文的静态美变成了动态美。总的来说，整个译文简洁流畅，与原文中无形而孤独的意境相对应。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:30, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
'''（中英举例不用翻译）'''<br />
<br />
Example 10: 那首歌声音既极柔和，快乐中又微带忧郁，唱完了歌，翠翠觉得心上有一丝儿凄凉。她想起秋末酬神还愿时田坪中的火燎同鼓角。远处鼓声已起来了，她知道绘有朱红长线的龙船这时节已下河了。细雨依然落个不止，溪面一片烟.[24]<br />
<br />
Translation: This gay, haunting melody has an undertone of sadness, making Emerald feel a pang of loneliness. Her thoughts fly to the bonfires and drumming in the fields to welcome the spirits at the end of autumn. Meanwhile drums sound up in the distance. The long crimson dragon boats will soon be staring their race. A light rain falls steadily, the stream is misted over.[25]<br />
<br />
In this example, Gladys’ translation almost reaches the realm of “spirit likeness”. In the wording, she not only carefully uses some expressive words but blends her own aesthetic attitude and aesthetic ideas into translation. Cuicui has stirred her love since she met Nousong two years ago on Dragon Boat Festival.<br />
在这个例子中，格拉迪斯的翻译几乎达到了“神似”的境界。 在措词上，她不仅小心翼翼地使用一些表达性词语，而且将自己的审美态度和审美观念融合到了翻译当中。 自两年前在端午节遇见Nousong以来，翠翠就爱上了他。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 10:17, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
Henceforth, she has a load in her mind, which is nothing to do with her grandfather. Dragon Boat Festival comes again, and Cuicui sits alone on the ferryboat, waiting for her grandfather. Then she go to see the dragon boat race together with him in town, where she may meet Nuosong again.<br />
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因此，她便有了一桩心事，这件事不关祖父。龙舟节再次到了，翠翠一人坐在渡船上，等着祖父。然后他们一起进城去看龙舟比赛，在那里她可能再次碰到挪送。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 02:09, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
从此以后，她便有了一桩心事，这事与祖父无关。龙舟节又到了，翠翠一人坐在渡船上等着祖父。然后他们一起进城去看龙舟比赛，或许在那儿，她还能碰到傩送。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 13:06, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
The example above come about after Cuicui chanted a folk song on the ferryboat. The lonely and gloomy scenic description to some degree symbolizes that Cuicui’s love will end in tragedy. The repetition, though merely a few characters, forms an echo which achieves the artistic effect of inexhaustible sadness and sympathy of the readers toward Cuicui.<br />
<br />
上述例子中的事情发生在翠翠在渡船上吟唱起了民谣之后。这冷清孤寂的景象描写在一定程度上象征了翠翠的爱情将以悲剧结尾。尽管只有寥寥几个字，而其重复引起的共鸣就实现了艺术效果，引发了读者对翠翠无尽的悲伤与同情。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 01:48, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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上述例子发生于翠翠在渡筏上吟唱民谣之后。这孤寂阴郁的景象描写在一定程度上象征了翠翠的爱情将以悲剧结尾。尽管寥寥数语，但这重复引起了共鸣，实现了读者对翠翠无尽悲伤与同情的艺术效果。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 03:20, 23 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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上述例子发生于翠翠在渡筏上吟唱民谣之后，其孤寂阴郁的景象描写在一定程度上象征了翠翠的爱情将以悲剧结尾。尽管寥寥数语，但这重复引起了读者的共鸣，达到了让读者对翠翠的境遇产生无尽悲伤与同情的艺术效果。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 08:47, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
'''3 Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
After the research and analysis, the author has found that Translation Aesthetics can be regarded as a criteria to evaluate literary works. The unique aesthetic characteristics in literature indicate that Translation Aesthetics is an effective and practical theory to analyze literature translation. A good literary translation should fully express the literary features and artistic connotations of literary works, embody the aesthetic value of the works, and make the readers realize the infinite charm of oriental art and the great vitality of literary works.<br />
<br />
3.结语<br />
通过研究和分析，笔者发现翻译美学可以作为评价文学作品的一个标准。文学独特的审美特征表明，翻译美学是分析文学翻译时有效而实用的理论。一个好的文学翻译应该充分表现文学作品的文学特征和艺术内涵，体现作品的审美价值，让读者认识到东方艺术的无限魅力和文学作品的伟大生命力。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 11:17, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
On the one hand, it is necessary to reproduce the linguistic features of literary works in a proper and flexible way. On the other hand, it is necessary to take into account the cognitive level and understanding ability of readers in different countries, so as to maximize the aesthetic charm of literary works.<br />
<br />
一来，要用恰到好处，灵活应变的方式再现文学作品的语言特点。再者，要考虑到不同国家读者的认知水平和理解能力，使文学作品的美学魅力发挥到极致。--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 09:47, 23 October 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
一方面，有必要用恰到好处，灵活应变的方式再现文学作品的语言特征。 另一方面，有必要考虑不同国家读者的认知水平和理解能力，使文学作品的美学魅力发挥到极致。--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 16:21, 23 October 2020 (UTC)</div>Hu Huifanghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201012_trans&diff=10057620201012 trans2020-10-17T01:39:34Z<p>Hu Huifang: /* Hu Huifang 胡慧芳 */</p>
<hr />
<div>Back to course homepage.<br />
<br />
Welcome to the webpage of the homework of 2020 10 12.<br />
<br />
==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
<br />
Harvard Lecture<br />
<br />
On the 20th Century Chinese Essay<br />
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Modern Chinese Literature <br />
<br />
And the Essay Genre: <br />
<br />
A New Perspective<br />
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In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.<br />
On the handout, you will find an overview of the structure of my argument.<br />
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1. The unknown genre<br />
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The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking.<br />
<br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
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In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998); whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.<br />
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Excursion: Defining the essay <br />
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As a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form<br />
<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
<br />
Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term "wu yunwen" which corresponds to the term "epic" in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground. In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.<br />
<br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
"Essay", Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文[ The choice of the term “''sanwen''” instead of “''suibi''” (familiar essay) or “''xiaopinwen''” (short literary piece) is of course arbitrary, but it corresponds to the present usage. In about 200 essay collections and histories between 1949 and 1996 known to the author, ''sanwen'' turned out to be the common expression, ''xiaopin'' was used only in one out of 25 essay titles of the PR China, in one out of 14 Taiwanese, and one out of ten Hong Kong publications.], is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.<br />
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==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
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Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.<br />
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Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems.<br />
<br />
散文的国际体裁存在不同的观点：体裁主要是文学的分支，通过对文本的分析以进行专门的思考，同时能够更加容易地对相似的文本进行比较。另一方面，许多小的字符实体都存在次范畴化，以郑明礼处理文章为例，他对那些有关于文本解释的分支所得到的发现的合理性提出质疑。人们也必须要意识到文学本身不断变化的特征以及科学观点的相对性，及时已经为国际所接受，这一观点仍然具有时间局限性。对于散文来说，地域偏差的重要性似乎比诸如短篇小说、长篇小说等既定体裁的重要性要小，其对诗歌的重要性就更小了--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 04:26, 16 October 2020 (UTC)。<br />
<br />
就散文的体裁而言，国际上存在不同的观点。体裁主要是文学的分支，其凭借文学知识进行专门的思考，以便能更加容易地对相似的文本进行比较。另一方面，以郑明礼对散文的处理为例，许多小实体的次范畴化对解释性发现的细分的意义提出了质疑。人们也必须意识到文学本身不断变化的特性以及科学观点的相对性，即使已经为国际所接受，也仍然具有时间局限性。--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 08:12, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
<br />
All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.<br />
<br />
In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay. Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' 短篇小說 with short stories is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart.<br />
所有其他体裁都被视作国际体裁。我认为中国散文和西方散文属于同一国际体裁，或许这一点能够通过其形式和内容的跨文化多样性来证明。<br />
在全球化发展的21世纪，文化主要由现代化的程度决定。当今报纸上的中国散文采用西方散文的形式和内容，其目标人群也类似。这再次暗示了中国现代散文属于散文的国际体裁。即使中国短篇小说的翻译和西方短篇小说是被广泛接受的，但相较于西方散文和中国散文而言，它们之间的联系没有那么紧密。 By Chen Jiaxin --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 11:35, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
其他所有体裁都被视作国际体裁。我认为中国散文和西方散文同属国际体裁，这一点或许能够通过二者在形式和内容上的跨文化关系来证明。 在21世纪，世界各地的关联更加紧密，文化主要由现代化程度决定。如今报纸上中国散文的形式和内容与西方散文一致，目标人群也类似，这再次证明了中国现代散文属于散文的国际体裁。尽管短篇小说的译作被广泛接受，但不如西方散文和中国散文联系紧密。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 14:15, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
<br />
The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay). <br />
<br />
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it "Chinese"? In the occidental essay the ''form'' seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.<br />
我从5000多篇现代中国散文的样本中得出这一定义，而其也同样适用于对散文的国际化角度的特殊理解（紧随Bolz 1992 13:269-271 关于西方散文的发展；Butryn 1985 关于西方散文的理论）<br />
社会全球化这一趋势在周作人采用英文散文风格的号召中首次提出，除此之外，中国散文还具有一些特别的当地特色。中国散文如何确定文化背景，是什么使之中国化？相比之中国散文，形式在西方散文中似乎是一种更为重要的区分标准。在中国散文中，即使是那些只是内容相仿但不在形式通用框架范围内的文章也包含在内。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 14:44, 16 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
<br />
This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the "unfinished diary" or the "unfinished letter". Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: "essay in diary form" and "essay in letter form"), they are accepted as essays. <br />
<br />
The Chinese understanding of the genre <br />
<br />
Is tendencially broader<br />
<br />
This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' 無韻文 "non-rhythmic prose", which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning "short literary essay pieces".<br />
<br />
郑明礼表明了这一点，并对“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”进一步进行了分类。在西方的语境中，那些文本属于个人使用的文本，因此也属于非小说性散文作品。这些文本只有在被改成散文之后（郑明礼：“日记形式的散文”和“信件形式的散文”），才能作为散文为人们所接受。<br />
中国对于体裁的理解偏泛化<br />
在中国，对散文的这种偏泛化的理解可以追溯到中文中“散文”这一术语的内涵意义。散文，即无韵文，原本表示所有的非小说性散文，从广义上来看，也包括个人使用或日常使用的文本。然而，我只涉及狭义上的散文，即“短篇文学散文”。--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 08:11, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
<br />
Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings. <br />
<br />
The Chinese essay is booming again <br />
<br />
In the 1980s and 1990s<br />
<br />
Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'' 報告文學).[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries). <br />
<br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
<br />
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.<br />
<br />
Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging ''xiangtu'' 鄉土 literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.<br />
<br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
<br />
Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?<br />
<br />
Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:<br />
<br />
- The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political ''zawen'' 雜文 of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection "Modern Chinese Literary Thought" 1996. <br />
<br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
<br />
The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.<br />
<br />
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of ''novel'' and ''opera'' in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.<br />
<br />
<br />
散文体裁的影响体现在其直接的语言，与生活的联系（例如，在文化大革命中的作用）和通过报纸直接接触个人读者的特性中。这种影响大于小说或诗歌的间接影响。 诗歌是一种不涉及社会生活，政治问题和时间参照的体裁。<br />
<br />
胡适认为，“诗”在现代化中最为重要，因为诗引起人们的情感。但是它也依赖于图像和语言节奏。梁启超强调了“小说”和“歌剧”在不断变化的社会中的作用。但是“散文”是能够命名事物的，它反映了生命，是千变万化的。现代主体性是由散文工具建构的。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 15:47, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
散文体裁的影响体现在其直接的语言，与生活的联系（例如，在文化大革命中的作用）和通过报纸直接接触个人读者的特性中。这种影响大于小说或诗歌的间接影响。 诗歌是一种不涉及社会生活，政治问题和时间参照的体裁。<br />
胡适认为，“诗”在现代化中最为重要，因为诗引起人们的情感。但是它也依赖于意象和语言韵律。梁启超强调了“小说”和“歌剧”在不断变化的社会中的作用。但是“散文”是能够命名事物的，它反映了生命，是千变万化的。现代主体性是由散文工具建构的。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 17:58, 15 October 2020 (UTC)MaShuya<br />
<br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
<br />
- The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed. <br />
<br />
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply ''the'' genre of today.<br />
<br />
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
<br />
- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.<br />
<br />
- The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' 小說 production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' 雜感 (from which Lu Xun developed his zawen), ''suibi'' 隨筆 or ''suixiang'' 隨想 (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' 隨想錄 derived).<br />
<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
<br />
Let us assign the essay its proper place<br />
<br />
The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.<br />
<br />
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay. <br />
<br />
In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun.<br />
<br />
让散文用于用武之地吧。<br />
上述中，散文价值与重视散文程度之间，反差明显，这势必导致一个结果：散文要有用武之地！接下来我将阐述散文是如何开始受到重视的。<br />
<br />
尽管从1979年起，散文写作量有所增加，但首次从理论上反思这一现象思却花了十年时间，然后又花了十年，国际中文学术界才开始意识到散文现象。<br />
<br />
20世纪80年代，中国学术界通过写散文历史，征集论文的形式，第一次反思散文文学。这首先集中体现在鲁迅等个别作家的散文作品中。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 04:53, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
让散文处在它应在的位置吧。<br />
上述中，散文价值与重视散文程度之间，反差明显，这势必导致一个结果：让散文处在它应在的位置吧！接下来我将阐述散文是如何开始受到重视的。<br />
尽管从1979年起，散文写作量有所增加，但首次从理论上反思这一现象思却花了十年时间，然后又过了十年，国际中文学术界才开始意识到散文现象。<br />
20世纪80年代，中国学术界第一次以写随笔史、征集论文的方式来反思散文文学，这首先集中在鲁迅等个别作家的散文作品上。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 05:39, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
<br />
Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on xīnyučpài 新月派 Wagner 1996).<br />
<br />
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature 1995, Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).<br />
<br />
90年代的两次论文会议也没有显示出国际学术的发展趋势。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用通用的语言学方法来研究单个散文家(1995年盖洛德梁(梁西华)•顾宾,王蒙•沃斯勒,刘再复•曼斯堡(未发表))或者散文学派(1996年新月派)。<br />
<br />
直到二十世纪九十年代中后期，用西方语言学撰写中国散文的历史才开始（开拓者沃斯勒1998年），散文也第一次作为一种与小说、诗歌并列的文学体裁被收录到西方文学选集中（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集1995年版》《现代中国文学思想1996年版》）。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 00:55, 16 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu <br />
二十世纪九十年代末的两次论文会议也没有显示出国际学术界会朝什么趋势发展。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始用通用语言学的方法来研究每一位散文家(1995年盖洛德梁(梁西华)•顾宾,王蒙•沃斯勒,刘再复•曼斯堡(未发表))或者散文学派(1996年新月派)。 <br />
直到二十世纪九十年代后半叶，根据西方语言学理论而撰写的中国散文才初次登上历史的舞台。（沃斯勒1998年），散文也第一次作为一种文学体裁收录到西方文学选集中，和小说、诗歌并列。（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集1995年版》《现代中国文学思想1996年版》）。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 04:48, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
<br />
Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones. In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br />
<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
<br />
Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation. Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays. <br />
<br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
<br />
Taking into consideration the essay <br />
<br />
将散文考虑在内<br />
<br />
Will rewrite the history of Chinese literature<br />
<br />
这将会改写中国文学的历史<br />
<br />
I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.<br />
<br />
我将会为大家提供一些思路：在夏志清、普实克和安德森这些大家的眼里，散文至今掩盖在小说的光芒之下。那么这篇文章又能为中国文学带来怎样的惊喜呢？<br />
<br />
We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century. The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place.<br />
<br />
正如五四文学的出现且大获成功，我们已经习惯了叙述既定的事实。但是这个观点忽视了本世纪初像“鸳鸯蝴蝶派”等的这些学派在“百家争鸣”中所起到的重要作用。当时的五四派只是众多派系中的一个，他们之所以成功，是因为他们擅长于在公共场合鼓动群众，引发争议。因此，要正确定位中国散文，我们必须采取新的方式。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:19, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
<br />
We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.<br />
<br />
In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.<br />
<br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
<br />
The classical and premodern essay <br />
<br />
Documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity <br />
<br />
And still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned<br />
<br />
How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes. These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.<br />
<br />
==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
<br />
From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference[ This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.] this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's statement from 1240: "詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促 Shī sāo miào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù" (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.<br />
<br />
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
<br />
In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge. The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.<br />
<br />
In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''. Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises.<br />
<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
<br />
They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.<br />
<br />
During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' 筆記 (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty. The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a ''genre of its own'' originated in China not before the Qing 清 dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.<br />
<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
<br />
Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences. Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.<br />
<br />
Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive baguwen. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the "Eight legged essay" as as appealing and intoxicating as the "pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148). <br />
<br />
--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 01:39, 17 October 2020 (UTC)==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
<br />
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).<br />
<br />
Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the dao (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.<br />
<br />
Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.<br />
<br />
<br />
但是他认为这也是现代著作中隐含的一种流行类型，如洋八股和党八股（借自吴志辉，周元流：71）。<br />
新儒家强调文（散文）是传播道（道）的最重要工具：文艺在道（文学是道的载体）。 如果我们从体裁的角度重新解释该词典，可以说，论文被认为是表达真理，主观性和自我的重要工具。<br />
梁启超发展了一种受西方语言影响的新文体（新文体），但是这篇论文并没有在报纸成为大众媒体之前就流行了，这种语言也变成了白话。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 01:39, 17 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
<br />
The essay as the medium of modernity, <br />
<br />
The questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay<br />
<br />
To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911). The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only.<br />
<br />
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
<br />
A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).<br />
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition. <br />
<br />
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
<br />
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition: for example, Lu Xun with his theory "“Zhǎnkāi” shuō yǔ “méngyá” lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論" (Theory of "Starting" and "Blossoming") came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his "公安派與英國小品“合成”論 Gōng'ānpài yǔ Yīngguó xiǎopǐn “héchéng” lùn" (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay). <br />
<br />
==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
<br />
Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.<br />
<br />
When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller[ Siehe Zhou Zuoren: "''Mai tang'' 賣糖" (Über Bonbonverkauf), in: ''Yao wei ji'' 藥味集 (Sammlung bitterer Geschmack), Peking 北京: Beijing xinmin yinshuju 北京新民印書局 (Pekinger Buchladen Neues Volk) 1942.3.20, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1973.6, S. 126 - 131, englische Übersetzung u.d.T. "Candy selling" von Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 92 - 95 [Datiert auf 25.2.1938 mit einem Nachspann vom 28.]] (1924), he was critizised as "paralyzing" (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943).[ Vgl. Lu Xun: "''Die Krise des freien Essays''" 1934 und Zhu Zhaoluo: "''Tan xiaopinwen'' 談小品文" (Über den freien Essay), in: ''Yiwen zazhi'' Bd 1 (1943.8, Heft 2).] <br />
<br />
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
<br />
When he wrote a piece on the "Fly", he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins "Thoughts" (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.<br />
<br />
他曾在《Fly》上登过一篇文章，却被指责文章主题不深刻。类似的指责体现了这一流派的本质，因为这类文章的实质是边际主义。之前提到的对罗大经的公开指责在90年代重演了，香港学生批评巴金《随想录》的文学风格，认为其平直有余，艺术不足，但这一观点并未抓到这篇文章的本质。《随想录》表达的是作者的个人思想，不受传统的桎梏，故而在内容上更加自由。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 13:56, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
<br />
The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.<br />
<br />
The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products. But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within.<br />
<br />
这篇文章本质上是自由独立的，但却在文化大革命时期几近消失了。仅留有一些受意识形态影响的文章，艰难生存于延安与1989年领导层道德沦丧的夹缝中。<br />
这篇文章是20世纪初现代化社会的“流派”。 为了应对战争和军阀主义，许多作家不得不定义并经常重新定义他们的立场和自我理解。后来在现代化的社会中，他们经常埋葬自己的理想，从更大的角度来看社会所谓的“需求”，作者也成为了其产品之一。但是从本质上说，这篇文章在形式和内容上设定了新的界限，因此不仅在意识形态限制中幸免，而且还形成了自己的批判亚文化。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 01:31, 17 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
<br />
The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is "a genre of self-reflection". Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art.[ I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).]<br />
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==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
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Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him[ Like for example Zhu Ziqing and Ba Jin.] spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.<br />
<br />
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
<br />
''In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'.[ The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.] The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s.''<br />
<br />
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
<br />
''In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses.[Yu Guangzhong's essay "The wolves are coming" shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.] The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".''<br />
<br />
在20世纪80/90年代，与20世纪20/30年代相比，对日常关注的政治的讨论只占了一小部分。在20世纪80年代，包括诗歌和散文在内的所有体裁都被用来批判共产主义的总体叙事或毛派对艺术作为意识形态服务的理解。在20世纪80年代，关于最佳社会制度的讨论（包括一般文学和电影方面）正在复苏。到20世纪90年代，纯粹是非政治性的和更为哲学的--道德主题谱，散文家定义了他们的主题。角色，首先是与大众的消费取向相对应。（余光中的“狼来了”一文表明意识形态视角不仅仅损害大陆散文写作。）这篇散文似乎是中国唯一保留其教育主张的体裁，但被称为“艺术宝库”的散文除外。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:41, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在20世纪80/90年代，关于日常利益的政治讨论比20/30年代少了一部分。在80年代，包括诗歌和散文在内的所有流派都被用来批评共产主义的主要叙事,或者批判将毛派艺术为服务意识形态。虽然在20世纪80年代，关于社会最佳制度的讨论（包括一般文学和电影），但到了90年代，散文家们定义了他们的角色，政治议题又重新回到了一个非政治的、又一次更具哲理性的道德主题谱系中，首先要与大众的消费取向相对应。余光中的《狼来了》表明，意识形态的视角不仅伤害了大陆的散文，而且似乎是中国唯一一个保持教育主张的体裁，除了那些号称“艺术散文”的除外。<br />
--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:34, 15 October 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
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''The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, "The Fly" 1924, "Reading on the Toilet" 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.''<br />
<br />
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
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I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. <br />
<br />
==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
<br />
Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.<br />
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Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist:ZHOU ZUOREN.<br />
<br />
I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a "traitor".<br />
<br />
显然，我们可以得出这样的结论：20世纪50年代的政治肯定性文章只存在于专门的政治散文集中，而在21世纪初，著名作家不会去写这些文章，观众也不会阅读这些文章。<br />
考虑到一个体裁的变化，会影响总体的文学观点，考虑到一个作家的散文作品，也改变了这个作家的观点。我只为现代的散文列举一位作家：周作人。<br />
我已经提到了他对中国散文主义的理论贡献，但是直到80年代，他的散文一直被忽视，原因不在于文学品质，而在于政治价值。《中华人民共和国官场文学史》对周作人的主要叙述是：五四理论天才“堕落”，后来沦为“叛徒”。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 13:13, 15 October 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
显然，我们可以得出这样的结论：20世纪50年代的政治肯定性文章只存在于专门的政治散文集中，而在21世纪初，当代著名的作家不会去写这些文章，观众也不会阅读这些文章。 考虑到体裁的变化，会改变总体的文学观点，而作家的散文作品，也改变这个作家的观点，因此我只列举一位作家作为现代散文家之例：周作人。 我已经提到了他对中国散文主义的理论贡献，但是直到20世纪80年代，他的散文一直被忽视，原因不在于其文学品质，而在于其政治价值。《中华人民共和国官场文学史》对周作人的主要叙述是：五四理论天才“堕落”，后来沦为“叛徒”。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 14:13, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
<br />
Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'', and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.<br />
In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921).<br />
在日本主办的杂志《追忆》和《中国文学》上发表文章，他被指责与朱璞和袁熙合作。一个悬而未决的问题是，为什么在那里发表文章的另一位作家张爱玲从未因合作而受到指责。二者的不同之处在于，张爱玲试图逃避政治委员会，而周则感到内疚，朱则为之辩护，袁则干脆接受了。在他的文学小短篇中，周试图从私人空间的主观体验中，将日常生活中的琐事审美化。周作人的主要贡献在于，通过号召写文学短篇，开创了中国散文创作的转折点。（美文1921）。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 05:30, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
因为在日本主办的杂志《追忆》和《中国文学》上发表了文章，他受到指责与朱璞和袁熙合作。一个悬而未决的问题是，为什么在那里发表文章的另一位作家张爱玲从未因合作而受到指责。二者的不同之处在于，张爱玲试图逃避政治委员会，而周却感到内疚，朱则为之辩护，袁是干脆接受了。在他的文学小短篇中，周试图从私人空间的主观体验中，将日常生活中的琐事审美化。周作人的主要贡献在于，通过号召写文学短篇，开创了中国散文创作的转折点。（美文1921）--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:31, 15 October 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
<br />
在日本主办的杂志《追忆》和《中国文学》上发表文章，他被指责与朱璞和袁熙合作。一个悬而未决的问题是，为什么在那里发表文章的另一位作家张爱玲从未因合作而受到指责。二者的不同之处在于，张爱玲试图逃避政治委员会，而周恩来则感到内疚，朱镕基则为之辩护，袁则干脆接受了。在小品创作中，周作人试图从私人空间的主观体验中，将日常生活中的琐事审美化。周作人的主要贡献在于，他以《文学短篇》的号召，开创了中国散文创作的转折点（梅文1921）。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:21, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
<br />
In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批评 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?<br />
<br />
With these words from the essay "''The aesthetic essay''" this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the "king of essays".<br />
<br />
在外国文献中，所谓的“论文”大概分为两类：一类是反思批评性质的科学文章，另一类是具有艺术性的记述文章（也叫做“美文”）。我们能够区分叙事文和抒情文，但也有些文章抒情与叙事两者兼而有之。我希望美文能够重新焕发光彩，为新文学的发展开创新局面。何乐不为呢？<br />
<br />
在这篇文章中，“美学”有了新的定义。这一出发点为中国论文写作开创了一种全新的写作传统。当代作家们将此文称为“论文之王”。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 09:00, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
<br />
In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" (Zhou 1923). He promoted the baguwen and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.<br />
<br />
为了把这种新形势带给他的同胞，他试图寻找其与明代小品文的相似之处。他在自己的散文理论中进一步论述了这些思想。且他的散文从古代“随笔”中受益颇多。后来，他的文学理论又进一步发展，并在两个倾向间摇摆不定。在现代化社会中，他主张妇女解放，要求“把儿童看做一个完整的主体，有其自身的外在生命和内在生命”，“使儿童成为儿童文学的精髓”（周 1923）。在1917年至1938年间，他促进了八股文的发展和文学之于政治的独立性，并影响了文坛和中国近代社会的发展。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 03:01, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
<br />
With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea "l'art pour l'art", for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. <br />
<br />
Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
<br />
Siehe Journal (10.2.1804). Die "Kunst um der Kunst willen" propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept "Kunst um der Kunst willen" zieht auch Wolff: Chou Tso-jen 1971, S. 84.<br />
<br />
Siehe Zhou Zuoren: Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: "Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform" 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.<br />
<br />
For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181). In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual. <br />
<br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
<br />
How broadly his enlightenment concept might have been accepted in the West, China was simply not ready for this modern concept then, instead it had to give way to a politically manipulated literature and to a dark period first under different warlords, then in the civil and Anti-Japanese war, finally under communist regime, which lasts until the 21st century. <br />
<br />
"I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless "monsters" and "goblins" are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown." <br />
<br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
<br />
Confronting tradition and progress in the essay ''"Ancestor Worship"'', he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8). <br />
<br />
Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had "duoluo 墮落" (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).<br />
<br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
<br />
Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'. <br />
On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.<br />
<br />
Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on ''"The Fly"'', where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ''”The fly”'' shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. <br />
<br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
<br />
Siehe Zhou Zuoren: "''Cangying'' 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨報副鐫 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zusammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.<br />
<br />
Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things. The official reading reproaches Zhou that he "saw only the fly and not the cosmos", a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.<br />
<br />
Siehe ''Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay "''Cangying'' 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.<br />
见周作人：《仓皇传》，载《晨报附录》（1924.7.13）。其内容摘要见：于大祥：《汉语散文选词与内容分析》，1993年。 <br />
周恩来总结了他从中学到的哲学智慧：人们并不客观地评价事物，而是通过褒贬。官方的解读指责周恩来“只看到苍蝇，没有看到宇宙”，这是年轻的周恩来关于他自己明确反对的立场的一句话。 《中国科学全集-中国文学》1988年，第2版，第1300页。这是在散文《苍鹰》（短篇小说）上演的，在：周作人：“智堂”。1933年收藏。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:14, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
见周作人：《仓皇传》，载《晨报附录》（1924.7.13）。其内容摘要见：于大祥：《汉语散文选词与内容分析》，1993年。 <br />
<br />
周恩来总结了他从中学到的哲学智慧：人们并不客观地评价事物，而是倾向于褒贬事物。官方的解读指责周恩来认为他“只看到苍蝇，没有看到宇宙”，这是年轻的周恩来关于他自己明确反对的立场的一句话。 <br />
<br />
《中国科学全集-中国文学》1988年，第2版，第1300页。这是在散文《苍蝇》（短篇小说）上演的，1933年藏于在周作人《知堂文集》。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:55, 15 October 2020 (UTC)许鹏飞<br />
<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
<br />
His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”Peking ''cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food. <br />
<br />
His piece ”Bitter rain” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ''”On tea drinking”'' (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ''”First love”'' is more hilarious. <br />
<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
<br />
The essay ''”Three different ways to die”'' shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight. Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ''”The awning bunk boat”'' Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.<br />
<br />
''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''<br />
<br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
<br />
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth. The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society.<br />
<br />
“文化大革命”后散文创作的增加可能与散文的能力有关。由于其对历史真相的内在要求，相比于其他体裁，它能更真实地表达个人经历。但是散文并不能保证事实的客观性，它同样具有主观性：散文家会下意识地调解自我形象。那么，这就将已报道的事实限制在一个主观范围内，它同时也承担着下意识地纠正事实的风险。共和国时期的个人主义处于一个历史转折点，它基于共同情感指向共同的目标，如创作新文学，创造一个全新的中国社会。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 13:19, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“文化大革命”之后散文创作的增加可能与散文的功能有关。由于散文对历史真相的内在要求，相较于其他体裁，它能更真实地表达个人经历。 但是散文并不是客观真理的保证，它同时具有主观性：散文家会有意识地调整自我形象。这就使已报道的事实带有主观性，并承担事实被有意识地“纠正”的风险。 民国时期的个人主义基于处于历史转折点这种同感的基础上建立，并朝着建立新文学和新中国社会等共同目标迈进。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 16:25, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
<br />
In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: "''Anxiang'' 安詳" (Serene) 1992, "''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的 事" (First make your own things in a good way) 1994). These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.<br />
<br />
Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive (''"Shanxi opera"'', Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world (''"The nightmare"'', Si Yu 1995).<br />
<br />
二十世纪80年代，特别是90年代，个人主义要求对满足个人消费需求的思想进行批判性反思，并努力寻求个人目标。小说家提倡道德美德，(王蒙: 安详1992，做好你自己的事，1994)。这些文章主要发表在报纸和杂志上，在当时激荡、虚幻、疏远和消费主义盛行的大众文化氛围中，被读者广泛阅读。这一时期的其他作品，出现了一种新的主观主义色彩，它们逃避当下的矛盾，给读者营勾勒出由积极色彩(《秦腔》, 贾平凹 1984)和消极色彩(《噩梦》,思域 1995) 共同构成的世界。<br />
<br />
在20世纪80年代，尤其是90年代间，个人主义要求对满足个人消费需求进行批判性评价，并且尽量表现出个人意向，评论家讲究道德品质。（王蒙: 安详1992，做好你自己的事，1994)。这些散文主要在报纸和杂志出版，为生活在迅速变化、陌生疏离且以消费为主的大众文化社会中的人们广泛阅读。同期其他的散文作品是以崭新面孔出现的、规避时下矛盾的主观主义，却能给读者创造出或积极(《秦腔》, 贾平凹 1984)或消极的世界。(《噩梦》,思域 1995)--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 13:17, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
<br />
From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:<br />
- The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii); <br />
<br />
- The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br />
<br />
- A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br />
<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
<br />
- The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.<br />
<br />
- The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays.[Ba Jin for example complains in "Remembering Xiao San" about the death of his wife in the 'Cultural Revolution'.]<br />
<br />
平庸的日常生活因为变成了文学话题而变得有意思，最常见的就是日常生活体裁，即论文。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:46, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活体裁，即论文。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 14:10, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
-中国社会的去意识形态化。 今天，不是政府要求的平权文本站在最前列，而是非政治性文章，主要是共和时代，尤其是1923年至1928年。上述统计分析结果支持这项研究。 1949年后最受欢迎的政治文章是批判性文章。例如，巴金在“纪念萧三”中抱怨“文化大革命”中妻子的去世。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:46, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
中国社会的去意识形态化。 今天，不是政府要求的平权文本站在最前列，而是非政治性文章，主要是共和时代，尤其是1923年至1928年。这篇观察得到上述统计分析结果的支持。 1949年后最受欢迎的政治文章是批判性文章。例如，巴金在“纪念萧三”中抱怨“文化大革命”中妻子的去世。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 14:10, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
<br />
- Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain. This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: "readers"). <br />
<br />
- The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay ''"The Back View"'', filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous "The Moonlit Lotus Pond", both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader. Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in ''"Wild vegetables of my home region"'' by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.<br />
<br />
有关散文集的编纂:对于中华人民共和国(包括台湾和香港在内)的常选散文来说，其大部分的道德和美学标准似乎都有所隐藏。这是一个信号，意味着散文选集的编辑者在摆脱政府或者意识形态上的阻碍，独立性变得越来越强，也意味着出版社以客户(之前称之为“读者”)为导向，逐渐商业化。<br />
<br />
中华人民共和国的畅销散文标准如下:常选印刷散文《背影》，孝顺主题是其畅销的主要原因。《荷塘月色》的内容氛围朦胧，文章结构具有平行性和重复性。这两本书的作者都是朱自清，他的写作风格对于西方读者来说易被视为矫揉造作。思家情绪是汪曾祺的《故乡的野菜》一文中的感情特征元素。因此可以说，畅销榜首均为感人散文。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:32, 15 October 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
<br />
-关于文集的编纂：对于最常入选文集的中国(包括台湾和香港)散文，似乎存在着潜在的道德和美学标准。这是文集编辑越来越独立于政府或意识形态障碍的标志，也是出版社以客户(之前称之为“读者”)为导向，日益商业化的一个标志。<br />
-在中国，畅销文集的标准是：常选印刷散文《背影》中，孝道是驱动因素，同样是朱自清作品的《荷塘月色》，氛围朦胧中的平行重复结构，在西方读者看来似乎很矫揉造作。怀旧的故乡情怀是汪曾祺《故乡野菜》中的情感认同元素。因此，我们可以说，感人肺腑的文章位居畅销榜首。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 16:35, 15 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
<br />
- ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions. In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No!'' 1996).<br />
<br />
- ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.'' <br />
<br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
<br />
''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993'' (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness[''Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo'' 新狀態小說 (''new borderless fiction'') with Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.] ''since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.''[Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay "The nightmare", where Si Yu appears as a deconstructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.]<br />
<br />
“还有一些趋势，如在1993年以后的小说中发现的日常语言的使用”("贾平凹",《废都》;“顾城”,《英儿》)和新无边界化【陈东,鲁羊,朱文,林白,陈梁,张梅新狀態小說(“新小说无国界”)】，自1995年以来，就无法在论文写作中得到证实。[后殖民主义思维(Williams et al. 1994)，被视为社会政治话语的一部分，出现在散文中，特别是在20世纪90年代不那么具有批判性的政治但爱国主义的散文中。卡夫卡主义帮助我们理解了《噩梦》这篇文章，在这篇文章中Si Yu似乎是一位解构主义者，第一人称叙述的我甚至几乎自杀。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 05:57, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
<br />
- Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being ''"The Small Dog Baodi"'', written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before (''"In memoriam of Xiao Shan II"'', Ba Jin 1984). Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's ''"Rain in Kunming"'' as well as for Jia Pingwa's ''"Shanxi opera"''.[And maybe for Xie Bingxins reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong "woman soldier" .]<br />
<br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
<br />
- The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing ''fictional truth'' through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.<br />
<br />
DISCUSSION: IS THE GENRE OF THE ESSAY <br />
THE FORM OF LITERARY EXPRESSION IN 21ST CENTURY CHINA?<br />
<br />
Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.<br />
<br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
<br />
- People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?<br />
<br />
- If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?<br />
<br />
- Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?<br />
<br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
<br />
- The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?<br />
<br />
Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, March 14, 2000<br />
<br />
REFERENCES<br />
<br />
Ba Jin 1981 Ba Jin, "''Xiao gou Baodi'' 小狗包第" (The small dog Baodi), in ''Tansuo ji'' 抻坰摩 (Inquiries), Hong Kong 香港 4.1981 [Series ''Suixiang lu'' 隨想錄 (Thoughts) vol. 2]<br />
<br />
在全球范围内城市生活的疏远性与匿名性，则与意识形态、家庭、集体荣誉感等传统价值观的缺失相联系，是以个人利益至上的观念为基础的。如果其产生了对某种新方向的渴望，那它的内容会是引领道德观念的文章和民族主义思想吗？<br />
来源：MA USA，剑桥，在哈佛大学的演讲，2000年3月14日。<br />
引：巴金，1981，《小狗包弟》，抻坰摩，香港，1981，《随想录》。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 17:51, 15 October 2020 (UTC)MaShuya<br />
<br />
在中国，全球范围内都存在的城市生活的疏远性与匿名性，则与意识形态、家庭、团结等传统价值观的缺失相联系，这些价值观是支持个人利益至上的观念的。如果其产生了对某种新方向的渴望，那它的内容会是引领道德观念的文章和民族主义思想吗？<br />
来源：MA USA，剑桥，在哈佛大学的演讲，2000年3月14日。<br />
参考：<br />
巴金，1981，《小狗包弟》，抻坰摩，香港，1981，《随想录》系列，卷2。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 06:08, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
<br />
Bolz 1992 Norbert Bolz: ''"Essay"'', in Walther Killy, ed., ''Literaturlexikon'', 15 vols., München: Bertelsmann 1992<br />
<br />
Butrym 1989 Alexander J. Butrym, ''"Introduction"'', in Butrym, ed., ''Essays on the Essay - Redifining the Genre'', Athens etc.: The University of Georgia Press 1989<br />
<br />
Denton 1996 Kirk A. Denton, ed., ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought. Writings on Literature 1893 - 1945'', Stanford University Press 1996, 554 S.<br />
<br />
Fan Peisong 1993 Fan Peisong 範培松, ''Zhongguo xiandai sanwen shi'' 中國現代散文史 (History of the Modern Chinese Essay), Nanking 南京: Jiangsu jiaoyu chubanshe 江蘇教育出版社 (Paedagogic Press Jiangsu) 9.1993, 626 S.<br />
<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
<br />
Gálik 1966 Marián Gálik, "''On the Influence of Foreign Ideas on Chinese Literary Criticism, 1898 1904''", in ''Asian and African Studies,'' Bratislava: Department of Oriental Studies of the Slovak Academy of Sciences, 2 (1966) 38-48<br />
<br />
Hall 1984 Donald Hall, ''The contemporary essay'', New York: St. Martin’s Press 1984, 488 pp [In this textbook, Hall has chosen a wide range of contemporary american essayists (34, each is presented with one text), among them many women writers like Alison Lurie, Frances FitzGerald, Diane Johnson and Annie Dillard. The authors are presented with a short biographical overview. In his introduction, Hall applies for clear writing, and active reading.] <br />
<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
<br />
Jia Pingwa 1984 Jia Pingwa, "''Qin qiang'' 秦腔" (Shanxi opera), in ''Renmin wenxue'' 人民日報 (Folksliterature) (5.1984)<br />
<br />
Kubin 1995 Wolfgang Kubin, "Das aschene Herz oder Der Sieg des Lebens. Der Hongkonger Essayist Gaylord Leung (The Ashen Heart or The Victory of Life. The Hong Kong Essayist Gaylord Leung)", in ''minima sinica'' 1 (1995) pp. 100-114<br />
<br />
Leiden 1988-90 ''A Selective Guide to Chinese Literature. 1900 - 1949'', 4 Bde, Leiden 1988 - 1990 [Only on novels, fiction anthologies, poetry collections and drama.]<br />
<br />
贾平凹 1984年，秦腔，人民日报，1984年5月版<br />
<br />
沃尔夫冈·库宾，《灰心还是生命的胜利》，1995年，香港散文家梁家辉（灰心还是生命的胜利），《袖珍汉学》，第100-114页<br />
<br />
莱顿，1988-1990《中国文学精选指南》，1900 - 1949，[仅限小说、小说选集、诗集和戏剧。]--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 02:14, 16 October 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
贾平凹. 《秦腔》, 人民日报, 1984.5.<br />
<br />
沃尔夫冈·库宾. 《灰心还是生命的胜利---香港散文家梁锡华》，1995年，袖珍汉学，第100-114页<br />
<br />
莱顿. 《中国文学精选指南1900-1949》. 1988-1990 [仅限小说、小说选集、诗集和戏剧。]--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:45, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
<br />
Lin Yaode 1989 Lin Yaode 林耀德, ''Shuangmu he . shi nai de'' 雙目合．視乃得 (You need two eyes to see), in ''Guannian duihua'' 觀念對話 (Dialogue of ideas), Taipeh 臺北: Han'guang wenhua shiye gufen youxian gongsi 漢光文化事業股份有限公司 (Shining Chinese Cultureworks Corp.) 8.1989, 266 pp, p 49-77 [A very critical interview with the Taiwanese author Yu Guangzhong.]<br />
<br />
Lu Xun 1933 [missing, will be added in a later edition]<br />
<br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
<br />
Lu Xun 1934 Lu Xun, "''Xiaopinwen de weiji'' 小品文的危機" (The crisis of the short literary piece), in ''Nanqiang beidiao ji'' 南腔北調集 (Mixed Accents) 1934[?] [Dated 1933. Lu Xun writes, "''Sanwen'' 散文 (essay) and ''xiaopin'' 小品 (short literary pieces) are presumably more successful than novels, traditional operas and poems. They contain of course also struggle and fight. Because they often take English ''suibi'' 隨筆 (essays) as their example, they are also humorous and distinguished." Following Lee's 1985 :287 terminology, the title reads "''The Crisis of the Literary Essay''".]<br />
<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
<br />
Luo Dajing ca. 1240 Luo Dajing 羅大經 (? - after 1248), ''Helin yulu'' 鶴林玉露 (Forest of cranes and jade dew), in ''Baibu congshu'' 百部叢書 (Book series in 100 vols.) tao 套 14, ce 冊 1<br />
<br />
Mansberg 1995 Anja Mansberg, ''Essays aus dem Exil: Liu Zaifu - ein chinesischer Intellektueller in Amerika, Schweden und Kanada'' (Essays from Exile: Liu Zaifu - a Chinese intellectual in America, Sweden and Canada), Ruhr University Bochum 1995 [Unpublished master thesis.] <br />
<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
<br />
Margouliès 1949 Margouliès, G., ''Histoire de la littérature chinoise (prose) (History of the Chinese Literature (Prose))'', Paris: Payot 1949 [Contains only a few pages on the essay.]<br />
<br />
McDougall 1971 Bonnie S. McDougall, ''The Introduction of Western Literary Theories into China, 1919 - 1925, Tokyo'': Center for East Asian Cultural Studies 1971 ''(East Asian Cultural Studies Series'' 14-15) <br />
<br />
McNaughton 1974 William McNaughton, ed., ''Chinese Literature. An Antholo-gy from the earliest times to the present day'', Rutland, Vermont, Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle Co. 1974, 836 S. [Although it says "literature" in the title, it contains no essays, only "fiction" and "verse".]<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
<br />
Mei/Wu 1996 Mei Jian 美女建, Wu Weigong 吳為公, eds., ''Zhu Ziqing nianpu'' 朱自清年譜 (Biographical chronic of Zhu Ziqing), Hefei 合肥: Anhui jiaoyu chubanshe 安徽教育出版社 (Education Press Anhui) 5.1996, 361 pp.<br />
<br />
Morohashi undated Morohashi, Tetsuji 諸橋轍次, ''Dai Kan-wa jiten'' 大漢和辭典 (Large Chinese Dictionary), Taipei 臺北 undated, vol. 1-13<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
<br />
Pollard 1985 David E. Pollard, "''Lu Xun's Zawen''", in Leo O. Lee: ''Lu Xun and his Legacy'' 1985, pp. 54-89<br />
<br />
Průšek 1964 Jaroslav Pršek, "''A Confrontation of Traditional Oriental Literature with Modern European Literature in the Context of the Chinese Literary Revolution", in Archiv Orientalni 32'' (1964) 365-375. <br />
<br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
<br />
Si Yu 1995 Si Yu 斯妤, "Mengyan 夢魘" (The nightmare), in Si Yu 斯妤, Li Hong 李紅, eds., ''Dangdai nüxing sanwen suibi jingcui - qingxinxiang gao (sanwen juan)'' 當代女性散文隨筆精 粹—傾心相告（散文 卷） (Choice of Essays and Familiar Essays of Contemporary Women Authors - Opening One's Heart - Essay Vol.), Peking 北京: Zhongguo qingnian chubanshe 中國青年出版社 (Chinese Youth Press) 6.1995, 392 pp, 130-134<br />
<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
<br />
Schmidt-Glintzer 1990 Hellwig Schmidt-Glintzer, ''Geschichte der chinesischen Literatur'', Bern etc.: Scherz 1990, 686 pp. [Contains altogether only a few pages on the essay.] <br />
<br />
Tam King-Fai [announced] Tam King-Fai, The Chinese xiaopinwen [working title], New York: Columbia University Press [This collection has been announced for 1999.] <br />
<br />
Wagner 1996 Alexandra Wagner, ''Bildnisse des Selbst: die Neumondschule und der moderne chinesische Essay'' (Alexandra Wagner: Images of Self: The Crescent Moon Society and the Chinese Essay), Dortmund: Projekt Verlag 1996 [Reihe Edition ''cathay'' Bd 15]<br />
<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
<br />
Wang Bin 1992 Wang Bin 王彬, "''Essay de youfa Essay''的誘發" (The origin of the essay), in ''Beijing wenxue'' 北京文學 (Peking literature) (10.11.1992, issue 11) 66-68<br />
<br />
Wang Zengqi 1993 Wang Zengqi 汪曾祺, "''Dangdai sanwen daxi zongxu'' 當代散文大系總序" (Preface to the Compendium of the field of the contemporary essay), in ''Dangdai zuojia pinglun'' 當代作家評論 (Critical review of contemporary authors) (25.1.1993, issue 1) 8-9<br />
<br />
Wu Zhihui [1934] Wu Zhihui as cited by Zhou Zuoren in ''Der Ursprung der modernen chinesischen Literatur'' (The Sources of Modern Chinese Literature) 1934, 71-72<br />
<br />
Wang Bin 1992 Wang Bin 王彬, ""''Essay de youfa Essay''"的誘發" (散文的起源), 载于 "''Beijing wenxue''" 北京文學 (北京文学)（1992.11.10, 第11期）66-68<br />
<br />
Wang Zengqi 1993 Wang Zengqi 汪曾祺, ""''Dangdai sanwen daxi zongxu''" 當代散文大系總序" （当代散文纲要序言）, 载于 "''Dangdai zuojia pinglun''" 當代作家評論 (当代作家评论) (1993.1.25, 第1期) 8-9<br />
<br />
Wu Zhihui [1934] 周作人在 "''Der Ursprung der modernen chinesischen Literatur''" (中国现代文学起源) 中引用吴志辉的著作 1934, 71-72--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 03:36, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1921 Zhou Zuoren, "''Meiwen'' 美文 (Belle lettre), in: ''Beijing chenbao fukan'' 北京晨報副刊 (Supplement to Peking Morning Post) (8.6.1921) ["It appears to me, that the English literature has had its greatest success in the field of the belle-lettre.", ibid.] <br />
<br />
Zhu Jinshun 1990 Zhu Jinshun 朱金順, ed., ''Wusi sanwen shi jia'' 五四散文十家 (10 Essayists of the 'May-Fourth-Movement'), Peking 北京: Baihua wenyi chubanshe 百花文藝出版 社 (100 Flowers Literature and Art Press) 12.1990, 221 pp. ["1938 dao 1945, shi Zhou Zuoren zui bu guangcai de shiqi, zuo le hanjian 1938到1945是周作人最不光彩的時 期，做了漢奸", p. 59]<br />
<br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing 1928 Zhu Ziqing, "''Beiying'' 背影" (The back view), in ''Beiying'' 背影 (The back view), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Bookstore) (10.1928) 像1948<br />
<br />
Yale lecture on the 20th Century Chinese Essay <br />
<br />
A Survey of the Genre and New Insights Into the Essayists Ba Jin, Zhou Zuoren, Zhu Ziqing<br />
<br />
朱自清1928 背影 上海 開明書店 (10.1928) 1948<br />
<br />
耶鲁大学关于20世纪中国小品文的讲座<br />
<br />
对小品文作家巴金，周作人，朱自清体裁和新解的总体研究--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 10:20, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
朱自清1928年《背影》，上海開明書店 (1928年10月) 1948年<br />
<br />
耶鲁大学关于20世纪中国散文的讲座<br />
<br />
从流派和新视角探究散文作家巴金、周作和朱自清--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 11:40, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
<br />
The narrative established by literary histories[Hsia] and anthologies has drawn a distorted picture of 20th century Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was almost ignored. In my paper I will demonstrate, how the picture of three authors change, if we take into consideration also some of their esayistic work. Here I choose the example of the critical political essay. The essay tells us more about an author than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions.<br />
<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
<br />
In 1927, when the writers were threatened by a massacre among leftists by the National People's Party in Shanghai, a whole generation of writers found a common base in communist ideology, formally expressed in 1930 in the foundation of the "League of Left-Wing Writers". <br />
<br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
<br />
Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to the changing political climate, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products. This struggle of finding a position in a politicized environment is best documen¬ted in the essay --- "a genre of self-reflection". Moreover, by its very nature, the essay overcomes boundaries of form and content. Therefore there are more essays than there is fiction free from political thoughts. Some essayists even went a step further, deconstructed the master narrative of leftist ideology, like the three writers I will talk about today.<br />
<br />
许多作家不得不定义或者经常重新定义他们的位置和应对政治环境改变的自我理解，经常隐藏自己的观点，最大程度迎合社会的“需求”，这个社会宣称作家是其产品之一。在一篇散文——“自我反省的类型”中记录了作家在这种政治环境中寻求一席之地的努力。同时，就其本质而言，这篇散文克服了形式与内容的障碍。因此，与小说相比，有更多的散文不受政治思想的约束。一些散文家甚至更进了一步，解构了左派意识形态中最重要的叙述技巧，我今天要谈论的三位作家就是如此。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 13:52, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
<br />
The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that a sophisticated May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a national "traitor". Zhou's writings were officially considered bad literature, a total elimina-tion of his texts was only prevented, because of the fame of his brother, who became a state author posthumously through the valuing of Mao Zedong. Actually the reception of his essays reaches a new climax now, in the essay collections of the 1990s, his essays rank 3rd, as I was able to proof with a survey of 5000 essays. [] That makes clear that his political engagement had no effect on the brilliance of his literary works.<br />
<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
<br />
[All rankings refer to the survey results published in my books on the Chinese essay: Martin Woesler, ed., ''The Modern Chinese Literary Essay - Defining the Chinese Self in the 20th Century - Conference Volume'', Bochum: European University Press ²2003, 327 pp., ISBN 3-934453-15-5, € 35.79; Martin Woesler, ed., ''The Chinese Essay in The 20th Century'' - , Bochum: European University Press ²2003, 496 (xlii, 205, 229) pp., ISBN 3-934453-14-7, € 25.00; and in German: Martin Woesler (Hg., Übers.), ''Ausgewählte chinesische Essays des 20. Jahrhunderts in Übersetzung'', Bo¬chum: Europäischer Universitätsverlag ²2003, 300 S.; ISBN 3-932329-05-8, € 15.29; Martin Woesler, ''Geschichte des chinesischen Essays in Moderne und Gegenwart'' (3 volumes), Bo¬chum: Europäischer Universitätsverlag ²2003, xiii, 900 S., 3-932329-04-X, € 46.00.]<br />
<br />
【所有排名出自本人所著的关于中国文学作品的书籍，参考了上面的研究结果：吴漠汀著《中国现代文学散文集-定义20世纪的中国式自我-会议录》，波鸿市欧洲大学出版社2003年出版，327页，ISBN码3-934453-15-5，价格35.79欧元；吴漠汀著《二十世纪中国散文集》，波鸿市欧洲大学出版社2003年出版，496页（xlii, 205, 229），ISBN码3-934453-14-7，25欧元；吴漠汀著《翻译的二十世纪·中国的论文选集》，波鸿市欧洲大学出版社2003年出版，300页，ISBN码3-932329-05-8, 价格15.29欧元；吴漠汀著《中国近现代散文史》（三册），波鸿市欧洲大学出版社2003年出版，13，900页，ISBN码3-932329-04-X，价格46欧元。】--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 11:32, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
The official assessment of the People's Republic is that Zhou's work experienced a caesura in 1938 due to his "degeneration" and opposition against the patriotic campaign. Zhou kept trying to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday out of the subjective experience of his private space his whole life, only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge he showed that it was again possible to write about a candy seller for which he had been critizised as "paralyzing" But there was indeed a caesura, namely the change in style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to zhèngjiang and xiánshì(essays for one’s own enjoyment).<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
But this change is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest by the Guomindang (1945). Therefore not the Japanese suppressors should be made responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots. <br />
So the first correction of the narrative is, that his literature was not effected by socio-political circumstances in quality, but in contents. And there is a second master narrative on Zhou Zuoren, which says that he was an apolitical author. Actually, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself.<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance[ (Zhou 1929:180-181).]. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature"[(Zhou 1923).], literature should make the society more humane.<br />
<br />
对他来说，文学不是革命的途径，而是反抗的手段(周 1929: 180-181)。现代化社会中，他提倡妇女解放，要求要把孩子当作有外在生活和内在生活的完整主体看待，使孩子成为儿童文学的实质(周 1923)，文学应该使社会更人性化。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:19, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
The second example, where a reading of some of his essays lets us rediscover the author is Ba Jin: He is known for his practical essays with anarchistic and communist background in the 1930s and 40s, for his opportunistic self-criticism, self-censorship[(The Family in 1951)] and the accusation of a writers' collegue during the cultural revolution. After the 'Cultural Revolution' he seemed to emerge as a righteous character[(1982 Yi pian xuwen).], when he claimed to have done all this under pressure. He then devoted his essays to the working up of the trauma of the 'Cultural Revolution', for example in the self-accusing essay series Random Thoughts.[(Suixianglu) The essays of the 1980s are more autobiographical, and deal with literature and questions for society nowadays. Due to the very nature of the essay, we can look through his "Random Thoughts" into the soul of Ba Jin..]<br />
第二个例子是阅读巴金的文章能使我们对巴金有新的认识：他以二十世纪三十年代和四十年代下具有无政府主义和共产主义背景的实用文章，机会主义的自我批评，自我审查（1951年《家》），以及在文革时期对同事的指控闻名。“文革”之后，他似乎成为了一个正直的人（1982年 《序跋集》）。他声称自己当时是出于所有的压力才做这些事的。此后他的散文致力于“文革”的创伤，如随想系列自诉散文。（《随想录》）二十世纪八十年代的散文更具有自传性，涉及了文学和当今社会的问题。由于散文本身的实质，我们可以透过巴金的“随想”窥见巴金本人的灵魂。--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:28, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
Since they were seldom reprinted, two of Ba Jin’s critical essays "Independent Thoughts" and "Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty", dating 1956 and 1962 were overlooked. With them, Ba Jin turns out to be a lifelong independant writer. The two essays were criticised. He had to deny their contents and later they were censored. Even nowadays, these texts are not easy to find in anthologies and dictionaries in the P.R.C. and Taiwan.<br />
<br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
"Independant Thoughts" dated 1956, propagates the freedom of the individual and of thoughts. This essay was written in the '100-Flower-Movement', when criticism was induced officially. Ba Jin corresponded only to the 'mainstream', although his criticism was unusually sharp. Much more distinctly directed against the 'mainstream' was the second text, which I want to introduce shortly.<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
"Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty", a speech at the second Shanghai congress of writers and artists in early 1962, has later been censored at seven striking places. In it, Ba Jin"judges very hard about himself and his collegues: At different campaigns against literary works they would have followed the political demands opportunistically and therefore were traitors. The second target of Ba Jin's criticism were the censors and critics, who would posess more power than the writers and that without legitimation. Ba Jin interpreted Mao's Yan'an speeches on art and literature in the way, that writers should themselves take over responsibility.<br />
<br />
1962年初第二届上海作家和艺术家大会上巴金的演讲“作家的勇气和责任心”，后来在七个地方被审。 在这个演讲中，巴金对自己和他的同行进行了批判：在反对文学作品的各种运动中，他们投机地响应了政治要求，因而可称为叛徒。巴金批判的第二个对象是审查员和评论家，他们不按规定，拥有比作家有更大的权力。巴金用这样的方式诠释了毛主席在延安关于艺术和文学演讲中的精神，即作家应该自己承担责任。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 02:48, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1962年初,巴金在第二届上海作家和艺术家大会上关于“作家的勇气和责任心”的演讲，不久之后便遭到七个地方的审查。 在演讲中，巴金对自己和同行进行了批判：在各种反对文学作品的运动中，他们投机地响应了政治要求而可称为叛徒。巴金批判的第二个对象是审查员和评论家，因为他们可以违背律法，拥有比作家有更大的权力。巴金以这样的方式诠释了毛主席在延安关于艺术和文学演讲中的精神，即作家应该自己承担责任。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 04:07, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
"The Small Dog Baodi" as a metaphorical discourse on Ba Jin's personal grief<br />
<br />
Although Ba Jin is regarded together with Bing Xin as one of the representatives of Republican literature, the more important part of his essayistic work seems to lie after 1949[ (Random Thoughts 1978-86, see Ba Jin 1988).]. Publishing from Hong Kong since 1979, he has spoken out loudly in opposition and in trying to help ease the trauma associated with the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br />
<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
One of this essays is the story-like "Small Dog Baodi". Written in 1980, the author remembers his dog, which he had received two decades ago from a Swedish person and which he loved after a while. When the 'Red Gards' raged, the dog was in danger. Ba Jin describes in detail the fate of the animal and his own resignation, when he learned that he could not protect the dog. In order to save him from a torturous death, he finally submitted the dog in 1966 for medical experiments. Revisiting his garden after the 'Cultural Revolution', he remembers painfully how his wife had played here with the dog. I would like to show six points of interpretation:<br />
<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
1, The dog is a metaphor. In the beginning Ba Jin seems to report the fate of a dog with relevance only to his owner. But soon it becomes clear that Ba Jin actually mediates to the reader the cruelty of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The reader wonders, "if they did this with an innocent dog, what did they do with men, whom they considered guilty?" Ba Jin analogizes himself with the dog, when he sees himself liying on the dissection table. Even Baodi's death is useful, he serves science - could a man be more altruistic?<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
2, Ba Jin expresses the pain of the loss of his wife through the dog. Not before the very end of the essay, Ba Jin mentions his wife in painful remembrance, who became ill and died during those ten years. In the essay "In Memoriam Xio Shn",which appeared earlier in the collection, he had confessed severe feelings of guilt regarding her death, what haunted him into his dreams. He claimed, that they had withwithhold her medical treatment because of him.<br />
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3, The essay is an accusation of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The not-mentioning of the 'Cultural Revolution' as the reason for his wife's death makes the pain the more accusatory, especially in front of the comparable unimportant doglife. His terrifying awareness is the powerlessness - he was not able to protect his dog nor his wife. Ba Jin actually wants to illustrate the powerlessness of the individual in front of collective cruelty.<br />
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==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
4, The significance of this way to deal with the 'Cultural Revolution'. If one compares the mentioned essay with others of the year 1979, it lied within the common trend of criticizing the 'Cultural Revolution'. But there were also authors like Bing Xin denied the 'Cultural Revolution' - soon after its end, she used similar titles for her books than before - in order to pretend continuity. Wang Meng worked up the 'Cultural Revolution' in a humoristic way - Ba Jin's essays stand out of these, because of their relentlessness and confessing character.<br />
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==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
5, The use of rhetorical means. Ba Jin pretends to be a simple documentarist "I expect from literature [...] that it tells the truth.". In fact he is known for his direct and accusing truth, sometimes his literary style is critizised as too direct and too less artful (a reproach from Hong Kong students). In "The Small Dog Baodi" he is using literary means to create emotion in his readers. He uses composition and rhetoric means like animation. The dog Baodi allegorically shows the injustice and inhumanity of the 'Cultural Revolution'. Here, Ba Jin turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before[ ("In memoriam Xiao Shan").]. He is longing for a fictional truth, instead of the truth of being in the sense of Thomas Aquinas. The fictional realism Wang Der-wei sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proofs helpful for the understanding of this piece.[ Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as the fictional truth in Shen Congwen is called (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's "Rain in Kunming" as well as for Jia Pingwa's "Shanxi opera"..]<br />
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修辞手法的使用。巴金自称是纪实小说家：“我希望从文学中获取事实的真相。”确实，巴金的文字也是出了名的犀利、直接，甚至有时他的文学风格受到批评，说是太直接而缺乏艺术性（一位香港学生提出的质疑）。在巴金的小说《小狗包弟》中，他用了一些文学方法来让读者产生共鸣，比如小作文的形式和动漫插图这样的手段。借用包弟这只小狗，以寓言的方式，深刻揭露了“文化大革命”的不公与残酷。在文中，巴金一改作者身份，以寓言和反讽的形式，化为一名叙述者，平静地回忆起“文革”的事情，而非如往常的文章一样，平铺直述真相。（《怀念萧珊》）巴金太渴望寻求一种小说的真相了，而非托马斯·阿奎那式的真相。王德威在作家老舍、茅盾和沈从文的作品中看到的一种小说现实主义证明了对我们理解巴金这篇文章有所帮助。（类似情况还有沈从文提出的想象思乡这一概念，对于理解汪曾祺的《昆明的雨》和贾平凹的《秦腔》也是很有帮助的。）--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 07:48, 15 October 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
6, Ba Jin's personal grief is much more persuading in the metaphor of the dog than in his direct accusing essays. As Vera Schwarcz (1996) points out<br />
"To speak too much of grief is to blunt its edge. It might even make us deaf to the cry that sparked discourse about suffering in the first place. A cold, calculating intelligence cannot grasp the rough contours of grief. [...] To preserve the significance of personal suffering in public life we need a more indirect approach; one that accepts and, indeed, nourishes AMBIGUITY. This, in the words of Cynthia Ozick, is the discrete province of METAPHOR, "the reciprocal agent, the universalizing force that makes it possible to envision the stranger's heart." [...]<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
She also mentions that "[...] absence of talk -- or, rather modest use of metaphorical discourse -- serve us better in the presence of massive grief."<br />
<br />
To sum up, Ba Jin turns out not to be the self-censorer, who tried to make his literature fit into the communist ideology. Instead he was a lifelong fighter for the freedom of speech and the independancy of literature from politics, who spoke out whenever he had the opportunity without endangering himself. He also no longer appears as the "uneducated" writer of simple truth, as he leads us to believe. Yet he has achieved a high rhethoric of fictional truth and is able to transmit his personal grief even more persuadingly in a metaphorical discourse throught the metaphor of the dog Baodi.<br />
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==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay "Back View" (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now. This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father).<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription "The Moonlit Lotus Pond", whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.<br />
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Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence.<br />
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I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in "Report On the Massacre of the Government"[(Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. [...] I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]<br />
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枪声仍在继续，东门的入口处站满了人...推推搡搡，我们尽力爬到了人群上，我们一定是失去了理智，没有看到自己行为的怪诞不经，这十分耻辱...我仍在人群顶上游走，没人敢落下哪怕一步——为了穿过那扇隔开生与死的大门，那扇会使我们获得生机，也可能（直接）夺去我们的生命的大门...我的努力最终使我回到了地面，当我从人堆上滚下来时，我的命运就尘埃落定了...后来我才知道那扇门边的一些人已经死了——是被大门另一边的手枪打死的 ，（自此）每当我会想起自己踏过死尸的情景，我都会禁不住害怕得发抖... <br />
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 12:49, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:<br />
Duan Qirui[ 段祺瑞.], you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“<br />
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==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his "Ways to die"[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds "to be shot" the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.<br />
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相比之下，鲁迅在叹为观止的惨剧中描绘了同样的大屠杀，而周作人在他的《死亡之道》中悲惨地描绘着，他发现“被枪杀”是最好的死亡方法。 据说政治上较少参与的朱同志在这里表现出更多的参与。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 14:23, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The essay "Facing the New China"[(Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.<br />
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《面向新中国》是朱同志的政治宣言：他要求注重民主、启蒙和提高教育水平。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 14:23, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.<br />
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中国必须通过实现人民民主来重生。……应该要保障人民自由表达自己的意愿，团结人民的力量。各级行政机关都要以人民的意志和力量为基础，为多数人及其最大的幸福而奋斗。这意味着人民当政监督，人民当家作主，人民享有幸福。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 14:23, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech "Today's duty of the Intellectuals"[(Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.<br />
在去世前的几个星期，他在一场演讲上对“知识分子今天的任务”提出要求，知识分子应该为社会变得更加美好而奋力努力。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 02:42, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
在他逝世的几周之前，他在“知识分子今天的任务”这一演讲中提出要求：建设一个更加美好的社会需要知识分子的参与。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:39, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.<br />
我只展示了几篇文章，如果我们仔细阅读他们不太出名的散文作品，这三位作者的形象会发生很大变化。现在想象一下，如果文学历史和作品选集不仅能体现戏剧、小说和诗歌的历史，还能赋予这篇散文合适的地位。那么20世纪中国文学的图景将会如何变化。本文接下来的部分是我的专著中关于20世纪中国散文的结论。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 02:42, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society<br />
散文的流行犹如一面镜子，反映出日益增长的个性、公共领域的参与度以及现代中国社会的步调节奏。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 03:29, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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散文的流行犹如一面镜子,反映出人们日益增长的个性、公共领域的参与度以及现代中国社会令人眩晕的快节奏。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 08:11, 15 October 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
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Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China（including Taiwan and Hong Kong) and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay.<br />
要理解论文概述并评估其本质，需要在中国(包括大陆、台湾、香港）和美国的书店及图书馆进行大量研究，以获取论文集和二手文献等可用资源。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 13:19, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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要理解论文概述并评估其本质，需要在书店，图书馆，中华人民共和国，（包括台湾和香港）和美国境内，获取论文集和二手文献，借助可用资源进行广泛研究。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 03:59, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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要理解论文概述并评估其本质，需要在中国大陆、中国台湾、中国香港的书店、图书馆和美国的书店、图书馆进行大量研究，以此获取与论文相关的文集和二手文献资源。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 08:11, 15 October 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
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想要读懂这篇论文的综述并理解其内涵，我们需要在中国境内外以及美国的书店和图书馆获取与本论文相关的论文集和二手文献，利用可用资源开展广泛研究。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:41, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.<br />
我建立了一个用于统计分析的数据库，对5000多篇论文和1400名散文家进行排名。结果发现，在60篇最著名的中国散文中，到目前为止只有14篇被翻译成英文。接下来将收录谭景辉的四篇文章及我剩余42篇文章中的一篇。<br />
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Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[(baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].<br />
分析显示，1979年以后，中国的散文出版量普遍增加，文革后出现了两个增长高峰。这些出版物在1990年显然达到了一个新的高度。第一次增长大约出现在20世纪20和30年代，此后散文的作用为报告所取代。【（报告文学），克拉普1998年译 】--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:01, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].<br />
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The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s:<br />
二十世纪二三十年代和八九十年代散文出版繁荣兴盛，部分是因为出现了新的杂志，而这些杂志的存在成了当代散文家和许许多多散文丛书发文的渠道[散文丛书]<br />
1980年至1982年之间有一百万份散文集印刷出来，这个数字只包含了我调查中能够收集到的130本具有代表性的书籍样本，反映了散文出版增加的原因是需求得不到满足，而这一原因我们可以追溯到文化大革命的肃清时期。在20世纪90年代中期，中国散文创作的增加和流行有三大原因。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:32, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[(Hall 1984:xiii).].<br />
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2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands. <br />
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3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br />
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==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:<br />
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1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.<br />
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如果我们仔细研究那些不仅是在美国出版的散文集，同样也研究在香港、台湾和中国内地出版的散文集，我们发现，与地区差异相对应的个体散文家或散文被低估或高估的原因有以下三个:<br />
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1.外部原因：在美国，散文通常根据西方人的品位来选择的，完全不知名的作家和知名的作家享有同等的待遇。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 09:01, 15 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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如果我们仔细研究那些散文集，包括美国出版的，香港、台湾和中国内地出版的，我们会发现个体散文家或散文被高估或被低估的原因与地区相对应的有以下三个:<br />
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1.外部原因：在美国，散文通常根据西方人的品位来选择的，完全不知名的作家和知名的作家享有同等的待遇。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:38, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br />
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3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[(see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]<br />
Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.<br />
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2.社会政治原因。鲁迅的作品在台湾被禁读很长一段时间了，然而，如上述提及的调查证明显示，他在台湾近代作家排名12位。王蒙因其政治文章在中国一直受到过度吹捧。<br />
3.个人原因。香港余光中的作品，在其弟子黄维梁的审查后并得到了颂扬。<br />
在列出了文坛繁荣的原因和为什么有些作家在文坛受吹捧，而有些却遭到贬低之后，我将以介绍上世纪末散文发展的几个趋势作为文章的结尾。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 09:35, 15 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
2.社会政治原因： 在台湾，鲁迅曾被封禁过很长一段时间。但如今，正如上述调查证据所示，他名列台湾现代作家第12位。王蒙由于其在中国的政治地位，一直受到过度追捧。<br />
<br />
3.个人原因：为了支持余光中，其弟子黄维梁对有关余光中的香港文学作品进行了审查。<br />
在列举了散文繁荣的原因，以及散文文化领域对不同行动者的支持和打压之后，我想通过列举本世纪初散文出现的几个趋势来完成我的论文。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 09:35, 15 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
2.社会政治原因 鲁迅的作品在台湾被禁读了很长一段时间。但如今，正如所提及的调查证实的那样，鲁迅在台湾现代作家排行榜中位列第十二。王蒙因其政治性的文章在中国一直被人高看。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 16:34, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.个人原因 为支持余光中，他的弟子黄维梁对其香港文学作品进行了审查。在介绍了散文繁荣发展的原因，以及在散文文化领域对不同作家的支持和打压后，我想在论文结尾部分介绍关于上世纪末散文发展出现的一些趋势。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 16:34, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".<br />
政治散文的主题发展经历了从1907年的启蒙教育散文到1920-30年代的日常政治散文，再到40年代的抗日宣传和50 - 60年代的意识形态宣传的转变。而1980年代的复兴政治问题的讨论社会的最好的体系,(一般也在文学和电影)在1990年代，主题的范围是非政治的而又有更多哲学道德的,散文家定义了他们的角色，首先是与以消费者为导向的大众相对应。在中国，散文似乎是唯一保留其教育主张的体裁，除了那些声称是“艺术为了艺术”的散文。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 15:16, 15 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
摘要政治散文的专题发展是从 1907 年兴起的启蒙教育散文向 1920-30 年代的日常政治散文的转变，进一步发展到 1940 年代的抗日宣传和 20 世纪 50 年代和 60 年代的思想宣传。20 世纪 80 年代，在讨论社会的最佳制度时，政治问题又出现了复苏，(也包括在一般的文学和电影中) 在 20 世纪 90 年代变成了纯粹的非政治性和更具哲学性的-道德主题，在那里，散文家定义了他们的角色，首先是要与大众的消费取向相对应。这篇文章似乎是中国唯一保留其教育主张的体裁，但声称是“艺术院”的论文除外。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 01:00, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("On dreams"["Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 ("My own garden"[9.1923.], "The Fly"[1924.], "Reading on the Toilet"[1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement.<br />
非政治性文章主题的发展始于1917年的朱自清（《说梦》 [1928]）和周作人的（《我的花园》[ 9.1923]《苍蝇》 [1924]和《茅厕阅读》[1936]），并于1927年搁置了一阵子，当时政治论文成为主流，直到1930年代末，非政治性散文完全被抗日运动淘汰掉了。<br />
<br />
It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.<br />
直到20世纪70年代，它才恢复过来，那时生活恢复了正常，因为长期没有正常的事物，所以正常的事物也成了人们感兴趣的话题。同样由于人们对政治问题的兴趣减少，以及在新遇到的大众消费主义世界中需要一个新的方向，非政治性文章在20世纪90年代蓬勃发展。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:49, 15 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.<br />
<br />
站在本世纪末前沿的不是政府要求的权威文件，而是与政治无关的散文，这些文章大多可以追溯到民国时期，尤其是从1923年到1928年间。上述统计分析证实了这一观察结果。在1949年以后的政论文中，居于前列的是批评散文。在中国，包括台湾地区和香港地区在内发表的选集，似乎都以道德和审美标准为基础。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 07:41, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在本世纪末，站在前沿的不是政府要求的有积极影响的文章，而是与政治无关的文章，这些文章大多数可以追溯到民国时期，尤其是1923年至1928年。这一个观察结果可由上述提到的统计分析证实。在1949年的以后的政论文中，居于前列的是批评文。在中国，包括台湾和香港在内发表的选集，似乎都以道德和审美为标准。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:22, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: "readers"). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, nostalgia is the element of emotional identification in "Wild vegetables of my home region" by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[Compare to Jia Pingwa's "Moon traces", which ranks 11, and Ba Jin's "Paradise for Birds", which ranks 19.]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.<br />
<br />
这标志着文集编辑越来越独立于政府或意识形态的阻碍，也标志着以客户为导向的出版社越来越商业化。怀旧是继排名第一和第二的朱自清的情感小品之后，周作人的《家乡野菜》排名第三(与排名11的贾平凹的《月亮痕迹》和排名19的巴金的《鸟的乐园》相比)的情感认同元素。因此，我们可以说，感人的散文是最重要的。--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 15:49, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这标志着散文选集的编辑越来越不顾政府或意识形态的阻碍，也标志着以客户为导向(过去是以读者为导向)的出版社越来越商业化。就怀旧主题而言,排名前二的是朱自清的书怀抒情散文，周作人的《故乡的野菜》中的怀旧是情感认同的元素，该作品位列第三。贾平凹的《月迹》排名第11位，巴金的《鸟的天堂》排名第19位。由此可见，感人的散文是最重要的。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 01:10, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这标志着散文选集的编辑越来越不顾政府或意识形态的阻碍，也标志着以客户为导向(过去是以读者为导向)的出版社越来越商业化。就怀旧主题而言,排名前二的是朱自清的抒怀抒情散文，然而周作人的《故乡的野菜》中的怀旧是情感认同的元素，该作品位列第三。贾平凹的《月迹》排名第11位，巴金的《鸟的天堂》则排名第19位。由此可见，感人的散文是最重要的。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 14:31, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
<br />
In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.<br />
<br />
1927年，中国文学出现了“介入文学”的形式。到了20世纪八九十年代，文学作品中对政治问题的关注和讨论比二三十年代要少，那时包括诗歌和小品文在内的所有文学体裁都在抨击共产主义和毛派艺术思想，因为这些内容的宣扬都是为意识形态服务的。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 09:22, 15 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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1972年，中国文学出现了一种文学形式——“介入文学”。到了二十世纪八九十年代，文学作品中对政治问题的讨论相较二三十年代要少很多。那时，包括诗歌和散文在内的所有体裁都是为意识形态所服务的，它们都在抨击共产主义以及毛派艺术思想。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 13:16, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1927年，中国文学出现了“参与文学”的形式。 与二十世纪二三十年代相比，在二十世纪八九十年代，有关日常利益的政治讨论只占很小的一部分。 在1980年代，包括诗歌和散文在内的所有流派都被批评家用来反对共产主义的主要叙事，或者反对毛派艺术思想。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:53, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1927年，中国文学出现新形式，那就是“钦定文学”。二十世纪八九十年代的人对于日息政治学的议论不如二十世纪二三十年代人那么多。二十世纪八十年代，包括诗歌和散文在内的所有文学体裁，都用于批判一种主流宣传，那就是共产主义或者毛泽东思想视角所理解的所谓“艺术服务于意识形态”。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 14:36, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[Trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting. <br />
The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.]<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
References<br />
<br />
Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, "The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China", in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)<br />
<br />
Ba Jin 1982，Ba Jin:"Yi feng huixin"(A response letter(26.10.1982)), in:Bing zhongji(On the sick-bed),Hongkong 1984(?)(Reihe Suixiang lu(Thoughts) Bd 4),147 pp.,in the following:Ba Jin:On the sick-bed 1984,reprinted in:Ba Jin: Thoughts under time 1978-1986,vol.4 On the sick-bed, S.19-23<br />
<br />
参考文献<br />
<br />
Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, "The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China", in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)<br />
<br />
巴金1982年，巴金：《一封回信》(1982年10月26日)，载于：《病中集》，香港1984年(?)(随想录Bd 4)，147页，以下：巴金：《病中集》，1984年，转载于：巴金。 巴金：《再思录》1978-1986,第4卷，《病中集》，第19-23页。<br />
<br />
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: "Yi pian xuwen" (A preface) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin:On the sick-bed 1984<br />
<br />
Ba Jin 1956,Ba Jin:"Duli sikao"(Think independantly),in:Li Jisheng, Li Xiaolin (eds):Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927-1986),Suixiang lu, zagan,sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin<br />
(Ba Jin. Selected Works from 60 years (1927 - 1986), Thoughts, mixed feelings, essays, prefaces, speeches, letters),Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe(Literature and Art Press Shanghai), 1986.12,S.461-462 [Dated 1956.]<br />
巴金1982年 “一篇序文”[1982.9/10] ：《病中集》1984<br />
巴金 1956年 “独立思考”，李济生，李小林（编）：60年文选（1927-1986），随想录，杂感散文，序跋，演讲，书信（巴金 60年文选选文（1927-1986），随想，杂感，散文，序言，演讲，书信），上海：上海文艺出版社, 1986.12,S.461-462 [日期 1956.]--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 15:19, 15 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
Ba Jin 1962, "Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin" (Encouragement and responsibility of the writer)1962;the essay of Zhou Zuoren:"Wenxue tan"(On Literature),has been published in:Tan long ji(On Dragons. A collection), Shanghai:Kaiming shudian(Kaiming Bookstore)1927.12,reprint:Hongkong:Shiyong shuju(Practical Press)1972.1,310 S.,S.165-167<br />
<br />
巴金 1962，“作家的勇气与责任心”1962；周作人的文章“文学谈”初版于《谈龙集》，上海开明书店1927年12月，再版于香港实用书局1972.1,310 S.,S.165-167--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:59, 15 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
巴金 1962，《作家的勇气与责任心》1962；周作人的文章《文学谈》初版于《谈龙集》，上海开明书店1927年12月，再版于香港实用书局1972.1,310 S.,S.165-167--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 09:35, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, "Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship)," in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 7-8<br />
<br />
周作人1919，周作人，“祖先崇拜1919”，收录于《早期散文集》op.cit., pp. 7-8--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:59, 15 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1920:Zhou Zuoren, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu"(The demand of the New Literature) [lecture],in Beiping shaonian xuehui (Beiping youth conference)1920.1.6,in:Zhang Ruoying:Xin wenxue yuandong shi ziliao(Material on the history of the New Literature movement),Shanghai:Guangming shuju (Guangming bookstore)(1934.9 ²1936.9, 291-296<br />
<br />
周作人 1920：周作人，新文学的要求（新文学的要求），北平少年学会（北平少年学会），1920.1.6：张若英：《新文学运动史资料》（《新文学运动史资料》）， 上海：光明书局（光明书局）（1934.9-1936.9， 291-296）--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 09:18, 16 October 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)<br />
<br />
<br />
周作人，1923年，周作人：《燕子草》（于平伯《燕子草》序），发表于：《永日记》，上海：北新书局1929，180-181--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 09:28, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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周作人1929年，周作人：《童书》（儿童书籍），载于：陈宝福刊（1923.8.17）--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 09:28, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148<br />
<br />
Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)<br />
<br />
周作人，周作人：“中国新文学源流”，第 71 页。<br />
<br />
1932 年 周作人，周作人： 1932 年的伦八国文，收录：《看云记》，第148页。<br />
<br />
资料来源： NEAAS 第 10/09/1999 次年会 (耶鲁大学）。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 00:52, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
周作人：《中国新文学的源流》第71页。<br />
<br />
周作人 1932：1932年作《论八股文》，选自《看云集》第148页<br />
<br />
资料来源：1999年9月10日纽黑文市耶鲁大学NEAAS年会--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 09:23, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
周作人：《中国新文学潮流》，第71页<br />
周作人，1932：《论八股文》，收录：《看云记》，第148页<br />
资料来源：1999年9月10日NEAAS年会--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 09:29, 16 October 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Appendix: Translation<br />
<br />
Lu Xun (1881 - 1936)''' <br />
<br />
Lu Xun fought with his zawen for intellectual freedom, but in 1930 joined the leftist movement when he founded the "League of Leftist Writers". Despite this, his posthumous glorification as a communist writer by Mao Zedong goes too far.<br />
附录：翻译<br />
鲁迅（1881-1936）<br />
鲁迅用他的杂文为知识自由而斗争，但是在1930年他加入了左派运动并成立“左派作家联盟”。尽管如此，毛泽东在他死后称赞他为共产主义作家有些过头了。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 06:58, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
“附录：翻译<br />
鲁迅（1881-1936）”<br />
鲁迅以杂文为知识自由而斗争，但是，他却在1930年参与左翼运动并成立“左派作家联盟”。尽管如此，在他死后，毛泽东仍称他为共产主义作家，这一赞誉就有些过头了。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 13:02, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
<br />
Let us put an end to the far dispersed translation of ''zawen'' as "critical essays" by reconstructing Lu Xuns own understanding of the term ''zawen'', which he invented from ''zagan'': He includes also dialogues, fables and essay poems in it. Therefore a more adequate term for ''zawen'' is "miscellaneous essays".<br />
<br />
让我们通过重构鲁迅自己对“杂文”一词的理解，来结束“杂文”作为“评论性散文“的散乱翻译。“杂文”一词出自鲁迅的《杂感》，其中还包括对话、寓言和散文诗。因此，用”杂文“一词来称呼较为合适。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 13:06, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
让我们通过重构鲁迅对“杂文”这一术语的理解，来结束“杂文”作为“批判性散文”的胡乱翻译。“杂文”一词出自鲁迅的《杂感》:鲁迅也把对话、寓言和散文诗包括到杂文的范畴里。因此，用“混杂的散文”来称呼“杂文”这一术语更合适。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 14:02, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
让我们通过重构鲁迅自身对“杂文”这一名词的理解，来结束“杂文”作为“批评性散文”的散乱翻译。“杂文”一词出于鲁迅的《杂感》，鲁迅（同时）也把对话、寓言和散文诗一起包括到了此范畴里。因此，用“混杂文章”这一术语来称呼“杂文”更为适宜。<br />
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:00, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
<br />
Two observations in his late essays shall be mentioned here: Lu Xun mainly consciously uses the rhetoric mean of digression. His essays of his last two years are more conciliatory again: He uses an unctious style (Leung 1981 even called it metrical) like before in his essay on Liu Zhenhe. In his last essay collection, which might be his best one (here I agree with Pollard 1985 81, Lee 1987 125), Lu Xun appears detached. Here he writes in a ''xiaopin wen'' style (”Flying over”, Lu Xun 1939) - similar to that one of his younger brother, develops understanding and sympathy for an actress being driven to suicide (“On the saying ‘Rumors are frightening’ ”, Lu Xun 1937a), even Confucius finds mercy in front of the graceful eyes of the old Lu Xun (”Confucius in contemporary China”, Lu Xun 1937b), who has been aware of his coming death, since he made his will a few months before his death ("''Death''", Lu Xun 1957 VI:496, trans. quoted from Yang/Yang 1961 4:291-296).<br />
<br />
==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
<br />
I seem to have thought out quite a few items for my family, among which were:<br />
<br />
1.Don't accept a cent from anyone for the funeral. This does not apply to old friends.<br />
<br />
2.Get the whole thing over quickly, have me buried and be done with it.<br />
<br />
3.Do nothing in the way of commemoration.<br />
<br />
4.Forget me and look after your own affairs if you don't, you are just too silly.<br />
<br />
5.When the child grows up, if he has no gifts let him take some small job to make a living. On no account let him become a writer or artist in name alone.<br />
<br />
6.Don't take other people's promises seriously.<br />
<br />
7.Never mix with people who injure others but who oppose revenge and advocate tolerance.<br />
<br />
我似乎已经为我家人考虑了很多问题，其中包括：<br />
<br />
1.不接受任何人的葬礼礼金。 这一点不适用于老朋友。<br />
<br />
2.迅速完成整个葬礼，把我埋了就完事了。<br />
<br />
3.不做任何纪念活动。<br />
<br />
4.把我忘了然后照顾好自己。如果不这样做，那就太傻了。<br />
<br />
5.孩子长大后，如果他没有任何天赋，就让他从事一些小工作来谋生。 绝对不要让他去做作家或艺术家。<br />
<br />
6，不要认真对待别人的诺言。<br />
<br />
7，切勿与伤害他人但反对报仇和提倡宽容的人混在一起。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 10:06, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
<br />
There were other items, too, but I have forgotten them. I remember also that during a fever I recalled that when a European is dying there is usually some sort of ceremony in which he asks pardon of others and pardons them. Now I have a great many enemies, and what should my answer. be if some modernized person asked me my views on this? After some thought I decided: Let them go on hating me. I shall not forgive a single one of them either.<br />
<br />
==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
<br />
No such ceremony took place, however, and I did not draw up a will. I simply lay there in silence, struck sometimes by a more pressing thought: If this Is dying, it isn't really painful. It may not be quite like this at the end, of course; but still, since this happens only once in a lifetime, I can take it.... Later, however, there came a change for the better. And now I am wondering whether this was really the state just before dying: a man really dying may not have Such ideas. What it will be like, though, I still don't know.<br />
然而，并没有举行那样一场仪式，我也没有起草遗嘱。我只是躺在那里，静默不语，一种更为压迫的想法不时地冲击着我：如果这就是将死之际，那确实也并非让人悲痛欲绝。当然，最后真正的死亡可能并不是如此，但一生也只经历一次死亡时刻，我也仍能这样想象。但是后来情况有所好转。现在我正思索着：一个真正垂死之人并不会有任何想法，这是不是就是死亡前的真实状况呢。尽管，死亡将会是怎样，我仍然搞不清楚。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 12:31, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
<br />
Regarding the influence of Lu Xuns essayistic work, there are four things to state: His essays were bestsellers during his lifetime. They were regarded as masterpieces for a whole generation of essayists. They were posthumously embraced by Mao Zedong, who called Lu Xun in succession of the discredited Confucius "wise man of the present" (Mao 1970 5:281), and who used his essays for propanda purpose. They outnumber by far the publications of other essayists until the 1990s, consequently, Lu Xun must be considered as the most important essayist of 20th century China.<br />
<br />
关于鲁迅文学作品的影响力，有四件事要说：他一生中所写的文章都十分畅销，都被认为是那一代文学家之中的著作。毛泽东推崇他死后的作品，并称鲁迅为继孔子之后的“当代智者”，也使用他的文章来进行宣传。直到20世纪90年代，他的文章在数量上仍远远超过其他作家。鲁迅被认为是中国20世纪最重要的作家。--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 03:57, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
关于鲁迅文学作品的影响力，这里提四点：他的文章在那个时代十分畅销；他的文章被认为是那整整一代文学家之中的典范；鲁迅去世后，毛泽东称其为继孔子之后的“当代智者”，对他的作品十分认可，并用于政治宣传；20世纪90年代以前，他的文章出版数量远远超过其他作家。基于上，鲁迅当之无愧为中国20世纪最重要的作家。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 11:57, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s strength lies in his ability to affect people effectively. A good example of his ability is the essay ”On ‘Fraternal Nations Are Shocked’ ”, in which he recounts recent well known political events and stirs people’s patriotism through rhetorical figures like sharpening and exaggeration, and through appeal to solidarity in front of a picture of horror drawn by himself. Since I found an acceptable translations already existing, we did not take the translation into this collection, but mention, where the reader may find these texts both in Chinese and English.<br />
<br />
鲁迅的力量在于他能够有效地影响人们。展现他能力的一个很好的例子是他写的“关于‘兄弟国家都震惊了’”这篇文章，在这里他叙述了最近众所周知的政治事件，并通过尖锐和夸张的修辞手法煽动人们的爱国主义，通过自己画的一幅恐怖的画而呼吁团结。由于我已经找到了一个可接受的译本，所以我们没有把它放进这个合集，而是提到读者在哪里可以找到这些中文和英文的文本。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 03:06, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
鲁迅的力量在于他能有力地影响人们。文章《“友邦惊诧”论》就体现了他的这一能力。他在这篇文章里讲述了当时广为人知的新近政治事件，并通过尖锐和夸张的修辞手法、通过在他画的一幅恐怖画前呼吁团结，来煽动人们的爱国主义。由于我已经找到了一个可行的译本，所以我们没有在这个合集里再放出译本，而只是提醒读者在哪里可以找到这些中文和英文的译本。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 07:21, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
<br />
Another Lu Xun, the philosophical thinker, appears in the second essay ”Commemorating to forget”. Lu Xun essays are the ones which are read most often until today. The fact that most of his essays are available in English translation already, shows his international acceptance as the greatest Chinese essayist of the first half of the 20th century.<br />
<br />
Lu Xun (1881 - 1936)<br />
<br />
Weile wangque de jinian 7./8.2.[1932]<br />
<br />
'''Commemorating to Forget'''<br />
<br />
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
<br />
I have long wanted to write something, to commemorate those young writers. This is merely out of the sorrow and indignation that has been afflicting me for the past two years. I wish, with my words of remembrance, I could shake off my grief and relax. To speak frankly, I would try to forget them.<br />
<br />
我一直想写点东西来纪念那些年轻的作家。这仅仅是出于过去两年来一直折磨我的悲伤和愤慨。我希望，通过我的回忆，我可以摆脱自己的悲伤然后放松自己。坦白地说，我会试着忘记它们的。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 13:59, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
我一直想着写点什么来纪念那些年轻的作家。这只是出于我过去两年的悲伤和愤慨。我希望，通过用文字来回忆，我可以摆脱悲伤，放松下来。坦白讲，我会尽力忘记他们。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 15:43, 15 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
This time two years ago, that is, the late night of February 7th or the early morning of 8th, 1931, was the time when our five young writers were murdered simultaneously. At that time, newspapers in Shanghai did not dare to report the murder. Or perhaps they did not want, or did not care, to report it. There were only some noncommittal words in ''Literature and Art News''. In its 11th issue (May 25th), Mr. Lin Mang wrote an article entitled ''Impressions on Bai Mang'', in which he said:<br />
<br />
两年前的现在，也就是1931年2月7号深夜或者8号早晨，我们的五位年轻作家同时遭到谋杀。当时，上海报社不敢报道谋杀消息。也可能是他们并不想报道，亦或是不屑于报道。只有《文学与艺术新闻》对其进行了一些含糊的评论。在此杂志第11期（5月25号）上，林莽写了一篇标题为《白盲印象》的文章，提到：--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 14:36, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
<br />
”He wrote many poems. He also translated several poems of the Hungarian poet Petöfi. Lu Xun, the editor of ''Torrents'', obtained his manuscripts and wrote to him to ask for a meeting. But he did not feel like meeting famous people. Therefore, Lu Xun came to find him in person, and made great efforts to encourage him on literary work. But he could not just sit in room writing, so he went off on his way again. Shortly, he was arrested once more…"<br />
<br />
“他做了很多诗，也翻译了匈牙利诗人裴多菲的几首诗。时任《奔流》的编辑鲁迅收到了他的投稿后写信请他见一面。但他不愿意去见名人，因此鲁迅只好亲自去找他，并极力鼓励其继续文学创作。但他始终不能只坐在房间里写作，因此他又走了，不久后，他再次被捕。……”--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 01:05, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
“他做了很多诗，也翻译了匈牙利诗人裴多菲的几首诗。时任《奔流》编辑的鲁迅收到了他的投稿后写信请他见一面。但他不愿意去见名人，因此鲁迅只好亲自去找他，并极力鼓励其继续文学创作。但他始终不能拘在房间里写作，因此他又回到老样子，不久后，他再次被捕。……”--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 02:54, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
<br />
Our relations described in this article are not in fact accurate. Bai Mang was not that proud. He did come to my home, but not because I asked to meet him. I was not proud either, to rashly write to summon an unacquainted contributor. The reason for our meet was very common. The article he contributed, ''Biography of Petöfi'', was a translation from German. I wrote to ask for the original, which was published in the front of a poetry anthology. It was not convenient to mail the anthology, so he delivered it himself. He looked in his twenties, with a decorous face and a swarthy complexion. I could not remember our talks, except that he said his last name was Xu, born in Xiangshan. I asked him why the lady who took care of his mail had such a strange name (I forget in what way it was strange). He said she liked the strange romantic name, and that he was not getting along well with her any more. This is the only episode I can remember.<br />
<br />
这篇文章所描述的我们的关系并非事实。白莽并没有那么傲慢，他曾经到过我的住所，但并不是因为我要求与他会面；我也没有那么高傲，对于一个素未相识的投稿者，会轻率的写信召集他来我的住所。我们见面的原因很简单，那时他投稿的《彼得斐传》是由德语译成的，我便写信求它的原文。而原文是刊登在诗集里的，邮寄不便，于是白莽亲自送来了。他看起来二十多岁，面容端正，肤色黝黑，与他的对话我不记得了，只想起他说自己姓徐，象山（浙江省宁波市象山县）人。我问他为何给他代收信的女士名字如此奇怪（我忘了是怎么个怪法），他说自己喜欢奇怪又浪漫的名字，还说当时与那位女士的关系不再亲密了。这是我唯一能回忆起的画面。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:05, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
<br />
At night, I roughly compared the translation with the original. In addition to several errors, there was a purposeful twist in his translation. It seemed that he did not like the word "nationalist poet", all of which he changed into "people's poet". The next day I got a letter from him, saying that he regretted to have met me, because he spoke a lot while I spoke very little and coldly, so that he felt suppressed. I promptly wrote back to explain that it was common for people not to talk much at their first meet. I also told him that he should not have distorted the original based on his own preferences. Since his book was left with me, I gave him two books in my own collection and asked him whether he could translate several more poems. He did make some translations and brought them to me. We talked a little more than the first time. The biography and the poems were published in volume 2 (5), the last book, of Torrents.<br />
<br />
晚上，我将译文和原文进行了粗略的比较。除了几个错误外，他有意将他的译文转换了一下。他似乎不喜欢“民族主义诗人”这个用词，所以他用“人民诗人”来替换。第二天我收到他的一封信，信中说到他后悔与我见面，理由是他说得太多，而我说得很少，表现得很冷淡，让他感到压抑。我立马给他回信解释说，人们在初次见面时不怎么说话是很常见的。我还告诉他，他不应该根据自己的喜好歪曲原著。因为他的书留给了我，我把自己收藏的两本书给了他，问他是否能再翻译几首诗。他的确做了一些翻译并把它们带给了我。这次我们比初次见面时多聊了一点。传记和诗歌发表在托雷茨的最后一本书的第二卷第五节。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 04:01, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
<br />
The third time we met was on a hot day. There was a knock at the door and I went to answer it. It was Bai Mang, in a thick gown, sweating. We could not help laughing together. Only then did he tell me that he was a revolutionist, just arrested and released. All of his clothes and books were taken away, including the two books I gave him. The gown he wore was borrowed from a friend. He must wear a gown, but did not have a thinner one, so he had to sweat like that. I think this may be the " arrested again" mentioned in Mr. Lin Mang's article.<br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
<br />
I was happy about his release and paid his contribution fee at once so that he could buy a thin gown. Meanwhile I lamented my books, which fell into the hands of the police; they were really pearls thrown into darkness. The two books, one essay and another poem collections, were quite ordinary. The German translator claimed that he made the collections. There was nothing as comprehensive as these even in Hungry. They are printed in ''Reclam's Universal-Bibliothek'', very widespread and barely worth a dollar in Germany. For me, however, they are very precious. Because 30 years ago when I loved Petöfi, I asked Wanshan Bookstore to buy them from Germany. At that time, I was very nervous when making the request, afraid that they would refuse me due to the low price. Later, I just brought them with me, but passions changed with experiences and I had no desire to translate them. This time I decided to give them to a young man who loved Petöfi's poems just as I had done, so that the books could find a good niche. Therefore, I seriously asked Rou Shi to take them to him. It is so bad that they fell into the hands of those ignorant cops.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
<br />
The reason why I never invite to meet contributors is not only out of modesty, but also to save the trouble. From my experiences I know that young people, especially literary young people, are mostly sensitive and self-esteemed. Misunderstandings could arise easily, so I would rather avoid meeting them, still less entrust them with personal matters. However, there was one person in Shanghai whom I not only could talk and laugh freely with, but also dare to entrust my personal matters to. That was Rou Shi, who delivered my books to Bai Mang.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
<br />
I cannot remember when and where I first met Rou Shi. He seemed to have said that he had attended my lectures in Peking. That should be eight or nine years ago. I also forget how we started to have dealings. He lived in Jingyunli, four or five gates away from my home. Somehow we started to have contact. Perhaps in our first meeting he said his last name was Zhao, first name, Pingfu [fourth tone]. He also talked about the overbearing bullies of his hometown. A local despotic gentry ordered him to stop using his name because it would be a good name for that gentry's son. Therefore, I suspect that his original name was Pingfu [second tone], meaning steady and blissful, which would be to the liking of that gentry, who may not be so interested in the word "fu" [fourth tone]. His hometown was Ninghai, Taizhou, which was revealed by his hard-boned spirit of Taizhou. He was also a little pedantic, which could sometimes suddenly remind me of a similar famous writer, Fang Xiaoru.<br />
<br />
我记不得我第一次见到石柔是在何时何地了。他似乎说他参加了我在北京的演讲。那应该是八九年前。我也忘记了我们是如何开始交往的。他住在离我家四五公里的景云里。我们不知何故开始联系。也许在我们第一次会议上，他说他姓赵，叫平富。他也谈到了家乡的令人难以忍受的霸凌行为。一个当地专制的士绅命令他停止使用他的名字，因为那对于他儿子来说是个好名字。因此，我猜测他原来的名字是平福，意思是稳定而幸福，这可能是那个士绅喜欢的，他可能对“富”这个字不那么感兴趣。他的家乡是台州宁海，这从他顽强的台州精神中可以看出来。他还是个书呆子，有时会突然令我想起一个类似的著名作家，方孝孺。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 14:02, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
我记不得我第一次见到石柔是在何时何地了。他似乎说他参加了我在北京的演讲。那应该是八九年前。我也忘记了我们是怎么开始有了交集。他住在离我家四五公里的景云里。不知怎么地，我们开始联系。也许在我们第一次会议上，他说他姓赵，叫平富。他也谈到了家乡的令人难以忍受的霸凌行为。当地一个的霸道乡绅在给儿子取名字的时候看上了他的名字，就迫使他改了名字。因此，我猜测他的原名应该是是平福，意思是稳定而幸福，这可能是那个乡绅喜欢的，他可能对“富”这个字不那么感兴趣。他的家乡是台州宁海，这从他倔强的台州性子中可以看出来。他有点像个书呆子的样子有时会让我猛然想起一个跟他有相似之处的著名作家，方孝孺。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 15:32, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
<br />
He hid at home, writing and translating. We had contacts for some time and became quite agreeable. Then we established Zhaohua Publishing House with several other congenial young people. The aim was to introduce the literature of east and north Europe and foreign woodblock painting, because we all considered it necessary to foster powerful, plain literature and arts. Following this theme, we proceeded to print ''Zhaohua Bimonthly'', ''Modern World Short Story Anthology'', ''Art and Literary Zhaohua''. Only one of the works, ''Selected Works on Luguhonger'', was printed to attack the "artist" of Shanghai, that was, a paper tiger as Ye Lingfeng.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
<br />
Rou Shi, however, did not have any money. He borrowed over 200 yuan. In addition to buying paper, he carried on most editing and chores such as contacting Printing Bureau, drafting and proofreading. But he was often not satisfied with his work, knitting his brows when talking about it. His old works had some flavor of pessimism, but in fact he believed that humans are basically good. When I sometimes said how humans can cheat others, betray friends, suck blood, he would, his forehead glistening, widen his near-sighted eyes and protested, "Is it true? Are they really so bad to do it?…"<br />
<br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
<br />
Unfortunately, Zhaohua Publishing House went bankrupt shortly. I do not want to mention the reasons. In sum, Rou Shi's idealist head bumped into the wall. Aside from wasted energy, he had to borrow 100 yuan to pay for paper costs. Later, he had less doubt on my assertion of "human hearts are dangerous." Yet he sometimes would sigh, "Is it really true?…" However, he still believed that humans are basically good.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
<br />
To get some money back, he sent his share of the books from Zhaohua Publishing House to Mingri Bookstore and Guanghua Bookstore. Meanwhile, he did his utmost to do translations in order to pay back the loans. Hence came the works sold to Commercial Publishing House, ''Short Story Collection of Denmark'' and Gorky's ''The Work of the Artamonovs''. I guess that these translations were burned by the cops last year.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
<br />
His pedantry gradually changed a little. Finally he dared to walk along with his female town folks or friends, but the distance between them would be at least three or four feet. This was not good at all. Whenever I met him on the street and saw a young pretty woman three or four feet from him, I would suspect it was his friend. But when he walked together with me, he would be very close, virtually holding me by the arm, for fear that I be killed by a bus or trolley. I would also worry about his near-sightedness while he was taking care of me. Thus, both of us had to worry all the way. Therefore, if I could, I would avoid going out together with him. Seeing him exhausting made me exhausted too.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
<br />
No matter from old morality, or new morality, he would select and carry on whatever may harm himself to benefit others.<br />
<br />
At last, he decided to change. Once he clearly told me that he should change the content and style of future works. I said it might be difficult. For example, was it possible for a man accustomed to using knives to switch to using sticks? He answered plainly: I can learn to do it!<br />
<br />
无论是从旧道德观念还是新道德观念看，他总是选择做那些损己利人的事。<br />
最终，他决定做出改变。一次，他明确地告诉我，他应该改变自己将来工作的内容和工作方式。我说那可能会很困难。比如，对一个习惯了用刀的人，你让他换成用棍子，这有可能吗？他直截了当的说，我可以学！--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 13:58, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
无论是从旧道德观念还是新道德观念看，他总是选择做那些损己利人的事。<br />
最终，他决定做出改变。<br />
Once he clearly told me that he should change the content and style of future works.有一次，他明确地告诉我他要改变自己作品的内容和风格。<br />
我说那可能会很困难。比如，对一个习惯了用刀的人，你让他换成用棍子，这有可能吗？他直截了当的说，我可以学！--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 03:20, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
无论是旧道德还是新道德,他总是选择做那些损己利人的事。<br />
最终，他决定做出改变。一次，他明确地告诉我，在以后的作品里他要改变内容和风格。我说那可能会很困难。比如，对一个习惯了用刀的人，你让他换成用棍子，这有可能吗？他直截了当的说，我可以学！--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 03:11, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
<br />
He was not saying empty words; he truly started to learn. He brought a friend to visit me, Ms. Feng Jian. We --[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:29, 16 October 2020 (UTC)had some talks, but I was still unfamiliar with her. I suspected that she was a little romantic, too eager to gain success. I also suspected that Rou Shi's recent plan to write big novels was out of her initiative. But I also suspect myself: perhaps Rou Shi's previous determined answer revealed my scar of laziness, so I unconsciously work off my anger on her. In fact, I was no better than the sensitive and self-esteemed literary youth whom I was afraid to meet.<br />
<br />
She was weak in constitution, and not pretty.<br />
<br />
他没有说假话，他真的开始学习了。他带了一个朋友来看望我，她是冯剑女士，我们交谈了几句，但我仍然对她感到很陌生。我怀疑她有一些富于幻想、急于求成；我也怀疑柔石最近写小说的计划超出她的预期；但是我也怀疑我自己：或许柔石之前肯定的回答显得我很懒惰，所以我下意识地消除了自己对她的怒火。事实上，我和那些我害怕遇到的文学青年一样敏感、一样自大。<br />
<br />
她体质弱，其貌不扬。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 15:11, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
柔石说的不是空话，他真的开始学习了。他还带了一个朋友来拜访我，她便是冯铿女士，我们交谈了几句，但我还是与她不交心。我怀疑她有点富于幻想、急于求成；我也怀疑柔石最近计划写长篇巨作的想法是出于她的主张；但是我也怀疑我自己：或许柔石之前坚定的回答揭露了我懒惰的伤疤，所以我不自觉地迁怒于那位女士身上。事实上，我和那些我害怕遇到的文学青年一样敏感、一样自大。<br />
<br />
她体质弱，其貌不扬。<br />
--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 01:29, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
<br />
Not until the establishment of the Leftist Alliance did I realize that the Bai Mang, whom I had already known, was the Yin Fu who wrote poems for ''Pioneers''. Once in a conference I brought a book to give him. It was a German translation of a China travels written by an American journalist. I had intended nothing but for him to practice his German with this book. However, he did not come. So I had to ask Rou Shi to deliver it again to him.<br />
<br />
Before long, they were arrested together. My book was seized and fell into the hands of the idiot pigs again.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
Mingri Bookstore planned to publish a magazine and invited Rou Shi to be an editor. He accepted it. The bookstore also wanted to print my translation, and dispatched him to inquire about royalty. I gave him a copy of the contract that I had made with Beixin Bookstore. He stuck it into his pocket and hurried away. It was the night of January 16, 1931. Who would expect this to be our last meet, our parting forever!<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
<br />
The second day, he was arrested in a meeting, with my printing contract in his pocket. It was said that the police was searching me. The contract was very clear, but I did not want to explain in those unclear places. I remember there was an eminent monk in ''Biography of Yue'', who "nirvanaed" when the searching guys just arrived at the gate of his monastery. The maxim he left behind, "?? came from the east, while I go to the west," was the only good approach for a slave to escape from misery, since it would be hard to have a "swordsman" to help him. I was not an eminent monk, without the ability to nirvana but having the desire to live, so I escaped.<br />
<br />
第二天，他在会议上被逮捕，口袋里装着我的打印合约。据说，警察正在搜寻我。 这合约非常清晰，但我不想在不清不楚的地方做解释。我记得在《岳的自传》中有位高僧，当搜查的人就在寺院门口时，他也逃走了。 “？？从东边来，那我要去西边。”这句他所留下的格言，对一个奴隶来说，是摆脱痛苦唯一可行的方法，因为很难会有个“剑客”去帮助他。我并不是一位高僧，没有涅槃重生的能力，但有求生的渴望，所以我逃走了。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 15:56, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
第二天，他在开会时被逮捕了，口袋里还有我的打印合同。据说警察正在搜捕我。合同写得很清楚，但是我不想在那不明不白的地方解释。我记得在《岳传》中有一位高僧，搜查人员刚到寺院门口，他就逃离了。他留了一句格言:““你们从东边来，那我去西边”于奴隶而言，这是逃脱苦难的唯一好办法，因为很难有一个“剑客”会来帮助他。我不是高僧，没有涅槃重生的能力，但有求生的欲望，所以我逃了出来。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 05:51, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
<br />
That night, I burned my friends' old letters and fled to an inn with my wife and child. After a few days, rumors came that I was arrested, or killed. There was, however, very little news about Rou Shi. Some said he was brought by the cops to Mingri Bookstore and asked whether he was an editor; others said he was brought to Beixin Bookstore to confirm his identity. He was handcuffed, which indicated the severity of the case. But nobody knew what a case it was.<br />
<br />
When he was in jail, I saw two of his letters addressed to his town folks. The first one was as follows:<br />
<br />
<br />
当天晚上，我烧掉了朋友之前给我寄的一些信件，然后和妻子孩子逃到了一家旅馆。 几天后，流言四起，说我已经被逮捕或是被杀害了。 然而，却没有几条石柔的消息。 有人说他被警察带到了明日书店，问他是不是一名编辑；还有人说他被带到了北新书店去验证身份。警察给他带上了手铐，这足以说明事情的严重性。 但是没有一个人知道这件事是什么。<br />
<br />
当他入狱的时候，我看到了他写给家乡人的两封信，信的内容如下：--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:27, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
当天晚上，我烧掉了朋友之前给我寄的一些信件，然后和妻子孩子逃到了一家旅馆。 几天后，流言四起，说我已经被逮捕或是被杀害了。 然而，却没有几条石柔的消息。 有人说他被警察带到了明日书店，问他是不是一名编辑；还有人说他被带到了北新书店去验证身份。警察给他带上了手铐，这足以说明事情的严重性。 但是没有一个人知道这件事是什么。<br />
<br />
当他入狱的时候，我看到了他写给家乡人的两封信，第一封信的内容如下：--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 14:02, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
<br />
"35 prisoners and I (including 7 females) arrived in Longhua yesterday. We were handcuffed last night, which breaks the customs that political offenders should not be handcuffed. This is a big case, and I'm afraid I won't be released very soon. Please take care of my bookstore business for me. The situation is OK; I can learn German from Yin Fu. Please tell this to Mr. Zhou and tell him not to worry. We're not tortured. For several times the police asked for Mr. Zhou's address, but how do I know it! Don't worry for me. Best regards, Zhao Shaoxiong 1/24."<br />
<br />
These are the words on the front.<br />
<br />
"Please bring me two or three iron bowls. If you're not allowed to see me, please let them be delivered to Zhao Shaoxiong."<br />
<br />
These are the words on the back.<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
<br />
His spirit did not change. He worked even harder on German; he was thinking of me, just like we walked together in the street. But there were some mistakes in his letter. Political offenders being handcuffed was not started from them. He had been thinking highly of the government, believing that civilization ended at, and cruelty started from, them. It was in fact wrong. Indeed, his second letter was a lot different, with very bitter words and the report that Ms. Feng's face had been swollen. It is a pity that I did not copy down the letter. Many rumors popped up, saying that he could be ransomed, or he had been sent to Nanking. Nothing was confirmed, while there were more and more letters to inquire about me. My mother fell into illness in Peking due to anxiety. I had to reply to those letters to clear my situation. This lasted for about 20 days.<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
<br />
It turned colder and colder. I wonder whether Rou Shi had quilts in prison. We had them. Did he get the iron bowls?… Suddenly, some reliable news came that Rou Shi, together with 23 other people, had been killed in Longhua Police Station at he night of February 7th or the morning of the 8th. He was shot with 10 bullets.<br />
<br />
So that's how things stood!<br />
天气越来越冷了。我不知道柔石在监狱里面是不是有被褥。我们盖了被子。他拿到铁饭碗了吗？。。。。。。突然，一些可靠消息传来，柔石和其他23人于2月7号晚上或8号上午在龙华警察蜀被杀。身上被射杀10颗子弹。<br />
--[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 10:06, 16 October 2020 (UTC)Zhou Shiqing<br />
天气越来越冷了。我不知道柔石在监狱里面是不是有被褥。我们盖了被子。他拿到铁饭碗了吗？。。。。。。突然，传来一些可靠消息，2月7号晚上或8号上午在龙华警察蜀,柔石和其他23人被杀，柔石本人身中10颗子弹。<br />
实际情况就是这样。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 10:19, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
<br />
In a late night, I stood in the yard of an inn, junk surrounding me. People were all sleeping, including my wife and child. I, with a heavy heart, feel that I have lost very good friends, and China has lost very good youth. I turned silent out of sorrow and indignation, but my old habits arise from silence, and I compose the following words:<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
<br />
Accustomed to spending spring at night,<br />
<br />
I, with greying temples, flee with my wife and child.<br />
<br />
In dreams are my mother's tears,<br />
<br />
While the government flags switch on the city wall.<br />
<br />
习惯了在夜晚度过春天，<br />
我，灰色的庙堂旁，带着妻儿逃离。<br />
梦中萦绕着母亲的热泪，<br />
当政府的旗帜挂上城墙。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 13:46, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
Enduring the pain that my friends turn into ghosts,<br />
<br />
I indignantly compose poems, facing the forest of swords.<br />
<br />
But there is nowhere to write, and I had to lower my brows,<br />
<br />
The moonlight is shining on my black clothes.<br />
<br />
<br />
忍受着失去朋友的痛苦，<br />
<br />
我愤慨地写诗，面对剑林。<br />
<br />
却无处可写，无奈低头，<br />
<br />
月光正照在我的黑色衣服上。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 15:05, 15 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
<br />
But in China, there is nowhere to write; things are shackled tighter than a tin. I remember that Rou Shi went back to his hometown at the end of that year and lived for quite some time. His friends blamed him after he came back to Shanghai. He said to me with sadness and anger that his mother had been blind and wanted him to stay for a few more days. How could he leave right away? I understand the blind mother's affection to her son, and the son's attachment to his mother. When ''Beidou'' was initiated, I had wanted to write something about Rou Shi. But I could not, so I had to select a woodcut by Madam Käthe Kollwitz. It was entitled "Sacrifice," which depicted how a mother sadly offered her son. Only I know this was a commemoration to Rou Shi.<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
<br />
Among the other four writers murdered, Li Weisen was the one I had never met; Hu Yepin I only met once in Shanghai, and we had a little talk. A more familiar one was Bai Mang, also named Yin Fu, who had written to me and contributed to my magazine. But I cannot find his letters anywhere. Perhaps they were all burned on the night of the seventeenth, when I did not know that Bai Mang had also been arrested. ''The Petöfi Poetry Anthology'' is still with me. I looked through it and found nothing special except a four-line translation in pen beside a poem ''Wahlspruch'':<br />
<br />
在被谋杀的其他四位作家中，李伟森是我从谋面之人。我在上海只见过胡也频一面，我们聊了一会儿。还有一个比较熟悉的人叫白莽，也叫殷夫。他给我写过信，也给我的杂志投过稿。但是我到处都找不到他的信。大概在17号晚上都被烧毁了吧，当时我还不知晓白莽也被捕了。我拿着佩托菲诗集，浏览了一下，除了一首名为“ Wahlspruch”诗旁边的四行笔译之外，没发现什么特别之处。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 02:20, 16 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
<br />
"Life is precious, while love is even more valuable.<br />
<br />
But both I can give up, for the sake of freedom."<br />
<br />
On the second page was written "Xu Peigen", which I suspect to be his real name.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
<br />
This day two years ago, I was hiding in an inn while they were marching towards the execution ground. This day last year, I fled to the British Concession, while they had long been buried nowhere. This day this year, I am sitting in my old home, while everyone is sleeping, including my wife and child. Once again, with a heavy heart, I feel that I have lost very good friends, and China has lost very good youth. I turned silent out of sorrow and indignation, but my old habits arise from silence, and I compose the above words.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
<br />
It is hard to write in current China. When I read Xiang Ziqi's ''Remembering the Past'' in my youth, I was wondering why he only wrote a few lines, just beginning and yet ending immediately. Now I understand.<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
<br />
It is not that the young are writing commemoration for the old. During the past thirty years, I had witnessed many young people shed their blood, which has accumulated such that I cannot breathe under it. The only thing I can do is to use my pen to write a few lines. This is like digging a hole from the mud to sustain my last gasps. What kind of a world this is! The night is long, so is the way. I had better forget and be silent. I believe, however, even if it is not me, somebody will remember them and talk about them in the future….<br />
<br />
February 7th-8th</div>Hu Huifanghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201005_trans&diff=9986420201005 trans2020-10-11T07:23:29Z<p>Hu Huifang: /* Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧 */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids<br />
<br />
Challenges for Interpreting in the 21st Century <br />
<br />
Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University/China<br />
<br />
Abstract<br />
<br />
The world is growing in tandem with the Internet, freedom of travel and globalization. Inevitably translation and interpreting are in greater demand, especially online during the coronavirus pandemic. With the beginning of the 21st century, interpreting faces new technical and digital challenges requiring new methods of delivery. Technical developments in the course of digitization have been on the rise and are approaching real-time use simultaneous capability. The technology supporting the interpreter is becoming more and more effective, while an increasing number of systems, such as artificially intelligent programs, are competing with the human being. The interpreter must now be a technology organizer and adroitly adapt to technologically predefined interpreting situations, such as video conferences with augmented reality, tele-interpreting, etc.<br />
<br />
数字与科技辅助的现代口译<br />
<br />
21世纪口译面临的挑战<br />
<br />
马丁·沃斯勒（Wu Moting），湖南师范大学 中国<br />
<br />
世界的发展正与互联网、旅行自由化和全球化齐头并进，尤其是在新冠疫情期间，人们对线上笔译和口译的需求更大。在21世纪初，口译面临新科技的挑战，需要新的提供服务的技术手段。数字化进程下的技术发展一直在上升，并且逐渐实现实时同步的能力。口译员的使用的科技越发高效,随着科技系统数量不断增多，出现了大量与人类竞争的翻译系统，比如人工智能程序。因此，如今的口译员必须要知道如何使用科技，还要快速适应一些技术上预先设定的口译情况，比如增强现实的视频会议，电话口译等。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 09:30, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
数字与科技辅助的现代口译<br />
<br />
21世纪口译面临的挑战<br />
<br />
吴漠汀，湖南师范大学／中国<br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
世界发展与互联网、旅行自由以及全球化齐头并进时，必然需要大量笔译与口译，在新冠肺炎疫情期间的线上工作中更是如此。在21世纪初，口译迎来技术和数字上的新挑战，需要提供新颖的服务方式。在数字化进程中，技术水平不断提高，并且逐步具备实时同步功能。技术辅助会让译员工作更加高效，但同人类竞争的系统数量（如人工智能程序）却持续增加。因此，当下的口译员必须掌握并熟练运用技术，以便快速适应技术预设的口译场景，比如利用增强现实技术的视频会议、电话口译等。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 06:27, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
<br />
The movements of migrants within the EU and the influx of refugees from crisis areas outside of it render community interpreting especially of rare languages in unprecedented demand, often resulting in the unsavory use of non-professional and sub-standard interpreters. Existential problems for the entire profession become apparent. Due to networking via the Internet, unqualified interpreters pour onto the market from low-wage countries: with dumping prices and low-quality services, they discredit the profession of the professional interpreter. Meanwhile remuneration practices have been declining, with payment of interpreting services often being delayed or payment defaulted. All these lead to a devaluation of the profession of the interpreter while digital technology throws into doubt the need for the role of the human as interpreter or translator. <br />
<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
<br />
The positive side of technological advancement is that communication (including translation and interpretation) becomes digital and therefore can be enhanced with artificial intelligence. This enhancement takes interpreting and translation to a new quality level. Translation and interpretation theory needs to adapt to translation and interpretation in the age of artificial intelligence, the focus, which has moved with the functional approaches to the translator, now moves to the target text audience. The new way of interpreting is a human, but digital-technically determined hybrid form of human-machine interactive interpretation, with due respect for the human participation expressed in the form of professional remuneration.<br />
<br />
技术进步带来的积极影响是交流（包含笔译与口译）日益数字化，于是交流可以通过人工智能得以加强。这种加强将口译与笔译水平提升到新高度。因此，相关理论需要适应人工智能时代下的笔译与口译。在过去，理论的重心从功能方法上转移到译者，而现在转移到目的语受众。新的口译方式是有人类参与的，不过是一种混合形式，即由数字技术支撑的人机交互口译，同时，以专业薪资待遇对人类译员表示尊重。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 05:00, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
技术进步带来了积极的影响，人际交往（包含笔译与口译）日益数字化，因而可以借助人工智能得到进一步加强。人际交往增多，把口译与笔译水平提升到了新高度。笔译和口译理论需要适应人工智能时代的翻译水平。过去对译者的功能方法的关注现在要转移到目的语读者上。新的口译形式不单是通过人本身，而是由数字技术支配、以专业薪酬形式表示对人类参与行为尊重的人机交传混合体。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 12:02, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
<br />
Keywords<br />
<br />
interpreting; artificial intelligence; simultaneous interpreting; real-time support; interpreting technology; digitalisation; interpreting software<br />
<br />
1.Literature Review<br />
<br />
In 2006, Honegger notes in a survey that most prospective interpreters do not use software in the interpreting booth, but work with paper glossaries which they have created with MS Word or MS Excel. Fantinuoli (2011, 50) states five years later that most interpreters still manage their terminology traditionally with MS Word or MS Excel. In 2015 20- to 30-year-old interpreting students state in a survey by Gacek that "software solutions are not sufficiently known among prospective interpreters and therefore are not used" (Gacek 2015, 82). The purpose of the present study is therefore to draw attention to the functionality of software for interpreting booths.<br />
关键词：口译，人工智能，同声传译，实时支护，口译技巧，数字化，口译软件。<br />
1、文献综<br />
在2006年，霍尼格在一份调查中写道，大多数杰出的口译家在口译室中都不会适应翻译软件，而是使用他们用文档或者表格创造出来的词汇进行工作。在2015年，一些二三十岁的口译学徒在一份调查中说：“软件翻译在那些杰出的口译者当中流传不广，所以他们不太使用。”因此目前研究的目的就是吸引翻译工作室注意到翻译软件的功效。--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 15:25, 9 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
<br />
The conference interpreter Anja Rütten (2007) presents valuable information in her information-rich overview, Information and Knowledge Management in Conference Interpreting, and in her numerous blogs in 2013 and 2014 about experiences with hardware and software in conference interpreting. In this paper, also lists of software and technology from Drechsel's interpreting practice in 2005, 2013 are used. <br />
<br />
Standard works on the craft of interpreting (Pöchhacker 2004; Stoll 2009) also form the basis of the present study. Only their suggestions are taken up here and they ought to be reconsidered from the perspective of support by software and technology. In addition, current individual studies are evaluated, such as on distance interpreting (Kalina 2010) and explanations on the use of office programs (Fantinuoli 2011), on web corpora (Gurevych 2013), and on Qtrans (Scholz 2008; Gacek 2015). To compare it with the analogue age, the very early Braun 1999 study on video conferencing is used.<br />
会议口译员Anja Rutten（2007）在其信息丰富的概述《会议翻译中的信息与知识管理》中提供了十分珍贵的信息。同时，在她2013-2014年的博客中，也记录了非常多在会议口译中使用软硬件的经验。在这篇文章中，同样列举了Drechesel在2005和2013年的口译实践中使用过的软件和技术<br />
标准作品的翻译工艺（Pochhacker）同样奠定了现代研究的基础。这里只采纳他们的建议， 即应该从软件和技术支持的角度重新考虑。此外， 本研究还评估了目前的个人研究，例如远距离口译（Kalina 2010），办公程序使用解释（Fantinuoli 2011）,网络语料库（Gurevych 2013）以及文档快翻。为了将它与相类似时代相比较，我们用到了1999年早期Braun的视频会议研究。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:24, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
<br />
Since software and technology are developing rapidly, a study inevitably becomes obsolete quickly. To arrive, nevertheless, at more generally valid statements, the present study focuses on developments and functionality, explaining concrete software and hardware only by way of example, with the knowledge that products are often replaced by others and that only a few can last for a long period of time. In order to get an overview of software and hardware, the current master's thesis by Gacek (2015) is used. However, it only refers to a small selection of products and does not come to generally valid conclusions. This study also addresses the polarizing discussion on how much technology and software the interpreter needs. While Spitzer provocatively speaks of the "digital dementia" of interpreters in 2012, Conway (2014) has taken a more balanced approach to the question of the cost-benefit ratio of the computer in the interpreting booth.<br />
<br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
<br />
This paper will also introduce special aspects, like problems posed by trendy community interpreting (Andres 2009) and cheap competition for interpreters, as well as placing networked communication and work on texts in the context of the development of swarm intelligence and a collective consciousness.<br />
Finally, a new type of interpreting is called for, which expects at least technical competence from the interpreter, and at most a hybrid human-machine working method. In this paper, the thesis, already passionately advocated historically, that the computer or artificial intelligence could never replace the human being in certain functions such as language (Austermühl 2004), is no longer categorically excluded.<br />
本文还会提及一些比较特别的方面，如社区口译流行带来的问题（安德烈斯 2009），口译员之间的廉价竞争以及在群体智能和集体意识发展背景下将网络通信和工作置于文本之上的问题。<br />
最后，需要一种新型的口译方式，它要求口译员至少具备技术能力，至多采取一种人机混合工作模式。在本文中，认为电脑或人工智能永远也不能取代人（Austermühl 2004）的论点已不再被绝对排除在外了，而这一点在先前早就得到了强烈的倡导。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 02:43, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
本文还将介绍一些特殊的方面，如流行的社区口译（Andres 2009）和廉价的口译员竞争所带来的问题，以及将网络通信和文本工作置于群体智能和集体意识发展的背景下所带来的问题。<br />
最后，需要一种新的口译方式，它至少要求口译员具备一定的技术能力，至多是一种人机混合的工作方式。这篇论文曾热情地鼓吹，计算机或人工智能永远不能取代人类在某些功能，如语言（奥斯特姆ühl 2004），这一观点将不再被绝对排除。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 07:42, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
<br />
2.Simultaneous Technology/Technology Working in Real Time<br />
<br />
While in the past technology did not allow simultaneous work support, i.e. it was not possible for translators to work with simultaneous or consecutive interpreting, this disadvantage seems to have been largely overcome technically at the beginning of the 21st century, although there are still too few apps that make use of these new possibilities.<br />
<br />
Arguments against the positive effects of advanced technology include references to over-coding, the abundance of information, etc. These phenomena appear to be a hindrance, especially in connection with the interpreting profession, which requires the highest level of concentration.<br />
2.同步技术/实时工作技术 <br />
虽然过去的技术不支持同步工作，即翻译机器不可能做得了同声传译或交替传译的工作，但这一技术上的缺点似乎在很大程度上已于21世纪初得到了克服，虽然运用这些新技术的软件仍在少数。<br />
反对先进技术积极影响的论据包括过度编码、信息过丰等。这些现象似乎成了一种障碍，尤其是在与口译相关的、要求精力高度集中的职业中。--Chen Sha (talk) 22:10, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
<br />
Spitzer (2012) for example, poses the question of whether computer work causes a mental deterioration of society. Rütten (2014a), on the other hand, refers to Spitzer, pointing out the advantages of the computer, arguing that it has voice output, retrievability through full-text search, spell checking, sorting, categorization and transmission functions. She suggests as a compromise: "Talking about research, challenging one's own memory and always asking about what is meant and the context - if we take this to heart, we have a good chance of making the computer a valuable training tool and an excellent assistant.”<br />
<br />
比如说，斯皮策（Spitzer）提出了计算机会否在社会上引起精神恶化这个问题。另一方面，卢腾（Rütten ）提到斯皮策的言论时，反而指出计算机有着诸多优点。卢腾称，计算机可输出声音、可通过全文本搜索进行信息检索、可检查拼写正确与否、可进行信息整理、同时还具有分类和传输功能。她建议人们用一种折中的眼光来看待计算机。人们常谈论研究、挑战自身的记忆力、总询问事物的含义和语境。如果我们用心感受那些方面，我们还是有绝佳的机会让计算机成为益处多多的训练工具和优秀的人类助手。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 05:14, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
例如，斯皮策（Spitzer）提问：计算机工作是否会引起社会的智力退化？另一方面，卢腾（Rütten）谈及斯皮策时，指出计算机的优势,认为它具备语音输出，可通过全文搜索进行信息检索，拼写检查，排序整理，分类和传输功能。她折衷建议：“如果我们谈谈研究，挑战下自身记忆力，且经常问问看这什么意思，上下文是什么—把这些事放心上，我们还是很有可能让计算机成为一款有益的训练工具，成为优秀的人类助手。”--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 05:17, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
<br />
2.1 Technology to Support the Interpreter<br />
<br />
2.1.1 Preparation<br />
<br />
Even if a consecutive interpreter is standing next to the speaker, armed with a stenographer's notepad and pencil, and interprets him or her in an apparently analogous manner, even he or she cannot do without technology these days. <br />
<br />
Even during the preparation stage, his duty of care requires him to take into account the accessible sources, some of which are electronic.<br />
<br />
Even more technical possibilities are offered if the interpreter asked to use his own initiative receives speech manuscripts beforehand. These can be scanned, transcribed and prepared, for example by automatic color coding of verbs and realities, which Stoll (2009, 84f.) also recommends for analogue preparation, as it improves anticipation and simplifies syntactic planning.<br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
<br />
In addition to the concrete preparation of the text to be interpreted, more general preparation can also be supported technically.<br />
<br />
Drechsel (2005, 16f.) lists, for "preparation for the conference topic and the creation of glossaries, electronic tools such as search engines, web catalogues, topic portals, scientific websites, company or customer websites, library catalogues, online libraries, specialised services for e-publications, online magazines, newsgroups and others are used.”<br />
<br />
Online comparison with existing acronyms/abbreviations (Stoll 2009, 85) is also helpful.<br />
<br />
<br />
除了准备好口译稿以外，常规上还需要更多技术上的支持。<br />
<br />
德雷克塞尔（Drechsel）（2005, 16f.）列举到，筹备会议主题，创建词汇表可以用到这些电子工具，如搜索引擎，网页目录，主题访问入口，科技网，商贸网，图书目录，线上图书馆，以及为电子出版物，在线杂志和新闻组等专门设置的服务。<br />
<br />
此外，和现有的缩略词进行在线对比同样有帮助。（Stoll 2009,85）--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 01:44, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
除了对所要解读的文本进行具体的准备外，更多的一般性准备也可以在技术上得到支持。德雷克塞尔Drechsel(2005，16f.)列举到 ：“准备会议主题和建立词汇表时可使用的电子工具。如搜索引擎、网页目录、主题门户、科学网站、公司或客户网站、图书馆目录、在线图书馆、以及电子出版物的专业服务、在线杂志、新闻组等。"除此之外，与现有的缩略语/缩写进行在线比较(Stoll 2009, 85)也很有帮助。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 02:38, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
<br />
Of course, ad hoc knowledge acquisition (Gile 2009) prior to the conference also counts as preparation, such as requesting speech manuscripts and presentations, often in file form. Preparation does not only take place in the weeks before the assignment ("advance preparation", Gile 2009), but also on site a few minutes before the assignments ("last minute preparation", Gile 2009) and during the interpreting breaks ("in-conference preparation", Gile 2009). Stoll categorizes the areas of interpreting preparation as "general technical", "terminological" and "interpreting strategy" (Stoll 2009, 86).<br />
<br />
当然，会议之前特别知识的获取（Gile 2009）也可以作为准备工作，例如要求演讲稿和演示文件,通常以文件的形式。口译员不仅需要在会议前几周做准备（“提前准备”，Gile 2009），而且在会议前几分钟（“最后一刻的准备”，Gile 2009）和口译休息期间（“会议中的准备”，Gile 2009）也需要做准备。 斯托尔(Stoll)将口译准备工作分为“通用技能”“专业知识”和“口译策略”三个方面（Stoll 2009，86）。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 16:22, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
<br />
Here, search engines or electronic dictionaries are often faster than paper dictionaries. Moreover, if, for example, the conference program/list of speakers is updated on a website, the interpreter can adjust his or her planning by accessing the website without further consultation with the client.<br />
<br />
In principle, all technical aids should meet the requirements of being user-friendly, having a fast or real-time response time and being manageable.<br />
<br />
<br />
在当前的情况下，通过搜索引擎或者电子词典查询信息往往比纸质词典要快。例如，如果会议安排又或是发言人名单在网站上更新了的话，口译人员可以通过访问网站来调整他或她的计划，而无需与客户进一步协商。<br />
<br />
原则上，所有技术辅助工具都应满足客户的需求、迅速或实时给予客户回答且易于客户管理。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 14:41, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在这种情况下，搜索引擎或电子词典通常比纸质词典更便捷。 此外，例如，如果网站更新了会议程序或者发言人列表，则口译员可以通过访问该网站来调整其计划，而无需与客户进一步协商。<br />
<br />
原则上，所有技术辅助工具都应便于用户使用，能快速或实时响应以及易于管理。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 16:37, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
<br />
2.1.2 Speech to Text in Real-time with Low Error Rate<br />
<br />
Every smartphone today has a mode or apps with which it records speech and converts it into text in real time with a now justifiably low number of errors. <br />
This simple function alone is valuable for the apparently analogue consecutive interpreter: He can put his shorthand pad in a folder in which, for example, the smartphone is inserted on the left and has written down the spoken text as text. <br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
<br />
While he works with his notes in interpreting notation on the right, as he used to do on the right, and can insert the pen into a holder on the folder if necessary, the transcription on the left enables him to find his way back into the context at a glance or, at most, with a wiping movement in the event of a pause in his hesitation (colloquially known as a 'hang up') or even a 'blackout'.<br />
<br />
Drechsel (2013) demonstrates the use of the following programs/websites on the Ipad (which helps him to concentrate on individual processes): Documents (manages documents and allows editing), Interplex, LookUp (terminology databases), Wikipedia, Google.<br />
<br />
当口译员做笔记时，正如他以往那样，把口译符号标注在右边，如果需要的话，他可以把笔插入文件夹上的笔盒中。瞥一眼左边的标注，他就能回到上下文中，或者，万一他犹豫，停了一下（俗称“挂机”），甚至“停电”了，最多抹去计算机中的信息就好了。<br />
<br />
德雷克赛尔（Drechsel）展示了如何在Ipad上使用以下程序/网站(这有助于他专注于单个进程)：Documents(管理文档并允许编辑)，Interplex，LookUp(术语数据库)，维基百科，谷歌。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 06:50, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
<br />
Tablets like the Ipad have the following advantages over the conventional laptop, notebook or netbook in the cubicle: They are lighter, smaller, handier, the battery lasts longer, typing is silent, you can use apps, your work is not interrupted by updates or pop-ups, you can take notes by hand and record things in the background for archiving or follow-up. Of course, due to the data protection regulation, the consent of the client must be obtained before recording.<br />
<br />
平板电脑，如苹果平板电脑，相比传统笔记本电脑、室内台式电脑有着很多优势：更轻巧便携，电池耗电慢，无声键盘，可以使用各种软件，而且不会受到更新或者弹出窗口的困扰，可以用手记笔记，可以将信息记录在后台以存档或日后查看。当然，根据数据保护规定，进行信息记录前，平板会先征取使用者的同意。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 06:20, 9 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
<br />
与传统笔记本电脑，纸质笔记本以及室内便捷式电脑相比，平板电脑，如苹果平板电脑（Ipad）更具备以下优势：他们更小巧轻便，电池续航能力强，静音键盘，软件流畅，工作时也不会被更新提示或弹出窗口打断，人们还可以用手记笔记，并在后台记录以便存档或后续跟进。当然，由于数据保护规定，在进行记录前必须征得客户同意。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 06:20, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
比起传统的笔记本电脑、台式电脑，平板电脑，如iPad，有以下优势：平板电脑更轻巧便携，电池续航更持久，打字声也更小。你可以使用各种软件，而且工作也不会被更新或弹窗所打断。你可以手写笔记，还可以在后台记录文件以便存档或日后查看。当然，根据数据保护规定，在记录之前必须征得客户的同意。--Chen Sha (talk) 22:15, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
The disadvantage of not being able to see several windows at the same time appears to be an advantage to Drechsel (2013) from his personal experience, because it allows him to concentrate better on one thing. However, he neither has all the Office applications with him nor his domestic terminology databases. A possible compromise could be a laptop with a touchscreen.<br />
<br />
从德雷克塞尔（(Drechsel） (2013)的个人经历来看，不能同时看到几个窗口的缺点似乎是一个优势，因为这使他能够更好地专注于一件事。然而，他既没有所有的Office应用程序，也没有国内术语数据库。可能的折衷方案是用一台带有触摸屏的笔记本电脑。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 15:24, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
从德雷塞尔(Drechsel)(2013)的个人经历来看，不能同时看见几个窗口同时也是一个优点，因为这样可以使更好地专注于一件事儿。然而，他既没有办公软件地应用，也没有国内术语语料库。唯一一点好的就是他有一台触屏笔记本电脑。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:52, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
从德雷克赛尔的个人经历来看，他认为不能同时看到几个窗口这个缺点似乎是个优点，因为这让他可以更专注于一件事上。然而，他既没有所有Office办公软件，也没有国内术语数据库。一种折衷方法就是拥有一台触屏笔记本电脑。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:43, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
2.1.3 From Text in Source Language to Text in Target Language<br />
<br />
Not yet very professional but available as prototypes are transcription systems that offer a translation in a second screen (e.g. translator.google.com, fanyi.baidu.com, for European languages DeepL.com) in addition to the real-time transcription of the source language presented in 1.1.1. On the smart device, for example, an upright screen can be divided into an upper transcription area and a lower translation area. <br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
Here, too, constant trial and error is required to improve the quality of the interpretation. It is also individually different how much different information the individual interpreter is able or used to process. If the flow of data is too large, there is a risk that concentration or the flow of production will be impaired.<br />
<br />
2.1.4 Keyword Cloud<br />
<br />
Helpful for the interpreter's work is the insertion of key terms and their translation into the target language in real time in the form of dynamic clouds, i.e. in real time and the longer a pause before the interpretation of the relevant term lasts.<br />
<br />
这里也是如此——提高口译质量需要不断进行试错。同样，每位译员本身能够，或者是说适于处理不同信息的数量也有差别。如果数据流太过庞大，就会存在译者专注度降低或是译文产出量减少的风险。<br />
<br />
2.1.4 关键词群<br />
<br />
输入关键词或者通过动态云即时将源语转化为目的语，这对译者的工作大有帮助。比如：在对相关术语进行口译之前及时停顿或停顿更长时间。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 02:22, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
这里也是如此,提高口译质量得不断尝试，不断纠正。每个口译员能够处理，或者习惯处理多少条不同的信息，也是因人而异的。如果数据过于庞大，那译者专注度或产出量就有下降的风险。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 07:16, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.1.4 关键词群<br />
输入关键词，通过动态云，实时转化成目的语，这对译者工作大有帮助。也就是说，这能帮助口译员实时转换，且在口译相关术语前，能停顿更长时间了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 07:14, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
In my opinion, the development of a corresponding app would be a desideratum. It would not be used intensively, but would be conceived as an additional screen for the corner of the eye, which is preferably perceived subconsciously and which one can turn to when one has a hesitation pause and is looking for stimulation. Here, terms that have been interpreted according to the proposal should turn green and others grey. It should be possible to turn back the displayed cloud by fractions of a second in the timeline by pointing and wiping. Of course, it should be capable of learning, i.e. it should be able to memorize frequent non-standard translations and offer them itself.<br />
<br />
In the post-processing phase, the program should offer a list of terms to be practised and has the non-standard translations approved manually by the interpreter.<br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
2.1.5 Effects of Technology<br />
<br />
The interpreting profession has changed due to hardware and software development, especially since the 1990s, which has essentially made interpreting easier and better. Whether a technology or an app makes it into the consecutive or simultaneous interpreting situation and even into the interpreting booth is subject to the highly subjective decision-making power of the individual interpreter, just like the interpreting notation, which varies from person to person. New techniques should only be tried out if they bring about a real improvement in use.<br />
<br />
2.1.5 科技的影响<br />
<br />
电脑软硬件的不断升级使得口译的专业程度也逐步提高，20世纪90年代以后，软硬件的发展让口译更加简便的同时，也提高了口译的准确性。一种技术或一款软件能否应用于交传、同传甚至是口译箱，极大程度上取决于译员本身，和口译符号一样，译员与译员之间各有不同。新的技术只有真正带来革新才能投入使用。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 01:49, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.1.5 科技的影响<br />
<br />
20世纪90年代以来，由于电脑软硬件的升级，口译的专业性也不断提高，这在降低了口译难度的同时，也提高了其准确性。正如译员之间口译符号各不相同，一种科技或一款软件能否应用于交传、同传甚至是口译箱，极大程度上取决于译员本身。新科技应该加以试验，以检测其是否能带来革新。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 02:07, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.1.5 科技带来的影响<br />
电脑软硬件设施的完善使口译员的职业发生了改变。特别是自20世纪90年代以来，译员的工作变得更加方便和成熟。正如不同译员间的口译笔记符号是有差别的一样，一项技术或软件能否被应用在交传或者同传的场合或者进入同传箱，取决于译员个人的主观决断。新的技术只有在实际使用中带来进步，它才有被尝试的价值。--[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 02:53, 8 October 2020 (UTC)Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿<br />
<br />
==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
It is not in anyone's interest to use the latest technology for its own sake if this means a loss of quality in the interpretation. Conversely, an interpreter should be open to accept new techniques and software if they can improve his work.<br />
<br />
2.1.5.1 The Presence of the Interpreter at the Place of Assignment<br />
<br />
The interpreter can influence physical and spatial matters by being present at the place of assignment:<br />
<br />
a) He/she can acquire vocabulary in advance in exchange with the client, compile vocabulary lists, practise them and also physically take them into the booth as paper printouts or on the screen.<br />
并不是所有人都会喜欢用这些最新的科技产品，如果它们使得口译的质量产生了折扣。相反，一个口译人员应该以包容的心态来接受这些新技术，如果它们可以帮助提高工作质量的话。<br />
<br />
2.1.5.1 在会议室的口译员<br />
<br />
当口译人员在会议室的时候可以对周围的事物产生一定的影响：<br />
<br />
a) 他/她可以提前与客户交流得到所需词汇，然后整理成表，不断联系，最后切实的打印出来带入口译间或显示在其屏幕上。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 08:12, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
如若使用最新的科技产品导致口译的质量大打折扣，出于个人利益，不是所有口译员都会此感兴趣。相反，如若它们可以帮助提高口译工作质量，口译员都会以包容的心态来接受这些新技术产品。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:47, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
b) He can request speech manuscripts in advance or speak directly to speakers on site and ask for a copy of their speech manuscripts.<br />
<br />
c) In case of early contact with the Interpreter Equipment Company, he may be able to influence positioning the interpreting booth so that he can see the speaker and the PowerPoint presentation. In the case of video conferences (e.g. by zoom, voom/Tencent Meeting, BigBlueButton, Skype, Tencent Classroom, MS Teams etc.), he can make sure that he can see all the speakers, including those who appear on screens, so that he can also recognize non-verbal signals and incorporate them into the interpretation. In principle, it is recommended that the interpreter is also shown on screens or in video conferences on a small side window in order to better understand the interpretation.<br />
<br />
b)他可以提前要取演讲稿或者直接跟在场的讲话者要一份他们演讲稿的复印版。<br />
<br />
c)如果译者早一些与翻译设备公司沟通交流的话，他也许能够选择口译室的位置，这样的话他就可以看见讲话人和幻灯片演示文件。如果是视屏会议（如zoom,腾讯会议,BigBlueButton,Skype,腾讯课堂，MSTeams等），他要确定他能够看见所有的讲话人，包括那些出现在屏幕上的，这样的话他就可以识别一些非语言信号，并且将其融入翻译中。原则上，为了让大家更好地理解翻译，译者也应该出现在镜头里面或者视频会议地小窗口里面。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:45, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
b)他可以提前请求得到手稿或者直接和在场发言人交流并申请一份演讲手稿的复印件。<br />
<br />
c) 如果有提前和口译设备公司沟通过的话，他就可以确定口译间的位置，这样他就可以看到发言人人和播放的幻灯片。在视频会议中（比如zoom，腾讯会议，BigBlueButton,Skype,腾讯课堂，MS Teams 等等）他就可以确保他能看见所有的发言人，包括那些在屏幕上的，这样他就可以收集到非口语的信息，将其整合到口译当中。 原则上，口译人员也应当出现在屏幕上或者在视频会议的一个侧边窗口，这样他就能更好的进行翻译工作。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 08:50, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
d) Before the event, the interpreter can be introduced to the interpreting equipment by the technician and test the audio system, determine and announce the channel-language assignment (experienced clients post these and instruct the staff who issues the receivers to inform the participants of the assignment), adjust the volume of the headphones and arrange the aids on the work table.<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
e) He/she can coordinate with his/her interpreting colleague regarding, e.g. glossaries, agenda, and exchange documents, then both can determine the approximate intervals between changes or simply notice during the assignment if the colleague is at a loss and give a helping hand with writing a missing term on a piece of paper. He/she can also nudge him/her to draw his/her attention to something. He/she can share glossaries and documents electronically, e.g. with the Interplex program simply with a swipe to the left. He/she can also take over the interpretation prematurely in case of exhaustion of his/her colleague.<br />
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
The number of distance interpreting assignments has already been increasing before the coronavirus pandemic, but with Corona, it exploded. Before Corona, a combination of telephone and web communication was used. With the coronavirus pandemic, Zoom was used more frequently and the Business version comes with a conference interpreter menu.<br />
<br />
AIIC, BDÜ, European institutions and other international organizations agreed (Kalina 2010) on the following conditions as minimal professional standards for distance interpreting:<br />
<br />
<br />
在冠状病毒大流行之前，远距离口译任务的数量已经增加，但随着疫情的爆发，这种现象激增。 在电晕之前，电话和网络通讯是结合使用的。 随着冠状病毒大流行，Zoom被更频繁地使用，而Business版本则带有会议解释器菜单。<br />
AIIC，BDÜ，欧洲机构和其他国际组织就以下条件达成了共识（Kalina，2010年），作为距离传译的最低专业标准：--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 07:15, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
- As a rule, a direct view of the room should be possible.<br />
<br />
- To avoid multilingualism, distance interpreting should only be used in exceptional cases when more than six active languages are spoken. But even then, as many booths as possible should be available in the room and the booths of the distance interpreters should not be too far away.<br />
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- High-definition monitors should be installed in front of and not in the booths.<br />
<br />
- The remote interpreter should be able to communicate directly with the client and the cameramen.<br />
<br />
- Teams should regularly consist of a minimum of three remote interpreters".<br />
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-通常，口译场所应该有良好视野。<br />
-为了避免使用多种语言，远距离口译只能在特殊情况下使用六种以上活动语言。但即使这样，房间里也应该有尽可能多的口译箱，远距离口译员的口译箱也不应该太远。<br />
-高清显示器应安装在口译箱前，而不是口译箱内。<br />
-远程翻译员应该能够直接与客户和摄像师通信。<br />
-翻译小组应定期由至少三名远程口译员组成”。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 01:42, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
-通常，口译场所应该有良好视野。<br />
-为了避免使用多种语言，只有在需要使用六种以上语言的特殊情况下才能采用远距离口译。但即便是在这样的情况下，房间里也应该有尽可能多的口译箱，而且口译箱离远距离口译员也不应该太远。<br />
-高清显示器应安装在口译箱前，而不是口译箱内。<br />
-远程翻译员应能直接与客户和摄像师交流。<br />
-通常情况下，翻译小组应由至少三名远程口译员组成”。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:27, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
<br />
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
2.1.5.2 Higher Validity through Explanation and Correction Functions<br />
<br />
In the university lecture hall, students critically accompany, verify and check for errors in the statements of the lecturer by simultaneously reading in Wikipedia, Baike Baidu, etc., and in search engines such as Google, and Baidu and, if necessary, manually validate or question the statements in accompanying chats (e.g. in the WhatsApp or WeChat group of the course). In a technically mediated interpreting situation, it is now possible to show alternative translation suggestions to participants. This is useful in reducing misunderstanding when a) politically/religiously/culturally sensitive terms appear, b) different groups of recipients may have different understanding of the same term, for instance, a socialist-authoritarian country and a liberal-democracy] state perceive political ideologies, systems and concepts through a spectrum of shades and hues. Recognition of the various nuances, the multifaceted implications and the degree of value-laden presumptions for each individual recipient serve to ease tension and foster communication.<br />
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
2.1.6 Special Features in the Booth<br />
<br />
同传箱的特别之处<br />
<br />
Computers or smart devices allow you to view presentations, documents and notes. However, reference by typing during the interpreting process is hardly possible due to time constraint. Therefore, text to speech and speech to text modules become more important.<br />
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电脑和手机使你能够观看展示，阅读文件和笔记，但是由于时间的限制，在口译的过程中通过打字来查阅资料几乎是不可能的，因此，文本到语言和语言到文本的模块就变得更加重要了。<br />
<br />
In exceptional situations, such as a 'blackout' or a hesitation break, the technique of stalling, i.e. inserting neutral expressions without new information together with deceleration of the target text production, could be useful strategies (Pöchhacker 2004, 132ff).<br />
<br />
在一些特殊的情况下，比如译员突然头脑空白或因为犹豫没有翻译，拖延可能会是一个有用的技巧，比如插入没有感情色彩的表达，它们没有新的信息，但是减缓了目的语产出的进程(Pöchhacker 2004, 132ff)。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 01:13, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
2.1.7 Software Examples<br />
<br />
When naming selected software, I follow the list and evaluation of Janovska (2011).<br />
<br />
To this day, interpreters continue to manage their terminology with Office programs such as Word or Excel (Fantinuoli 2011, 50). However, searching is cumbersome with Ctrl+F, and only the first entry found is displayed. Better suited are Interplex simple, LookUp (search without Enter key, which also has a separate module for Word, Janovska (2011, 80); it also has input fields such as customer, topic and project for additional information, terminology extraction, vocabulary trainer, semantics filter and sorting functions, Honegger (2006, 2) and Rütten (2014f), Terminus (a) good multilingual terminology management system and TermDB developed by conference interpreter Christian Vogeler but discontinued in 2012. But here, too, Fantinuoli (2011, 51) complains that the hit rate cannot be reduced by stop words and that the errors in the glossary cannot be corrected.<br />
2.1.7软件范例<br />
在命名选定的软件时，我遵循Janovska（2011）的列表和评估。<br />
时至今日，口译员仍在使用Word或Excel等办公程序管理他们的术语（Fantinuoli 2011，50）。但是，使用Ctrl+F进行搜索很麻烦，并且只显示找到的第一个条目。更适合的是Interplex Simple，Lookup （搜索时无需回车键，且也有单独的Word模块，Janovska（2011，80）；它还具有客户、主题和项目等输入字段，以获取更多信息，术语提取、词汇训练器、语义过滤器和排序功能，Honegger（2006，2）和Rütten（2014f），Terminus（一个）良好的多语言术语管理系统和由会议口译员Christian Vogeler开发的TermDB，但在2012年停产。但是在这里，Fantinuoli（2011，51）也抱怨说，使用停用词无法降低点击率，并且词汇表中的错误也无法得到纠正。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 02:17, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
Gacek (2015) presents numerous programs: Interpreters' Help (Gacek 2015, 55), a new browser-based web application from 2014 for all browser-based operating systems and for Boothmate for Mac OS X. It offers the possibility of synchronization offers with fast search function. The currently available beta version and the license for students are free of charge.<br />
<br />
Gacek (2015, 56) also introduces the Glossary Assistant program, which is still in development. It presents glossaries clearly on tablets, - the focus is not on mobile phones, - and makes them editable, see also Rütten (2014g) and Martin (2014). The program is currently only available for Android tablets and is free of charge.<br />
<br />
Gacek(2015)提出了许多程序，如“口译助手” (Gacek 2015, 55)。口译助手是新型的基于浏览器的网页应用，从2014年起，适用于所有基于浏览器的操作系统和Mac OS x的Boothmate，提供了同步翻译的可能性和快速搜索功能。目前可供学生使用的测试版和许可证都是免费的。Gacek(2015, 56)还介绍了仍在开发中的“词汇助理”。这一程序能将词汇表清楚地呈现在平板电脑上(重点不在手机上)，使它们可编辑，参见Rutten (2014g)和Martin(2014)。该程序目前只免费适用于安卓平板电脑。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 06:18, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
<br />
The Intragloss program, which Gacek (2015, 57) presents, was "developed by AIIC conference interpreter Dan Kenig and software developer Daniel Pohoryles". "The aim of the program is to facilitate the creation and use of even extensive multilingual glossaries". "Glossaries can be created directly within a preparation document or within a website.” Gacek values this as “very useful” and gives the example “making a list of problematic terms after receiving a last-minute document”. He also points to the fact that “Appropriate filter and sorting functions alphabetical, by website, by chronological order are also provided. A glossary created from a web page is automatically updated, which is an advantage for future. Like InterpretBank software, Intragloss also offers the possibility of automatic translation of terms, with the search for translation suggestions in large translation portals (IATE, GDT, Linguee, Termium, WordReference, etc.). Other useful functions include the clear comparison of different language versions of a document". A free trial version is available for Macintosh devices, see also Kenig (2014).<br />
Gacek（2015,57）提到的Intragloss程序是由“AIIC会议口译员Dan Kenig和软件开发者Daniel Pohoryles共同开发的”。“该程序旨在促进更广泛多语言术语表的创建与使用”。“术语表可在现有文件或网站上直接创建”。Gacek认为该功能非常有用，并举例指出“在接受最新文档后，该程序便可罗列出其中的问题术语”。他还指出，“该程序还支持适当的排序功能，可以按照字母，网站和时间顺序来进行排序。网页创建的术语表还能自动更新，这在未来是一大优势”。像InterpretBank软件一样，Intragloss也为自动翻译术语创造了可能，只要在大型翻译门户网站（例如IATE, GDT, Linguee, Termium, WordReference）搜索翻译建议即可。除此之外，另一有用的功能便是明确对比文件的不同语言版本。Macintosh设备提供了免费试用版，另请参见Kenig（2014）。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:20, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
Gacek (2015, 61-63) tests and describes in detail the InterpretBank program in version 3 2014, which aims to "provide interpreters with a sophisticated corpus-linguistic tool". "InterpretBank was developed by Claudio Fantinuoli, a graduate interpreter working in the Department of Translation, Linguistics and Cultural Studies at the Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz" (Gacek 2015, 62). "InterpretBank is a modular tool that provides interpreters with computer support in the field of knowledge and terminology management before, during and after a simultaneous interpreting assignment" (Gacek 2015, 63). Gacek lists the three modes offered by the program: "TermMode: Module for creating and managing glossaries; in addition, various functions can be used, such as automatic translation of terms and searching for definitions from the Internet. MemoryMode: Module for visual memorization of bilingual glossaries. ConferenceMode: Module for cabin-friendly reference during the interpretation." (Gacek 2015, 63).<br />
Gacek（2015,61-63）测试并详细地描绘了2014年第三版的InterpretBank程序，旨在“给口译员提供一个高级的语料库语言工具”。“该程序由约翰尼斯·古腾堡美因茨大学语言和文化研究所翻译部的一个研究生口译员克劳迪奥·范蒂努利开发”(Gacek 2015, 62)。“InterpretBank程序是一种模块化的工具，在同声传译中，为口译员在同声传译任务之前、期间和之后的知识和术语管理领域提供计算机支持”(Gacek 2015, 63) 。Gacek列举了该程序提供的三种模式：“术语模式：创建和管理词汇表的模块；此外，口译员可使用各种功能，如术语的自动翻译以及从互联上搜索定义。记忆模式：双语词汇表的视觉记忆模块。会议模式：在翻译过程中提供友好参考模块”(Gacek 2015, 63)。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:57, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
<br />
Rütten (2014) judges: "Very user-friendly, many nice functions; organised by glossaries (which, technically speaking, are subject areas tagged to each entry), has all the essential data categories (customer, project etc.) and a very nice flashcard-like memorising function. The quick-search function ignores accents. It is limited to five languages and you cannot add endless numbers of individual data fields.<br />
Intrepretbank is platform independent, works on Windows, Mac and Android (Gacek 2015, 63), costs 69 Euro, for students 39 Euro, university teachers (and their students) get a free demo license.<br />
<br />
The interpreters also use very simple websites and programs such as the search engine Google, the Internet encyclopaedia Wikipedia, dictionary programs such as Langenscheidt and systems for teamwork such as Google Docs. Typical concordance programs are WebSleuth, WebResearch, Black Widow, Site Ripper.<br />
<br />
Rütten (2014) 认为“--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 12:43, 10 October 2020 (UTC)非常友好的用户页面，很多不错的使用功能，附有单词表（严格说来，这是每个条目所标记的主题区域），具有所有必要的数据类别（如客户、项目等等），以及非常不错的类似于抽认卡的记忆功能。”快速搜索功能可以忽略口音的差异。Intrepretbank独立于平台，可在Windows，Mac和Android上运行（Gacek 2015，63），费用为69欧元，学生为39欧元，大学教师（及其学生）获得免费的登录许可证。翻译者也会使用一些非常简单的网站和程序例如例如搜索引擎Google，互联网百科全书Wikipedia，字典程序（例如Langenscheidt）和团队合作系统（例如Google Docs）。典型的团队协作软件有WebSleuth, WebResearch, Black Widow, Site Ripper。<br />
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--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 13:01, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Rütten（2014）判断：“非常人性化，功能很多；按术语表组织（从技术上来说，这是每个条目所标记的主题区域），具有所有必要的数据类别（客户，项目等），并且 漂亮的类似记忆卡的记忆功能。快速搜索功能会忽略重音符号。它仅限于五种语言并且您不能添加无数个单独的数据字段。Intrepretbank是平台无关的，可在Windows，Mac和Android上运行（Gacek 2015，63） ，费用为69欧元，学生为39欧元，大学教师（及其学生）将获得免费的演示许可证。<br />
口译员还使用非常简单的网站和程序，例如搜索引擎Google，互联网百科全书Wikipedia，字典程序（例如Langenscheidt）和团队合作系统（例如Google Docs）。 典型的一致性程序是WebSleuth，WebResearch，Black Widow，Site Ripper。<br />
<br />
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
<br />
Terminology extraction enables Easy Concordance, and Concordance. Text to speech can handle most operating systems (Microsoft Windows, Macintosh Operating System), there are also special programs for it like Ivona Reader (from 49 €) with the free MiniReader version, TextAloud (19.99 €). There are programs for fast reading (so-called "Improved Reading") like "A Faster Reader" (for Android smart devices) and programs for managing documents like the app "Documents" (for Apple iOS), in which among other things search functions can be used and a web browser can also be opened, or OneNote. The website www.wortwarte.de is supposed to present neologisms, but it is not up to date (visited September 11, 2020 by M.W.).<br />
<br />
术语摘录使简单词汇索引以及词汇索引成为可能。大多数操作系统都具备文语转换功能（如微软视窗、Macintosh 操作系统），还有一些特殊软件也会用到文语转换，例如带有免费微型阅读器的Ivona 阅读器（49欧元起）以及TextAloud （19.99欧元起）。像“A Faster Reader”(安卓手机系统)这样的用于快速阅读（所谓的“拔高阅读”）的软件，以及文献管理软件，例如“Documents”(苹果手机系统)，都具备搜索、网页浏览或者电子笔记功能。www.wortwarte.de是一个提供新词的网站，但它并不是一个最新的网站版本。（M.W.于9月11日访问过这个网站）--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 01:16, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
术语提取使简单词汇索引以及词汇索引成为可能。大多数操作系统都具备文字转语音的功能（如Microsoft Windows、Macintosh 操作系统），还有一些特殊软件也有此功能，例如带有免费微型阅读器的Ivona 阅读器（49欧元起）以及TextAloud （19.99欧元起）。像“A Faster Reader”(安卓手机系统)这样的用于快速阅读（所谓的“拔高阅读”）的软件，以及文献管理软件，例如“Documents”(苹果手机系统)，都具备搜索、网页浏览或者电子笔记功能。www.wortwarte.de是一个提供新词的网站，但目前还未更新。（M.W.于9月11日访问过这个网站）--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 01:16, 9 October 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 13:01, 10 October 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 13:01, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
<br />
The program BootCaT creates topic-specific web corpora: "The users first define the search terms. Then, web pages are collected, which contain the combination of these search terms", see Gurevych (2013, 546). At the end a text corpus is created, “with which one can quickly get an overview of the content and terminology, for example, of the keywords ‘energía solar’ in Spanish or ‘solar energy’ or ‘solar power’ in German”, see Rütten (2008).<br />
程序BootCat 创建特定主题的网络语料库：“用户要首先定义搜索词，然后收集包含这些搜索词的组合的网页“，详见Gurevych(2013,546).最后创建了一个语料库，“通过该语料库可以快速检索内容和术语，例如，关键词西班牙中的‘energía solar’或德语中的‘solar power’，详见Rütten (2008)。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:56, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
BootCaT程序创建了一个定题网络语料库：“用户首先明确搜索词，然后语料库会收集各种网页，其中包含所有这些搜索词”，参见Gurevych(2013,546)。最后，BootCat创建了一个文本语料库，“通过该语料库，人们可以迅速概览一些内容和术语，例如，可以搜索关键词，西班牙语中的‘energía solar’或德语中的‘solar energy’ or ‘solar power’”，见Rütten(2008)。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 10:00, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
程序BootCaT创建特定主题的网络语料库，“首先，用户要确定搜索词，然后包含这些搜索词的网页会被收集起来“，详见Gurevych(2013,546)。最后创建的是一个文本语料库，“通过该语料库可以快速检索内容和术语，例如，西班牙中的‘energía solar’或德语中的‘solar energy’和‘solar power’，详见Rütten (2008)。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 06:31, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
In addition, there are Termprofile, Endnotes, Qtrans-Search Bar. The latter is rated by Gacek (2015), 50 as "no pop-up windows, faulty queries or other inconveniences". Also Scholz (2008) presents Qtrans: "One of the great advantages of the tool, however, is its low threshold: the software can be used without training, is system-independent, requires no installation and is immediately ready for use.” Scholz also explains, that it is not based on its own search technology, but passes parameters to other services; “therefore it is easily adaptable and can integrate any internal and external data sources via HTTP” (Scholz 2008).<br />
此外，还有Termprofile, Endnotes, Qtrans等搜索栏，后者在2015年被Gacek评为“没有弹窗困扰、错误查询和其他不便之处”。在2008年Scholz这样介绍Qtrans搜索栏：“不过，该工具最大的优点之一就是它的门槛低，这款软件无需培训就能使用，独立于电脑系统，不需要安装就能使用。”Scholz还解释说它不是基于自己的搜索技术,而是将参数传递给其他服务，“因此，它兼容性很强，并可以通过HTTP集成任何内部和外部数据源。”--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 03:49, 9 October 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
此外，还有Termprofile, Endnotes, Qtrans这些搜索栏。Gacek (2015, 50)评价后者“无弹窗困扰、错误查询或者其他不便之处”。Scholz (2008)也指出，“Qtrans最大的优势之一是低门槛：无须受培训、即可使用这款软件，该软件独立于电脑系统，无需安装、随时可使用”。Scholz解释称Qtrans不是基于自身搜索技术，而是将其参数传给其他服务器；“因此，它易于应用，并且能通过HTTP集成任何内部和外部数据源”。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 12:28, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
For preparation and simultaneous use, there is the glossary software Interplex, which is capable of handling multitasking. It can import glossaries from Word or Excel and is available for Windows, iPhone and iPad. In 2020, it costs US$ 75 and there is a free demo version available. More features for conference interpreters are offered by Term LookUp, which cost US$99 in 2019. In 2020 the author of this paper only found the free version and IntelliWebSearch (free).<br />
<br />
在准备和同步使用用途上，有一个术语表软件-Interplex，它能同时处理多项任务。它还可以从Word 或Excle导入词汇，也适用于Windows，iPhone和iPad。2020年，它花费了75美元，获得了一个免费的试用版。Term LookUp（术语查找）为会议口译者们提供了更多的功能，在2019年这花费了99美元。2020年，网页负责人只发现了这个免费版和IntelliWebSearch（免费）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 01:07, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在预备翻译和同声翻译方面，术语软件Interplex能处理多项任务，该软件能从Word或者Excel导入术语，并且在Windows,Iphone和Ipad上都能使用。2020年，用户花费75美元才能使用该软件免费的试用版。2019年，会议口译员花费99美元就能在TermUp软件使用更多的功能。2020年，本篇文章的作者只能找到这个软件的免费版本和IntelliWebSearch软件（免费）。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 02:09, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
<br />
2.2 Simultaneous Interpretation with Video Conference Systems<br />
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The current video conferencing systems all allow simultaneous interpretation. For this purpose, every participant simply needs two devices and joins two meetings at the same time. For more languages, more meetings are offered. Common solutions are BigBlueButton (open source, free), Zoom, Skype for Business, Microsoft Teams, WebEx, Zoom, GoToMeeting and in China voom (alias WeMeet, Tencent Meeting), TencentClassroom, WeChat.<br />
目前的视频会议系统都允许同声传译。为此，每个参与者只需使用两个设备即可同时参加两个会议。要获得更多的语言，就要提供更多的会议。常见的解决方案有BigBlueButton（开源，免费）、Zoom、Skype for Business、Microsoft Team、WebEx、Zoom、GoToMeeting和in China voom（别名WeMeet，腾讯会议）、腾讯课堂、微信。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 07:27, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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2.2 视频会议系统同声传译<br />
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现在的视频会议系统都支持同声传译。所以，每个语言不同的与会者在参加会议时只要使用两个设备并同时加入两个会议即可。语言种类越多，一场会议需要的会议室就越多。常见的视频会议软件有：BigBlueButton（开源，免费）、Zoom、Skype for Business、Microsoft Team、WebEx、Zoom、GoToMeeting和in China voom（别名WeMeet，腾讯会议）、腾讯课堂、微信。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 10:48, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
<br />
Every participant should mute his/her microphone (except when speaking) and can listen to the original language on the first device and use one ear plug from the 2nd device to listen to the target language. If the original language does not need to be heard, the participant can also turn off the sound of the 1st device and plug in both ear plugs from the 2nd device or listen to the sound from the loudspeakers of the 2nd device. It is not recommended to have both devices on loudspeaker at the same time to avoid acoustic feedback. Sometimes, if the web speed is too slow, turning off the camera (not the loudspeaker) may help.<br />
每位参与者应将其麦克风静音（讲话时除外），并可在第一台设备上收听原始语言，并使用第二台设备的一个耳塞收听目标语言。如果不需要听到原始语言，参与者也可以关闭第一个设备的声音，并插入第二个设备的两个耳塞，或者从第二个设备的扬声器中收听声音。不建议两个设备同时安装在扬声器上，以避免声音反馈。有时，如果网速太慢，关掉相机（不是扬声器）可能会有帮助。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 08:22, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
每位参与者应将其麦克风静音（讲话时除外），并可在第一台设备上收听原始语言，并使用第二台设备的一个耳塞收听目标语言。如果不需要听到原始语言，参与者也可以关闭第一个设备，并插入第二个设备的两个耳塞，或者从第二个设备的扬声器中收听声音。不建议在扬声器上同时安装两个设备，以避免回声。有时，如果网速太慢，关掉相机（不是扬声器）可能会有帮助。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 01:17, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
<br />
With the business version of Zoom, you can simply choose the language channel by clicking on a flag. As the host of the meeting, one must activate the interpretation function and invite the respective interpreters.<br />
<br />
在使用Zoom的商业版时，你只需点击代表各国的旗帜图标来选择语言频道。作为会议的主持人，你必须先激活口译功能，并邀请相应的译者进会议。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:21, 7 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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使用Zoom商业版时，点击各国国旗图标就能选择不同的语言频道。作为会议的主持人，你先要打开口译功能，才能邀请对应的译者进入会议。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 01:52, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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对于商业版的Zoom，您只需单击一个标志即可选择语言频道。作为会议主持人，必须激活口译功能并邀请相应的口译译员。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 08:23, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在使用Zoom商业版软件时，你只需点击旗帜图标就能选择语言频道。作为会议主持人，你必须具备解释功能，并邀请相应的口译员与会。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 15:07, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
<br />
So far, conference interpreters often sat in the back of the conference in their boxes and where not visible to the audience. With video conferencing systems like Zoom it is now technically possible to blend in a video of the interpreter, which enhances understanding. However, so far the video conference communication situation still feels artificial, much different from the analogue situation, with only faces, voices and shared screens.<br />
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到目前为止，会议口译员往往坐在会场后方的同传翻译间里，在观众看不见的地方。现在，有了像Zoom这样的视频会议系统，从技术上讲，可以将口译者的视频加入到会议中，从而增强理解。然而，到目前为止，视频会议的交流情况仍感觉是人为且不自然的，仅具有面孔、声音和共享屏幕，与平时的线下会议情况大不相同。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 09:45, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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当前，会议翻译员通常坐在会场后方的同传箱中，与观众隔开。现在，有了像Zoom这样的视频会议平台，会议中可以插入口译员的视频，从而促进了相互理解。然而，目前，视频会议的交流情况仍然十分机械，毫不自然，仅仅能够看到面孔，听到声音，共享屏幕，与现场会议大相径庭。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 10:10, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
<br />
The next generation of digital communication and interpretation is the Virtual Reality Room (e.g. using the hardware Oculus Quest VR glass and the software Spatial), in which participants can upload a photo to create realistic avatars and then ‘look around’ to see the speaker and the interpreter. The participants can even ‘walk up to’ the speaker to sit in the first row or they can ‘place’ speaker and interpreter next to each other. <br />
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==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
<br />
2.3 Artificially Intelligent Programs as Competition for Interpreters<br />
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The debate about the extent to which technology can replace humans is as old as the first fantasies of artificial humans. It is still a polarizing discussion today and is conducted in a highly emotional manner. <br />
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Austermühl (2004) explains: "We believe that even the latest technology and up-to-date machines cannot replace the human brain when it comes to language transfer. Many times, the concepts are too complex to reduce them to the level of machine-readable language."<br />
<br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
<br />
2.3.1 Machine Translation vs. human translation<br />
<br />
For this section 2.3.1 I am indebted to the final exam paper of my student Jia Liwen 贺丽文 from my 2019/2020 Master course on Translation Studies at Hunan Normal University, Foreign Studies College. Although I come to slightly different conclusions, the paper sums up some discussions I had with the students in class and provides literature review and a field study worth quoting extensively here.<br />
<br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
<br />
Machine translation, commonly known as MT, can be defined as “the application of computers to the translation of texts from one natural language into another” (Huchins 1986, 1). The term “machine” is outdated, since we refer to computers today or to digital/eletronic instead of analogue translation, the term “machine translation” is mainly understood in contrast to human translation and therefore has potential to sustain.<br />
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机器翻译,通常称为机译（简称MT）,可以被定义为“运用计算机的应用软件将文本从一种语言翻译成另一种”(Huchins 1986, 1)。“机器”这个词已经过时了,如今我们用计算机或数字（电子）代替模拟翻译。而“机器翻译”一词主要是指与人工翻译的相对的翻译类别,因此具有持续的潜力。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:20, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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机器翻译，通常称为机译（简称MT），定义为“运用计算机的应用软件将文本从一种语言翻译成另一种”(Huchins 1986, 1)。“机器”这个词已经过时了，因为如今我们用的是计算机或数字（电子）这个说法。与模拟翻译不同的是，“机器翻译”一词主要是指与人工翻译相对的翻译类别，因此具有持续发展的潜力。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 03:13, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
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==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
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Machine translation pioneers were the United States, the Soviet Union and European countries. The initial stage can be dated 1947-1954: In 1946, the world’s first electronic computer was born. Soon, in the second year, 1947, an American scientist Warren Weaver and a British engineer A. D. Booth firstly proposed to translate languages by modern electronic computers. It was in 1954 that Georgetown University cooperated with International Machine Cooperation (IBM) on a project, which created the world’s first machine translation system breaking the restriction of word-to-word translation. It was recognized as a breakthrough of machine translation and demonstrated to the public and the scientific community the feasibility of machine translation for the first time. <br />
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==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
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From 1954 to 1975, we may define a second stage, with climax and stagnation. Due to the success of Georgetown-IBM system and the potential social, economic and intelligence benefits, quite a few countries including the United State, Soviet Union, and Japan invested heavily in the research and development of machine translation. Then, there was an upsurge of machine translation research all over the world.<br />
1954年到1975年，我们可以定义为第二个阶段，即高峰阶段和停滞阶段。由于乔治敦- ibm系统的成功及其潜在的社会、经济和情报效益，包括美国、苏联和日本在内的许多国家在机器翻译的研究和开发上投入了大量资金。于是，机器翻译研究在世界范围内掀起了一股热潮。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 10:09, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
从1954到1975，我们也许可以将这段时间定义为第二个阶段：高潮和停滞阶段。正是因为乔治敦-IBM大获成功及其潜在的社会、经济以及情报效益，以美国、苏联和日本为首的不少国家都在机器翻译的开发和研究上投入了大量--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 07:28, 10 October 2020 (UTC)资金（以促进其快速发展）。因此，全世界范围内掀起了机器翻译研究的热潮。<br />
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==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
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In 1956, the Chinese government released its “1956-1967 Prospective Plan of Science and Technology Development”, in which “automatic translation” was listed as an important task in item 41. <br />
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The poor translation caused by the rough design of the first generation machine translation system and the exaggeration of the computer capability eventually led for some people to lose confidence in machine translation. In 1964, the US Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee (ALPAC) established by the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) carried out an investigation on machine translation including its speed, quality, costs and the demand of it and had a sound and comprehensive test, count and analysis.<br />
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1956年，中国政府发布了《1956-1967年科技发展远景规划》，其中“自动翻译”被列为第41项的一个重要任务。<br />
由于设计还较粗糙再加上计算机能力被夸大，第一代机器翻译系统的翻译质量不足，最终导致一些人对机器翻译失去信心。1964年，由美国国家科学院（NAS）成立的美国自动语言处理咨询委员会（ALPAC）对机器翻译的速度、质量、成本和需求进行了调查，并进行了全面的测试、统计和分析。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:27, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
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Later, in 1966, ALPAC published the results of the survey and its main conclusion was that no further research should be undertaken on machine translation considering its low speed, low accuracy, higher costs than human translation and inability to overcome semantic barriers. Affected by this report, researches on machine translation declined sharply and even led to a 10-year slump worldwide.<br />
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==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
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After a quiet decade of 1970s, thanks to the development of computer technology, linguistic theory and artificial intelligence research, the increasing demand for translation, and the unremitting efforts of some machine translation researchers, research on machine translation revived in the early 1980s, therefore we can define the recovery stage from 1975 to 1987. During this period, machine translation researchers no longer were blindly optimistic, instead, they paid more attention to the basic aspects of machine translation research, thus studies on machine translation systems and their development were more practical and rational, and eventually the second generation of machine translation systems emerged.<br />
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经过二十世纪七十年代沉寂的十年后，由于计算机技术、语言学理论和人工智能研究的发展，以及翻译需求的不断增加和一些机器翻译研究者的不懈努力，机器翻译研究在二十世纪八十年代初得到恢复，因此我们可以将1975-1987年划为复苏阶段。在此期间，机器翻译研究者不再盲目乐观，相反，他们将注意力更多地放在机器翻译研究的基础方面，因此，对于机器翻译系统及其发展的研究便更具实用性和合理性。最终，第二代机器翻译系统出现了。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 06:06, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
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In 1975, the European Atomic Energy Agency (EURATOM) began to install SYSTRAN. In 1976, the University of Montreal, Canada, and the Translation Bureau of the Federal Government of Canada jointly developed a practical machine translation system (TAUM-METEO), officially providing weather forecasts in May 1977. This was the only machine translation system that directly published translations without post-translation editing. It marked the practical application of machine translation in technical languages and the maturity of machine translation technology in technical languages. Many of the methods and technologies used by the second generation machine translation were relatively mature and some of them are still used these days.<br />
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1975年，欧洲原子能机构开始安装SYSTRAN系统。1976年，加拿大蒙特利尔大学和加拿大联邦政府翻译局共同开发了一个实用型的机器翻译系统(taum-meteo) ，并在1977年5月正式提供天气预报服务。这是当时唯一的机器翻译系统，它没有翻译后再编辑，而是直接发布。它标志着机器翻译在科技语言中的实际应用和成熟。第二代机器翻译使用的许多方法和技术已经相对成熟，其中一些至今仍在沿用。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 12:23, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1975年，欧洲原子能机构开始安装汉译英机器翻译系统（SYSTRAN）。1976年，加拿大蒙特利尔大学和加拿大联邦政府翻译局共同开发了一个实用型的机器翻译系统(TAUM-METEO) ，并在1977年5月正式提供天气预报服务。这是当时唯一没有经过译后编辑，就直接发布的机器翻译系统。它标志着机器翻译在科技语言中的实际应用和成熟。第二代机器翻译使用的许多方法和技术已经相对成熟，其中一些至今仍在沿用。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
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Since 1987 until now, we are in the prosperity stage. Many institutes and universities began their researchers in machine translation. Since 1989, the appearance of the third generation machine translation method based on corpus has changed the vision of the whole machine translation research, marking a new period for machine translation. Many famous machine translation systems were released at this period, such as the KY-1, being developed by the Chinese Academy of Military Sciences, MT-IR-EC, an English-Chinese title and catalog translation system, developed by the Research Institute of Post and Telecommunication Science, and Huajian Chinese-English machine translation system, developed by Huajian Co. Ltd.<br />
从1987年到现在，社会处于繁荣时期，许多研究所和大学都开始研究机器翻译。自从1989年基于语料库的第三代机器翻译问世后，机器翻译研究进入了新时期，在这一时期，许多有名的翻译系统都相继问世，比如由中国军事科学院发明的KY-1系统、由邮电科学研究所发明的英译中标题和目录的翻译系统MT-IR-EC和由华建股份有限公司发明的华建中译英机器翻译系统。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 02:45, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
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Due to the rapid development of computer software and hardware technology, large-scale corpora which can be read by computer can be widely used in machine translation. The larger the corpus, the richer knowledge of human linguistics it contains, and the better the quality of machine translation will be. As long as the corpus was large enough, it was expected to cover all language phenomena. In this way, the key question here is, how to automatically or semi-automatically mine relevant translation knowledge from the corpus and effectively organize the knowledge base.<br />
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由于计算机软硬件技术的飞速发展，可以被计算机读取的大型语料库可以广泛应用于机器翻译中。 语料库越大，它包含的人类语言学知识就越丰富，机器翻译的质量也会越好。 只要语料库足够大，就可以涵盖所有语言现象。 这样的话，关键的问题就是如何自动或半自动地从语料库中挖掘相关的翻译知识并有效地组织知识库。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 15:13, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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随着计算机软硬件技术的飞速发展，计算机可读取的大型语料库能广泛用于机器翻译。语料库越大，它包含的人类语言学知识就丰富，进而机翻的质量也就越好。所以只要语料库足够大，机翻就能包含所有的语言现象。这样一来，关键问题就成了如何自动或半自动化地从语料库中挖掘相关语料并有效组织。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 12:23, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
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The Translation Memory (TM) technology in Trados’ Translation Workbench and the latest near-human translation machine translation systems introduced by Google, Language Weaver, Meaningful Machines and other companies since the new century and the development of artifical intelligence are all the results of the successful application of corpus technology in machine translation research.<br />
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塔多思翻译平台拥有了翻译记忆技术，自二十一世纪以来，谷歌、语言编织公司、意义机器和其他企业引进了最新的类人翻译机器系统，人工智能也得到了发展，这些都要得益于语料库技术在机器翻译研究的成功应用。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 02:45, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
塔多思翻译平台拥有了翻译记忆技术，自二十一世纪以来，谷歌、语言编织公司、意义机器和其他企业引进了最新的类人翻译机器系统，人工智能的发展也得益于这些语料库技术在机器翻译研究的成功应用--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 03:55, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Mashuya<br />
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==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
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There are two recent Chinese books on MT, by Liu Miqing and Xu Jin. Both Liu Miqing and Xujun uphold the dogma that human translation cannot be replaced by machine translation, although they don’t reason their opinions. Liu Miqing comments on the so-called misunderstanding “If machine translation succeed, then translators will lose their jobs”: “This kind of worry is unnecessary, and human translation will be in demand at any time” (Liu 2010, 402). Xu Jun states: “On the basis of the existing linguistic level and the research level of computer artificial intelligence, it is impossible to develop a machine translation system that completely replaces human translation” (Xu et al. 2009, 339-340).<br />
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最近刘宓庆和许钧分别出版了一本关于翻译记忆的书。虽然没有确切的依据，但他们俩都支持翻译不会被机器翻译代替的观点。刘宓庆还评价“如果机翻成功，翻译工作者就会失业”这种荒唐的误解：“这种担忧是没有必要的，人工翻译在任何时候都是会有大量需求的”（刘2010，402）。许钧也说：“基于目前语言学和人工智能的研究水平，发明出一项完全替代人工翻译的机翻系统是不可能的”（许等2009，339-340）。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 12:54, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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最近刘宓庆和许钧分别出版了一本关于机器翻译的书。虽然没有确切的依据，但他们俩都支持翻译不会被机器翻译代替的观点。刘宓庆还评价“如果机翻成功，翻译工作者就会失业”这种荒唐的误解：“这种担忧是没有必要的，人工翻译在任何时候都是会有大量需求的”（刘2010，402）。许钧也说：“基于目前语言学和人工智能的研究水平，发明出一项完全替代人工翻译的机翻系统是不可能的”（许等2009，339-340）。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 03:35, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
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Both of them use the same categorization of machine translation development stages as mentioned above. Both divide traditional machine translation methods into two categories: Rule-Based and Corpus-Based. The former builds the translation knowledge base on dictionaries and grammar rule bases, while the latter builds it by making full use of the corpus. Corpus-based methods can be subdivided into statistics-based machine translation and example-based machine translation.<br />
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他们都使用了上面提到的机器翻译开发阶段的相同分类方法。两者都将传统的机器翻译方法分为两类:基于规则的和基于语料库的。前者通过词典和语法规则库构建翻译知识库，而后者则通过充分利用语料库来构建翻译知识库。基于语料库的方法可以细分为基于统计的机器翻译和基于实例的机器翻译。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 03:24, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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他们都用了上述机器翻译开发阶段相同的分类方法。两者都将传统的机器翻译方法分为两类:基于规则和基于语料库的两种机器翻译方法。前者通过词典和语法规则库来构建翻译知识库，而后者则通过充分利用语料库来构建翻译知识库。基于语料库的翻译方法可以细分为基于统计的机器翻译和基于实例的机器翻译。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 02:53, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
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Since language has the characteristics of flexibility and openness, the development of a machine translation system based on grammar rules is greatly limited due to the lack of human thinking and the lack of the ability to identify the text or become aware of it. On the contrary, example-based machine translation has enjoyed unprecedented development since the 1980s. With the revival of statistical methods and corpus methods, corpus-based machine translation systems based on statistics and examples are beginning to be used for large-scale processing of language materials and real texts.<br />
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语言具有灵活性和开放性的特点，基于语法规则的机器翻译系统的开发由于缺乏人类思维以及缺乏识别或感知文本的能力而受到很大限制。相反，自20世纪80年代以来，基于实例的机器翻译得到前所未有的发展。随着统计法和语料库的复兴，基于语料库的机器翻译系统（基于统计和实例）开始用于大规模的语言材料和真实文本的处理。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 02:56, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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语言具有灵活性和开放性的特点，所以基于语法规则的机器翻译系统的开发由于缺乏人类思维以及缺乏识别或感知文本的能力而受到很大限制。相反，自20世纪80年代以来，基于实例的机器翻译得到前所未有的发展。随着统计法和语料库的兴起，基于语料库的机器翻译系统（基于统计和实例）开始应用于大规模的语言材料和真实文本的处理。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 03:31, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
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Both authors think that translation memories are very useful. Because unlike machine translation, the translation memory technology cannot translate the entire text, but can offer previously translated phrases from documents stored in its database. Through comparing, retrieving and reusing previously translated texts, translators can promptly determine how to accomplish the translation in a more efficient way. That is to say, the help of a translation memory makes translating more convenient and it makes it more effective for translators to deal with some complicated source texts through translation memory administration.<br />
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两位作者都认为翻译记忆非常有用。因为,与机器翻译不同，翻译记忆技术不能翻译整个文本，但可以从存储在其数据库中的文档中提供先前翻译过的短语。通过比较、检索和重用先前翻译的文本，译者可以及时确定如何更有效地完成翻译。也就是说，翻译记忆的帮助使翻译更加方便，通过翻译记忆管理使译者更有效地处理一些复杂的源语文本。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:52, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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两位作者都认为翻译记忆非常实用。因为翻译记忆技术不像机器翻译，它不能翻译一整段文本，但是可以给我们提供之前数据库中的文件翻译过的短语。通过比较、检索以及对之前译文的再次利用，译者马上就可以确定如何更有效地完成文本的翻译。也就是说，翻译记忆这项技术可以使翻译变得更便捷，并且，通过对翻译记忆的管理，它还可以帮助译者更高效地处理一些复杂原文本的翻译工作。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 02:44, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
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2.3.1.1 Advantages of Machine Translation<br />
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1. Among the advantages of MT are its speed and availability. If one visits a foreign country, a smart phone may make up for lack of language skills. Several free applications will help them translate texts, images, voices almost immediately, anytime and anywhere. One can take a picture of a sign and read it in one’s own language. Special apps help during conversations with foreigners. The accuracy is not high, but is also not needed in these basic conversations, which are low-end texts.<br />
2.3.1.1 机器翻译的优势<br />
1.机器翻译的优势在于其时效性强以及便捷性高。对于一个身处异国他乡的人来说，一部智能手机就能帮他解决语言不通等问题。很多款免费的APP可以立即随时随地翻译文本、影像、声音等资料。只要对指示牌拍个照，他们就可以用自己的母语来理解指示牌了。一些特殊的APP还可以帮助使用者与外国人实时对话。虽然准确性不是很高，但在这些话语内容质量不是很难的基本对话中确实很有必要。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 02:25, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
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2. Another major advantage of machine translation are the low costs, some services even come for free. For some large enterprises and professional translators, there is an initial financial investment to buy translation software like Trados, which pays off in the mid-run.<br />
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3. Another merit of MT is the sheer volume of translation. A small application can conduct large-scale translation work in a short amount of time, impossible for humans.<br />
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4. Also for human translators, MT is a helpful tool, professional translators and interpreters can save energy and improve their efficiency. In many disciplines, there is a huge amount of specialized vocabulary, which also changes fast. MT can make sure that all special terms are translated consistently in the same way. Most human translators prefer electronic dictionaries over paper dictionaries, e.g. because they have search functions and are updated online.<br />
机翻的再一个主要优点是低成本，部分服务甚至是免费的。一些大型企业和专业议员会有能在中期获得回报的翻译软件的初始投资计划，比如塔多思。<br />
机翻的另一个优点是大量高效。仅一个小小的软件便能在短时间内处理人类难以完成的大量翻译工作。<br />
对于议员，机翻也是个有效的工具，专业笔译员与口译员都可以通过机翻降低体力消耗提高效率。很多学科领域都有着大量且变化迅速的专业词汇。机翻可以保证这些专业词汇翻译的一致性。多数议员相比于纸质字典都更喜欢使用电子字典，因为电子字典具有搜索与实时更新功能。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 03:52, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Mashuya<br />
<br />
2.机翻的另一个重要优点是低成本，有些服务甚至是免费的。对于一些大型企业和专业翻译人员，需要一笔初期财务投资来购买像塔多思这样的翻译软件，而这在中期是有回报的。<br />
3.机翻的另一个优点是大量高效。一个小小的应用程序可以在很短的时间内完成大规模的翻译工作，这对人类来说是不可能的。<br />
对于译员来说，机器翻译是一个很有帮助的工具。专业笔译译员和口译译员可以通过机翻节省精力提高效率。在许多学科中，有大量快速变化着的专业词汇。机翻可以保证这些专业词汇的翻译始终一致。比起纸质词典，大多数译员更喜欢单子词典。因为电子词典有搜索功能，而且可以实时更新。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 10:34, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
<br />
5. MT tools also enable teams of human translators to increase their efficiency of cooperation, including joint databases and standards of translation.<br />
The trend towards MT is irreversible.<br />
<br />
2.3.1.2 Disadvantages of Machine Translation<br />
<br />
1. A MT can only be as good as its input, processes and self-learning algorithms. In the field of speech translation, MT depends heavily on speech recognition technology. In 2020, most speech recognition systems require speakers of the standard language (e.g. Mandarin instead of Cantonese). People’s accents, dialects and other influences like a noisy background affect the accuracy of speech recognition.<br />
<br />
2. MT depends on connectivity and electricity. Many users become aware of this dependency when they use a translation application on their smart phone and suddenly the network connection is broken or the battery is empty.<br />
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5.机器翻译工具也可以提高人工翻译团队的合作效率，包括共享信息库 和翻译标准。机器翻译的潮流是不可阻挡的。<br />
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2.3.1.2机器翻译的弱点<br />
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1.机器翻译只能跟它的输入、程序和自我算法一致。在公开演讲翻译领域，机器翻译很大程度依赖演讲读取科技。在2020,绝大多数演讲读取系统要求演讲者是使用标准语（不用方言而是用标准语）。人们的口音、方言和其他影响因素（比如说一个嘈杂的背景环境）都将影响演讲内容读取的精度。<br />
<br />
2.机器翻译取决于连接和电力。很多使用者在他用智能手机的翻译应用时，突然遭遇网络不好或者电池没电，才意识到这个的重要性。--[[User:Zhixing ma|Zhixing ma]] ([[User talk:Zhixing ma|talk]]) 02:37, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1.机器翻译无法超越其输入、程序和自学习算法。在演讲翻译领域，机器翻译很大程度上以来语音识别技术。2020年，大多数语音识别系统需要演讲者使用标准用语（例如：使用普通话而非粤语）。人们的口音、方言及其他影响因素，如嘈杂的背景，会影响语音识别的准确性。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 03:06, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
<br />
3. The establishment of the corpus is the foundation of modern MT, but the corpus itself has its limitations. Modern MT, especially in many small languages, has a small corpus. For example, under the same circumstances, sometimes the accuracy of Lao translation is not as good as that of English. Also commercial reasons may play into this.<br />
<br />
3.语料库是现代机器翻译的基础，但语料库本身也有很多局限性。很多小语种的语料库也很小，因此机器翻译的准确性也受限。例如，同样条件下，有时候老挝语机器翻译的准确性就比不上英语。当然也因为英语翻译更有市场。--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 08:31, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
4. Almost all MT requires human post-editing. With the progress and development of science and technology, the accuracy of MT software is getting better but so far does not match human translation quality. The text after machine translation requires proofreaders to make final modifications to the translation to ensure that it is correct and has an appropriate style.<br />
<br />
4.几乎所有机器翻译都需要后期人工校对。随着科学技术的发展，机器翻译的质量虽也大大提高，但远不能与人工翻译相提并论。机器翻译的文本预言校对员后期的修改，以确保翻译准确，文体适宜。--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 08:31, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
<br />
5. MT still has deficits to understand in which context a word is used. In many languages, the same word may have several completely unrelated meanings, such as the word “spring” in English, which most commonly means “春天” in Chinese, but also means “弹簧” , “泉水” and “活力”. Another example is the word “门槛” in Chinese, which can refer to the “threshold on the door”, but the most common meaning is “the difficulty of a thing” or “the conditions for doing something”. In these cases, the context has a great influence on the meaning of words, and the understanding of the meaning depends largely on the clues one can get from the context. So far, the main advantage of human translators is the true understanding of a sentence, which is connected to relating words with their context. Another advantage is that a human translator can creatively polish the language to obtain not just a complete and accurate translation, but an appropriate one. This is undoubtedly still a big challenge for MT.<br />
<br />
5.对不同的语境所该用的对应的词语的理解，机器翻译仍然存在着不足。在许多语言中，同一个词可能有几种完全不搭边的含义。比如说英语中的“spring”,在中文中最常见的意思为 “春天”，但是这个词也有“弹簧” , “泉水” 和“活力”的意思。另一个例子就是中文中的“门槛”，其可以指“门上的一道坎”，但最常用的含义是指“某件事的难度”或是“做某事的一种状态”。在这些例子当中，语境对词义有很大的影响，并且对词义的理解取决于上下文给出的线索。当前，人工翻译的主要优势在于可以将词语和语境联系在一起，从而理解句子的真正含义。人工翻译的另一个优势就是可以创造性地优化语言，从而不仅可以让翻译准确完整，而且翻译得十分恰当得体。无疑，这对机器翻译来说仍然是一项巨大的挑战。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 02:49, 9 October 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
5.对同一词语在不同语境中的理解，机器翻译仍有其不足。在许多语言中，同一个词可能有几种完全不搭边的含义，比如说英语中的“spring”,在中文中最常见的意思为 “春天”，但是这个词也有“弹簧” , “泉水” 和“活力”的意思。另一个例子就是中文的“门槛”一词，但最常用的含义是指“某件事的难度”或是“做某事所需的条件”。在这些例子当中，语境对词义有很大的影响，一个人对词义的理解很大程度上取决于上下文给出的线索。当前，人工翻译的主要优势在于可以将词语和语境联系在一起，从而理解句子的真正含义。人工翻译的另一个优势就是可以创造性地优化语言，从而不仅可以让翻译准确完整，而且恰当得体。无疑，这对机器翻译来说仍然是一项巨大的挑战。--Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
<br />
6. MT so far does not possess cultural sensitivity. Human translators constantly study the relevant cultures, expand their knowledge and are able to understand specific situations. Human interactions and emotions are complex and machines lack initiative and the ability to understand or recognize slang, jargon, puns and idioms, so that the resulting MT may not conform to the values and norms of the culture of the source language and/or of the target language.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Nguyen, Thuy Hien (Helen) 阮翠贤==<br />
2.3.1.3 Comparison of Machine Translation with Human Translation<br />
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2.3.1.3 机器翻译与人工翻译的相比 ---Helen<br />
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Machine Translation can be compared with human translation in different areas and under different aspects.<br />
机器翻译可以在不同的地区与不同的方面进行对比。 ---Helen<br />
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<br />
2.3.1.3 Comparison of Machine Translation with Human Translation<br />
2.3.1.3 机器翻译与人工翻译的比较<br />
Machine Translation can be compared with human translation in different areas and under different aspects.<br />
机器翻译与人工翻译可以在不同的领域和方面进行比较。<br />
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 05:10, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
<br />
1. In the film and television industry, there is a large demand for translation of quotes (subtitling), and the difficulty lies in the individuality of each speaker which should correspond to a characteristic style depending on the speaker. The screen format requires short and pithy translations. What’s more, in the current movies and TV plays, there are a large number of terms fashionable in the internet. The film title itself has to take all possible connotations as well as marketing aspects into account, so a human translator will think it over and over again.<br />
<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
<br />
2. In the political and the diplomatic field as well as in international negotiations between countries or institutions: In these fields, human interpretation and translation is still widely used, since translation mistakes may have severe consequences for the relation of countries. When country leaders meet, the cultural accumulation of the translators can enable them to identify which content may not offend both sides and then pick the best translation.<br />
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在政治和外交领域以及国家或机关之间进行国际谈判中，人类的翻译解读仍被广泛使用，因为翻译错误会对国家之间的关系造成严重影响。国家领导人见面时，译者的文化积累能让他们确定哪些内容可能不会冒犯双方，然后选择最佳翻译。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 08:14, 8 October 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
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在政治外交领域及不同国家机构之间的国际谈判中，我们仍广泛使用人工口译和笔译，因为翻译错误可能会对外交关系造成严重后果。不同国家的领导人会面时，译者凭借其文化积累来甄别何种内容并不会冒犯双方，并以此选出最恰当的翻译。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 08:52, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在政治外交领域以及国家或机构之间的国际谈判中,人工翻译仍然被广泛使用，因为翻译错误可能会对国家关系造成严重的后果。在国家领导人会面时，译者的文化积淀可以帮助他们辨别哪些内容不会冒犯双方，从而选择最好的翻译。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 12:11, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
<br />
When a country leader tells a joke which is not funny in the target culture, the human translator may improvise with telling a different joke, ensuring that the visitor will laught too and the whole atmosphere stays relaxed as intended. With MT, diplomatic accidents or cultural conflicts might happen. In the first half of 2018, AI simultaneous translation was applied for the first time at the Boao Asia Forum. However, the system broke down, resulting in low-level mistakes such as inaccurate vocabulary translation and repetition. Mistakes like these are avoided by professional (human) interpreters.<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
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3. Legal and technical communication. Legal translation, as well as medical, pharmaceutical, chemical etc. must be accurate, because a translation mistake may have severe consequences. The human translator spends additional time to make repeated efforts to avoid ambiguity and to improve the accuracy of the words used. Many specific terms in professional sectors have a broader or a different meaning in the standard language. For example, prejudice refers to damage, counterpart refers to a copy with the same effect, more complicated, for example, dominion refers to full ownership in civil law and sovereignty in public international law; Estoppels means that one cannot go back on the word in contract law, while in criminal procedure law, it means “forbidden to reverse confession”. Secondly, a large number of legal terms, such as “defendant”, “cause of action” and “damages”, usually do not appear in the common language. These characteristics of legal terms require people to carefully weigh and compare when translating, and give appropriate translations in specific situations.<br />
<br />
3.法律及技术性表达。法律、医疗、药物和化学等领域的翻译必须准确无误，因为一个错误可能会带来严重的后果。人工翻译可以利用额外的时间，不断地努力，以避免歧义、提升用词准确性，专业领域中的许多特定术语在标准用语中具有更广泛或者不同的含义。例如，prejudice指损害，counterpart指具有相同作用的复制品，更复杂的例子还有dominion在民法中指完全所有权，在国际公法中指主权；Estoppels在合同法里意思是某一方不能违背承诺，但在刑事诉讼法中是“禁止翻供”的意思。其次，大量法律术语，例如“被告”、“诉讼事由”和“损害赔偿金”，通常不会出现在日常用语中。针对法律术语的此类特性，人们需要在翻译时仔细衡量和比较，以在特定情况下给出恰当的翻译。--Ouyang Ling<br />
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3.法律术语及技术性表达。法律、医疗、药物和化学等领域的翻译必须准确无误，因为一个翻译错误可能会导致严重的后果。人工翻译可以利用额外的时间重复性地工作，以避免歧义和提升用词准确性，在标准用语中，许多用于专业领域中的特定术语具有更广泛或者不同的含义。例如，prejudice指损害，counterpart指具有相同作用的复制品，更复杂的例子还有dominion在民法中指完全所有权，在国际公法中指主权；Estoppels在合同法里意思是某一方不能违背承诺，但在刑事诉讼法中是“禁止翻供”的意思。其次，大量法律术语，例如“被告”、“诉讼事由”和“损害赔偿金”，通常不会出现在日常用语中。这些法律术语的特质需要人们在翻译时仔细衡量和比较，以在特定情况下做出恰当的翻译。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 07:12, 11 October 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
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==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
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4. Literary translation. MT in general cannot compete with human translation in the field of literature, since these kinds of translations are more complex. A typical characteristic of Western literature is to avoid repetitions. If, for example, the source is a Chinese work of literature, repetitions are more common. MT would translate these repetitions repetitively, while humans would be creative to find synonyms and variations. A good translation of literature should enable target readers to understand the world created by the source culture author and properly realize his beliefs, ideas or other things the author wants to convey through his work. Also, subtle references to other works of literature are harder to grasp by MT than by a human translator. There are often a lot of images (comparisons, illustrative expressions, motifs, metaphors, allegories) in literary works, and images have vague characteristics. When translating and dealing with these images, even experienced translators carefully consider and repeatedly weigh them. Literary works express the rich emotions of humans, it may be happy or sad, and half sad and half happy. In order to understand the subtlety of this, the translator needs to read the text carefully and weighs it over and over again. Only after careful reading and repeated deliberation the translator can really understand them and thus produce a good translation. Literary works are often historic. <br />
<br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
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In different periods, literary works created by different writers have their own imprint of their times. When people look at past literature, they cannot only translate it from the contemporary viewpoint. Therefore, when reading the original text, the translator should figure out the author’s writing intention and the emotion to be conveyed according to the background of the times, the writer’s experience, the writer’s style, etc. in order to better understand the original text and in order to better carry out the translation. Obviously, MT systems are not yet able to deal with these complicated processes. Last but not least, literary works are often fictional, and the fictional world is often beyond the imagination of the real world. Even if the machine can input all the literary works and their corresponding translations in different languages into it to build a huge corpus, literary works stay always full of infinite creativity and imagination. The current MT systems may be able to give a proper translation of some sentences of literary works, but from the perspective of development, the premise of machine translation is to establish a corpus first, thus it is always lagging behind and can never keep up with the pace of literary creation and innovation.<br />
<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
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2.3.1.3 Field Study<br />
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In November 2019, we conducted a simple field study. We selected an original text (https://b23.tv/av9604542) among the quotes of the American movie The Pursuit of Happiness 《当幸福来敲门》: “People can’t do something themselves, they wanna tell you you can’t do it. If you want something, go get it. Period.”<br />
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Here are five MT versions from Sogou, Baidu, Netease Youdao, DeepL and Google respectively:<br />
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Sogou translation (http://bit.ly/trans_ex_1): 人们自己做不到，他们想告诉你你做不到。如果你想要什么，去拿吧。句号。<br />
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Baidu translation (http://bit.ly/trans_ex_2): 人们自己做不到，他们想告诉你你做不到。如果你想要什么，就去拿。周期。<br />
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Youdao translation (http://bit.ly/trans_ex_3): 当人们做不到一些事情的时候，他们就会对你说你也同样不能。如果你想要什么，就去争取。时期。<br />
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Google translation (http://bit.ly/trans_ex_4): 人们自己无法做某事，他们想告诉您您做不到。 如果您想要一些东西，那就去买。 期。<br />
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DeepL translation (http://bit.ly/trans_ex_5): 人们自己做不到的事情，他们就会告诉你，你做不到。如果你想要的东西，去得到它。句号。<br />
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The human translation (https://b23.tv/av9604542) is:<br />
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有些事人们自己办不到，他们就刚跟你说你也办不到。如果你想获得什么，就去争取。就这么简单。<br />
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现场研究<br />
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在2019年11月，我们进行了简单的现场研究。 我们在美国电影《当幸福来敲门》的名言中选择了原文（https://b23.tv/av9604542）：“People can’t do something themselves, they wanna tell you you can’t do it. If you want something, go get it. Period“ 以下分别是搜狗，百度，网易有道，DeepL和Google的五个MT版本：<br />
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搜狗翻译(http://bit.ly/trans_ex_1): 人们自己做不到，他们想告诉你你做不到。如果你想要什么，去拿吧。句号。<br />
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百度翻译(http://bit.ly/trans_ex_2): 人们自己做不到，他们想告诉你你做不到。如果你想要什么，就去拿。周期。<br />
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有道翻译(http://bit.ly/trans_ex_3): 当人们做不到一些事情的时候，他们就会对你说你也同样不能。如果你想要什么，就去争取。时期。<br />
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谷歌翻译(http://bit.ly/trans_ex_4): 人们自己无法做某事，他们想告诉您您做不到。 如果您想要一些东西，那就去买。 期。<br />
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Deep L 翻译 (http://bit.ly/trans_ex_5): 人们自己做不到的事情，他们就会告诉你，你做不到。如果你想要的东西，去得到它。句号。<br />
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人工翻译 (https://b23.tv/av9604542) is:<br />
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有些事人们自己办不到，他们就刚跟你说你也办不到。如果你想获得什么，就去争取。就这么简单。--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 03:10, 11 October 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 03:12, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
<br />
The original text is relatively colloquial, so the overall difficulty for translation is not so high, but still the five versions of machine translation are not ideal, only the versions translated by Netease Youdao and DeepL are acceptable, but also unsatisfactory in comparison to the human translation.<br />
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原文本是相对口语化的，因此翻译的总体难度不是很大。但是机器翻译的五个版本仍然不甚理想，只有网易有道和DeepL翻译的版本尚可接受。然而较之于人工翻译，它们还是无法令人满意。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 14:46, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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原文是比较口语化的，因此翻译的总体难度不是很高，但是机器翻译的五个版本仍然不太理想，只有网易有道和DeepL翻译的版本是可以接受的。但是与人工翻译相比，还是不太能令人满意的。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 15:18, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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原文本来偏口语化，因此翻译难度总体不大。尽管如此，机器翻译的五个版本仍然不太理想，只有网易有道和DeepL的翻译差强人意，但却仍无法和人工翻译相提并论。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 02:43, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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原文相对口语化，所以整体翻译难度没有那么高，但机器翻译的五个版本仍然不理想，只有网易有道和DeepL翻译的版本可以接受，但与人工翻译相比也仍不尽如人意。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 14:45, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
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In the first sentence of Sogou and Baidu translation, the word “something” is ignored and the overall coherence of the translation is not high. It is also not consistent with Chinese habits. In the first sentence of the Netease Youdao translation, “当……的时候” is added, which is feasible, but compared with human translation, it is not concise enough. The DeepL translation starts strong, but does not persuade with the arbitrary addition of “的”, which destroys the grammar. The Google translation “无法做某事” reads awkward in Chinese, the reader rather would expect something like “办不到的事情”, also the auxiliary verb “想” is not appropriate.<br />
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==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
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For the translation of the second sentence, the handling of “go and get it” in Sogou and Baidu, obviously does not conform to the context in the movie, while DeepL at least uses “得到”. Although in Chinese, “take it” has the meaning of “拿” or “去拿”, in this movie, in combination with the context at that time, “take it” should be translated as “追逐”.<br />
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在翻译第二句时，搜狗和百度对 "go and get it" 的翻译显然没有遵照电影的情境；而DeepL起码翻译成了 “得到”。虽然在汉语中 "take it" 有“拿”或“去拿”的意思，但在这部电影中，结合当时的情境来看，"take it" 应该翻译成“追逐”。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 08:37, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在翻译第二个句子时，搜狗和百度对 "go and get it"的翻译显然没有考虑电影中的背景，而DeepL起码将其翻译成了 “得到”。尽管在汉语中， "take it" 含有“拿”或“去拿”之意，但若结合这部电影当时的背景，应该将 "take it" 译为“追逐”。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 15:09, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
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In addition, it is worthwhile to point out that the translation of “take it” in Netease Youdao is the same as the human translation. However its translation of “wanna something” as “想要什么” is not as good as the human translation of “获得什么”. Google’s translation of “get” as “买” seems to point to a corpus with commercial texts.<br />
另外，值得一提的是，网易有道的“take it”翻译与人工翻译事一样的。然而，它对“想要的东西”的翻译并不如人工翻译的“想什么”。谷歌将 “get”翻译成“买”似乎指向了一个包含商业文本的语料库。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 15:33, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
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==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
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With using the polite addressing “您” and the non-understandable ending with “期。”, in comparison to its competitors, Google has failed this test by far. Finally, for the last sentence, the word “period” is directly and roughly translated into “期”, “周期” and “时期” by three machine translation systems.<br />
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使用尊称“您”并以费解的“期”字结尾。与其竞争者相比，谷歌已经在这场测试中失败了。而且，最后一个句子中的“period”用三个翻译系统简单粗暴地直译成了“期”，”周期“和”时期“。--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 06:44, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
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Although the word “period” by DeepL and Sogou comes very close to the meaning, the human translation makes it better understandable with “就这么简单”. Here, the machine translations fail to take the context into consideration.<br />
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虽然DeepL和搜狗翻译“period”这个词时，已经非常接近原义了，不过人们译为“就这么简单”，更好理解。此处，机器翻译没有考虑到语境。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 13:51, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Seydou, Sagara==<br />
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None of the above mentioned MT-produced versions can provide an expressive and smooth translation, let alone equal or surpass the human work. The MT versions do not conform to the Chinese speaking habits. There is still a long way to go for MT, especially for Sogou, Baidu and Google, to improve their translation quality.<br />
上面提到的MT制作版本都无法提供表达流畅的翻译，更不用说等于或超过人工。 MT版本不符合华语习惯。 MT，特别是搜狗，百度和Google，要提高翻译质量，还有很长的路要走。--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 02:25, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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上面提到的机器翻译都无法提供通顺流畅的翻译，更不用说达到或者超过人工翻译的水平。机器翻译不符合中文的表达习惯。机器翻译，特别是搜狗、百度和谷歌，要提高翻译质量，还有很长的路要走。--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 06:49, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
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However, when MT will succeed, is not a question of faith, it is simply a cost-benefit question that will be economically decided. Nowadays, the cameras of smartphones can be used to watch an object or a text, which is then subtitled in a given target language by augmented reality (e.g. iTranslate, Translate, Speak & Translate, DeepL, Google Translator etc. for Iphone).<br />
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然而，如果机器翻译会成功，这将不是忠信的问题，而是成本效益的问题，是经济决定的。现在通过扩增实境，智能手机摄像头用来看带有目标语字幕的事物或文件（比如说苹果手机的iTranslate, 翻译（Translate）, 说与译（Speak & Translate）, DeepL, 谷歌翻译（Google Translator）等。--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 13:01, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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然而，机器翻译什么时候会大获全胜，不是由信心决定的，而是由经济决定的，这只是一个成本效益方面的问题。如今，智能手机的相机能识别对象和文本，通过放大语境，能把其转化为指定的目标语言。（苹果手机里的一些翻译软件就可以实现上述提到的，如：翻译通（iTranslate）,翻译（Translate），说与译（Speal & Translate）,DeepL,谷歌翻译（Google Translator）等等。）--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 00:51, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
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The WeChat app, for example, also imitates the layout and font, making it increasingly difficult to visually determine that it is a translation and not the original. Even the mundane automatic translation work (machine translation), which used to be reserved for expensive specialist programs, is now accessible to a wide range of users via websites such as translate.google.com, deepl.com or fanyi.baidu.com and can also be activated in browsers so that the websites are displayed in the desired language.<br />
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例如，微信软件也模仿其布局和字体，这让人们从视觉上更难分辨这是译文而非原文。即使是普通的自动翻译工作(机器翻译),过去需要预留给昂贵的专业项目,现在大量用户可以通过一些网站翻译，例如：谷歌翻译（translate.google.com），deepl翻译（deepl.com）或百度翻译（fanyi.baidu.com）,也可以在浏览器中激活,网站就会显示所需的语言。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 06:49, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
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Translations are generally worse than those produced by trained human translators. Nevertheless, some website operators are satisfied with the quality, so they have their websites automatically translated and thus attract more users. There are also hybrid solutions such as automatically translated websites with the possibility that trained and untrained users can suggest translation corrections, which can then be implemented partially automatically with quality assurance elements (translation evaluation, frequency of correction suggestions, etc.).<br />
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这种翻译的质量总体来说比那些来自专业人工译者的翻译要差。尽管如此，一些网页的运营者还是对这种质量颇为满意，他们于是对网页进行自动翻译以吸引更多用户。他们也想到了多种解决方案，比如：自动翻译的网页允许专业和非专业用户提出翻译改正建议，这能够让翻译自动进行，且还有一定准确性保障。（翻译评估，一定频率的翻译校准建议之类）--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:14, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这种翻译的质量总体上比训练有素的译者所作的译文质量要查。然而，一些网页运营者对这种翻译质量很满意，于是他们用自动翻译来翻译网站，从而吸引更多的用户。还有一些混合的解决方法，比如：自动翻译的网站，训练过和没有训练过的译者都可以为修改翻译提出建议，这种做法既能够使部分翻译自动进行，也具有一定准确性保障。（翻译评估，更正建议的频率等）--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:38, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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总体上来说，这种翻译的质量比训练有素的译者所作的译文质量要差。然而，某些网页运营者对这种翻译质量颇为满意，便用自动翻译来翻译各自的网页，从而来吸引更多的用户。还有一些混合式解决方法，比如：自动翻译的网站，经过训练和未经训练过的译者都可以为翻译修改提出建议，这种做法既能够使部分翻译自动进行，也能保障一定准确度。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 02:49, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
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For clients who expect higher quality, machine pre-translation and subsequent error correction currently occasionally appears to be more cost-effective than fully human translation. Overall, Google Translator has made great progress in recent years. Fanyi Baidu recently showed off with a simultaneous interpretation of a speech recorded live on video.<br />
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对于期待更高翻译质量的客户来说，目前机器预翻译和后续的改错有时候比纯人工翻译更经济实惠。总的来看，近些年谷歌翻译取得了很多进步。百度翻译近来也在卖弄其现场录制的演讲视频的同声传译能力。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 15:45, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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对于期待更高翻译质量的客户来说，目前机器预翻译和后续的改错有时候比纯人工翻译更经济实惠。总的来看，近些年谷歌翻译取得了很多进步。百度翻译近来也在卖弄了一段其针对视频直播的演讲的同声传译能力。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 06:01, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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对于在翻译质量上有更高期待的客户而言，目前，机器预翻译和后续的改错似乎比纯人工翻译更划算。总的来说，近年来谷歌翻译取得了很大的进步。近来，百度翻译通过一段现场录制的演讲视频炫耀了其同声传译功能。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 06:50, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
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Human translators also do not just use their brains, they use translation memories such as Trados, Across, Transit, MemoQ, WordFast, Pasolo etc., in order to have the same terms or sentences displayed in the same way, for example in technical manuals, which deal with the 1:1 translation of technical terms. Here both sides seem to come closer to each other.<br />
人类译者不仅会动脑筋，还会使用翻译记忆库，例如Trados,Across,Transit,MemoQ,WordFast,Pasolo等此类翻译软件,以便使相同的术语或句子以同样的方式显示出来,例如在技术手册中,技术术语的翻译是1:1的.这里二者似乎是很接近的.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 12:45, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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人类译者不仅会动脑筋，还会使用翻译记忆技术，例如Trados,Across,Transit,MemoQ,WordFast,Pasolo等此类翻译软件,以便使相同的术语或句子以同样的方式显示出来,例如在技术手册中,用翻译软件来处理相同的专业术语.人工翻译和机器翻译在此处是很接近的。--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 13:09, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
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Currently, no program can translate better than humans. There are simply too many factors to be taken into account in order to avoid e.g. unexpected comedy because a certain expression does not seem appropriate in a certain situation. Of course, the human translator is not immune to such 'translation mistakes', but he or she often recognizes them and can correct them afterwards if necessary. Here, the human consciousness cannot yet be achieved or simulated by machines.<br />
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目前，任何翻译程序都无法媲美人类。为了避免出乎意料的引人发笑的错误，许多因素都需予以重视，因为某些表达在特定的场合可能并不适用。当然，人工翻译也无法根绝这类"翻译错误"，但是译者通常能发现错误，并且在必要的时候进行修正。然而，机器仍然无法实现或者模拟人类的意识。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
目前，没有一个程序能比人类更好地翻译。为了避免出人意料的闹剧，有太多的因素需要考虑，因为某种表达方式在某种情况下似乎并不合适。当然，人工翻译也不能避免这种“翻译错误” ，但翻译人员会经常性地意识到这些错误，并在必要时进行纠正。在这方面，人的意识还不能被机器实现或模拟 。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 15:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
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==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
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Automatic simultaneous interpreting appears even more difficult than automatic translation, as the transmission process is carried out in real time. In addition, the machines still lack the various means of expression accompanying the pure translation text. This does not only refer to non-verbal interpreting - there are also conference interpreters who often only listen to the translation via headphones.<br />
自动同声传译似乎比自动翻译更困难，因为翻译过程是实时进行的。此外，机器还缺乏伴随纯翻译文本的各种表达方式。这不仅是指非语言口译—还有一些会议口译员经常只能通过耳机听翻译。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 02:49, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
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But also the possible variations in vocal reproduction, such as volume, speed, variation in intonation, intonation of the sentence melody, etc., often offers the possibility to enrich the information of the pure text. Nonetheless, these are precisely the fields that are currently being researched and that increase the acceptance and subtlety in the expression of artificial intelligence.<br />
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但是，音量，速度，语调变化，句子旋律的语调等声音再现的可能变化，也常常提供丰富纯文本信息的可能性。尽管如此，这些恰恰是当前正在研究的领域，提高了人工智能表达的接受度，增加了微妙性。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 08:27, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
而声音再现中可能出现的变化，如音量、语速、语调、句子旋律的抑扬顿挫的变化等，往往提供了丰富纯文本信息的可能性。尽管如此，这些恰恰是目前正在研究的领域，用来提高人工智能表达的接受度和微妙性。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 15:37, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
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The fact that the targeted concentration on translation errors and their causes promises success in further development is demonstrated by the leap in quality of translation services when comparing early and current Google and DeepL Translator versions.<br />
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通过比较早期及现在的谷歌翻译与Deepl翻译器的版本，人们发现翻译服务质量的巨大提高证明了有针对性地集中研究翻译错误及其原因能确保翻译发展的进一步成功。--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 01:55, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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对比早期和现在的谷歌及DeepL翻译，我们可发现翻译质量大幅提升，这证明有针对性地关注翻译错误及原因有助于翻译的进一步发展。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 13:12, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
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2.4 Transition of Interpreting Situations through Technology/Digitization<br />
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The interpreter must increasingly adapt to technically predefined interpreting situations, such as video conferences with augmented reality, tele-interpreting, etc. It is expected that the interpreter is familiar with the various hardware and software models of interpreting technology and organizes this technology.<br />
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2.4 技术化/数字化口译的转变<br />
口译员必须逐渐适应技术上预定义的口译情况，例如增强现实的视频会议、远程口译等，并且应当熟悉并学会组织口译技术的各种硬件和软件模型。<br />
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--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 07:56, 8 October 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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2.4 口译形势在技术化或数字化下的转变<br />
译者必须要逐步适应在技术上预定义的翻译情况，比如增强现实的视频会议、远程口译等，也应该熟悉并学会组织口译技术的各种硬件和软件模型。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 08:48, 8 October 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
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2.4 技术化/数字化口译的转变<br />
口译员必须在技术上对预定义的口译情况愈发适应，比如说，增强现实的视频会议、远程口译等，还需熟悉并学会组织口译技术的各种硬件和软件模型。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 15:11, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
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According to the early Braun 1999 study on interpreting in video conferences, the interpreter's job description is already changing towards becoming a technology organizer. Due to the rapid progress in technology, the technical problems, quality losses and malfunctions, on which the study focuses, are outdated. Rather, today's technology must be assumed to be largely trouble-free to perfect for the purpose of interpreting, often even offering functions that the users do not (or can not) exploit at all.<br />
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依布劳恩1999年初对视频会议口译研究来看，口译员的工作内容正向技术组织者转变。由于科技飞速发展，这项研究的重点，包括技术问题，质量下降以及故障都已经过时。更确切来说，现在的技术必须基本做到零故障，为口译工作保驾护航，甚至常常提供用户根本不（或不能）使用的功能。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 05:05, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
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The following disadvantages of early video conferencing at the time of the study have since been reduced: <br />
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a) Social presence - through the new techniques with VR glasses (like Facebook’s Oculus Quest) and, if necessary, whole-body tactile suits, the presence is sufficiently simulated so that the human mind is able to fade out the technical mediation of the presence after a period of getting used to it. The "technically caused restrictions of interaction" thus become negligible.<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
<br />
The "restricted field of vision" of the interpreter complained about in the study can now be extended by virtual or augmented reality glasses. It should also be pointed out that even with conference interpreters, e.g. incorrect planning of interpreting booth locations where there is no clear field of vision for the speaker or PowerPoint or simply unforeseeable events such as overcrowded conference rooms so that standing listeners block the view are part of everyday life.<br />
<br />
口译员对在口译室中“视野受限”表示埋怨态度，现在他们可通过虚拟现实或增强现实眼镜扩展视野。还应指出的是，即使是会议口译员，口译室摆放位置规划不准确也都是口译员日常生活的一部分,这会致使口译员看不清说话者、幻灯片或者难以预测的情况，比如说，会议室过于拥挤，使得站着的听众挡住了视线。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 15:05, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
研究报告指出困扰口译员的“视野受限”问题现在可通过虚拟现实或增强现实眼镜得到缓解。但仍不能忽视，即使在会议口译场合，同传箱位置不妥，导致看不到讲者或幻灯片，或是遭遇突发状况，如会场过于拥挤，站着的听众遮挡了视线，这些对于口译员来说都是家常便饭。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 07:08, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
<br />
b) The same applies to the unnaturalness of the discussion situation that was noted at the time. Since the perception of technology fades into the background, the technically mediated interpreting situation is increasingly been accepted as just as natural or unnatural as the analogue/presence.<br />
<br />
同时，我们提到的翻译当中不自然的情况也同样会发生。科技翻译渐渐融入翻译实践，那么科技翻译出的一些机械的句子也越来越为人们所接受。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 07:27, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
<br />
3. The Impact of Migration: Community Interpreting and Rare Languages <br />
Through migration, foreign-language people come into a community and are dependent on interpreting services in government offices and hospitals due to a lack of knowledge of the local language. While offices often leave the task of finding an interpreter to the foreign language speaker, they do not set any qualification or quality requirements.<br />
<br />
移民的影响：社区口译以及移民带来的稀有语言，由于缺乏当地语言知识，外语人士融入社群时会依赖于政府机关和医院的口译服务。通常各机关单位会将寻找口译员的任务交给讲外语的人，但（对此）他们不作任何资历要求。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:16, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
移民的影响：社群传译以及移民活动带来的小众语言。外语人士融入一个新社群时，缺乏当地语言知识，依赖于政府机关和医院的口译服务。而这些机关单位通常会将寻找口译员的任务交给讲外语的人，但他们没有对这些人员设置任何相关资历要求。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 07:43, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
<br />
As a result, relatives or acquaintances are often hired as one-time lay interpreters whom the foreign language speaker entrusts with the interpretation. However, the quality is often lower than that of trained interpreters. Trained interpreters would often be simply too expensive for the foreign language speaker in such situations (Moratto, 2020). <br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
<br />
In the case of community interpreting in hospital, the patient is usually not responsible for providing an interpreter, e.g. because he or she arrived at the hospital unexpectedly or is restricted in mobility due to illness/injury or hospitalization and should not be burdened additionally. Accordingly, the hospital maintains a pool of community interpreters. As field studies, e.g. by Andres (2009), show, non-professional interpreters are also hired where necessary out of cost reasons.<br />
<br />
关于医院的社区口译，病人一般不用自己提供口译人员，因为他们并不是有预测地来到医院，或者说由于病情、伤情或者住院导致行动能力受限，因此不应该再额外徒添负担。基于此，医院一般都有一群社区口译人员。基于安德烈斯的实地考察可看出，必要时也有为了降低成本雇用非专业口译人员的时候。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 13:31, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
<br />
4. Existential Problems for the Interpreting Profession<br />
Due to networking via the Internet, unqualified interpreters are pouring into the market from low-wage countries, bringing the profession of the professional interpreter into disrepute as a result of dumping prices and poor-quality work, especially for inexperienced clients.<br />
<br />
<br />
4. 口译职业存在的问题<br />
由于互联网建立起的人际关系网，不合格的口译员由低收入国家涌入市场，这些人的倾销价格与低质量工作导致专业口译员，特别是经验缺乏的当事人的职业声誉受损。<br />
<br />
--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 04:11, 11 October 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
<br />
From my own field I know well-trained German and Chinese interpreters who interpret in their respective areas of competence for about 850 USD (750 Euros or 3,120 Yuan RMB) plus expenses for half a day or 1,700 USD (1,500 Euro or 11,700 Yuan RMB) for a whole day. But I have also taken part in conferences where an apparently not well-trained Chinese interpreter interpreted.<br />
<br />
在我的专业领域，我了解到那些经过良好训练的德语和中文口译员，在翻译他们专业领域的一次的口译费用大约是850美元（750欧元或3120元人民币）外加半天1700美元（1500欧元或11700元人民币）。不过我也参与到过一些会议，其中有明显没有受过良好训练的中国翻译人员。<br />
<br />
------[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 14:27, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
在我的专业领域，我认识一些训练有素的中德口译员，他们在各自领域的口译费约为半天850美元（750欧元或3120人民币），或者全天1700美元（1500欧元或11700人民币）。但是我也参加过一些会议，会议由没有受过专业训练的中国口译员进行翻译。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 03:03, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
<br />
As a rule, the clients were inexperienced and had apparently based their decision on price in particular, and hired interpreters for 450 USD (400 Euros or 3,120 Yuan RMB) half-day or 850 USD (750 Euros or 5,890 Yuan RMB) per day.<br />
通常，客户由于经验不足，显然只能根据价格来聘用口译员，聘用的价格大概是半天450美元（相当于400欧元或3120元人民币），全天850美元（相当于750欧元或5890元人民币）。<br />
--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 04:14, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
<br />
As a result, long passages were regularly left uninterpreted, there were pauses lasting seconds or entire speeches remained uninterpreted sometimes due to a lack of agreement between the interpreters, other times perhaps due to technical problems?.<br />
<br />
结果，导致很长的一段话经常不予解释，有时会持续停顿几秒钟，或者整个演讲句子都无法翻译，有时是因为口译员之间没有形成共识，有时可能是由于技术方面的问题……--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 05:54, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
经常导致很长的一段话被遗漏而未进行翻译。有时由于口译员之间未协商好，有时由于翻译技术问题，以至翻译期间停顿数秒，甚至整段话都无法翻译。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
结果是导致长段句经常不予解释，或者是有时会持续停顿几秒钟，（最后导致）整个演讲句子都无法翻译，（更有甚者）是因为口译员之间没有达成共识，还有可能是由于技术方面的问题。<br />
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 14:32, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
<br />
I especially remember a consecutive interpreter who 'interpreted' the various welcoming speeches at a German-Chinese friendship celebration in sections by repeating the same sentence in Chinese: "We are delighted to have such a good partnership which serves international understanding.”<br />
<br />
我尤其清楚地记得一位口译员在中德友谊庆典上，将各种欢迎词都译为同一句话：“我们很高兴能发展一段有助于国际间理解的友好伙伴关系。”--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 03:39, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
我尤其清楚地记得一位交替传译口译员在中德友谊庆典上，将各种欢迎词都译为同一句话：“我们很高兴能发展一段有助于增进国际间理解的友好伙伴关系。”--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 08:34, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
<br />
For someone who was not familiar with the subject or did not speak both languages, the event made a perfect, all-round impression, the interpreting was apparently seamless, the audience clapped and laughed in the right places, solely because of the speaker's example and the interpreter's non-verbal signals. The German client was unable to judge the quality of the 'interpretation' due to a lack of language skills.<br />
<br />
对于不熟悉该主题或不会讲两种语言的人，这次活动给人留下了完美且完备的印象，口译显然是无间断的，听众在正确的地方鼓掌大笑，这完全是因为演讲者所说的例子和口译员的非语言信号。 由于缺乏语言技能，德国客户无法判断“口译”的质量。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 15:09, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
对于不熟悉该主题或不会讲两种语言的人来说，这次活动给他们留下了完美且完备的印象，口译显然是无间断的，听众能适时鼓掌大笑，完全是因为演讲者所说的例子和口译员的非语言信号。 由于缺乏语言技能，德国客户无法判断“口译”的质量。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 02:08, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
<br />
It is not known whether the approximately 150 Chinese participants at the event thought that the German speakers always said the same thing, or whether they realised that the interpreter only interpreted the atmosphere but not the specific content of the speeches. Perhaps the interpreter was also competent, but out of political or other consideration avoided any concretization of the idea of international understanding by giving examples?<br />
<br />
我们并不清楚在场约150名中国与会者是否认同德国发言人一直在说同一件事，或者他们是否意识到口译员仅仅描述了演讲的氛围，却没有翻译演讲的具体内容。也许这个口译者也能胜任这份工作，但是出于政治或者其他考虑，他通过举例避免将国际理解这个概念具体化。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 13:18, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在场约150名中国与会者是否认同德国发言人一直在说同一件事，或者他们是否意识到口译员仅仅传达了演讲的气氛，却没有翻译演讲的具体内容，这一点尚不清楚。也许这个口译者也能胜任这份工作，但是出于政治或者其他考虑，他通过举例说明避免将国际理解这个概念具体化。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:04, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
<br />
The listeners may also not have been aware that one of the speakers was the Lord Mayor, because his introduction and title of office by a moderator was also interpreted with: “We are delighted that we have such a good partnership that serves international understanding.”<br />
Experienced clients, on the other hand, are familiar with the quality assurance elements of the industry, such as membership in professional associations, recommendations, etc., and do not question the established fee rates.<br />
<br />
听众们可能也没有注意到其中一位演讲者是市长，因为主持人也把他的自我介绍和头衔解释成:“我们很高兴能有如此良好的合作关系，这有助于国际间相互谅解。”另一方面，有经验的客户对行业的质量保证要素很熟悉，如专业协会的会员资格、推荐信等，并且不会对既定的收费标准提出质疑。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:29, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
听众可能还没注意到其中一位演讲者是市长，因为主持人在介绍他的时候，把他的头衔解释为：“我们很高兴能有如此良好的合作关系，这有助于国际之间的相互理解。”<br />
另一方面，有经验的客户熟悉行业的质量保证要素，例如专业协会的会员资格、推荐信等，不会对既定的收费标准提出质疑。”--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 01:13, 9 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
<br />
4.1 Declining Payment Practice <br />
The 21st century witnesses the decline in payment morale, with interpreting services receiving delayed remuneration or subject to default in payment. While catering companies of the same event usually get their bills paid, interpreting services, especially for inexperienced clients, appear to be a service that cannot be concretely grasped, measured and seen. All this leads to a devaluation of the performance of the interpreter, his profession and even to a questioning of the role of an interpreter or translator in the modern age.<br />
<br />
4.1 越来越多的人不愿支付翻译服务费用<br />
21世纪，越来越多的人不愿支付翻译服务费用，译员经常被拖欠服务费。一些餐饮服务公司重复举办相同的活动，每次都能获得报酬，而对于那些没有经验的客户来说，翻译服务质量不能把握，翻译水平也不好评估，甚至他们感受不到翻译的存在，自然就低估了翻译的作用和译员的业务能力，甚至还会怀疑现代社会口笔译员存在的意义。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 08:30, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
4.1 逐降的翻译服务费用<br />
21世纪，越来越多的人不愿支付翻译服务费用，经常拖欠甚至拒付翻译薪酬。然而一些餐饮公司重复举办某些活动却总能获得报酬。尤其对那些没有经验的客户来说，翻译服务质量难以正确把控，翻译水平不好评估，及难以识别翻译。他们自然就低估了译员的能力和专业性，甚至会质疑当代口笔译员的作用。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 14:18, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
<br />
Should there really be a free artificially intelligent "conference interpreting version" of Google Translator one day, these clients will probably feel vindicated in their contempt for human interpretation.<br />
<br />
5. Networking Takes Interpreting and Translation to a New Level of Quality<br />
In the case of machine-assisted translation, for example with terminology database systems such as Trados, there are several windows/screen areas and it can be displayed how you yourself have interpreted/translated a sentence or expression in the past or how other translators have done so.<br />
<br />
如果有一天谷歌翻译真的出现了免费的人工智能“会议口译版”，那么那些客户就会理所当然的看不起人类的口译工作。<br />
<br />
5.网络将口译和笔译提升到新的水平<br />
在机器辅助翻译的情况下，例如使用Trados等的术语数据库系统，它会有好几个窗口/屏幕区域，显示你自己以前是如何翻译一个句子或一种表达的，或者其它翻译人员是如何做的。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 01:02, 9 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
如果哪天谷歌翻译真的出了免费的人工智能“会议口译版”，那么那些客户可能就会报复性的贬低人工口译了。<br />
<br />
5.网络将口笔译的翻译质量提升到了一个新水平。<br />
在机器辅助翻译的情况下，例如，在使用Trados等术语数据系统时，它会出现好几个窗口/屏幕区域，显示你自己以前是如何翻译某个句子或某种表达的，或其它翻译人员是如何翻译的。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 02:30, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
<br />
The consistent further development of such workstations for interpreters would show in real time how colleagues interpret/translate or have interpreted/translated things. This is conceivable, for example, in the case of important speeches broadcasted live, which are interpreted simultaneously by different interpreters (and possibly AI) for different clients. Thus, as in the case of simultaneous chat commentaries to a live stream, the work of different interpreters on a speech could be observed simultaneously.<br />
<br />
口译员工作站不断的发展，最终将能实时显示同事们是如何翻译或以前是如何翻译的。 这是可以想象的，例如，在重要演讲直播的情况下，由不同的口译员（可能是人工智能）为不同的客户同时进行口译。 因此，就像直播能实时聊天评论一样，可以同时看到不同口译员对演讲的翻译。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 02:12, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
此类口译员工作站的持续不断发展将实时显示口译员们如何进行翻译工作或者之前是如何翻译的。 例如，我们可以想象到在现场直播的重要演讲中，不同的口译员（可能还包括人工智能）为不同的客户同时进行翻译。 因此，就像直播中能实时聊天评论一样， 也能看到不同口译员同时对演讲进行翻译。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:14, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
<br />
If we take a closer look at this technical networking, parallels to an expanded, collective consciousness, which functions very much like the consciousness of an individual, come to mind. <br />
Artificial intelligence research focuses on the learning ability, self-perception and external perception of an individual in order to rebuild it with a machine. When a translator uses a Translation Memory (like Trados, DejaVu etc.), the artificial intelligence shows him/her how he/she him/herself has translated the same or a similar sentence earlier and, if the system is connected, how other translators have or are simultaneously translating the sentence.<br />
如果我们仔细观察这个技术网络，就会发现它与扩展的集体意识有相似之处，它的功能很像个人的意识。人工智能研究的重点是个体的学习能力、自我感知和外部感知，以便用机器重建个体。当翻译者使用翻译记忆(如塔多思、DejaVu等)时，人工智能会向他/她展示他/她自己之前是如何翻译相同或相似的句子的，如果系统连接起来，还会显示其他翻译者已经或正在同时翻译该句子的。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 07:27, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
<br />
The translator, who has several windows open (a dictionary, a speech-to-text module, a machine translation module, a translation memory etc.) may unconsciously use the hints by the artificial intelligence to produce his/her translation or interpretation.<br />
<br />
翻译人员在打开多个窗口（词典、语音文本转换模块、机器翻译模块、翻译记忆库等）的情况下，可能会无意识地利用人工智能的提示来进行笔译或口译。<br />
<br />
When a huge mass of individuals (even with different languages) react with their thoughts, comments sometimes interpretations on the same sensual impression, artificial intelligence, using Big Data analysis and self-learning algorithms, becomes more than the sum of its parts, crosses the line of swarm intelligence and may be called a consciousness.<br />
<br />
当大量的个体(甚至使用不同的语言)对他们自己的想法、评论或者解释（对于同一种感官印象）做出反应时，人工智能使用大数据分析和自学算法，变得不仅是其各个部分的总和，跨越了群体智能界限，可以被称为意识。<br />
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:55, 8 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
<br />
For example, someone is giving a speech, a global audience is watching and simultaneously commenting in their own languages. The AI can filter the most common reaction on the speech, can analyse cultural backgrounds or personality differences, can match similar comments in different languages. <br />
We have a stronger concordance of the stream of thoughts between individuals than in the purely passive reading of the texts of a foreign author between reader and foreign author.<br />
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比如，一个人演讲时，全世界都在观看并且各国观众用他们自己的母语进行点评。人工智能可以跳过那些演讲中最常见的反应，分析文化背景和个性差异，并配上不同语种的评论。<br />
与纯粹地被动阅读外国作者的文本相比，读者与外国作者之间产生的共鸣更强。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:33, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
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There are no brain cells linked between different individuals; rather the thinking during the translation work is visualized: I register how other individuals perform the same thought process and come to mostly different, but comparable, comprehensible results or even, in individual cases, to the same result. This process of constant comparison with the thinking of others is similar to the unconscious management process in the brain of the various subconscious thoughts, where the thought that is reinforced by the most similar thoughts makes it into consciousness.<br />
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不同个体之间没有大脑细胞相连。 而是将翻译工作中的想法可视化：我记录了其他人如何执行相同的思维过程，并得出了大部分不同但可比，可理解的结果，甚至在个别情况下也得出相同的结果。 这种与他人的思想不断进行比较的过程类似于各种潜意识思想的大脑中的无意识管理过程，在这种过程中，被最相似的思想所强化的思想变成了意识。--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 05:45, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
<br />
When interpreting and translating, we have clearly defined thought processes that are predetermined by the source text, thus creating a manageable and thus, to a certain extent, laboratory situation. If it is possible to reach a predominant consensus here, a transfer to the thought process management of several users of the same avatar with the same controlled environment and to livestream situations with the same uncontrolled environment would be conceivable.<br />
<br />
在进行口译和笔译时，我们已经明确定义了由源文本预先确定的思维过程，从而创造了一种易于管理的情况，或者从某种程度上说，一种各因素严格受控的情况。如果各方可能达成主要共识，那么我们相信处于同一受控环境下有相同头像的用户的思维过程转化是可以实现的，同一非受控环境下直播情况的转化也是可以实现的。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 03:41, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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在进行口译和笔译时，我们已经明确定义了由原文本决定的思维过程，从而创造了一种易处理的，从某种程度上说，各因素严格受控的情况。如果各方可能达成共识，那么我们相信处于同一受控环境下有相同头像的用户的思维过程转化是可以实现的，同一非受控环境下直播情况的转化也是可以实现的。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 13:43, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
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The next step, therefore, would be to extend this technically supported interpreting and translating work to align the thinking of different individuals in the same situations and to allow common thoughts to form and be visualized as text, for example when enough users write the same thing that is "I am us.". Individual mistakes could thus not assert themselves in the mass, so-called swarm intelligence. Of course, there are also the necessary learning processes with setbacks and nonsense.<br />
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因此，下一步将是扩展这一技术所支持的口译和笔译工作，以协调不同人在相同情况下的想法，并允许共同想法形成并可视化为文本，例如，足够多的用户写相同的内容 “我就是我们”。 因此，个人的错误无法在大众中断言自己，即所谓的集群智能。当然，也有伴随着一些挫折和废话的必要学习过程。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 02:42, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
因此，下一步将是扩展这一技术支持的口译和笔译工作，使不同个人在相同情况下的思维保持一致，并允许共同的思想形成和可视化为文本，例如，当足够多的用户写下“我就是我们”的相同内容时。因此，个人的错误无法在群体中自我断言，所谓的群体智能。当然，也有必要的学习过程，有挫折和无意义。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:08, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
<br />
The striving for meaning and for intelligent meaning is a sufficient driving factor for the establishment of a collective consciousness. Who does not shudder when we typed "How boring" during a live broadcast of the speech of the US President? These words were typed simultaneously by 13 million users and thus are selected by the artificial intelligence to be visualized as a statement of collective consciousness.<br />
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追求意义，追求智能意义，足够驱使人们建立共识。在直播美国总统演讲时，我们在屏幕上打出“太无聊了”，谁不会感到害怕？130亿网民同时打上这句话，然后人工智能将其呈现在大众面前，体现出我们的共识。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 07:49, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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追求意义，追求智能的意义，这足够驱使人们建立共识。在直播美国总统演讲时，我们在屏幕上打出“真无聊”，谁不会感到害怕？如果一千三百万网民同时打出这句话，然后人工智能将其呈现出来，这也体现出一种共识。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:28, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
<br />
On a much smaller scale shown below is the reaction “How exciting” stated by only 321 users, who therefore were unable to assert themselves. In this way, in a clearly defined setting with clearly defined rules of thought management, one could create collective meaning, e.g. by telling the progress of an action together in a digitally animated feature film, or, in the military use of artificially intelligent robots in war, by using swarm intelligence to develop/change a combat strategy simultaneously during the mission.<br />
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如下所示，只有321名用户表示“太激动人心了”，相对来说在数量上要小得多。这些人也因此无法主张自己的观点。这样来说，在一个有着清晰思想管理规则的明确环境下，人们就可以创造出集体意义。例如：通过一部动画电影来讲述一系列情节进展，或是，在战争中使用军用人工智能机器人，通过使用群体智能在任务的执行中同时制定/改变战争策略。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 02:13, 8 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
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6. Further Developing Translation and Interpreting Theories in the Present and the Near Future<br />
The history of translation and interpreting studies is as old as translation and interpreting itself, although it was established as a discipline only in the 1960s and 1970s. Translation and interpreting studies changed its paradigms already several times. In ancient times, it was prescriptive, favoring literal or free translation (or combinations like as literal as necessary, as free as possible). It later became more descriptive.<br />
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6.近来及不久的将来翻译理论的进一步发展<br />
尽管翻译学在20世纪六七十年代才确立为一门学科，但对翻译和口译研究的历史与它们本身一样悠久。翻译学的研究范式已经发生了数次改变。在古代，它是规定性的，倾向于直译或意译(或二者结合，尽可能意译，如必要则直译)。后来，翻译研究变得更具描述性。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 05:07, 8 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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6.现在和不久将来口笔译理论的进一步发展<br />
尽管翻译学在20世纪六七十年代才确立为一门学科，但对翻译和口译研究的历史与它们本身一样悠久。口笔译研究范式已经发生了数次改变。在古代，它是规定性的，倾向于直译或意译(或二者结合，尽可能意译，如必要则直译)。后来，翻译研究变得更具描述性。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 08:42, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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6.笔译理论和口译理论在当下及未来的发展<br />
笔译研究和口译研究（翻译学研究）在20世纪六七十年代被确立为一门独立学科，但该学科发展历史之悠久，不亚于口笔译自身的发展。翻译学的研究范式已经发生了数次改变，古代采取的是规定性研究，倾向于直译或意译的翻译方法(或二者结合，尽可能意译，如必要则直译)，后来则更偏向于描写性研究。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:59, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
<br />
Contrastive-linguistic approaches with equivalency as the main topic were followed by communicative and then functional approaches. Since the functional approaches also considered cultural backgrounds, it was called the “Cultural Turn”. With the Skopos Theory, the equivalence of the purpose of the source and target texts are stressed over the sacredness of the source, and the translator/interpreter gets back into the focus. Recent developments turned towards a sociology, a culture and the ethics of translation.<br />
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等效性，作为对比语言方式的主要内容，位于交流方式和功能方式之前。从功能方式考虑文化背景以来，其被称之为“文化转向”。在目的论的帮助下，源语言和目的语的目的平衡，相较于源语言的真实性，是更加重要的。之后，翻译家重新得到注意。最近相关的发展慢慢成为了一种社会科学，一种关于文化和到得的翻译。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 01:42, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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以等值为主题的对比语言学方法，其次是交际语言学方法，然后是功能语言学方法。由于功能方法也考虑文化背景，因此被称为“文化转向”。目的论强调了源语与目的语的对等，而不是源语的神圣性，使译者/译者重新成为焦点。最近的发展转向了翻译的社会学、文化和伦理学。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 07:35, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
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Algorithms have the characteristic that they do not have to understand any more, they just take a huge mass of data and come to results without knowing how. However, translation produced with these algorithms in general are of low quality. In a second step, the algorithms need to be able to learn from mistakes and adjust themselves. These translations are of better quality, but still qualitatively lower than human translations.<br />
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算法具有不再需要去理解的特征，它们只需要处理大量数据，而无需知道如何得出结果。 但是，用这些算法产生的翻译通常质量低下。 第二步，算法需要能够从错误中学习并自我调整。 这些翻译的质量较好，但仍低于人工翻译。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 02:01, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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算法的特点是无需理解，它们只需处理大量的数据并得出结果，不必知其处理方法。然而，用算法得出的翻译版本基本质量比较差。第二步，算法需要能够从错误中获取经验并自我调整。这些翻译的质量有所提高，但仍然比不上人工翻译。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 03:17, 9 October 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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算法具有无需深入理解的特点，仅仅只是处理大量数据，进而得出结果，却并不知其所以然。然而，借助算法产出的译文一般都是很差劲的。第二步，这些算法要能够吸取教训并自我调整。这样才能产出优质的译文，不过其质量还是比不上人工翻译。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 05:25, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
<br />
So before the machine can take over, it needs to understand humans better and needs to be ‘made more human’. Therefore, the understanding we gained through the different translation theories and experiences, we need to put into a complex set of rules, to enable the artificial intelligence not just to come to better results, but also to ‘understand’ why and how.<br />
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因此，在机器能够接管之前，它需要更好地了解人类，并且需要“让更多的人”。因此，我们从不同的翻译理论和经验中获得的理解，需要把一套复杂的规则，使人工智能不仅能够取得更好的结果，而且能够“理解”为什么和如何。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:04, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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因此，在机器能够代替人类之前，它需要更好地了解人类，并且需要更“人性化”。因此，我们需要把从不同的翻译理论和经验中获得的理解编入一套复杂的规则指令中，使机器不仅能够翻得更准确，而且能够“理解”为什么要这么翻和怎么翻。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 09:29, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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因此，在机器能够取代人类之前，它需要更好地了解人类，并且需要更“人性化”。因此，我们需要把在不同的翻译理论和实践中取得的认知编入一套复杂的规则指令中，使机器不仅能够翻得更准确，而且能够“理解”这么翻译的理由和方法。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 09:53, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
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The new forms of translating and interpreting are mostly managed by artificial intelligence, which applies big data analysis and algorithms on human translation and interpretation to find the most appropriate and most comprehensible translation/interpretation for a specific target text recipient. <br />
口笔译的新形式大多由人工智能处理完成，人工智能将大数据分析和算法应用于人工口笔译中，为特定目标文本的接受者找到最适合和最容易理解的笔译/口译。<br />
Therefore, the focus shifts from the person of the translator/interpreter to appropriateness (which is defined by analysis of cultural background and individual personalities) and comprehensiveness, the latter moving the focus further towards the audience.<br />
因此，翻译的重点从译者本身转向了“恰当性”(通过对文化背景和个人性格的分析来评定是否恰当)和综合性，而综合性又将重点进一步放在了读者身上。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 15:23, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The new forms of translating and interpreting are mostly managed by artificial intelligence, which applies big data analysis and algorithms on human translation and interpretation to find the most appropriate and most comprehensible translation/interpretation for a specific target text recipient. <br />
新的口译和笔译形式主要由人工智能管理，人工智能将大数据分析和算法应用于人工笔译和口译，为特定的目标文本接收者寻找最合适和最易理解的笔译/口译。<br />
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Therefore, the focus shifts from the person of the translator/interpreter to appropriateness (which is defined by analysis of cultural background and individual personalities) and comprehensiveness, the latter moving the focus further towards the audience.<br />
因此，研究的焦点从译员本身转移到通过分析文化背景和个性分析所确定的适当性和综合性上来，后者又进一步地将焦点转移到听众身上。<br />
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 16:16, 8 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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The new forms of translating and interpreting are mostly managed by artificial intelligence, which applies big data analysis and algorithms on human translation and interpretation to find the most appropriate and most comprehensible translation/interpretation for a specific target text recipient. <br />
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口笔译的新形式表现在其大多由人工智能完成，而人工智能将大数据分析和算法应用于人工口笔译中，为特定目标文本的接受者提供最适合和最容易理解的口笔译服务。 --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 03:03, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the focus shifts from the person of the translator/interpreter to appropriateness (which is defined by analysis of cultural background and individual personalities) and comprehensiveness, the latter moving the focus further towards the audience.<br />
因此，翻译的重点从译者本身转向了“恰当性”(通过对文化背景和个人性格的分析来评定)和综合性，而综合性又将重点进一步放在了读者身上。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 03:03, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
Since the translation or interpretation may look different depending on the individual recipient, the new translation and interpretation will be individualized and therefore the focus moves not just to the audience, but to the personality of the individual recipient and his/her social and cultural environment.<br />
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由于笔译或口译可能会因为接受者的不同而有所不同，因此新型笔译和口译将会注重个性化发展，其重点不仅仅针对于受众，而是针对于接受者的性格以及他/她的社会文化环境。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:42, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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由于笔译和口译可能会因为接受者的不同而有所不同，新型笔译和口译将会注重个性化发展，因此其焦点不仅仅转移到受众身上，也将关注每个接受者的性格以及他/她的社会文化环境。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 05:17, 8 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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由于笔译或口译可能会因接受者个体的不同而有所不同，所以新的笔译和口译将会是个性化的，因而翻译的焦点不仅会转移到受众身上，也会转移到接受者的个性和他/她的社会文化环境上。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:21, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
7. The New Type of Interpreting<br />
The new type of interpreting is a human-controlled, digital-technically supported hybrid form. The interpreter requires technical and digital skills and aids. Translation and interpreting can no longer take place without real-time technology, the minimum requirement is internet access. Quality-reducing factors currently include the use of lay interpreters in community situations, unqualified underpaid interpreters due to a lack of appreciation of the profession by inexperienced clients, and automatic translation programs, e.g., for various language versions of websites. However, a long-term trend toward qualitative improvement of automatic interpreting/translating through AI research can be observed, so that extrapolating past developments, even the complete replacement of the human interpreter by an AI in the future does not seem completely impossible any more.<br />
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新型口译是一种人工控制的，由数字技术支持的混合形式。口译员需要专业的数字技能的帮助。 没有实时技术，口笔译活动都无法进行，网络顺畅是最低要求。很多因素都导致翻译质量下降，其中包括，在一般交际场合请用非专业口译人员，经验不足的客户和自动翻译程序公司因缺乏专业认识低薪聘用不合格译者，例如有多种语言转换需求的网站。但是，通过人工智能研究来提高自动口笔译质量的长期趋势仍然存在，因此根据过去的发展趋势，甚至将来人工智能完全取代口译员工作也并非完全不可能。 --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 00:25, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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新形口译呈人工控制,数字科技支撑的混合形式。口译员需拥有科技和数字技能和设备。 没有了实时科技的支撑，口笔译活动无法实现，而接通网络是最基本的要求。由于客户缺乏对该行业的了解，在交往中使用业余译员，资历不够的低价译员以及使用自动翻译程序，例如多语种网站，这些都是造成翻译质量下降的因素。不过，通过人工智能的研究，我们可以观测到自动化口译，翻译质量提高的长期趋势。所以根据过去发展的推断，在未来，即使用人工智能来完全取代人类口译员也不是完全不可能的事。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 02:42, 8 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
Appropriateness as the Least Common Denominator of Translation and Interpreting<br />
Foreword by Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University, China<br />
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Interpreting theories and interpreting studies are as old as human languages. Interpreting practice is exercised as soon as two individuals meet, with verbal and non-verbal languages both being an individual and a shared thing. Every person has his or her personal language and therefore is used to processing input by interpreting.When the person modifies its output according to the recipient, this is also interpreting from the personal language into one which he or she believes is better to be understood by the recipient.<br />
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翻译理论和翻译研究和人类语言一样古老。两个人相遇那一刻，翻译实践就开始了，此时，口语语言和非口语语言都既是个人也是两人共享的事情。每个人都有自己的个人语言，因此所有人都要通过翻译来处理输入信息。某个人通过回馈信息修改输出语言，也是将自己的个人语言翻译成他所认为的能被接受者更容易理解的语言。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 08:36, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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适当性是翻译和口译的最不常见的特征<br />
中国湖南师范大学，吴漠汀的前言<br />
翻译理论和翻译研究和人类语言一样古老。两个人一碰面，翻译实践就开始了，此时，口头语言和非口头语言都既是个人又是两人共享的东西。每个人都有自己的个人语言，因此习惯通过口译来处理输入的信息。人通过接收的信息修改其输出，也是将自己的个人语言翻译成他或她所认为的能更好地理解的语言。--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 14:21, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
Similarly, a grandmother and her grandchild communicate in the (supposed) language of the grandchild, the grandmother constantly interpreting complex language into a simpler one. This concept of interpreting, also called polyphony, is still valid when it comes to different (‘national’) languages. Depending on personal language abilities, the Anglophone grandmother would also choose simple French to explain things to her francophone grandchild. And in the case of any lack of respective language abilities, she would simplify things in nonverbal communication.<br />
同样，祖母和孙辈用孙辈(假定)的语言交流，祖母会不断地把复杂的语言解释为较简单的语言。这种解释的概念，也称为复调，在涉及到不同(“国家的”)语言时仍然有效。根据个人的语言能力，以英语为母语的祖母也会选择简单的法语向讲法语的孙子解释事情。在缺乏各自语言能力的情况下，她会简化非语言交际。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 00:29, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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同样，祖母和孙辈用孙辈(假定)的语言交流，祖母会不断地把复杂的语言解释为较简单的语言。这种解释的概念，也称为复调，同样适用于用不同(“国家的”)语言进行交流的情况。根据个人的语言能力，以英语为母语的祖母也会选择用简单的法语向讲法语的孙子解释事情。在缺乏各自语言能力的情况下，她会用非语言交流的方式来简要表达自己的想法。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 06:21, 11 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
The earliest evidence of interpreters dates back to 4th millennium BCE Egypt: They were held in high esteem, they were noblemen or priests. Of course translation as opposed to interpreting needs media (text and/or images etc.). In general, translation started with the introduction of the written script and the first texts around 3000 BCE in Mesopotamia, with Ancient Egyptian and the Yi language in the area of presentday China. The earliest Chinese texts date around 1500 BCE.<br />
追溯到公元前4000年，在埃及出现了最早的口译员，他们备受崇敬，多为名门贵族或牧师神父。当然，相对于口译，翻译则需要媒介，如文本或意象等。总而言之，从公元前3000年在美索不达米亚发现书面稿件和第一份文本，以及古埃及文字和目前中国所用的彝语出现时，翻译也随之兴起。而中国的文本最早可追溯到公元前1500年左右. --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 12:34, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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最早证明口译者存在的证据可追溯到公元前四世纪的埃及，他们备受崇敬，多为贵族或者牧师。当然，翻译不是解释，需要借助媒介（文本和形象，或者单纯是形象等）。总而言之，翻译始于公元前三世纪在美索不达米亚发现书面稿件和第一份文本，以及古埃及文字和目前中国所用的彝语出现之时。而中文文本最早可追溯至公元前一千五百年。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:59, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
Along the trade route which later was called the Silk Road to Europe. Along this Trade Route, archetype stories were transported and transformed into the languages along the Silk Road, so that we find the archetype of the great flood both in the Gilgamesh Epos around 3000-2500 BCE in Mesopotamia, around 1850 BCE in Egypt, around 950 BCE in the Shijing, around 350 BCE in the Shanhaijing, in ancient Indian tales and in 440 BCE in the Old Testament (of the bible).<br />
这条贸易路线，后来被称为通往欧洲的丝绸之路。沿着这条贸易路线，原型故事经沿丝绸之路传播并翻译为各种语言，因此我们能在大约公元前3000-2500年的美索不达米亚和公元前1850年的埃及、公元前950年左右的石景，山海经和古代印度传说中记载的公元前350年， 旧约圣经中公元前440年时，都能找到这次巨大洪水的原型。--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 12:22, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
Translators had an impact on the historical development of languages. The Roman dramatist Livius Andronicus (c. 285-204 BC) wrote a Latin version of the Odyssey (250 BCE) and a number of plays commissioned for the Roman Games of 240 BCE. His translations of Greek dramas into Latin founded the Roman drama tradition and shaped the Latin language. Already in the 2nd century BC translations from Greek to Latin were so popular that, for the first time in history, two translators (Plautus and Terence) were able to make a living from it.<br />
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译者对语言的历史发展有很大的影响。罗马剧作家Livius Andronicus(约公元前285-204年)写了拉丁文版的《奥德赛》(公元前250年)，并为公元前240年的罗马游戏创作了许多剧本。他把希腊戏剧翻译成拉丁文，开创了罗马戏剧的传统，塑造了拉丁语言。早在公元前2世纪，把希腊语翻译成拉丁语就已经非常流行，历史上第一次有两位译者(普劳图斯和特伦斯)能够以此谋生。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 03:40, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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翻译者们对语言的历史发展产生了影响。罗马剧作家卢修斯·李维乌斯·安得罗尼库斯（公元前285至204年）撰写了拉丁语版本的《奥赛罗》（公元前250年），并为公元前240年的罗马游戏舞台创作了大量剧本。他将希腊的戏剧翻译成了拉丁语，开创了罗马戏剧的传统，同时也塑造了拉丁语言。在公元前2世纪，将希腊语翻译成拉丁语的翻译活动就已经非常流行了，因此历史上第一次有两位翻译者(普劳图斯和特伦斯)能够以翻译作品来谋生。--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 04:48, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
The German language, for its part, was shaped by a translator Martin Luther, who translated the Bible, commonly read in Latin at the time, into German. <br />
The prescription, to translate “word for word” was raised both in China and in Europe at a very early time: In the 5th century Dao An, Director of the Imperial Translation School, advocated strict literal translation of the Buddhist scriptures into Chinese. His prescription came from the fear to miss something from the original. It is important to mention that he did not know Sanskrit at all.<br />
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德语则是由翻译家马丁·路德塑造的，他把当时读者众多的拉丁语版的《圣经》翻译成德语。“逐字逐句”的翻译这种准则很早就在中国和欧洲提出：在公元5世纪，皇家翻译学院的院长道安主张严格将佛经翻译成中文。他这样做的出发点是因为害怕丢失一些原始的东西。值得一提的是，他根本不懂梵语。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:56, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
The Indian Buddhist monk Kumarajiva (350-410) carried out a great reform of the principles and methods for the translation of Sanskrit sutras. He advocated a free translation approach with the aim to transfer the true essence of the Sanskrit Sutras. He was the first person in the history of translation in China to suggest that translators should sign their names to the translated work.<br />
印度佛教僧侣鸠摩罗吉瓦(350-410)对梵文佛经的翻译原则和方法进行了重大改革。他主张采用意译的方法，目的是传递梵文佛经的真正精髓。他是中国翻译史上第一个建议译者在译著上签名的人。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:15, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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印度佛教僧侣鸠摩罗吉瓦（350-410）对梵文佛经的翻译原则和方法进行了重大改革，他主要提倡意译的方法，目的是传达梵文佛经的真谛。他是中国翻译史上建议译者在译著上签名的第一人。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:35, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
Dao An’s prescription was partly based upon the understanding that the original texts were somehow “sacred”. A similar dogma of literal translations of religious texts was raised in Europe and even determined an ideological battle on free/literal bible translation for centuries. The translator Dolet in 1546 was burned for adding the phrase “Rien du tout. (Nothing.)” to a rhethorical passage about what existed after death.<br />
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原文某种程度上是“神圣的”。道安的译文正是部分基于这一理解而出的。在欧洲，对宗教文章进行直译时，就有一种类似于他这种观点的教条思想，这甚至可以说是几个世纪以来对《圣经》进行直译还是意译的思想之战。1546年，翻译家多莱因为在一篇描写死后有什么东西还存在的辞藻华丽的文章里面加入了“Rien du tout. (意思是“什么都没有”)”这一短语而被处以火刑。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:57, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
Cicero in his book De optimo genere oratum (The Best Kind of Orator) opposed word-for-word translation. For the orator, the target text had to be as forceful and convincing as the original text. Horace called translators, who translated word for word “slavish”. St. Jerome in his book De optimo genere interpretandi (The Best Kind of Interpreting) in 395 CE advocated: “Non verbum de verbo sed sensum de senso.” (Not word for word but sense for sense.)<br />
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西塞罗在其著作《论演说家》中对直译持有反对意见，对于演说家来说，目标文本必须像原文一样有强大的说服力。贺拉斯称直译者为“奴隶”。圣·哲罗姆则在公元395年完成的《最好的解释》一书中提出：“不能直译，而要意译。”--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:09, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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西塞罗在其《论演说家》一书中反对逐字逐句的翻译。对演说家来说，目标文本必须与原文一样有强大的说服力。贺拉斯称逐字逐句翻译的人为“奴隶”。圣·杰罗姆在公元395年所著的《最好的解释》一书中主张“不要逐字逐句翻译，要意译。”--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 02:16, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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西塞罗在其著作《论演说家》中反对逐字逐句的翻译。对于演说家来说，目标文本必须与原文一样有强大的说服力。贺拉斯称逐字逐句翻译的人为“奴隶”。圣·杰罗姆在公元395年所著的《最好的解释》一书中主张“不要逐字逐句翻译，要意译。”--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 06:40, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
However, Apuleius altered Greek dramas beyond recognition. Quintilian understood that translations shape also the target language, which he called “enrichment”. He further developed translation studies by establishing terms like metaphrasis (word-for-word translation) and paraphrasis (sentence-by-sentence translation), later further developed by Dryden (1680). Tytler (1797) advocated instead, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, with the same style, manner and ease.<br />
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然而，阿普列尤斯采用意译方法所译的希腊戏剧却令人难以理解。昆体良认为，翻译也可以对目的语进行塑造，这一观点被其称为“增润”（enrichment）。他通过建立诸如metaphrasis（逐词翻译）和paraphrasis（逐句翻译）之类的术语发展了翻译研究，随后德莱顿（1680）对此有了进一步的完善。而泰特勒（1797）则主张，译作应该完全复写出原作的思想，拥有与原作同一性质的风格和手法，并具备原作的通顺。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:31, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
In Republican times, Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai were among the prominent advocates of a literal translation. Chinese translation studies has embraced the English term “translatology”, while internationally, the research is named “translation and interpreting studies”, which is also the term for the volume in hand.<br />
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But the dichotomy of free/literal did not shape the whole discourse in translation studies. Other dichotomies were foreignizing/localizing and imitation/re-creation (Dong Qiusi 1946).<br />
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民国时期，鲁迅和瞿秋白是直译的主要倡导者。中国翻译研究已包含英文术语“翻译学”，但在国际上，该研究称为“翻译和口译研究”，这也是手头卷的术语。<br />
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然而，意译和直译的二分法并没有塑造翻译研究的整个论述。其它二分法包括异化或归化以及模仿或再创作（董秋斯，1946）。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 01:49, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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民国时期，鲁迅和瞿秋白是直译的杰出倡导者。中国翻译研究中已涵盖“翻译学”这一英文术语，但在国际上，该研究被命名为“翻译和口译研究”，这也是我手头这卷书中的术语。<br />
但意译和直译二分法并没有决定整个翻译研究的论述，其它二分法还包括异化/归化二分法及模仿/再创造二分法。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:29, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Zeng Xinyuan<br />
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== Headline text ==<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
A prominent advocate of foreignizing was Schleiermacher in the 19th century, who advocated that the source text should shine through the target text, since thoughts would shape the language. This was further elaborated by Walter Benjamin and Ortega y Gasset. The Sapir/Whorf hypothesis is the assumption that different languages lead to a different understanding of the world.<br />
在19世纪，一位杰出的“异化”提倡者施莱尔马赫认为，因为思想塑造语言, 源文本应在目标文本中表现出来。沃特·本杰明与奥特嘉·伊·加塞特进一步详细阐述了这一点。萨皮儿/沃夫假说提出一种假设，即不同语言导致对世界不同理解。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 08:27, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Zeng Xinyuan<br />
19世纪的施莱尔马赫是异化论的著名倡导者，他主张语言的形成是由思想决定的，所以源文本应该贯穿于目的文本。沃特·本杰明和奥特嘉·伊·加塞特对此做了进一步的阐述。萨丕尔-沃尔夫假说认为不同的语言会导致对世界的不同理解。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 00:37, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
Chinese translation studies is not at all referring to a Chinese tradition of translation studies, but to translation studies dealing (also) with Chinese as a language. However, most of the research conducted in this area holds also true for other languages and therefore for interpreting and translation studies in general. It might be questioned if a Chinese tradition of translation theories exists. Students of translation studies often choose the topic “Comparison of Chinese and Western Theories of Translation”.<br />
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==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
However, they get frustrated because they cannot find elaborated theories coming from China and they end up calling normative prescriptive concepts like “xin, da, ya” (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance) by Yan Fu “translation theory”. Yan Fu’s three ideals are better called a prescriptive recommendation for practical translation strategies. Of course the ideals are questionable, for why should a postmodern poem including the stuttering line “I, I c…, I can’t breath!” be translated into an elegant line in a different language?<br />
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==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
Similarly, the “transfiguration theory” by Qian Zhongshu with his concept of the “sublime” may count as an important statement, that translation and interpreting cannot be analyzed and understood to the last resort and keep their air of mystery. However, recent neurological research and artificial intelligence research have been tackling this last resort already.<br />
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同样，钱钟书的“转化理论”和他的“化境”概念可以作为一个重要的说明，即翻译和口译不能够被分析和理解到最后，并保持其神秘性。然而，最近的神经学研究和人工智能研究已经在解决这一最后的手段了。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 14:57, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
同样，钱钟书的“转化理论”和他的“化境”概念可以算作一个重要的说明，即不能够将笔译和口译分析和理解为最后一种手段，而忽略其艺术性。然而，最近的神经学研究和人工智能研究已经在解决这一最后手段了。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 15:07, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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同样的是，钱钟书所提出的化境翻译理论，以“崇高”作为其概念，是一种重要的陈述，而笔译和口译不能被分析或理解成最后一种方式来保证其神秘。然而，最近的神经研究和人工智能研究已经开始处理这一最后步骤。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 01:43, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
Still, Chinese is an important language and it has some characteristics, which make research especially on Chinese in translation and interpreting studies valuable. One characteristic is that the meaning of a sentence may change totally until the very end of the sentence. Imagine just a “……的说法我反对。” (… is a statement I oppose.) at the end. Therefore, the decalage for conference interpreters interpreting from Chinese into other languages is quite long.<br />
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尽管如此，汉语还是一种重要的语言，并且具有一定的特征。这使得在翻译和口译的研究中对汉语的研究尤其有价值。其特征之一是，到了句子的最后，一个句子的意思还可能会完全改变。想象一下一个句子的最后是“……的说法我反对。” 因此，会议口译员将中文翻译成其他语言的时间相对较长。--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 00:50, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
Seyed Hossein Heydarian has analyzed the statistical occurrences of certain translation strategies with different pairs of languages. According to his findings, every language has a specific fingerprint of translation strategies, each fingerprint referring to specific language pairs.<br />
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The first lay interpreters naturally reflected on their interpreting work and this was the start of theories and studies. As soon as the written language was invented, critical reflection also started and with it translation theories and translation studies.<br />
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==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
The first thoughts about transferring the meaning of one language into a similar one of another language were prescriptive with precepts and principles, sometimes exaggerated into dogma with people not adhering to them being tortured or executed, especially in the religious context, when the original was declared “holy” and certain groups claimed the monopoly authority of interpreting. During translation history, the perspective changed from “prescriptive” to “descriptive”, reflecting a more neutral approach of analysis.<br />
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一开始将一种语言的含义转换为另一种相似含义的语言的想法是有规定和原则的，它有时被夸大为教条，尤其是在宗教环境中，当宣布原语言为标准或某些团体声称拥有口译权的时候。人们不会遵循这些规定而遭受酷刑或处决， 在翻译历史中，观点从“规定性”变为“描述性”，反映了一种更为中立的分析方法。--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 09:00, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
将一种语言的含义转换为另一种语言的类似含义，对于这一最初想法，人们奉为规定性原则。在某些情况下，尤其是宗教环境中，这一“原则”甚至被夸大为教条，声称原文是神圣的东西，一些团体甚至扬言有权垄断翻译。因此，人们只要是不遵守，要么接受酷刑，要么直接处死。在翻译历史中，观点从“规定性”变为“描述性”，反映了一种更为中立的分析方法。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:47, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
一开始将一种语言的含义转换为另一种相似含义的语言的想法是要遵循约定俗成的规定和原则的，它有时被夸大为教条，人们便不会遵循这些规定因而遭受酷刑或处决，尤其是在宗教环境中，当宣布原语言为标准或某些团体声称拥有口译权的时候。 在翻译历史中，观点从“规定性”变为“描述性”，反映了一种更为中立的分析方法。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 03:47, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
However, translation theory needs to be able to go beyond the description of translation to show parallels and differences between different translation processes in order to come to a generalized model which could serve to help understand the process better. Translation theories can also offer different translation methods/strategies depending on intersubjectively comprehensible criteria.<br />
<br />
然而，翻译理论不只是翻译描述，还应体现不同翻译过程之间的异同，以得出一个通用模式，从而有助于更好地理解翻译过程。翻译理论也可根据主体间易理解的标准，提供不同翻译方法/策略。<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhang Weihong|Zhang Weihong]] ([[User talk:Zhang Weihong|talk]]) 15:08, 10 October 2020 (UTC) Zhang Weihong<br />
<br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
In the Renaissance, the most extensive treatise on the topic of translation is the Interpretatio linguarum (1559) by Laurence Humphrey. It is situated in the context of a debate initiated by Joachim Périon in 1540, who analyzed Cicero’s recommendations on translation. Cicero proposed, that the purpose of a translated speech was to be persuasive, therefore the translator needed to be free in his translation and not be bound by the original and by the request of a literal translation.<br />
<br />
文艺复兴时期，在翻译这个主题上最广泛的专著是劳伦斯•汉弗莱的《翻译语言》（1559）。此专著的写作背景是约阿希姆•佩里翁于1540年发起的一场辩论，约阿希姆•佩里翁对西塞罗的翻译建议进行了分析。西塞罗提出，翻译演讲的目的是有说服力，因此译者在翻译时必须是自由自在的，不受原文和直译要求的束缚。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:30, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
Périon shifted the focus from the dichotomy of literal/free to the people involved in translation and to the interpersonal act. Humphrey understood translation as self-expression, a very modern understanding. There is an interesting new study by Sheldon Brammall (2018) in the Review of English Studies 68 (288) documenting the debate. It includes an annotation of the Interpretatio in 1570 by Gabriel Harvey. He recognized the text as an important document of early English translation studies. The text questions the applicability of the concepts in Interpretatio.<br />
<br />
佩里昂将关注点从文字或自由二分法转向了翻译人员和人际交往行为上。汉弗莱认为翻译是自我表达，这是一种非常当代的理解。谢尔顿·布拉姆莫尔在《英语研究评论68》（288）中做了一项新的有趣的研究，记录了这场辩论。这个研究包含了加布里埃尔·哈维在1570年对《翻译》的注释。他认为这一文本是早期英文翻译研究的重要文献。它对概念在翻译中的适用性提出了质疑。--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 14:03, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
佩里昂将关注点从直译或意译的二分法转向了翻译人员和人际交往行为上。汉弗莱将翻译视作自我表达，这是一种非常现代化的理解。谢尔顿·布拉姆莫尔在2018年做了一项有趣的新研究，他在《英语研究评论》第68期第288页中记录了这场辩论。这个研究包含了加布里埃尔·哈维在1570年对《翻译》的注释。他认为这一文本是早期英文翻译研究的重要文献。这一文本对概念在《翻译》中的应用提出了质疑。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 02:59, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
In the 1960s, translation was simply an element of language learning. Translations of Aesop’s Fables in several languages (including in Chinese by Jesuit missionaries in China) were efforts at transmitting language learning textbooks. Only in the 1970s, did translation studies start to become aware of itself as an academic discipline, starting with a volume edited by André Lefevere. Some scholars chose the perspective of the contrastive approach.<br />
<br />
20世纪60年代，翻译仅仅是语言学习的要素之一。《伊索寓言》多种语言的译本（包括耶稣会传教士在中国翻译的中文译本）促进了语言学习教科书的传播。仅在20世纪70年代，翻译研究开始意识到其自身作为一门学科，这一研究活动始于安德烈▪勒菲弗尔编辑的一卷书。一些学者选择从对比分析法的角度开始研究。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 04:22, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在20世纪60年代，翻译只是语言学习的一个要素。为了传播语言学习教材,《伊索寓言》被翻译成多种语言(包括耶稣会传教士在中国翻译的中文)。直到20世纪70年代，翻译研究才开始意识到自己是一门学术学科，其始于安德烈·莱弗维尔(Andre Lefevere)编辑的一部著作。一些学者选择从对比分析法的角度开始研究。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 08:29, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
Eugene Nida, a bible translator, derived theory from practice while introducing linguistic theory and formal equivalency into translation studies. He defined verbatim translation, literal translation, faithful translation, semantic translation, compilation, free translation, authentic translation and communicative translation. Later, his research was further elaborated with strong linguistic approaches and theories of equivalency and was followed by methods from discourse analysis and the speech act theory (translation as a communicative act in a social cultural context).<br />
<br />
圣经翻译家尤金·奈达在实践中总结了理论，又将语言学理论和形式对等引入了翻译研究。 他定义了逐字翻译，直译，忠实翻译，语义翻译，编译，意译，真实翻译和交际翻译。 后来，他用强大的语言学方法和对等理论以及后来的话语分析和言语行为理论（将翻译视为在社会文化语境中一种交流行为）将研究进一步完善。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 06:27, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
There was a revival of the descriptive approach, which regards the target text as most important, and then the Skopos theory, which advocats functional equivalency and values the translator as most important. In the early 1990s, as a reaction to linguistic ‘scientific’ analysis, the theoretical and methodological shift in Translation Studies towards cultural studies is primarily associated with the works of Susan Bassnett, André Lefevere, and Lawrence Venuti.<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
The volume at hand is both from practitioners in the field and scholars who embed their research in the theoretical framework of the field as well as into its development. In the field of translation and interpreting studies, the claim about Asian or Western traditions is overcome. We have international scholars from both sides whose only qualification is their expertise in the field. Still the voices are diverse, since they cover a large range of topics and perspectives, symbolizing how diverse the research is today. The key word today is transdisciplinary research.<br />
<br />
现有的这本书是由该领域的从业人员和研究理论框架及其发展的学者所编写的。在口笔译研究领域，关于亚洲或西方传统的言论已经消除。我们拥有来自亚洲和西方精通专业的国际学者。至今人们仍持有不同的声音，因为它们涵盖了广泛的主题和观点，体现着现如今研究的多样性。当今的关键词是跨学科研究。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:18, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
In translation history, especially when translation studies consisted mostly of prescriptions, ideals were pursued and equivalency was sought for, although a source text and a target text can never be totally equivalent. The myth of untranslatability was created by Wilhelm von Humboldt in the 19th century and further elaborated by L. Weisgerber in the 20th century, although everything is translatable.<br />
在翻译史上，尤其是当翻译研究主要集中在翻译方法方面时，翻译就开始追求完美和对等，即使源语和目标语根本不可能完全对等。虽然一切语言都是可译的，但是19世纪威廉·冯·洪堡创造了不可译性这个谬误，20世纪里奥·韦斯伯格又对这一观念进行了进一步阐释。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 14:57, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在翻译史上，尤其是当翻译研究主要集中在翻译方法方面时，翻译就开始追求完美和对等，即使源文本和目标文本根本不可能完全对等。虽然一切语言都是可译的，但是19世纪威廉·冯·洪堡创造了不可译性这个谬误，20世纪里奥·韦斯伯格又对这一观念进行了进一步的阐释。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 15:06, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君== <br />
It is more a question of appropriateness and acceptance of a translation. Evaluation criteria for the quality assessment of translations have been developed, although it can never objectively be judged, how far the translation result (also called “translat”) corresponds to the source text. In certain situations, it is appropriate to translate a pear into an apple (for example if the function of this fruit in the story stays the same and for the target audience apples are as common as for the source audience pears).<br />
<br />
这更多的是一个翻译的适当性和接受性的问题。翻译质量评估的评价标准已经形成，但翻译结果(又称“译文”)与原文的对应程度始终无法客观地加以评判。在某些情况下，把一个梨翻译成一个苹果是合适的(例如，如果这个水果在故事中的功能保持不变，并且苹果对于目标读者而言跟梨对于原文读者而言一样常见）。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 04:57, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
As we have witnessed during the history of translation studies, the concentration has been on the different actors in the field of translation: “Skopos” concentrating on the function for the target audience and on the person and intention of the translator, “foreignizing” the text by moving it closer to the source author (and staying loyal to him/her) or “localizing” it, thus moving it closer to the target audience.<br />
在翻译研究的历史中，我们见证了翻译领域中不同的行动者的关注:“目的论”关注目标受众的功能，关注译者的个人和意图，“异化”文本，让其更接近原文作者(并保持对原文作者的忠诚)，或者“本土化”文本，从而更靠近目标受众。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 14:30, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在翻译研究史上，对翻译领域不同角色均有所关注：“目的论”关注目标受众，注重译者自身及其目的，“异化”强调使译本尽量接近原文作者（并忠实于原文作者），亦或“本土化”，强调使译文尽量接近目标语受众。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 02:03, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
“Hybrid men-machine translation” moves the focus to the individualization of the target texts, tailoring translations to the needs of individual readers/spectators. Neurology will map the thought processes necessary to create a thinking artificial intelligence and even tackles issues like consciousness, (self-)awareness, understanding as well as artificially enhanced human translation, swarm intelligence and consciousness.<br />
“人机混合翻译”关注目标文本的个性化，以满足读者或观众的个性化需求。人们根据神经学原理打造出会思考的机器人。机器人可以向人一样思考，甚至还具有意识，自我意识，理解能力，以及人为强化人工翻译，群体意识和意识。--[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 02:28, 8 October 2020 (UTC)Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿<br />
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“人机结合翻译”关注的是目标文本的个性化，根据读者或观众的个人需求提供量身定制的翻译服务。神经学将编制出一套思维程序，必要时打造出一个可以像人一样思考的机器人，甚至还能解决问题，不仅具有意识、自我认知和理解能力，同时具有人为强化的人工翻译、集群智能和集体意识。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:52, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
Besides this trend towards individualization, there is a growing interest in sociology to understand translations as social processes and to concentrate on the interaction between the different actors.<br />
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==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
Certain things have turned out to be of eternal wisdom. It is also important to know your native language well, not just the foreign language.<br />
结果证明有些事是永恒的智慧。不仅是学习外语，学习母语也很重要。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 14:24, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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有些事本是永恒的智慧。学习外语的同时，更应擅长母语。--[[User:Zhang Weihong|Zhang Weihong]] ([[User talk:Zhang Weihong|talk]]) 15:07, 10 October 2020 (UTC) Zhang Weihong<br />
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==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
We have also witnessed a journey of theories over the centuries, which all highlight different aspects of the phenomenon. They constrain themselves to the medium, the area, the grammatical level, the text-type, to certain problems (like establishing equivalence), they are oriented at products, functions or processes.<br />
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纵观数世纪以来翻译理论的发展，都从不同方面强调了这一现象。翻译理论面向产品，功能和过程，并从媒介，地域，语法，文本类型和诸如建立对等关系等特定问题入手进行研究。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 10:21, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
All these theories are at hand today to explain different parts of the translation process. We see different functional approaches, empirical-pragmatic ones, including didactic questions instead of old normative/prescriptive translation studies, approaches from the neurological and the social sciences, all trying to become aware of the translation process.<br />
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所有的这些理论都可以用来解释翻译过程中的不同部分。我们所看到的功能派理论、经验主义-实用主义派理论（采用说教式的提问方法而非老式的规范化的翻译研究方式）以及从神经学和社会科学衍生出来的理论都在力图掌握诠释翻译的过程。--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 09:19, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
However, as Mary Snell-Hornby requested already in 1988 with her proposition of “integrated translation studies”, these theories need to be seen together as one today.<br />
<br />
然而，正如Mary Snell-Hornby在1988年提出的“整合翻译研究”的主张所要求的那样，这些理论在今天需要被看作是一个整体。<br />
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All of these theories can be boiled down to one question they serve: Is the translation appropriate? In other words, is it adequate, suitable, reasonable, fair, just, apt, situationally fitting, does it work in the target language/culture?<br />
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所有这些理论都可以归结为一个问题:这样翻译合适吗? 换句话说，它是否充分、合适、合理、公平、公正、恰当、应景，在目标语言/文化中是否仍适用?--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 08:23, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
Therefore, the “Appropriateness Theory” is the final theory of all translation theories. Of course there may be different answers to the question of appropriateness in different times and from different actors, perspectives, disciplines etc. An evaluation of the appropriateness of a translation can only be relative and never absolute.<br />
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因此，“适当性理论”是所有翻译理论中的的终极理论。 当然，从在不同的时间，不同的人群，不同的视角，不同的领域等方面来看，什么是适当性会有不同的答案。对翻译适当性的评估只能是相对的，绝不能是绝对的。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 08:55, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
因此,"得体论"是所有翻译理论的终极理论.当然,不同的时代,不同的译者,不同的观点,不同的学科对"得体论"的解释也会有所不同.对译文是否恰当的评价只能是相对的,而不能是绝对的.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 12:58, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
Therefore it is necessary to establish a system of evaluation, valuing the different aspects such as the function of the text, loyalty to the author, the ideals of literal/free translation, and how far a translation can ‘work’ in the target language.<br />
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Of historical importance is the question for appropriateness, which in turn leads us to fundamental ethical questions: Should you report things you overheard from the foreign negotiation team to your own team to enhance your own team’s chances?<br />
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==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
Is it appropriate to tell a standard joke in the target language when the country’s leader has told a racist joke? What implications does it have about the foreign country’s leader, when he laughs at your standard joke? The country’s leader may think he laughed at his (racist) joke. Is it appropriate to take over the role of a negotiation participant when you are hired for interpreting? (See the contribution in this volume.) When you are a wartime interpreter: Is it appropriate to translate propaganda and to interpret for a dictator?<br />
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==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
Is it appropriate to translate the German order “Feuer!” [Shoot!] by the German commander into French if the collaborating French soldiers would commit a crime against humanity when they understood and executed the order? Where to draw the line to refuse to translate? What consequences does it have if you refuse? What responsibilities do interpreters and translators have? The Appropriateness Theory is complex and shows us that a Code of Ethics needs to be established.<br />
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Bochum/Germany, September 30, 2020<br />
<br />
德国指挥官发出命令“开火”，把这一德语命令翻译成法语，合作的法国士兵们要是听懂并执行了，就违背了人道，那这样翻译是否恰当？在哪里划分拒绝翻译的界线？如果拒绝翻译会有什么后果？口笔译者们有什么责任？恰当性理论十分复杂，表明我们需要确立道德规范。<br />
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2020年9月30日 德国/波鸿--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 09:48, 9 October 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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当德国指挥官手下的法国士兵一旦听懂其长官用德语说的“开火”命令，就会执行军令，做出违背人道主义的行为时，是否还应该将德语的“开火”翻译为对应的法语？什么时候可以不翻？如果不翻会产生怎样的后果？口笔译译员承担着怎样的责任？适当性理论较为复杂，告诉了我们道德规范准则建立的重要性。<br />
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德国，波鸿 2020年9月30日 --[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 09:55, 10 October 2020 (UTC)</div>Hu Huifanghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201005_trans&diff=9986220201005 trans2020-10-11T07:15:49Z<p>Hu Huifang: /* Hu Huifang 胡慧芳 */</p>
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<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids<br />
<br />
Challenges for Interpreting in the 21st Century <br />
<br />
Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University/China<br />
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Abstract<br />
<br />
The world is growing in tandem with the Internet, freedom of travel and globalization. Inevitably translation and interpreting are in greater demand, especially online during the coronavirus pandemic. With the beginning of the 21st century, interpreting faces new technical and digital challenges requiring new methods of delivery. Technical developments in the course of digitization have been on the rise and are approaching real-time use simultaneous capability. The technology supporting the interpreter is becoming more and more effective, while an increasing number of systems, such as artificially intelligent programs, are competing with the human being. The interpreter must now be a technology organizer and adroitly adapt to technologically predefined interpreting situations, such as video conferences with augmented reality, tele-interpreting, etc.<br />
<br />
数字与科技辅助的现代口译<br />
<br />
21世纪口译面临的挑战<br />
<br />
马丁·沃斯勒（Wu Moting），湖南师范大学 中国<br />
<br />
世界的发展正与互联网、旅行自由化和全球化齐头并进，尤其是在新冠疫情期间，人们对线上笔译和口译的需求更大。在21世纪初，口译面临新科技的挑战，需要新的提供服务的技术手段。数字化进程下的技术发展一直在上升，并且逐渐实现实时同步的能力。口译员的使用的科技越发高效,随着科技系统数量不断增多，出现了大量与人类竞争的翻译系统，比如人工智能程序。因此，如今的口译员必须要知道如何使用科技，还要快速适应一些技术上预先设定的口译情况，比如增强现实的视频会议，电话口译等。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 09:30, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
数字与科技辅助的现代口译<br />
<br />
21世纪口译面临的挑战<br />
<br />
吴漠汀，湖南师范大学／中国<br />
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摘要<br />
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世界发展与互联网、旅行自由以及全球化齐头并进时，必然需要大量笔译与口译，在新冠肺炎疫情期间的线上工作中更是如此。在21世纪初，口译迎来技术和数字上的新挑战，需要提供新颖的服务方式。在数字化进程中，技术水平不断提高，并且逐步具备实时同步功能。技术辅助会让译员工作更加高效，但同人类竞争的系统数量（如人工智能程序）却持续增加。因此，当下的口译员必须掌握并熟练运用技术，以便快速适应技术预设的口译场景，比如利用增强现实技术的视频会议、电话口译等。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 06:27, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
<br />
The movements of migrants within the EU and the influx of refugees from crisis areas outside of it render community interpreting especially of rare languages in unprecedented demand, often resulting in the unsavory use of non-professional and sub-standard interpreters. Existential problems for the entire profession become apparent. Due to networking via the Internet, unqualified interpreters pour onto the market from low-wage countries: with dumping prices and low-quality services, they discredit the profession of the professional interpreter. Meanwhile remuneration practices have been declining, with payment of interpreting services often being delayed or payment defaulted. All these lead to a devaluation of the profession of the interpreter while digital technology throws into doubt the need for the role of the human as interpreter or translator. <br />
<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
<br />
The positive side of technological advancement is that communication (including translation and interpretation) becomes digital and therefore can be enhanced with artificial intelligence. This enhancement takes interpreting and translation to a new quality level. Translation and interpretation theory needs to adapt to translation and interpretation in the age of artificial intelligence, the focus, which has moved with the functional approaches to the translator, now moves to the target text audience. The new way of interpreting is a human, but digital-technically determined hybrid form of human-machine interactive interpretation, with due respect for the human participation expressed in the form of professional remuneration.<br />
<br />
技术进步带来的积极影响是交流（包含笔译与口译）日益数字化，于是交流可以通过人工智能得以加强。这种加强将口译与笔译水平提升到新高度。因此，相关理论需要适应人工智能时代下的笔译与口译。在过去，理论的重心从功能方法上转移到译者，而现在转移到目的语受众。新的口译方式是有人类参与的，不过是一种混合形式，即由数字技术支撑的人机交互口译，同时，以专业薪资待遇对人类译员表示尊重。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 05:00, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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技术进步带来了积极的影响，人际交往（包含笔译与口译）日益数字化，因而可以借助人工智能得到进一步加强。人际交往增多，把口译与笔译水平提升到了新高度。笔译和口译理论需要适应人工智能时代的翻译水平。过去对译者的功能方法的关注现在要转移到目的语读者上。新的口译形式不单是通过人本身，而是由数字技术支配、以专业薪酬形式表示对人类参与行为尊重的人机交传混合体。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 12:02, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
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Keywords<br />
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interpreting; artificial intelligence; simultaneous interpreting; real-time support; interpreting technology; digitalisation; interpreting software<br />
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1.Literature Review<br />
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In 2006, Honegger notes in a survey that most prospective interpreters do not use software in the interpreting booth, but work with paper glossaries which they have created with MS Word or MS Excel. Fantinuoli (2011, 50) states five years later that most interpreters still manage their terminology traditionally with MS Word or MS Excel. In 2015 20- to 30-year-old interpreting students state in a survey by Gacek that "software solutions are not sufficiently known among prospective interpreters and therefore are not used" (Gacek 2015, 82). The purpose of the present study is therefore to draw attention to the functionality of software for interpreting booths.<br />
关键词：口译，人工智能，同声传译，实时支护，口译技巧，数字化，口译软件。<br />
1、文献综<br />
在2006年，霍尼格在一份调查中写道，大多数杰出的口译家在口译室中都不会适应翻译软件，而是使用他们用文档或者表格创造出来的词汇进行工作。在2015年，一些二三十岁的口译学徒在一份调查中说：“软件翻译在那些杰出的口译者当中流传不广，所以他们不太使用。”因此目前研究的目的就是吸引翻译工作室注意到翻译软件的功效。--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 15:25, 9 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
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The conference interpreter Anja Rütten (2007) presents valuable information in her information-rich overview, Information and Knowledge Management in Conference Interpreting, and in her numerous blogs in 2013 and 2014 about experiences with hardware and software in conference interpreting. In this paper, also lists of software and technology from Drechsel's interpreting practice in 2005, 2013 are used. <br />
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Standard works on the craft of interpreting (Pöchhacker 2004; Stoll 2009) also form the basis of the present study. Only their suggestions are taken up here and they ought to be reconsidered from the perspective of support by software and technology. In addition, current individual studies are evaluated, such as on distance interpreting (Kalina 2010) and explanations on the use of office programs (Fantinuoli 2011), on web corpora (Gurevych 2013), and on Qtrans (Scholz 2008; Gacek 2015). To compare it with the analogue age, the very early Braun 1999 study on video conferencing is used.<br />
会议口译员Anja Rutten（2007）在其信息丰富的概述《会议翻译中的信息与知识管理》中提供了十分珍贵的信息。同时，在她2013-2014年的博客中，也记录了非常多在会议口译中使用软硬件的经验。在这篇文章中，同样列举了Drechesel在2005和2013年的口译实践中使用过的软件和技术<br />
标准作品的翻译工艺（Pochhacker）同样奠定了现代研究的基础。这里只采纳他们的建议， 即应该从软件和技术支持的角度重新考虑。此外， 本研究还评估了目前的个人研究，例如远距离口译（Kalina 2010），办公程序使用解释（Fantinuoli 2011）,网络语料库（Gurevych 2013）以及文档快翻。为了将它与相类似时代相比较，我们用到了1999年早期Braun的视频会议研究。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:24, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
<br />
Since software and technology are developing rapidly, a study inevitably becomes obsolete quickly. To arrive, nevertheless, at more generally valid statements, the present study focuses on developments and functionality, explaining concrete software and hardware only by way of example, with the knowledge that products are often replaced by others and that only a few can last for a long period of time. In order to get an overview of software and hardware, the current master's thesis by Gacek (2015) is used. However, it only refers to a small selection of products and does not come to generally valid conclusions. This study also addresses the polarizing discussion on how much technology and software the interpreter needs. While Spitzer provocatively speaks of the "digital dementia" of interpreters in 2012, Conway (2014) has taken a more balanced approach to the question of the cost-benefit ratio of the computer in the interpreting booth.<br />
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==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
<br />
This paper will also introduce special aspects, like problems posed by trendy community interpreting (Andres 2009) and cheap competition for interpreters, as well as placing networked communication and work on texts in the context of the development of swarm intelligence and a collective consciousness.<br />
Finally, a new type of interpreting is called for, which expects at least technical competence from the interpreter, and at most a hybrid human-machine working method. In this paper, the thesis, already passionately advocated historically, that the computer or artificial intelligence could never replace the human being in certain functions such as language (Austermühl 2004), is no longer categorically excluded.<br />
本文还会提及一些比较特别的方面，如社区口译流行带来的问题（安德烈斯 2009），口译员之间的廉价竞争以及在群体智能和集体意识发展背景下将网络通信和工作置于文本之上的问题。<br />
最后，需要一种新型的口译方式，它要求口译员至少具备技术能力，至多采取一种人机混合工作模式。在本文中，认为电脑或人工智能永远也不能取代人（Austermühl 2004）的论点已不再被绝对排除在外了，而这一点在先前早就得到了强烈的倡导。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 02:43, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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本文还将介绍一些特殊的方面，如流行的社区口译（Andres 2009）和廉价的口译员竞争所带来的问题，以及将网络通信和文本工作置于群体智能和集体意识发展的背景下所带来的问题。<br />
最后，需要一种新的口译方式，它至少要求口译员具备一定的技术能力，至多是一种人机混合的工作方式。这篇论文曾热情地鼓吹，计算机或人工智能永远不能取代人类在某些功能，如语言（奥斯特姆ühl 2004），这一观点将不再被绝对排除。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 07:42, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
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2.Simultaneous Technology/Technology Working in Real Time<br />
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While in the past technology did not allow simultaneous work support, i.e. it was not possible for translators to work with simultaneous or consecutive interpreting, this disadvantage seems to have been largely overcome technically at the beginning of the 21st century, although there are still too few apps that make use of these new possibilities.<br />
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Arguments against the positive effects of advanced technology include references to over-coding, the abundance of information, etc. These phenomena appear to be a hindrance, especially in connection with the interpreting profession, which requires the highest level of concentration.<br />
2.同步技术/实时工作技术 <br />
虽然过去的技术不支持同步工作，即翻译机器不可能做得了同声传译或交替传译的工作，但这一技术上的缺点似乎在很大程度上已于21世纪初得到了克服，虽然运用这些新技术的软件仍在少数。<br />
反对先进技术积极影响的论据包括过度编码、信息过丰等。这些现象似乎成了一种障碍，尤其是在与口译相关的、要求精力高度集中的职业中。--Chen Sha (talk) 22:10, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
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Spitzer (2012) for example, poses the question of whether computer work causes a mental deterioration of society. Rütten (2014a), on the other hand, refers to Spitzer, pointing out the advantages of the computer, arguing that it has voice output, retrievability through full-text search, spell checking, sorting, categorization and transmission functions. She suggests as a compromise: "Talking about research, challenging one's own memory and always asking about what is meant and the context - if we take this to heart, we have a good chance of making the computer a valuable training tool and an excellent assistant.”<br />
<br />
比如说，斯皮策（Spitzer）提出了计算机会否在社会上引起精神恶化这个问题。另一方面，卢腾（Rütten ）提到斯皮策的言论时，反而指出计算机有着诸多优点。卢腾称，计算机可输出声音、可通过全文本搜索进行信息检索、可检查拼写正确与否、可进行信息整理、同时还具有分类和传输功能。她建议人们用一种折中的眼光来看待计算机。人们常谈论研究、挑战自身的记忆力、总询问事物的含义和语境。如果我们用心感受那些方面，我们还是有绝佳的机会让计算机成为益处多多的训练工具和优秀的人类助手。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 05:14, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
例如，斯皮策（Spitzer）提问：计算机工作是否会引起社会的智力退化？另一方面，卢腾（Rütten）谈及斯皮策时，指出计算机的优势,认为它具备语音输出，可通过全文搜索进行信息检索，拼写检查，排序整理，分类和传输功能。她折衷建议：“如果我们谈谈研究，挑战下自身记忆力，且经常问问看这什么意思，上下文是什么—把这些事放心上，我们还是很有可能让计算机成为一款有益的训练工具，成为优秀的人类助手。”--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 05:17, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
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2.1 Technology to Support the Interpreter<br />
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2.1.1 Preparation<br />
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Even if a consecutive interpreter is standing next to the speaker, armed with a stenographer's notepad and pencil, and interprets him or her in an apparently analogous manner, even he or she cannot do without technology these days. <br />
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Even during the preparation stage, his duty of care requires him to take into account the accessible sources, some of which are electronic.<br />
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Even more technical possibilities are offered if the interpreter asked to use his own initiative receives speech manuscripts beforehand. These can be scanned, transcribed and prepared, for example by automatic color coding of verbs and realities, which Stoll (2009, 84f.) also recommends for analogue preparation, as it improves anticipation and simplifies syntactic planning.<br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
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In addition to the concrete preparation of the text to be interpreted, more general preparation can also be supported technically.<br />
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Drechsel (2005, 16f.) lists, for "preparation for the conference topic and the creation of glossaries, electronic tools such as search engines, web catalogues, topic portals, scientific websites, company or customer websites, library catalogues, online libraries, specialised services for e-publications, online magazines, newsgroups and others are used.”<br />
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Online comparison with existing acronyms/abbreviations (Stoll 2009, 85) is also helpful.<br />
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除了准备好口译稿以外，常规上还需要更多技术上的支持。<br />
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德雷克塞尔（Drechsel）（2005, 16f.）列举到，筹备会议主题，创建词汇表可以用到这些电子工具，如搜索引擎，网页目录，主题访问入口，科技网，商贸网，图书目录，线上图书馆，以及为电子出版物，在线杂志和新闻组等专门设置的服务。<br />
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此外，和现有的缩略词进行在线对比同样有帮助。（Stoll 2009,85）--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 01:44, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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除了对所要解读的文本进行具体的准备外，更多的一般性准备也可以在技术上得到支持。德雷克塞尔Drechsel(2005，16f.)列举到 ：“准备会议主题和建立词汇表时可使用的电子工具。如搜索引擎、网页目录、主题门户、科学网站、公司或客户网站、图书馆目录、在线图书馆、以及电子出版物的专业服务、在线杂志、新闻组等。"除此之外，与现有的缩略语/缩写进行在线比较(Stoll 2009, 85)也很有帮助。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 02:38, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
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Of course, ad hoc knowledge acquisition (Gile 2009) prior to the conference also counts as preparation, such as requesting speech manuscripts and presentations, often in file form. Preparation does not only take place in the weeks before the assignment ("advance preparation", Gile 2009), but also on site a few minutes before the assignments ("last minute preparation", Gile 2009) and during the interpreting breaks ("in-conference preparation", Gile 2009). Stoll categorizes the areas of interpreting preparation as "general technical", "terminological" and "interpreting strategy" (Stoll 2009, 86).<br />
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当然，会议之前特别知识的获取（Gile 2009）也可以作为准备工作，例如要求演讲稿和演示文件,通常以文件的形式。口译员不仅需要在会议前几周做准备（“提前准备”，Gile 2009），而且在会议前几分钟（“最后一刻的准备”，Gile 2009）和口译休息期间（“会议中的准备”，Gile 2009）也需要做准备。 斯托尔(Stoll)将口译准备工作分为“通用技能”“专业知识”和“口译策略”三个方面（Stoll 2009，86）。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 16:22, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
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Here, search engines or electronic dictionaries are often faster than paper dictionaries. Moreover, if, for example, the conference program/list of speakers is updated on a website, the interpreter can adjust his or her planning by accessing the website without further consultation with the client.<br />
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In principle, all technical aids should meet the requirements of being user-friendly, having a fast or real-time response time and being manageable.<br />
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在当前的情况下，通过搜索引擎或者电子词典查询信息往往比纸质词典要快。例如，如果会议安排又或是发言人名单在网站上更新了的话，口译人员可以通过访问网站来调整他或她的计划，而无需与客户进一步协商。<br />
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原则上，所有技术辅助工具都应满足客户的需求、迅速或实时给予客户回答且易于客户管理。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 14:41, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在这种情况下，搜索引擎或电子词典通常比纸质词典更便捷。 此外，例如，如果网站更新了会议程序或者发言人列表，则口译员可以通过访问该网站来调整其计划，而无需与客户进一步协商。<br />
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原则上，所有技术辅助工具都应便于用户使用，能快速或实时响应以及易于管理。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 16:37, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
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2.1.2 Speech to Text in Real-time with Low Error Rate<br />
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Every smartphone today has a mode or apps with which it records speech and converts it into text in real time with a now justifiably low number of errors. <br />
This simple function alone is valuable for the apparently analogue consecutive interpreter: He can put his shorthand pad in a folder in which, for example, the smartphone is inserted on the left and has written down the spoken text as text. <br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
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While he works with his notes in interpreting notation on the right, as he used to do on the right, and can insert the pen into a holder on the folder if necessary, the transcription on the left enables him to find his way back into the context at a glance or, at most, with a wiping movement in the event of a pause in his hesitation (colloquially known as a 'hang up') or even a 'blackout'.<br />
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Drechsel (2013) demonstrates the use of the following programs/websites on the Ipad (which helps him to concentrate on individual processes): Documents (manages documents and allows editing), Interplex, LookUp (terminology databases), Wikipedia, Google.<br />
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当口译员做笔记时，正如他以往那样，把口译符号标注在右边，如果需要的话，他可以把笔插入文件夹上的笔盒中。瞥一眼左边的标注，他就能回到上下文中，或者，万一他犹豫，停了一下（俗称“挂机”），甚至“停电”了，最多抹去计算机中的信息就好了。<br />
<br />
德雷克赛尔（Drechsel）展示了如何在Ipad上使用以下程序/网站(这有助于他专注于单个进程)：Documents(管理文档并允许编辑)，Interplex，LookUp(术语数据库)，维基百科，谷歌。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 06:50, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
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Tablets like the Ipad have the following advantages over the conventional laptop, notebook or netbook in the cubicle: They are lighter, smaller, handier, the battery lasts longer, typing is silent, you can use apps, your work is not interrupted by updates or pop-ups, you can take notes by hand and record things in the background for archiving or follow-up. Of course, due to the data protection regulation, the consent of the client must be obtained before recording.<br />
<br />
平板电脑，如苹果平板电脑，相比传统笔记本电脑、室内台式电脑有着很多优势：更轻巧便携，电池耗电慢，无声键盘，可以使用各种软件，而且不会受到更新或者弹出窗口的困扰，可以用手记笔记，可以将信息记录在后台以存档或日后查看。当然，根据数据保护规定，进行信息记录前，平板会先征取使用者的同意。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 06:20, 9 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
<br />
与传统笔记本电脑，纸质笔记本以及室内便捷式电脑相比，平板电脑，如苹果平板电脑（Ipad）更具备以下优势：他们更小巧轻便，电池续航能力强，静音键盘，软件流畅，工作时也不会被更新提示或弹出窗口打断，人们还可以用手记笔记，并在后台记录以便存档或后续跟进。当然，由于数据保护规定，在进行记录前必须征得客户同意。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 06:20, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
比起传统的笔记本电脑、台式电脑，平板电脑，如iPad，有以下优势：平板电脑更轻巧便携，电池续航更持久，打字声也更小。你可以使用各种软件，而且工作也不会被更新或弹窗所打断。你可以手写笔记，还可以在后台记录文件以便存档或日后查看。当然，根据数据保护规定，在记录之前必须征得客户的同意。--Chen Sha (talk) 22:15, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
The disadvantage of not being able to see several windows at the same time appears to be an advantage to Drechsel (2013) from his personal experience, because it allows him to concentrate better on one thing. However, he neither has all the Office applications with him nor his domestic terminology databases. A possible compromise could be a laptop with a touchscreen.<br />
<br />
从德雷克塞尔（(Drechsel） (2013)的个人经历来看，不能同时看到几个窗口的缺点似乎是一个优势，因为这使他能够更好地专注于一件事。然而，他既没有所有的Office应用程序，也没有国内术语数据库。可能的折衷方案是用一台带有触摸屏的笔记本电脑。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 15:24, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
从德雷塞尔(Drechsel)(2013)的个人经历来看，不能同时看见几个窗口同时也是一个优点，因为这样可以使更好地专注于一件事儿。然而，他既没有办公软件地应用，也没有国内术语语料库。唯一一点好的就是他有一台触屏笔记本电脑。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:52, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
从德雷克赛尔的个人经历来看，他认为不能同时看到几个窗口这个缺点似乎是个优点，因为这让他可以更专注于一件事上。然而，他既没有所有Office办公软件，也没有国内术语数据库。一种折衷方法就是拥有一台触屏笔记本电脑。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:43, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
2.1.3 From Text in Source Language to Text in Target Language<br />
<br />
Not yet very professional but available as prototypes are transcription systems that offer a translation in a second screen (e.g. translator.google.com, fanyi.baidu.com, for European languages DeepL.com) in addition to the real-time transcription of the source language presented in 1.1.1. On the smart device, for example, an upright screen can be divided into an upper transcription area and a lower translation area. <br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
Here, too, constant trial and error is required to improve the quality of the interpretation. It is also individually different how much different information the individual interpreter is able or used to process. If the flow of data is too large, there is a risk that concentration or the flow of production will be impaired.<br />
<br />
2.1.4 Keyword Cloud<br />
<br />
Helpful for the interpreter's work is the insertion of key terms and their translation into the target language in real time in the form of dynamic clouds, i.e. in real time and the longer a pause before the interpretation of the relevant term lasts.<br />
<br />
这里也是如此——提高口译质量需要不断进行试错。同样，每位译员本身能够，或者是说适于处理不同信息的数量也有差别。如果数据流太过庞大，就会存在译者专注度降低或是译文产出量减少的风险。<br />
<br />
2.1.4 关键词群<br />
<br />
输入关键词或者通过动态云即时将源语转化为目的语，这对译者的工作大有帮助。比如：在对相关术语进行口译之前及时停顿或停顿更长时间。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 02:22, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
这里也是如此,提高口译质量得不断尝试，不断纠正。每个口译员能够处理，或者习惯处理多少条不同的信息，也是因人而异的。如果数据过于庞大，那译者专注度或产出量就有下降的风险。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 07:16, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.1.4 关键词群<br />
输入关键词，通过动态云，实时转化成目的语，这对译者工作大有帮助。也就是说，这能帮助口译员实时转换，且在口译相关术语前，能停顿更长时间了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 07:14, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
In my opinion, the development of a corresponding app would be a desideratum. It would not be used intensively, but would be conceived as an additional screen for the corner of the eye, which is preferably perceived subconsciously and which one can turn to when one has a hesitation pause and is looking for stimulation. Here, terms that have been interpreted according to the proposal should turn green and others grey. It should be possible to turn back the displayed cloud by fractions of a second in the timeline by pointing and wiping. Of course, it should be capable of learning, i.e. it should be able to memorize frequent non-standard translations and offer them itself.<br />
<br />
In the post-processing phase, the program should offer a list of terms to be practised and has the non-standard translations approved manually by the interpreter.<br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
2.1.5 Effects of Technology<br />
<br />
The interpreting profession has changed due to hardware and software development, especially since the 1990s, which has essentially made interpreting easier and better. Whether a technology or an app makes it into the consecutive or simultaneous interpreting situation and even into the interpreting booth is subject to the highly subjective decision-making power of the individual interpreter, just like the interpreting notation, which varies from person to person. New techniques should only be tried out if they bring about a real improvement in use.<br />
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2.1.5 科技的影响<br />
<br />
电脑软硬件的不断升级使得口译的专业程度也逐步提高，20世纪90年代以后，软硬件的发展让口译更加简便的同时，也提高了口译的准确性。一种技术或一款软件能否应用于交传、同传甚至是口译箱，极大程度上取决于译员本身，和口译符号一样，译员与译员之间各有不同。新的技术只有真正带来革新才能投入使用。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 01:49, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.1.5 科技的影响<br />
<br />
20世纪90年代以来，由于电脑软硬件的升级，口译的专业性也不断提高，这在降低了口译难度的同时，也提高了其准确性。正如译员之间口译符号各不相同，一种科技或一款软件能否应用于交传、同传甚至是口译箱，极大程度上取决于译员本身。新科技应该加以试验，以检测其是否能带来革新。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 02:07, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1.5 科技带来的影响<br />
电脑软硬件设施的完善使口译员的职业发生了改变。特别是自20世纪90年代以来，译员的工作变得更加方便和成熟。正如不同译员间的口译笔记符号是有差别的一样，一项技术或软件能否被应用在交传或者同传的场合或者进入同传箱，取决于译员个人的主观决断。新的技术只有在实际使用中带来进步，它才有被尝试的价值。--[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 02:53, 8 October 2020 (UTC)Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿<br />
<br />
==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
It is not in anyone's interest to use the latest technology for its own sake if this means a loss of quality in the interpretation. Conversely, an interpreter should be open to accept new techniques and software if they can improve his work.<br />
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2.1.5.1 The Presence of the Interpreter at the Place of Assignment<br />
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The interpreter can influence physical and spatial matters by being present at the place of assignment:<br />
<br />
a) He/she can acquire vocabulary in advance in exchange with the client, compile vocabulary lists, practise them and also physically take them into the booth as paper printouts or on the screen.<br />
并不是所有人都会喜欢用这些最新的科技产品，如果它们使得口译的质量产生了折扣。相反，一个口译人员应该以包容的心态来接受这些新技术，如果它们可以帮助提高工作质量的话。<br />
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2.1.5.1 在会议室的口译员<br />
<br />
当口译人员在会议室的时候可以对周围的事物产生一定的影响：<br />
<br />
a) 他/她可以提前与客户交流得到所需词汇，然后整理成表，不断联系，最后切实的打印出来带入口译间或显示在其屏幕上。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 08:12, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
如若使用最新的科技产品导致口译的质量大打折扣，出于个人利益，不是所有口译员都会此感兴趣。相反，如若它们可以帮助提高口译工作质量，口译员都会以包容的心态来接受这些新技术产品。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:47, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
b) He can request speech manuscripts in advance or speak directly to speakers on site and ask for a copy of their speech manuscripts.<br />
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c) In case of early contact with the Interpreter Equipment Company, he may be able to influence positioning the interpreting booth so that he can see the speaker and the PowerPoint presentation. In the case of video conferences (e.g. by zoom, voom/Tencent Meeting, BigBlueButton, Skype, Tencent Classroom, MS Teams etc.), he can make sure that he can see all the speakers, including those who appear on screens, so that he can also recognize non-verbal signals and incorporate them into the interpretation. In principle, it is recommended that the interpreter is also shown on screens or in video conferences on a small side window in order to better understand the interpretation.<br />
<br />
b)他可以提前要取演讲稿或者直接跟在场的讲话者要一份他们演讲稿的复印版。<br />
<br />
c)如果译者早一些与翻译设备公司沟通交流的话，他也许能够选择口译室的位置，这样的话他就可以看见讲话人和幻灯片演示文件。如果是视屏会议（如zoom,腾讯会议,BigBlueButton,Skype,腾讯课堂，MSTeams等），他要确定他能够看见所有的讲话人，包括那些出现在屏幕上的，这样的话他就可以识别一些非语言信号，并且将其融入翻译中。原则上，为了让大家更好地理解翻译，译者也应该出现在镜头里面或者视频会议地小窗口里面。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:45, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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b)他可以提前请求得到手稿或者直接和在场发言人交流并申请一份演讲手稿的复印件。<br />
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c) 如果有提前和口译设备公司沟通过的话，他就可以确定口译间的位置，这样他就可以看到发言人人和播放的幻灯片。在视频会议中（比如zoom，腾讯会议，BigBlueButton,Skype,腾讯课堂，MS Teams 等等）他就可以确保他能看见所有的发言人，包括那些在屏幕上的，这样他就可以收集到非口语的信息，将其整合到口译当中。 原则上，口译人员也应当出现在屏幕上或者在视频会议的一个侧边窗口，这样他就能更好的进行翻译工作。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 08:50, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
d) Before the event, the interpreter can be introduced to the interpreting equipment by the technician and test the audio system, determine and announce the channel-language assignment (experienced clients post these and instruct the staff who issues the receivers to inform the participants of the assignment), adjust the volume of the headphones and arrange the aids on the work table.<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
e) He/she can coordinate with his/her interpreting colleague regarding, e.g. glossaries, agenda, and exchange documents, then both can determine the approximate intervals between changes or simply notice during the assignment if the colleague is at a loss and give a helping hand with writing a missing term on a piece of paper. He/she can also nudge him/her to draw his/her attention to something. He/she can share glossaries and documents electronically, e.g. with the Interplex program simply with a swipe to the left. He/she can also take over the interpretation prematurely in case of exhaustion of his/her colleague.<br />
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
The number of distance interpreting assignments has already been increasing before the coronavirus pandemic, but with Corona, it exploded. Before Corona, a combination of telephone and web communication was used. With the coronavirus pandemic, Zoom was used more frequently and the Business version comes with a conference interpreter menu.<br />
<br />
AIIC, BDÜ, European institutions and other international organizations agreed (Kalina 2010) on the following conditions as minimal professional standards for distance interpreting:<br />
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在冠状病毒大流行之前，远距离口译任务的数量已经增加，但随着疫情的爆发，这种现象激增。 在电晕之前，电话和网络通讯是结合使用的。 随着冠状病毒大流行，Zoom被更频繁地使用，而Business版本则带有会议解释器菜单。<br />
AIIC，BDÜ，欧洲机构和其他国际组织就以下条件达成了共识（Kalina，2010年），作为距离传译的最低专业标准：--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 07:15, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
- As a rule, a direct view of the room should be possible.<br />
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- To avoid multilingualism, distance interpreting should only be used in exceptional cases when more than six active languages are spoken. But even then, as many booths as possible should be available in the room and the booths of the distance interpreters should not be too far away.<br />
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- High-definition monitors should be installed in front of and not in the booths.<br />
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- The remote interpreter should be able to communicate directly with the client and the cameramen.<br />
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- Teams should regularly consist of a minimum of three remote interpreters".<br />
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-通常，口译场所应该有良好视野。<br />
-为了避免使用多种语言，远距离口译只能在特殊情况下使用六种以上活动语言。但即使这样，房间里也应该有尽可能多的口译箱，远距离口译员的口译箱也不应该太远。<br />
-高清显示器应安装在口译箱前，而不是口译箱内。<br />
-远程翻译员应该能够直接与客户和摄像师通信。<br />
-翻译小组应定期由至少三名远程口译员组成”。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 01:42, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
-通常，口译场所应该有良好视野。<br />
-为了避免使用多种语言，只有在需要使用六种以上语言的特殊情况下才能采用远距离口译。但即便是在这样的情况下，房间里也应该有尽可能多的口译箱，而且口译箱离远距离口译员也不应该太远。<br />
-高清显示器应安装在口译箱前，而不是口译箱内。<br />
-远程翻译员应能直接与客户和摄像师交流。<br />
-通常情况下，翻译小组应由至少三名远程口译员组成”。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:27, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
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==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
2.1.5.2 Higher Validity through Explanation and Correction Functions<br />
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In the university lecture hall, students critically accompany, verify and check for errors in the statements of the lecturer by simultaneously reading in Wikipedia, Baike Baidu, etc., and in search engines such as Google, and Baidu and, if necessary, manually validate or question the statements in accompanying chats (e.g. in the WhatsApp or WeChat group of the course). In a technically mediated interpreting situation, it is now possible to show alternative translation suggestions to participants. This is useful in reducing misunderstanding when a) politically/religiously/culturally sensitive terms appear, b) different groups of recipients may have different understanding of the same term, for instance, a socialist-authoritarian country and a liberal-democracy] state perceive political ideologies, systems and concepts through a spectrum of shades and hues. Recognition of the various nuances, the multifaceted implications and the degree of value-laden presumptions for each individual recipient serve to ease tension and foster communication.<br />
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
2.1.6 Special Features in the Booth<br />
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同传箱的特别之处<br />
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Computers or smart devices allow you to view presentations, documents and notes. However, reference by typing during the interpreting process is hardly possible due to time constraint. Therefore, text to speech and speech to text modules become more important.<br />
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电脑和手机使你能够观看展示，阅读文件和笔记，但是由于时间的限制，在口译的过程中通过打字来查阅资料几乎是不可能的，因此，文本到语言和语言到文本的模块就变得更加重要了。<br />
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In exceptional situations, such as a 'blackout' or a hesitation break, the technique of stalling, i.e. inserting neutral expressions without new information together with deceleration of the target text production, could be useful strategies (Pöchhacker 2004, 132ff).<br />
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在一些特殊的情况下，比如译员突然头脑空白或因为犹豫没有翻译，拖延可能会是一个有用的技巧，比如插入没有感情色彩的表达，它们没有新的信息，但是减缓了目的语产出的进程(Pöchhacker 2004, 132ff)。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 01:13, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
2.1.7 Software Examples<br />
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When naming selected software, I follow the list and evaluation of Janovska (2011).<br />
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To this day, interpreters continue to manage their terminology with Office programs such as Word or Excel (Fantinuoli 2011, 50). However, searching is cumbersome with Ctrl+F, and only the first entry found is displayed. Better suited are Interplex simple, LookUp (search without Enter key, which also has a separate module for Word, Janovska (2011, 80); it also has input fields such as customer, topic and project for additional information, terminology extraction, vocabulary trainer, semantics filter and sorting functions, Honegger (2006, 2) and Rütten (2014f), Terminus (a) good multilingual terminology management system and TermDB developed by conference interpreter Christian Vogeler but discontinued in 2012. But here, too, Fantinuoli (2011, 51) complains that the hit rate cannot be reduced by stop words and that the errors in the glossary cannot be corrected.<br />
2.1.7软件范例<br />
在命名选定的软件时，我遵循Janovska（2011）的列表和评估。<br />
时至今日，口译员仍在使用Word或Excel等办公程序管理他们的术语（Fantinuoli 2011，50）。但是，使用Ctrl+F进行搜索很麻烦，并且只显示找到的第一个条目。更适合的是Interplex Simple，Lookup （搜索时无需回车键，且也有单独的Word模块，Janovska（2011，80）；它还具有客户、主题和项目等输入字段，以获取更多信息，术语提取、词汇训练器、语义过滤器和排序功能，Honegger（2006，2）和Rütten（2014f），Terminus（一个）良好的多语言术语管理系统和由会议口译员Christian Vogeler开发的TermDB，但在2012年停产。但是在这里，Fantinuoli（2011，51）也抱怨说，使用停用词无法降低点击率，并且词汇表中的错误也无法得到纠正。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 02:17, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
Gacek (2015) presents numerous programs: Interpreters' Help (Gacek 2015, 55), a new browser-based web application from 2014 for all browser-based operating systems and for Boothmate for Mac OS X. It offers the possibility of synchronization offers with fast search function. The currently available beta version and the license for students are free of charge.<br />
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Gacek (2015, 56) also introduces the Glossary Assistant program, which is still in development. It presents glossaries clearly on tablets, - the focus is not on mobile phones, - and makes them editable, see also Rütten (2014g) and Martin (2014). The program is currently only available for Android tablets and is free of charge.<br />
<br />
Gacek(2015)提出了许多程序，如“口译助手” (Gacek 2015, 55)。口译助手是新型的基于浏览器的网页应用，从2014年起，适用于所有基于浏览器的操作系统和Mac OS x的Boothmate，提供了同步翻译的可能性和快速搜索功能。目前可供学生使用的测试版和许可证都是免费的。Gacek(2015, 56)还介绍了仍在开发中的“词汇助理”。这一程序能将词汇表清楚地呈现在平板电脑上(重点不在手机上)，使它们可编辑，参见Rutten (2014g)和Martin(2014)。该程序目前只免费适用于安卓平板电脑。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 06:18, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
<br />
The Intragloss program, which Gacek (2015, 57) presents, was "developed by AIIC conference interpreter Dan Kenig and software developer Daniel Pohoryles". "The aim of the program is to facilitate the creation and use of even extensive multilingual glossaries". "Glossaries can be created directly within a preparation document or within a website.” Gacek values this as “very useful” and gives the example “making a list of problematic terms after receiving a last-minute document”. He also points to the fact that “Appropriate filter and sorting functions alphabetical, by website, by chronological order are also provided. A glossary created from a web page is automatically updated, which is an advantage for future. Like InterpretBank software, Intragloss also offers the possibility of automatic translation of terms, with the search for translation suggestions in large translation portals (IATE, GDT, Linguee, Termium, WordReference, etc.). Other useful functions include the clear comparison of different language versions of a document". A free trial version is available for Macintosh devices, see also Kenig (2014).<br />
Gacek（2015,57）提到的Intragloss程序是由“AIIC会议口译员Dan Kenig和软件开发者Daniel Pohoryles共同开发的”。“该程序旨在促进更广泛多语言术语表的创建与使用”。“术语表可在现有文件或网站上直接创建”。Gacek认为该功能非常有用，并举例指出“在接受最新文档后，该程序便可罗列出其中的问题术语”。他还指出，“该程序还支持适当的排序功能，可以按照字母，网站和时间顺序来进行排序。网页创建的术语表还能自动更新，这在未来是一大优势”。像InterpretBank软件一样，Intragloss也为自动翻译术语创造了可能，只要在大型翻译门户网站（例如IATE, GDT, Linguee, Termium, WordReference）搜索翻译建议即可。除此之外，另一有用的功能便是明确对比文件的不同语言版本。Macintosh设备提供了免费试用版，另请参见Kenig（2014）。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:20, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
Gacek (2015, 61-63) tests and describes in detail the InterpretBank program in version 3 2014, which aims to "provide interpreters with a sophisticated corpus-linguistic tool". "InterpretBank was developed by Claudio Fantinuoli, a graduate interpreter working in the Department of Translation, Linguistics and Cultural Studies at the Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz" (Gacek 2015, 62). "InterpretBank is a modular tool that provides interpreters with computer support in the field of knowledge and terminology management before, during and after a simultaneous interpreting assignment" (Gacek 2015, 63). Gacek lists the three modes offered by the program: "TermMode: Module for creating and managing glossaries; in addition, various functions can be used, such as automatic translation of terms and searching for definitions from the Internet. MemoryMode: Module for visual memorization of bilingual glossaries. ConferenceMode: Module for cabin-friendly reference during the interpretation." (Gacek 2015, 63).<br />
Gacek（2015,61-63）测试并详细地描绘了2014年第三版的InterpretBank程序，旨在“给口译员提供一个高级的语料库语言工具”。“该程序由约翰尼斯·古腾堡美因茨大学语言和文化研究所翻译部的一个研究生口译员克劳迪奥·范蒂努利开发”(Gacek 2015, 62)。“InterpretBank程序是一种模块化的工具，在同声传译中，为口译员在同声传译任务之前、期间和之后的知识和术语管理领域提供计算机支持”(Gacek 2015, 63) 。Gacek列举了该程序提供的三种模式：“术语模式：创建和管理词汇表的模块；此外，口译员可使用各种功能，如术语的自动翻译以及从互联上搜索定义。记忆模式：双语词汇表的视觉记忆模块。会议模式：在翻译过程中提供友好参考模块”(Gacek 2015, 63)。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 11:57, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
<br />
Rütten (2014) judges: "Very user-friendly, many nice functions; organised by glossaries (which, technically speaking, are subject areas tagged to each entry), has all the essential data categories (customer, project etc.) and a very nice flashcard-like memorising function. The quick-search function ignores accents. It is limited to five languages and you cannot add endless numbers of individual data fields.<br />
Intrepretbank is platform independent, works on Windows, Mac and Android (Gacek 2015, 63), costs 69 Euro, for students 39 Euro, university teachers (and their students) get a free demo license.<br />
<br />
The interpreters also use very simple websites and programs such as the search engine Google, the Internet encyclopaedia Wikipedia, dictionary programs such as Langenscheidt and systems for teamwork such as Google Docs. Typical concordance programs are WebSleuth, WebResearch, Black Widow, Site Ripper.<br />
<br />
Rütten (2014) 认为“--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 12:43, 10 October 2020 (UTC)非常友好的用户页面，很多不错的使用功能，附有单词表（严格说来，这是每个条目所标记的主题区域），具有所有必要的数据类别（如客户、项目等等），以及非常不错的类似于抽认卡的记忆功能。”快速搜索功能可以忽略口音的差异。Intrepretbank独立于平台，可在Windows，Mac和Android上运行（Gacek 2015，63），费用为69欧元，学生为39欧元，大学教师（及其学生）获得免费的登录许可证。翻译者也会使用一些非常简单的网站和程序例如例如搜索引擎Google，互联网百科全书Wikipedia，字典程序（例如Langenscheidt）和团队合作系统（例如Google Docs）。典型的团队协作软件有WebSleuth, WebResearch, Black Widow, Site Ripper。<br />
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--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 13:01, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
<br />
Terminology extraction enables Easy Concordance, and Concordance. Text to speech can handle most operating systems (Microsoft Windows, Macintosh Operating System), there are also special programs for it like Ivona Reader (from 49 €) with the free MiniReader version, TextAloud (19.99 €). There are programs for fast reading (so-called "Improved Reading") like "A Faster Reader" (for Android smart devices) and programs for managing documents like the app "Documents" (for Apple iOS), in which among other things search functions can be used and a web browser can also be opened, or OneNote. The website www.wortwarte.de is supposed to present neologisms, but it is not up to date (visited September 11, 2020 by M.W.).<br />
<br />
术语摘录使简单词汇索引以及词汇索引成为可能。大多数操作系统都具备文语转换功能（如微软视窗、Macintosh 操作系统），还有一些特殊软件也会用到文语转换，例如带有免费微型阅读器的Ivona 阅读器（49欧元起）以及TextAloud （19.99欧元起）。像“A Faster Reader”(安卓手机系统)这样的用于快速阅读（所谓的“拔高阅读”）的软件，以及文献管理软件，例如“Documents”(苹果手机系统)，都具备搜索、网页浏览或者电子笔记功能。www.wortwarte.de是一个提供新词的网站，但它并不是一个最新的网站版本。（M.W.于9月11日访问过这个网站）--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 01:16, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
术语提取使简单词汇索引以及词汇索引成为可能。大多数操作系统都具备文字转语音的功能（如Microsoft Windows、Macintosh 操作系统），还有一些特殊软件也有此功能，例如带有免费微型阅读器的Ivona 阅读器（49欧元起）以及TextAloud （19.99欧元起）。像“A Faster Reader”(安卓手机系统)这样的用于快速阅读（所谓的“拔高阅读”）的软件，以及文献管理软件，例如“Documents”(苹果手机系统)，都具备搜索、网页浏览或者电子笔记功能。www.wortwarte.de是一个提供新词的网站，但目前还未更新。（M.W.于9月11日访问过这个网站）--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 01:16, 9 October 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 13:01, 10 October 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 13:01, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
<br />
The program BootCaT creates topic-specific web corpora: "The users first define the search terms. Then, web pages are collected, which contain the combination of these search terms", see Gurevych (2013, 546). At the end a text corpus is created, “with which one can quickly get an overview of the content and terminology, for example, of the keywords ‘energía solar’ in Spanish or ‘solar energy’ or ‘solar power’ in German”, see Rütten (2008).<br />
程序BootCat 创建特定主题的网络语料库：“用户要首先定义搜索词，然后收集包含这些搜索词的组合的网页“，详见Gurevych(2013,546).最后创建了一个语料库，“通过该语料库可以快速检索内容和术语，例如，关键词西班牙中的‘energía solar’或德语中的‘solar power’，详见Rütten (2008)。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:56, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
BootCaT程序创建了一个定题网络语料库：“用户首先明确搜索词，然后语料库会收集各种网页，其中包含所有这些搜索词”，参见Gurevych(2013,546)。最后，BootCat创建了一个文本语料库，“通过该语料库，人们可以迅速概览一些内容和术语，例如，可以搜索关键词，西班牙语中的‘energía solar’或德语中的‘solar energy’ or ‘solar power’”，见Rütten(2008)。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 10:00, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
程序BootCaT创建特定主题的网络语料库，“首先，用户要确定搜索词，然后包含这些搜索词的网页会被收集起来“，详见Gurevych(2013,546)。最后创建的是一个文本语料库，“通过该语料库可以快速检索内容和术语，例如，西班牙中的‘energía solar’或德语中的‘solar energy’和‘solar power’，详见Rütten (2008)。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 06:31, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
In addition, there are Termprofile, Endnotes, Qtrans-Search Bar. The latter is rated by Gacek (2015), 50 as "no pop-up windows, faulty queries or other inconveniences". Also Scholz (2008) presents Qtrans: "One of the great advantages of the tool, however, is its low threshold: the software can be used without training, is system-independent, requires no installation and is immediately ready for use.” Scholz also explains, that it is not based on its own search technology, but passes parameters to other services; “therefore it is easily adaptable and can integrate any internal and external data sources via HTTP” (Scholz 2008).<br />
此外，还有Termprofile, Endnotes, Qtrans等搜索栏，后者在2015年被Gacek评为“没有弹窗困扰、错误查询和其他不便之处”。在2008年Scholz这样介绍Qtrans搜索栏：“不过，该工具最大的优点之一就是它的门槛低，这款软件无需培训就能使用，独立于电脑系统，不需要安装就能使用。”Scholz还解释说它不是基于自己的搜索技术,而是将参数传递给其他服务，“因此，它兼容性很强，并可以通过HTTP集成任何内部和外部数据源。”--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 03:49, 9 October 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
此外，还有Termprofile, Endnotes, Qtrans这些搜索栏。Gacek (2015, 50)评价后者“无弹窗困扰、错误查询或者其他不便之处”。Scholz (2008)也指出，“Qtrans最大的优势之一是低门槛：无须受培训、即可使用这款软件，该软件独立于电脑系统，无需安装、随时可使用”。Scholz解释称Qtrans不是基于自身搜索技术，而是将其参数传给其他服务器；“因此，它易于应用，并且能通过HTTP集成任何内部和外部数据源”。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 12:28, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
For preparation and simultaneous use, there is the glossary software Interplex, which is capable of handling multitasking. It can import glossaries from Word or Excel and is available for Windows, iPhone and iPad. In 2020, it costs US$ 75 and there is a free demo version available. More features for conference interpreters are offered by Term LookUp, which cost US$99 in 2019. In 2020 the author of this paper only found the free version and IntelliWebSearch (free).<br />
<br />
在准备和同步使用用途上，有一个术语表软件-Interplex，它能同时处理多项任务。它还可以从Word 或Excle导入词汇，也适用于Windows，iPhone和iPad。2020年，它花费了75美元，获得了一个免费的试用版。Term LookUp（术语查找）为会议口译者们提供了更多的功能，在2019年这花费了99美元。2020年，网页负责人只发现了这个免费版和IntelliWebSearch（免费）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 01:07, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在预备翻译和同声翻译方面，术语软件Interplex能处理多项任务，该软件能从Word或者Excel导入术语，并且在Windows,Iphone和Ipad上都能使用。2020年，用户花费75美元才能使用该软件免费的试用版。2019年，会议口译员花费99美元就能在TermUp软件使用更多的功能。2020年，本篇文章的作者只能找到这个软件的免费版本和IntelliWebSearch软件（免费）。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 02:09, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
<br />
2.2 Simultaneous Interpretation with Video Conference Systems<br />
<br />
The current video conferencing systems all allow simultaneous interpretation. For this purpose, every participant simply needs two devices and joins two meetings at the same time. For more languages, more meetings are offered. Common solutions are BigBlueButton (open source, free), Zoom, Skype for Business, Microsoft Teams, WebEx, Zoom, GoToMeeting and in China voom (alias WeMeet, Tencent Meeting), TencentClassroom, WeChat.<br />
目前的视频会议系统都允许同声传译。为此，每个参与者只需使用两个设备即可同时参加两个会议。要获得更多的语言，就要提供更多的会议。常见的解决方案有BigBlueButton（开源，免费）、Zoom、Skype for Business、Microsoft Team、WebEx、Zoom、GoToMeeting和in China voom（别名WeMeet，腾讯会议）、腾讯课堂、微信。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 07:27, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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2.2 视频会议系统同声传译<br />
<br />
现在的视频会议系统都支持同声传译。所以，每个语言不同的与会者在参加会议时只要使用两个设备并同时加入两个会议即可。语言种类越多，一场会议需要的会议室就越多。常见的视频会议软件有：BigBlueButton（开源，免费）、Zoom、Skype for Business、Microsoft Team、WebEx、Zoom、GoToMeeting和in China voom（别名WeMeet，腾讯会议）、腾讯课堂、微信。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 10:48, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
<br />
Every participant should mute his/her microphone (except when speaking) and can listen to the original language on the first device and use one ear plug from the 2nd device to listen to the target language. If the original language does not need to be heard, the participant can also turn off the sound of the 1st device and plug in both ear plugs from the 2nd device or listen to the sound from the loudspeakers of the 2nd device. It is not recommended to have both devices on loudspeaker at the same time to avoid acoustic feedback. Sometimes, if the web speed is too slow, turning off the camera (not the loudspeaker) may help.<br />
每位参与者应将其麦克风静音（讲话时除外），并可在第一台设备上收听原始语言，并使用第二台设备的一个耳塞收听目标语言。如果不需要听到原始语言，参与者也可以关闭第一个设备的声音，并插入第二个设备的两个耳塞，或者从第二个设备的扬声器中收听声音。不建议两个设备同时安装在扬声器上，以避免声音反馈。有时，如果网速太慢，关掉相机（不是扬声器）可能会有帮助。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 08:22, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
每位参与者应将其麦克风静音（讲话时除外），并可在第一台设备上收听原始语言，并使用第二台设备的一个耳塞收听目标语言。如果不需要听到原始语言，参与者也可以关闭第一个设备，并插入第二个设备的两个耳塞，或者从第二个设备的扬声器中收听声音。不建议在扬声器上同时安装两个设备，以避免回声。有时，如果网速太慢，关掉相机（不是扬声器）可能会有帮助。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 01:17, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
<br />
With the business version of Zoom, you can simply choose the language channel by clicking on a flag. As the host of the meeting, one must activate the interpretation function and invite the respective interpreters.<br />
<br />
在使用Zoom的商业版时，你只需点击代表各国的旗帜图标来选择语言频道。作为会议的主持人，你必须先激活口译功能，并邀请相应的译者进会议。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:21, 7 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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使用Zoom商业版时，点击各国国旗图标就能选择不同的语言频道。作为会议的主持人，你先要打开口译功能，才能邀请对应的译者进入会议。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 01:52, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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对于商业版的Zoom，您只需单击一个标志即可选择语言频道。作为会议主持人，必须激活口译功能并邀请相应的口译译员。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 08:23, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在使用Zoom商业版软件时，你只需点击旗帜图标就能选择语言频道。作为会议主持人，你必须具备解释功能，并邀请相应的口译员与会。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 15:07, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
<br />
So far, conference interpreters often sat in the back of the conference in their boxes and where not visible to the audience. With video conferencing systems like Zoom it is now technically possible to blend in a video of the interpreter, which enhances understanding. However, so far the video conference communication situation still feels artificial, much different from the analogue situation, with only faces, voices and shared screens.<br />
<br />
到目前为止，会议口译员往往坐在会场后方的同传翻译间里，在观众看不见的地方。现在，有了像Zoom这样的视频会议系统，从技术上讲，可以将口译者的视频加入到会议中，从而增强理解。然而，到目前为止，视频会议的交流情况仍感觉是人为且不自然的，仅具有面孔、声音和共享屏幕，与平时的线下会议情况大不相同。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 09:45, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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当前，会议翻译员通常坐在会场后方的同传箱中，与观众隔开。现在，有了像Zoom这样的视频会议平台，会议中可以插入口译员的视频，从而促进了相互理解。然而，目前，视频会议的交流情况仍然十分机械，毫不自然，仅仅能够看到面孔，听到声音，共享屏幕，与现场会议大相径庭。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 10:10, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
<br />
The next generation of digital communication and interpretation is the Virtual Reality Room (e.g. using the hardware Oculus Quest VR glass and the software Spatial), in which participants can upload a photo to create realistic avatars and then ‘look around’ to see the speaker and the interpreter. The participants can even ‘walk up to’ the speaker to sit in the first row or they can ‘place’ speaker and interpreter next to each other. <br />
<br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
<br />
2.3 Artificially Intelligent Programs as Competition for Interpreters<br />
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The debate about the extent to which technology can replace humans is as old as the first fantasies of artificial humans. It is still a polarizing discussion today and is conducted in a highly emotional manner. <br />
<br />
Austermühl (2004) explains: "We believe that even the latest technology and up-to-date machines cannot replace the human brain when it comes to language transfer. Many times, the concepts are too complex to reduce them to the level of machine-readable language."<br />
<br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
<br />
2.3.1 Machine Translation vs. human translation<br />
<br />
For this section 2.3.1 I am indebted to the final exam paper of my student Jia Liwen 贺丽文 from my 2019/2020 Master course on Translation Studies at Hunan Normal University, Foreign Studies College. Although I come to slightly different conclusions, the paper sums up some discussions I had with the students in class and provides literature review and a field study worth quoting extensively here.<br />
<br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
<br />
Machine translation, commonly known as MT, can be defined as “the application of computers to the translation of texts from one natural language into another” (Huchins 1986, 1). The term “machine” is outdated, since we refer to computers today or to digital/eletronic instead of analogue translation, the term “machine translation” is mainly understood in contrast to human translation and therefore has potential to sustain.<br />
<br />
机器翻译,通常称为机译（简称MT）,可以被定义为“运用计算机的应用软件将文本从一种语言翻译成另一种”(Huchins 1986, 1)。“机器”这个词已经过时了,如今我们用计算机或数字（电子）代替模拟翻译。而“机器翻译”一词主要是指与人工翻译的相对的翻译类别,因此具有持续的潜力。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:20, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
机器翻译，通常称为机译（简称MT），定义为“运用计算机的应用软件将文本从一种语言翻译成另一种”(Huchins 1986, 1)。“机器”这个词已经过时了，因为如今我们用的是计算机或数字（电子）这个说法。与模拟翻译不同的是，“机器翻译”一词主要是指与人工翻译相对的翻译类别，因此具有持续发展的潜力。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 03:13, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
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==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
<br />
Machine translation pioneers were the United States, the Soviet Union and European countries. The initial stage can be dated 1947-1954: In 1946, the world’s first electronic computer was born. Soon, in the second year, 1947, an American scientist Warren Weaver and a British engineer A. D. Booth firstly proposed to translate languages by modern electronic computers. It was in 1954 that Georgetown University cooperated with International Machine Cooperation (IBM) on a project, which created the world’s first machine translation system breaking the restriction of word-to-word translation. It was recognized as a breakthrough of machine translation and demonstrated to the public and the scientific community the feasibility of machine translation for the first time. <br />
<br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
<br />
From 1954 to 1975, we may define a second stage, with climax and stagnation. Due to the success of Georgetown-IBM system and the potential social, economic and intelligence benefits, quite a few countries including the United State, Soviet Union, and Japan invested heavily in the research and development of machine translation. Then, there was an upsurge of machine translation research all over the world.<br />
1954年到1975年，我们可以定义为第二个阶段，即高峰阶段和停滞阶段。由于乔治敦- ibm系统的成功及其潜在的社会、经济和情报效益，包括美国、苏联和日本在内的许多国家在机器翻译的研究和开发上投入了大量资金。于是，机器翻译研究在世界范围内掀起了一股热潮。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 10:09, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
从1954到1975，我们也许可以将这段时间定义为第二个阶段：高潮和停滞阶段。正是因为乔治敦-IBM大获成功及其潜在的社会、经济以及情报效益，以美国、苏联和日本为首的不少国家都在机器翻译的开发和研究上投入了大量--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 07:28, 10 October 2020 (UTC)资金（以促进其快速发展）。因此，全世界范围内掀起了机器翻译研究的热潮。<br />
<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
<br />
In 1956, the Chinese government released its “1956-1967 Prospective Plan of Science and Technology Development”, in which “automatic translation” was listed as an important task in item 41. <br />
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The poor translation caused by the rough design of the first generation machine translation system and the exaggeration of the computer capability eventually led for some people to lose confidence in machine translation. In 1964, the US Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee (ALPAC) established by the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) carried out an investigation on machine translation including its speed, quality, costs and the demand of it and had a sound and comprehensive test, count and analysis.<br />
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1956年，中国政府发布了《1956-1967年科技发展远景规划》，其中“自动翻译”被列为第41项的一个重要任务。<br />
由于设计还较粗糙再加上计算机能力被夸大，第一代机器翻译系统的翻译质量不足，最终导致一些人对机器翻译失去信心。1964年，由美国国家科学院（NAS）成立的美国自动语言处理咨询委员会（ALPAC）对机器翻译的速度、质量、成本和需求进行了调查，并进行了全面的测试、统计和分析。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:27, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
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Later, in 1966, ALPAC published the results of the survey and its main conclusion was that no further research should be undertaken on machine translation considering its low speed, low accuracy, higher costs than human translation and inability to overcome semantic barriers. Affected by this report, researches on machine translation declined sharply and even led to a 10-year slump worldwide.<br />
<br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
<br />
After a quiet decade of 1970s, thanks to the development of computer technology, linguistic theory and artificial intelligence research, the increasing demand for translation, and the unremitting efforts of some machine translation researchers, research on machine translation revived in the early 1980s, therefore we can define the recovery stage from 1975 to 1987. During this period, machine translation researchers no longer were blindly optimistic, instead, they paid more attention to the basic aspects of machine translation research, thus studies on machine translation systems and their development were more practical and rational, and eventually the second generation of machine translation systems emerged.<br />
<br />
经过二十世纪七十年代沉寂的十年后，由于计算机技术、语言学理论和人工智能研究的发展，以及翻译需求的不断增加和一些机器翻译研究者的不懈努力，机器翻译研究在二十世纪八十年代初得到恢复，因此我们可以将1975-1987年划为复苏阶段。在此期间，机器翻译研究者不再盲目乐观，相反，他们将注意力更多地放在机器翻译研究的基础方面，因此，对于机器翻译系统及其发展的研究便更具实用性和合理性。最终，第二代机器翻译系统出现了。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 06:06, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
<br />
In 1975, the European Atomic Energy Agency (EURATOM) began to install SYSTRAN. In 1976, the University of Montreal, Canada, and the Translation Bureau of the Federal Government of Canada jointly developed a practical machine translation system (TAUM-METEO), officially providing weather forecasts in May 1977. This was the only machine translation system that directly published translations without post-translation editing. It marked the practical application of machine translation in technical languages and the maturity of machine translation technology in technical languages. Many of the methods and technologies used by the second generation machine translation were relatively mature and some of them are still used these days.<br />
<br />
1975年，欧洲原子能机构开始安装SYSTRAN系统。1976年，加拿大蒙特利尔大学和加拿大联邦政府翻译局共同开发了一个实用型的机器翻译系统(taum-meteo) ，并在1977年5月正式提供天气预报服务。这是当时唯一的机器翻译系统，它没有翻译后再编辑，而是直接发布。它标志着机器翻译在科技语言中的实际应用和成熟。第二代机器翻译使用的许多方法和技术已经相对成熟，其中一些至今仍在沿用。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 12:23, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1975年，欧洲原子能机构开始安装汉译英机器翻译系统（SYSTRAN）。1976年，加拿大蒙特利尔大学和加拿大联邦政府翻译局共同开发了一个实用型的机器翻译系统(TAUM-METEO) ，并在1977年5月正式提供天气预报服务。这是当时唯一没有经过译后编辑，就直接发布的机器翻译系统。它标志着机器翻译在科技语言中的实际应用和成熟。第二代机器翻译使用的许多方法和技术已经相对成熟，其中一些至今仍在沿用。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:00, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
<br />
Since 1987 until now, we are in the prosperity stage. Many institutes and universities began their researchers in machine translation. Since 1989, the appearance of the third generation machine translation method based on corpus has changed the vision of the whole machine translation research, marking a new period for machine translation. Many famous machine translation systems were released at this period, such as the KY-1, being developed by the Chinese Academy of Military Sciences, MT-IR-EC, an English-Chinese title and catalog translation system, developed by the Research Institute of Post and Telecommunication Science, and Huajian Chinese-English machine translation system, developed by Huajian Co. Ltd.<br />
从1987年到现在，社会处于繁荣时期，许多研究所和大学都开始研究机器翻译。自从1989年基于语料库的第三代机器翻译问世后，机器翻译研究进入了新时期，在这一时期，许多有名的翻译系统都相继问世，比如由中国军事科学院发明的KY-1系统、由邮电科学研究所发明的英译中标题和目录的翻译系统MT-IR-EC和由华建股份有限公司发明的华建中译英机器翻译系统。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 02:45, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
<br />
Due to the rapid development of computer software and hardware technology, large-scale corpora which can be read by computer can be widely used in machine translation. The larger the corpus, the richer knowledge of human linguistics it contains, and the better the quality of machine translation will be. As long as the corpus was large enough, it was expected to cover all language phenomena. In this way, the key question here is, how to automatically or semi-automatically mine relevant translation knowledge from the corpus and effectively organize the knowledge base.<br />
<br />
由于计算机软硬件技术的飞速发展，可以被计算机读取的大型语料库可以广泛应用于机器翻译中。 语料库越大，它包含的人类语言学知识就越丰富，机器翻译的质量也会越好。 只要语料库足够大，就可以涵盖所有语言现象。 这样的话，关键的问题就是如何自动或半自动地从语料库中挖掘相关的翻译知识并有效地组织知识库。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 15:13, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
随着计算机软硬件技术的飞速发展，计算机可读取的大型语料库能广泛用于机器翻译。语料库越大，它包含的人类语言学知识就丰富，进而机翻的质量也就越好。所以只要语料库足够大，机翻就能包含所有的语言现象。这样一来，关键问题就成了如何自动或半自动化地从语料库中挖掘相关语料并有效组织。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 12:23, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
<br />
The Translation Memory (TM) technology in Trados’ Translation Workbench and the latest near-human translation machine translation systems introduced by Google, Language Weaver, Meaningful Machines and other companies since the new century and the development of artifical intelligence are all the results of the successful application of corpus technology in machine translation research.<br />
<br />
塔多思翻译平台拥有了翻译记忆技术，自二十一世纪以来，谷歌、语言编织公司、意义机器和其他企业引进了最新的类人翻译机器系统，人工智能也得到了发展，这些都要得益于语料库技术在机器翻译研究的成功应用。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 02:45, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
塔多思翻译平台拥有了翻译记忆技术，自二十一世纪以来，谷歌、语言编织公司、意义机器和其他企业引进了最新的类人翻译机器系统，人工智能的发展也得益于这些语料库技术在机器翻译研究的成功应用--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 03:55, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Mashuya<br />
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==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
<br />
There are two recent Chinese books on MT, by Liu Miqing and Xu Jin. Both Liu Miqing and Xujun uphold the dogma that human translation cannot be replaced by machine translation, although they don’t reason their opinions. Liu Miqing comments on the so-called misunderstanding “If machine translation succeed, then translators will lose their jobs”: “This kind of worry is unnecessary, and human translation will be in demand at any time” (Liu 2010, 402). Xu Jun states: “On the basis of the existing linguistic level and the research level of computer artificial intelligence, it is impossible to develop a machine translation system that completely replaces human translation” (Xu et al. 2009, 339-340).<br />
<br />
最近刘宓庆和许钧分别出版了一本关于翻译记忆的书。虽然没有确切的依据，但他们俩都支持翻译不会被机器翻译代替的观点。刘宓庆还评价“如果机翻成功，翻译工作者就会失业”这种荒唐的误解：“这种担忧是没有必要的，人工翻译在任何时候都是会有大量需求的”（刘2010，402）。许钧也说：“基于目前语言学和人工智能的研究水平，发明出一项完全替代人工翻译的机翻系统是不可能的”（许等2009，339-340）。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 12:54, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
最近刘宓庆和许钧分别出版了一本关于机器翻译的书。虽然没有确切的依据，但他们俩都支持翻译不会被机器翻译代替的观点。刘宓庆还评价“如果机翻成功，翻译工作者就会失业”这种荒唐的误解：“这种担忧是没有必要的，人工翻译在任何时候都是会有大量需求的”（刘2010，402）。许钧也说：“基于目前语言学和人工智能的研究水平，发明出一项完全替代人工翻译的机翻系统是不可能的”（许等2009，339-340）。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 03:35, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
<br />
Both of them use the same categorization of machine translation development stages as mentioned above. Both divide traditional machine translation methods into two categories: Rule-Based and Corpus-Based. The former builds the translation knowledge base on dictionaries and grammar rule bases, while the latter builds it by making full use of the corpus. Corpus-based methods can be subdivided into statistics-based machine translation and example-based machine translation.<br />
<br />
他们都使用了上面提到的机器翻译开发阶段的相同分类方法。两者都将传统的机器翻译方法分为两类:基于规则的和基于语料库的。前者通过词典和语法规则库构建翻译知识库，而后者则通过充分利用语料库来构建翻译知识库。基于语料库的方法可以细分为基于统计的机器翻译和基于实例的机器翻译。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 03:24, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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他们都用了上述机器翻译开发阶段相同的分类方法。两者都将传统的机器翻译方法分为两类:基于规则和基于语料库的两种机器翻译方法。前者通过词典和语法规则库来构建翻译知识库，而后者则通过充分利用语料库来构建翻译知识库。基于语料库的翻译方法可以细分为基于统计的机器翻译和基于实例的机器翻译。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 02:53, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
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Since language has the characteristics of flexibility and openness, the development of a machine translation system based on grammar rules is greatly limited due to the lack of human thinking and the lack of the ability to identify the text or become aware of it. On the contrary, example-based machine translation has enjoyed unprecedented development since the 1980s. With the revival of statistical methods and corpus methods, corpus-based machine translation systems based on statistics and examples are beginning to be used for large-scale processing of language materials and real texts.<br />
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语言具有灵活性和开放性的特点，基于语法规则的机器翻译系统的开发由于缺乏人类思维以及缺乏识别或感知文本的能力而受到很大限制。相反，自20世纪80年代以来，基于实例的机器翻译得到前所未有的发展。随着统计法和语料库的复兴，基于语料库的机器翻译系统（基于统计和实例）开始用于大规模的语言材料和真实文本的处理。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 02:56, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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语言具有灵活性和开放性的特点，所以基于语法规则的机器翻译系统的开发由于缺乏人类思维以及缺乏识别或感知文本的能力而受到很大限制。相反，自20世纪80年代以来，基于实例的机器翻译得到前所未有的发展。随着统计法和语料库的兴起，基于语料库的机器翻译系统（基于统计和实例）开始应用于大规模的语言材料和真实文本的处理。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 03:31, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
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Both authors think that translation memories are very useful. Because unlike machine translation, the translation memory technology cannot translate the entire text, but can offer previously translated phrases from documents stored in its database. Through comparing, retrieving and reusing previously translated texts, translators can promptly determine how to accomplish the translation in a more efficient way. That is to say, the help of a translation memory makes translating more convenient and it makes it more effective for translators to deal with some complicated source texts through translation memory administration.<br />
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两位作者都认为翻译记忆非常有用。因为,与机器翻译不同，翻译记忆技术不能翻译整个文本，但可以从存储在其数据库中的文档中提供先前翻译过的短语。通过比较、检索和重用先前翻译的文本，译者可以及时确定如何更有效地完成翻译。也就是说，翻译记忆的帮助使翻译更加方便，通过翻译记忆管理使译者更有效地处理一些复杂的源语文本。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:52, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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两位作者都认为翻译记忆非常实用。因为翻译记忆技术不像机器翻译，它不能翻译一整段文本，但是可以给我们提供之前数据库中的文件翻译过的短语。通过比较、检索以及对之前译文的再次利用，译者马上就可以确定如何更有效地完成文本的翻译。也就是说，翻译记忆这项技术可以使翻译变得更便捷，并且，通过对翻译记忆的管理，它还可以帮助译者更高效地处理一些复杂原文本的翻译工作。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 02:44, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
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2.3.1.1 Advantages of Machine Translation<br />
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1. Among the advantages of MT are its speed and availability. If one visits a foreign country, a smart phone may make up for lack of language skills. Several free applications will help them translate texts, images, voices almost immediately, anytime and anywhere. One can take a picture of a sign and read it in one’s own language. Special apps help during conversations with foreigners. The accuracy is not high, but is also not needed in these basic conversations, which are low-end texts.<br />
2.3.1.1 机器翻译的优势<br />
1.机器翻译的优势在于其时效性强以及便捷性高。对于一个身处异国他乡的人来说，一部智能手机就能帮他解决语言不通等问题。很多款免费的APP可以立即随时随地翻译文本、影像、声音等资料。只要对指示牌拍个照，他们就可以用自己的母语来理解指示牌了。一些特殊的APP还可以帮助使用者与外国人实时对话。虽然准确性不是很高，但在这些话语内容质量不是很难的基本对话中确实很有必要。--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 02:25, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
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2. Another major advantage of machine translation are the low costs, some services even come for free. For some large enterprises and professional translators, there is an initial financial investment to buy translation software like Trados, which pays off in the mid-run.<br />
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3. Another merit of MT is the sheer volume of translation. A small application can conduct large-scale translation work in a short amount of time, impossible for humans.<br />
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4. Also for human translators, MT is a helpful tool, professional translators and interpreters can save energy and improve their efficiency. In many disciplines, there is a huge amount of specialized vocabulary, which also changes fast. MT can make sure that all special terms are translated consistently in the same way. Most human translators prefer electronic dictionaries over paper dictionaries, e.g. because they have search functions and are updated online.<br />
机翻的再一个主要优点是低成本，部分服务甚至是免费的。一些大型企业和专业议员会有能在中期获得回报的翻译软件的初始投资计划，比如塔多思。<br />
机翻的另一个优点是大量高效。仅一个小小的软件便能在短时间内处理人类难以完成的大量翻译工作。<br />
对于议员，机翻也是个有效的工具，专业笔译员与口译员都可以通过机翻降低体力消耗提高效率。很多学科领域都有着大量且变化迅速的专业词汇。机翻可以保证这些专业词汇翻译的一致性。多数议员相比于纸质字典都更喜欢使用电子字典，因为电子字典具有搜索与实时更新功能。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 03:52, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Mashuya<br />
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2.机翻的另一个重要优点是低成本，有些服务甚至是免费的。对于一些大型企业和专业翻译人员，需要一笔初期财务投资来购买像塔多思这样的翻译软件，而这在中期是有回报的。<br />
3.机翻的另一个优点是大量高效。一个小小的应用程序可以在很短的时间内完成大规模的翻译工作，这对人类来说是不可能的。<br />
对于译员来说，机器翻译是一个很有帮助的工具。专业笔译译员和口译译员可以通过机翻节省精力提高效率。在许多学科中，有大量快速变化着的专业词汇。机翻可以保证这些专业词汇的翻译始终一致。比起纸质词典，大多数译员更喜欢单子词典。因为电子词典有搜索功能，而且可以实时更新。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 10:34, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
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5. MT tools also enable teams of human translators to increase their efficiency of cooperation, including joint databases and standards of translation.<br />
The trend towards MT is irreversible.<br />
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2.3.1.2 Disadvantages of Machine Translation<br />
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1. A MT can only be as good as its input, processes and self-learning algorithms. In the field of speech translation, MT depends heavily on speech recognition technology. In 2020, most speech recognition systems require speakers of the standard language (e.g. Mandarin instead of Cantonese). People’s accents, dialects and other influences like a noisy background affect the accuracy of speech recognition.<br />
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2. MT depends on connectivity and electricity. Many users become aware of this dependency when they use a translation application on their smart phone and suddenly the network connection is broken or the battery is empty.<br />
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5.机器翻译工具也可以提高人工翻译团队的合作效率，包括共享信息库 和翻译标准。机器翻译的潮流是不可阻挡的。<br />
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2.3.1.2机器翻译的弱点<br />
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1.机器翻译只能跟它的输入、程序和自我算法一致。在公开演讲翻译领域，机器翻译很大程度依赖演讲读取科技。在2020,绝大多数演讲读取系统要求演讲者是使用标准语（不用方言而是用标准语）。人们的口音、方言和其他影响因素（比如说一个嘈杂的背景环境）都将影响演讲内容读取的精度。<br />
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2.机器翻译取决于连接和电力。很多使用者在他用智能手机的翻译应用时，突然遭遇网络不好或者电池没电，才意识到这个的重要性。--[[User:Zhixing ma|Zhixing ma]] ([[User talk:Zhixing ma|talk]]) 02:37, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1.机器翻译无法超越其输入、程序和自学习算法。在演讲翻译领域，机器翻译很大程度上以来语音识别技术。2020年，大多数语音识别系统需要演讲者使用标准用语（例如：使用普通话而非粤语）。人们的口音、方言及其他影响因素，如嘈杂的背景，会影响语音识别的准确性。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 03:06, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
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3. The establishment of the corpus is the foundation of modern MT, but the corpus itself has its limitations. Modern MT, especially in many small languages, has a small corpus. For example, under the same circumstances, sometimes the accuracy of Lao translation is not as good as that of English. Also commercial reasons may play into this.<br />
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3.语料库是现代机器翻译的基础，但语料库本身也有很多局限性。很多小语种的语料库也很小，因此机器翻译的准确性也受限。例如，同样条件下，有时候老挝语机器翻译的准确性就比不上英语。当然也因为英语翻译更有市场。--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 08:31, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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4. Almost all MT requires human post-editing. With the progress and development of science and technology, the accuracy of MT software is getting better but so far does not match human translation quality. The text after machine translation requires proofreaders to make final modifications to the translation to ensure that it is correct and has an appropriate style.<br />
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4.几乎所有机器翻译都需要后期人工校对。随着科学技术的发展，机器翻译的质量虽也大大提高，但远不能与人工翻译相提并论。机器翻译的文本预言校对员后期的修改，以确保翻译准确，文体适宜。--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 08:31, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
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5. MT still has deficits to understand in which context a word is used. In many languages, the same word may have several completely unrelated meanings, such as the word “spring” in English, which most commonly means “春天” in Chinese, but also means “弹簧” , “泉水” and “活力”. Another example is the word “门槛” in Chinese, which can refer to the “threshold on the door”, but the most common meaning is “the difficulty of a thing” or “the conditions for doing something”. In these cases, the context has a great influence on the meaning of words, and the understanding of the meaning depends largely on the clues one can get from the context. So far, the main advantage of human translators is the true understanding of a sentence, which is connected to relating words with their context. Another advantage is that a human translator can creatively polish the language to obtain not just a complete and accurate translation, but an appropriate one. This is undoubtedly still a big challenge for MT.<br />
<br />
5.对不同的语境所该用的对应的词语的理解，机器翻译仍然存在着不足。在许多语言中，同一个词可能有几种完全不搭边的含义。比如说英语中的“spring”,在中文中最常见的意思为 “春天”，但是这个词也有“弹簧” , “泉水” 和“活力”的意思。另一个例子就是中文中的“门槛”，其可以指“门上的一道坎”，但最常用的含义是指“某件事的难度”或是“做某事的一种状态”。在这些例子当中，语境对词义有很大的影响，并且对词义的理解取决于上下文给出的线索。当前，人工翻译的主要优势在于可以将词语和语境联系在一起，从而理解句子的真正含义。人工翻译的另一个优势就是可以创造性地优化语言，从而不仅可以让翻译准确完整，而且翻译得十分恰当得体。无疑，这对机器翻译来说仍然是一项巨大的挑战。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 02:49, 9 October 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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5.对同一词语在不同语境中的理解，机器翻译仍有其不足。在许多语言中，同一个词可能有几种完全不搭边的含义，比如说英语中的“spring”,在中文中最常见的意思为 “春天”，但是这个词也有“弹簧” , “泉水” 和“活力”的意思。另一个例子就是中文的“门槛”一词，但最常用的含义是指“某件事的难度”或是“做某事所需的条件”。在这些例子当中，语境对词义有很大的影响，一个人对词义的理解很大程度上取决于上下文给出的线索。当前，人工翻译的主要优势在于可以将词语和语境联系在一起，从而理解句子的真正含义。人工翻译的另一个优势就是可以创造性地优化语言，从而不仅可以让翻译准确完整，而且恰当得体。无疑，这对机器翻译来说仍然是一项巨大的挑战。--Ouyang Ling<br />
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==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
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6. MT so far does not possess cultural sensitivity. Human translators constantly study the relevant cultures, expand their knowledge and are able to understand specific situations. Human interactions and emotions are complex and machines lack initiative and the ability to understand or recognize slang, jargon, puns and idioms, so that the resulting MT may not conform to the values and norms of the culture of the source language and/or of the target language.<br />
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<br />
==Nguyen, Thuy Hien (Helen) 阮翠贤==<br />
2.3.1.3 Comparison of Machine Translation with Human Translation<br />
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2.3.1.3 机器翻译与人工翻译的相比 ---Helen<br />
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Machine Translation can be compared with human translation in different areas and under different aspects.<br />
机器翻译可以在不同的地区与不同的方面进行对比。 ---Helen<br />
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2.3.1.3 Comparison of Machine Translation with Human Translation<br />
2.3.1.3 机器翻译与人工翻译的比较<br />
Machine Translation can be compared with human translation in different areas and under different aspects.<br />
机器翻译与人工翻译可以在不同的领域和方面进行比较。<br />
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 05:10, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
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1. In the film and television industry, there is a large demand for translation of quotes (subtitling), and the difficulty lies in the individuality of each speaker which should correspond to a characteristic style depending on the speaker. The screen format requires short and pithy translations. What’s more, in the current movies and TV plays, there are a large number of terms fashionable in the internet. The film title itself has to take all possible connotations as well as marketing aspects into account, so a human translator will think it over and over again.<br />
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==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
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2. In the political and the diplomatic field as well as in international negotiations between countries or institutions: In these fields, human interpretation and translation is still widely used, since translation mistakes may have severe consequences for the relation of countries. When country leaders meet, the cultural accumulation of the translators can enable them to identify which content may not offend both sides and then pick the best translation.<br />
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在政治和外交领域以及国家或机关之间进行国际谈判中，人类的翻译解读仍被广泛使用，因为翻译错误会对国家之间的关系造成严重影响。国家领导人见面时，译者的文化积累能让他们确定哪些内容可能不会冒犯双方，然后选择最佳翻译。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 08:14, 8 October 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
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在政治外交领域及不同国家机构之间的国际谈判中，我们仍广泛使用人工口译和笔译，因为翻译错误可能会对外交关系造成严重后果。不同国家的领导人会面时，译者凭借其文化积累来甄别何种内容并不会冒犯双方，并以此选出最恰当的翻译。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 08:52, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在政治外交领域以及国家或机构之间的国际谈判中,人工翻译仍然被广泛使用，因为翻译错误可能会对国家关系造成严重的后果。在国家领导人会面时，译者的文化积淀可以帮助他们辨别哪些内容不会冒犯双方，从而选择最好的翻译。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 12:11, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
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When a country leader tells a joke which is not funny in the target culture, the human translator may improvise with telling a different joke, ensuring that the visitor will laught too and the whole atmosphere stays relaxed as intended. With MT, diplomatic accidents or cultural conflicts might happen. In the first half of 2018, AI simultaneous translation was applied for the first time at the Boao Asia Forum. However, the system broke down, resulting in low-level mistakes such as inaccurate vocabulary translation and repetition. Mistakes like these are avoided by professional (human) interpreters.<br />
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==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
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3. Legal and technical communication. Legal translation, as well as medical, pharmaceutical, chemical etc. must be accurate, because a translation mistake may have severe consequences. The human translator spends additional time to make repeated efforts to avoid ambiguity and to improve the accuracy of the words used. Many specific terms in professional sectors have a broader or a different meaning in the standard language. For example, prejudice refers to damage, counterpart refers to a copy with the same effect, more complicated, for example, dominion refers to full ownership in civil law and sovereignty in public international law; Estoppels means that one cannot go back on the word in contract law, while in criminal procedure law, it means “forbidden to reverse confession”. Secondly, a large number of legal terms, such as “defendant”, “cause of action” and “damages”, usually do not appear in the common language. These characteristics of legal terms require people to carefully weigh and compare when translating, and give appropriate translations in specific situations.<br />
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3.法律及技术性表达。法律、医疗、药物和化学等领域的翻译必须准确无误，因为一个错误可能会带来严重的后果。人工翻译可以利用额外的时间，不断地努力，以避免歧义、提升用词准确性，专业领域中的许多特定术语在标准用语中具有更广泛或者不同的含义。例如，prejudice指损害，counterpart指具有相同作用的复制品，更复杂的例子还有dominion在民法中指完全所有权，在国际公法中指主权；Estoppels在合同法里意思是某一方不能违背承诺，但在刑事诉讼法中是“禁止翻供”的意思。其次，大量法律术语，例如“被告”、“诉讼事由”和“损害赔偿金”，通常不会出现在日常用语中。针对法律术语的此类特性，人们需要在翻译时仔细衡量和比较，以在特定情况下给出恰当的翻译。--Ouyang Ling<br />
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3.法律术语及技术性表达。法律、医疗、药物和化学等领域的翻译必须准确无误，因为一个翻译错误可能会导致严重的后果。人工翻译可以利用额外的时间重复性地工作，以避免歧义和提升用词准确性，在标准用语中，许多用于专业领域中的特定术语具有更广泛或者不同的含义。例如，prejudice指损害，counterpart指具有相同作用的复制品，更复杂的例子还有dominion在民法中指完全所有权，在国际公法中指主权；Estoppels在合同法里意思是某一方不能违背承诺，但在刑事诉讼法中是“禁止翻供”的意思。其次，大量法律术语，例如“被告”、“诉讼事由”和“损害赔偿金”，通常不会出现在日常用语中。这些法律术语的特质需要人们在翻译时仔细衡量和比较，以在特定情况下做出恰当的翻译。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 07:12, 11 October 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
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==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
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4. Literary translation. MT in general cannot compete with human translation in the field of literature, since these kinds of translations are more complex. A typical characteristic of Western literature is to avoid repetitions. If, for example, the source is a Chinese work of literature, repetitions are more common. MT would translate these repetitions repetitively, while humans would be creative to find synonyms and variations. A good translation of literature should enable target readers to understand the world created by the source culture author and properly realize his beliefs, ideas or other things the author wants to convey through his work. Also, subtle references to other works of literature are harder to grasp by MT than by a human translator. There are often a lot of images (comparisons, illustrative expressions, motifs, metaphors, allegories) in literary works, and images have vague characteristics. When translating and dealing with these images, even experienced translators carefully consider and repeatedly weigh them. Literary works express the rich emotions of humans, it may be happy or sad, and half sad and half happy. In order to understand the subtlety of this, the translator needs to read the text carefully and weighs it over and over again. Only after careful reading and repeated deliberation the translator can really understand them and thus produce a good translation. Literary works are often historic. <br />
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==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
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In different periods, literary works created by different writers have their own imprint of their times. When people look at past literature, they cannot only translate it from the contemporary viewpoint. Therefore, when reading the original text, the translator should figure out the author’s writing intention and the emotion to be conveyed according to the background of the times, the writer’s experience, the writer’s style, etc. in order to better understand the original text and in order to better carry out the translation. Obviously, MT systems are not yet able to deal with these complicated processes. Last but not least, literary works are often fictional, and the fictional world is often beyond the imagination of the real world. Even if the machine can input all the literary works and their corresponding translations in different languages into it to build a huge corpus, literary works stay always full of infinite creativity and imagination. The current MT systems may be able to give a proper translation of some sentences of literary works, but from the perspective of development, the premise of machine translation is to establish a corpus first, thus it is always lagging behind and can never keep up with the pace of literary creation and innovation.<br />
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==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
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2.3.1.3 Field Study<br />
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In November 2019, we conducted a simple field study. We selected an original text (https://b23.tv/av9604542) among the quotes of the American movie The Pursuit of Happiness 《当幸福来敲门》: “People can’t do something themselves, they wanna tell you you can’t do it. If you want something, go get it. Period.”<br />
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Here are five MT versions from Sogou, Baidu, Netease Youdao, DeepL and Google respectively:<br />
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Sogou translation (http://bit.ly/trans_ex_1): 人们自己做不到，他们想告诉你你做不到。如果你想要什么，去拿吧。句号。<br />
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Baidu translation (http://bit.ly/trans_ex_2): 人们自己做不到，他们想告诉你你做不到。如果你想要什么，就去拿。周期。<br />
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Youdao translation (http://bit.ly/trans_ex_3): 当人们做不到一些事情的时候，他们就会对你说你也同样不能。如果你想要什么，就去争取。时期。<br />
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Google translation (http://bit.ly/trans_ex_4): 人们自己无法做某事，他们想告诉您您做不到。 如果您想要一些东西，那就去买。 期。<br />
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DeepL translation (http://bit.ly/trans_ex_5): 人们自己做不到的事情，他们就会告诉你，你做不到。如果你想要的东西，去得到它。句号。<br />
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The human translation (https://b23.tv/av9604542) is:<br />
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有些事人们自己办不到，他们就刚跟你说你也办不到。如果你想获得什么，就去争取。就这么简单。<br />
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现场研究<br />
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在2019年11月，我们进行了简单的现场研究。 我们在美国电影《当幸福来敲门》的名言中选择了原文（https://b23.tv/av9604542）：“People can’t do something themselves, they wanna tell you you can’t do it. If you want something, go get it. Period“ 以下分别是搜狗，百度，网易有道，DeepL和Google的五个MT版本：<br />
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搜狗翻译(http://bit.ly/trans_ex_1): 人们自己做不到，他们想告诉你你做不到。如果你想要什么，去拿吧。句号。<br />
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百度翻译(http://bit.ly/trans_ex_2): 人们自己做不到，他们想告诉你你做不到。如果你想要什么，就去拿。周期。<br />
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有道翻译(http://bit.ly/trans_ex_3): 当人们做不到一些事情的时候，他们就会对你说你也同样不能。如果你想要什么，就去争取。时期。<br />
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谷歌翻译(http://bit.ly/trans_ex_4): 人们自己无法做某事，他们想告诉您您做不到。 如果您想要一些东西，那就去买。 期。<br />
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Deep L 翻译 (http://bit.ly/trans_ex_5): 人们自己做不到的事情，他们就会告诉你，你做不到。如果你想要的东西，去得到它。句号。<br />
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人工翻译 (https://b23.tv/av9604542) is:<br />
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有些事人们自己办不到，他们就刚跟你说你也办不到。如果你想获得什么，就去争取。就这么简单。--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 03:10, 11 October 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 03:12, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
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The original text is relatively colloquial, so the overall difficulty for translation is not so high, but still the five versions of machine translation are not ideal, only the versions translated by Netease Youdao and DeepL are acceptable, but also unsatisfactory in comparison to the human translation.<br />
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原文本是相对口语化的，因此翻译的总体难度不是很大。但是机器翻译的五个版本仍然不甚理想，只有网易有道和DeepL翻译的版本尚可接受。然而较之于人工翻译，它们还是无法令人满意。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 14:46, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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原文是比较口语化的，因此翻译的总体难度不是很高，但是机器翻译的五个版本仍然不太理想，只有网易有道和DeepL翻译的版本是可以接受的。但是与人工翻译相比，还是不太能令人满意的。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 15:18, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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原文本来偏口语化，因此翻译难度总体不大。尽管如此，机器翻译的五个版本仍然不太理想，只有网易有道和DeepL的翻译差强人意，但却仍无法和人工翻译相提并论。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 02:43, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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原文相对口语化，所以整体翻译难度没有那么高，但机器翻译的五个版本仍然不理想，只有网易有道和DeepL翻译的版本可以接受，但与人工翻译相比也仍不尽如人意。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 14:45, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
<br />
In the first sentence of Sogou and Baidu translation, the word “something” is ignored and the overall coherence of the translation is not high. It is also not consistent with Chinese habits. In the first sentence of the Netease Youdao translation, “当……的时候” is added, which is feasible, but compared with human translation, it is not concise enough. The DeepL translation starts strong, but does not persuade with the arbitrary addition of “的”, which destroys the grammar. The Google translation “无法做某事” reads awkward in Chinese, the reader rather would expect something like “办不到的事情”, also the auxiliary verb “想” is not appropriate.<br />
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==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
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For the translation of the second sentence, the handling of “go and get it” in Sogou and Baidu, obviously does not conform to the context in the movie, while DeepL at least uses “得到”. Although in Chinese, “take it” has the meaning of “拿” or “去拿”, in this movie, in combination with the context at that time, “take it” should be translated as “追逐”.<br />
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在翻译第二句时，搜狗和百度对 "go and get it" 的翻译显然没有遵照电影的情境；而DeepL起码翻译成了 “得到”。虽然在汉语中 "take it" 有“拿”或“去拿”的意思，但在这部电影中，结合当时的情境来看，"take it" 应该翻译成“追逐”。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 08:37, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在翻译第二个句子时，搜狗和百度对 "go and get it"的翻译显然没有考虑电影中的背景，而DeepL起码将其翻译成了 “得到”。尽管在汉语中， "take it" 含有“拿”或“去拿”之意，但若结合这部电影当时的背景，应该将 "take it" 译为“追逐”。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 15:09, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
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In addition, it is worthwhile to point out that the translation of “take it” in Netease Youdao is the same as the human translation. However its translation of “wanna something” as “想要什么” is not as good as the human translation of “获得什么”. Google’s translation of “get” as “买” seems to point to a corpus with commercial texts.<br />
另外，值得一提的是，网易有道的“take it”翻译与人工翻译事一样的。然而，它对“想要的东西”的翻译并不如人工翻译的“想什么”。谷歌将 “get”翻译成“买”似乎指向了一个包含商业文本的语料库。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 15:33, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
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==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
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With using the polite addressing “您” and the non-understandable ending with “期。”, in comparison to its competitors, Google has failed this test by far. Finally, for the last sentence, the word “period” is directly and roughly translated into “期”, “周期” and “时期” by three machine translation systems.<br />
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使用尊称“您”并以费解的“期”字结尾。与其竞争者相比，谷歌已经在这场测试中失败了。而且，最后一个句子中的“period”用三个翻译系统简单粗暴地直译成了“期”，”周期“和”时期“。--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 06:44, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
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Although the word “period” by DeepL and Sogou comes very close to the meaning, the human translation makes it better understandable with “就这么简单”. Here, the machine translations fail to take the context into consideration.<br />
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虽然DeepL和搜狗翻译“period”这个词时，已经非常接近原义了，不过人们译为“就这么简单”，更好理解。此处，机器翻译没有考虑到语境。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 13:51, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Seydou, Sagara==<br />
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None of the above mentioned MT-produced versions can provide an expressive and smooth translation, let alone equal or surpass the human work. The MT versions do not conform to the Chinese speaking habits. There is still a long way to go for MT, especially for Sogou, Baidu and Google, to improve their translation quality.<br />
上面提到的MT制作版本都无法提供表达流畅的翻译，更不用说等于或超过人工。 MT版本不符合华语习惯。 MT，特别是搜狗，百度和Google，要提高翻译质量，还有很长的路要走。--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 02:25, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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上面提到的机器翻译都无法提供通顺流畅的翻译，更不用说达到或者超过人工翻译的水平。机器翻译不符合中文的表达习惯。机器翻译，特别是搜狗、百度和谷歌，要提高翻译质量，还有很长的路要走。--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 06:49, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
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However, when MT will succeed, is not a question of faith, it is simply a cost-benefit question that will be economically decided. Nowadays, the cameras of smartphones can be used to watch an object or a text, which is then subtitled in a given target language by augmented reality (e.g. iTranslate, Translate, Speak & Translate, DeepL, Google Translator etc. for Iphone).<br />
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然而，如果机器翻译会成功，这将不是忠信的问题，而是成本效益的问题，是经济决定的。现在通过扩增实境，智能手机摄像头用来看带有目标语字幕的事物或文件（比如说苹果手机的iTranslate, 翻译（Translate）, 说与译（Speak & Translate）, DeepL, 谷歌翻译（Google Translator）等。--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 13:01, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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然而，机器翻译什么时候会大获全胜，不是由信心决定的，而是由经济决定的，这只是一个成本效益方面的问题。如今，智能手机的相机能识别对象和文本，通过放大语境，能把其转化为指定的目标语言。（苹果手机里的一些翻译软件就可以实现上述提到的，如：翻译通（iTranslate）,翻译（Translate），说与译（Speal & Translate）,DeepL,谷歌翻译（Google Translator）等等。）--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 00:51, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
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The WeChat app, for example, also imitates the layout and font, making it increasingly difficult to visually determine that it is a translation and not the original. Even the mundane automatic translation work (machine translation), which used to be reserved for expensive specialist programs, is now accessible to a wide range of users via websites such as translate.google.com, deepl.com or fanyi.baidu.com and can also be activated in browsers so that the websites are displayed in the desired language.<br />
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例如，微信软件也模仿其布局和字体，这让人们从视觉上更难分辨这是译文而非原文。即使是普通的自动翻译工作(机器翻译),过去需要预留给昂贵的专业项目,现在大量用户可以通过一些网站翻译，例如：谷歌翻译（translate.google.com），deepl翻译（deepl.com）或百度翻译（fanyi.baidu.com）,也可以在浏览器中激活,网站就会显示所需的语言。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 06:49, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
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Translations are generally worse than those produced by trained human translators. Nevertheless, some website operators are satisfied with the quality, so they have their websites automatically translated and thus attract more users. There are also hybrid solutions such as automatically translated websites with the possibility that trained and untrained users can suggest translation corrections, which can then be implemented partially automatically with quality assurance elements (translation evaluation, frequency of correction suggestions, etc.).<br />
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这种翻译的质量总体来说比那些来自专业人工译者的翻译要差。尽管如此，一些网页的运营者还是对这种质量颇为满意，他们于是对网页进行自动翻译以吸引更多用户。他们也想到了多种解决方案，比如：自动翻译的网页允许专业和非专业用户提出翻译改正建议，这能够让翻译自动进行，且还有一定准确性保障。（翻译评估，一定频率的翻译校准建议之类）--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:14, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这种翻译的质量总体上比训练有素的译者所作的译文质量要查。然而，一些网页运营者对这种翻译质量很满意，于是他们用自动翻译来翻译网站，从而吸引更多的用户。还有一些混合的解决方法，比如：自动翻译的网站，训练过和没有训练过的译者都可以为修改翻译提出建议，这种做法既能够使部分翻译自动进行，也具有一定准确性保障。（翻译评估，更正建议的频率等）--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:38, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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总体上来说，这种翻译的质量比训练有素的译者所作的译文质量要差。然而，某些网页运营者对这种翻译质量颇为满意，便用自动翻译来翻译各自的网页，从而来吸引更多的用户。还有一些混合式解决方法，比如：自动翻译的网站，经过训练和未经训练过的译者都可以为翻译修改提出建议，这种做法既能够使部分翻译自动进行，也能保障一定准确度。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 02:49, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
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For clients who expect higher quality, machine pre-translation and subsequent error correction currently occasionally appears to be more cost-effective than fully human translation. Overall, Google Translator has made great progress in recent years. Fanyi Baidu recently showed off with a simultaneous interpretation of a speech recorded live on video.<br />
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对于期待更高翻译质量的客户来说，目前机器预翻译和后续的改错有时候比纯人工翻译更经济实惠。总的来看，近些年谷歌翻译取得了很多进步。百度翻译近来也在卖弄其现场录制的演讲视频的同声传译能力。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 15:45, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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对于期待更高翻译质量的客户来说，目前机器预翻译和后续的改错有时候比纯人工翻译更经济实惠。总的来看，近些年谷歌翻译取得了很多进步。百度翻译近来也在卖弄了一段其针对视频直播的演讲的同声传译能力。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 06:01, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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对于在翻译质量上有更高期待的客户而言，目前，机器预翻译和后续的改错似乎比纯人工翻译更划算。总的来说，近年来谷歌翻译取得了很大的进步。近来，百度翻译通过一段现场录制的演讲视频炫耀了其同声传译功能。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 06:50, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
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Human translators also do not just use their brains, they use translation memories such as Trados, Across, Transit, MemoQ, WordFast, Pasolo etc., in order to have the same terms or sentences displayed in the same way, for example in technical manuals, which deal with the 1:1 translation of technical terms. Here both sides seem to come closer to each other.<br />
人类译者不仅会动脑筋，还会使用翻译记忆库，例如Trados,Across,Transit,MemoQ,WordFast,Pasolo等此类翻译软件,以便使相同的术语或句子以同样的方式显示出来,例如在技术手册中,技术术语的翻译是1:1的.这里二者似乎是很接近的.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 12:45, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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人类译者不仅会动脑筋，还会使用翻译记忆技术，例如Trados,Across,Transit,MemoQ,WordFast,Pasolo等此类翻译软件,以便使相同的术语或句子以同样的方式显示出来,例如在技术手册中,用翻译软件来处理相同的专业术语.人工翻译和机器翻译在此处是很接近的。--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 13:09, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
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Currently, no program can translate better than humans. There are simply too many factors to be taken into account in order to avoid e.g. unexpected comedy because a certain expression does not seem appropriate in a certain situation. Of course, the human translator is not immune to such 'translation mistakes', but he or she often recognizes them and can correct them afterwards if necessary. Here, the human consciousness cannot yet be achieved or simulated by machines.<br />
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目前，任何翻译程序都无法媲美人类。为了避免出乎意料的引人发笑的错误，许多因素都需予以重视，因为某些表达在特定的场合可能并不适用。当然，人工翻译也无法根绝这类"翻译错误"，但是译者通常能发现错误，并且在必要的时候进行修正。然而，机器仍然无法实现或者模拟人类的意识。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
目前，没有一个程序能比人类更好地翻译。为了避免出人意料的闹剧，有太多的因素需要考虑，因为某种表达方式在某种情况下似乎并不合适。当然，人工翻译也不能避免这种“翻译错误” ，但翻译人员会经常性地意识到这些错误，并在必要时进行纠正。在这方面，人的意识还不能被机器实现或模拟 。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 15:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
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==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
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Automatic simultaneous interpreting appears even more difficult than automatic translation, as the transmission process is carried out in real time. In addition, the machines still lack the various means of expression accompanying the pure translation text. This does not only refer to non-verbal interpreting - there are also conference interpreters who often only listen to the translation via headphones.<br />
自动同声传译似乎比自动翻译更困难，因为翻译过程是实时进行的。此外，机器还缺乏伴随纯翻译文本的各种表达方式。这不仅是指非语言口译—还有一些会议口译员经常只能通过耳机听翻译。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 02:49, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
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But also the possible variations in vocal reproduction, such as volume, speed, variation in intonation, intonation of the sentence melody, etc., often offers the possibility to enrich the information of the pure text. Nonetheless, these are precisely the fields that are currently being researched and that increase the acceptance and subtlety in the expression of artificial intelligence.<br />
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但是，音量，速度，语调变化，句子旋律的语调等声音再现的可能变化，也常常提供丰富纯文本信息的可能性。尽管如此，这些恰恰是当前正在研究的领域，提高了人工智能表达的接受度，增加了微妙性。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 08:27, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
而声音再现中可能出现的变化，如音量、语速、语调、句子旋律的抑扬顿挫的变化等，往往提供了丰富纯文本信息的可能性。尽管如此，这些恰恰是目前正在研究的领域，用来提高人工智能表达的接受度和微妙性。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 15:37, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
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The fact that the targeted concentration on translation errors and their causes promises success in further development is demonstrated by the leap in quality of translation services when comparing early and current Google and DeepL Translator versions.<br />
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通过比较早期及现在的谷歌翻译与Deepl翻译器的版本，人们发现翻译服务质量的巨大提高证明了有针对性地集中研究翻译错误及其原因能确保翻译发展的进一步成功。--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 01:55, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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对比早期和现在的谷歌及DeepL翻译，我们可发现翻译质量大幅提升，这证明有针对性地关注翻译错误及原因有助于翻译的进一步发展。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 13:12, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
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2.4 Transition of Interpreting Situations through Technology/Digitization<br />
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The interpreter must increasingly adapt to technically predefined interpreting situations, such as video conferences with augmented reality, tele-interpreting, etc. It is expected that the interpreter is familiar with the various hardware and software models of interpreting technology and organizes this technology.<br />
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2.4 技术化/数字化口译的转变<br />
口译员必须逐渐适应技术上预定义的口译情况，例如增强现实的视频会议、远程口译等，并且应当熟悉并学会组织口译技术的各种硬件和软件模型。<br />
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--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 07:56, 8 October 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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2.4 口译形势在技术化或数字化下的转变<br />
译者必须要逐步适应在技术上预定义的翻译情况，比如增强现实的视频会议、远程口译等，也应该熟悉并学会组织口译技术的各种硬件和软件模型。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 08:48, 8 October 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
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2.4 技术化/数字化口译的转变<br />
口译员必须在技术上对预定义的口译情况愈发适应，比如说，增强现实的视频会议、远程口译等，还需熟悉并学会组织口译技术的各种硬件和软件模型。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 15:11, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
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According to the early Braun 1999 study on interpreting in video conferences, the interpreter's job description is already changing towards becoming a technology organizer. Due to the rapid progress in technology, the technical problems, quality losses and malfunctions, on which the study focuses, are outdated. Rather, today's technology must be assumed to be largely trouble-free to perfect for the purpose of interpreting, often even offering functions that the users do not (or can not) exploit at all.<br />
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依布劳恩1999年初对视频会议口译研究来看，口译员的工作内容正向技术组织者转变。由于科技飞速发展，这项研究的重点，包括技术问题，质量下降以及故障都已经过时。更确切来说，现在的技术必须基本做到零故障，为口译工作保驾护航，甚至常常提供用户根本不（或不能）使用的功能。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 05:05, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
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The following disadvantages of early video conferencing at the time of the study have since been reduced: <br />
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a) Social presence - through the new techniques with VR glasses (like Facebook’s Oculus Quest) and, if necessary, whole-body tactile suits, the presence is sufficiently simulated so that the human mind is able to fade out the technical mediation of the presence after a period of getting used to it. The "technically caused restrictions of interaction" thus become negligible.<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
<br />
The "restricted field of vision" of the interpreter complained about in the study can now be extended by virtual or augmented reality glasses. It should also be pointed out that even with conference interpreters, e.g. incorrect planning of interpreting booth locations where there is no clear field of vision for the speaker or PowerPoint or simply unforeseeable events such as overcrowded conference rooms so that standing listeners block the view are part of everyday life.<br />
<br />
口译员对在口译室中“视野受限”表示埋怨态度，现在他们可通过虚拟现实或增强现实眼镜扩展视野。还应指出的是，即使是会议口译员，口译室摆放位置规划不准确也都是口译员日常生活的一部分,这会致使口译员看不清说话者、幻灯片或者难以预测的情况，比如说，会议室过于拥挤，使得站着的听众挡住了视线。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 15:05, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
研究报告指出困扰口译员的“视野受限”问题现在可通过虚拟现实或增强现实眼镜得到缓解。但仍不能忽视，即使在会议口译场合，同传箱位置不妥，导致看不到讲者或幻灯片，或是遭遇突发状况，如会场过于拥挤，站着的听众遮挡了视线，这些对于口译员来说都是家常便饭。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 07:08, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
<br />
b) The same applies to the unnaturalness of the discussion situation that was noted at the time. Since the perception of technology fades into the background, the technically mediated interpreting situation is increasingly been accepted as just as natural or unnatural as the analogue/presence.<br />
<br />
同时，我们提到的翻译当中不自然的情况也同样会发生。科技翻译渐渐融入翻译实践，那么科技翻译出的一些机械的句子也越来越为人们所接受。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 07:27, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
<br />
3. The Impact of Migration: Community Interpreting and Rare Languages <br />
Through migration, foreign-language people come into a community and are dependent on interpreting services in government offices and hospitals due to a lack of knowledge of the local language. While offices often leave the task of finding an interpreter to the foreign language speaker, they do not set any qualification or quality requirements.<br />
<br />
移民的影响：社区口译以及移民带来的稀有语言，由于缺乏当地语言知识，外语人士融入社群时会依赖于政府机关和医院的口译服务。通常各机关单位会将寻找口译员的任务交给讲外语的人，但（对此）他们不作任何资历要求。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:16, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
移民的影响：社群传译以及移民活动带来的小众语言。外语人士融入一个新社群时，缺乏当地语言知识，依赖于政府机关和医院的口译服务。而这些机关单位通常会将寻找口译员的任务交给讲外语的人，但他们没有对这些人员设置任何相关资历要求。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 07:43, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
<br />
As a result, relatives or acquaintances are often hired as one-time lay interpreters whom the foreign language speaker entrusts with the interpretation. However, the quality is often lower than that of trained interpreters. Trained interpreters would often be simply too expensive for the foreign language speaker in such situations (Moratto, 2020). <br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
<br />
In the case of community interpreting in hospital, the patient is usually not responsible for providing an interpreter, e.g. because he or she arrived at the hospital unexpectedly or is restricted in mobility due to illness/injury or hospitalization and should not be burdened additionally. Accordingly, the hospital maintains a pool of community interpreters. As field studies, e.g. by Andres (2009), show, non-professional interpreters are also hired where necessary out of cost reasons.<br />
<br />
关于医院的社区口译，病人一般不用自己提供口译人员，因为他们并不是有预测地来到医院，或者说由于病情、伤情或者住院导致行动能力受限，因此不应该再额外徒添负担。基于此，医院一般都有一群社区口译人员。基于安德烈斯的实地考察可看出，必要时也有为了降低成本雇用非专业口译人员的时候。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 13:31, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
<br />
4. Existential Problems for the Interpreting Profession<br />
Due to networking via the Internet, unqualified interpreters are pouring into the market from low-wage countries, bringing the profession of the professional interpreter into disrepute as a result of dumping prices and poor-quality work, especially for inexperienced clients.<br />
<br />
<br />
4. 口译职业存在的问题<br />
由于互联网建立起的人际关系网，不合格的口译员由低收入国家涌入市场，这些人的倾销价格与低质量工作导致专业口译员，特别是经验缺乏的当事人的职业声誉受损。<br />
<br />
--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 04:11, 11 October 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
<br />
From my own field I know well-trained German and Chinese interpreters who interpret in their respective areas of competence for about 850 USD (750 Euros or 3,120 Yuan RMB) plus expenses for half a day or 1,700 USD (1,500 Euro or 11,700 Yuan RMB) for a whole day. But I have also taken part in conferences where an apparently not well-trained Chinese interpreter interpreted.<br />
<br />
在我的专业领域，我了解到那些经过良好训练的德语和中文口译员，在翻译他们专业领域的一次的口译费用大约是850美元（750欧元或3120元人民币）外加半天1700美元（1500欧元或11700元人民币）。不过我也参与到过一些会议，其中有明显没有受过良好训练的中国翻译人员。<br />
<br />
------[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 14:27, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
在我的专业领域，我认识一些训练有素的中德口译员，他们在各自领域的口译费约为半天850美元（750欧元或3120人民币），或者全天1700美元（1500欧元或11700人民币）。但是我也参加过一些会议，会议由没有受过专业训练的中国口译员进行翻译。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 03:03, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
<br />
As a rule, the clients were inexperienced and had apparently based their decision on price in particular, and hired interpreters for 450 USD (400 Euros or 3,120 Yuan RMB) half-day or 850 USD (750 Euros or 5,890 Yuan RMB) per day.<br />
通常，客户由于经验不足，显然只能根据价格来聘用口译员，聘用的价格大概是半天450美元（相当于400欧元或3120元人民币），全天850美元（相当于750欧元或5890元人民币）。<br />
--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 04:14, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
<br />
As a result, long passages were regularly left uninterpreted, there were pauses lasting seconds or entire speeches remained uninterpreted sometimes due to a lack of agreement between the interpreters, other times perhaps due to technical problems?.<br />
<br />
结果，导致很长的一段话经常不予解释，有时会持续停顿几秒钟，或者整个演讲句子都无法翻译，有时是因为口译员之间没有形成共识，有时可能是由于技术方面的问题……--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 05:54, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
经常导致很长的一段话被遗漏而未进行翻译。有时由于口译员之间未协商好，有时由于翻译技术问题，以至翻译期间停顿数秒，甚至整段话都无法翻译。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
结果是导致长段句经常不予解释，或者是有时会持续停顿几秒钟，（最后导致）整个演讲句子都无法翻译，（更有甚者）是因为口译员之间没有达成共识，还有可能是由于技术方面的问题。<br />
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 14:32, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
<br />
I especially remember a consecutive interpreter who 'interpreted' the various welcoming speeches at a German-Chinese friendship celebration in sections by repeating the same sentence in Chinese: "We are delighted to have such a good partnership which serves international understanding.”<br />
<br />
我尤其清楚地记得一位口译员在中德友谊庆典上，将各种欢迎词都译为同一句话：“我们很高兴能发展一段有助于国际间理解的友好伙伴关系。”--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 03:39, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
我尤其清楚地记得一位交替传译口译员在中德友谊庆典上，将各种欢迎词都译为同一句话：“我们很高兴能发展一段有助于增进国际间理解的友好伙伴关系。”--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 08:34, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
<br />
For someone who was not familiar with the subject or did not speak both languages, the event made a perfect, all-round impression, the interpreting was apparently seamless, the audience clapped and laughed in the right places, solely because of the speaker's example and the interpreter's non-verbal signals. The German client was unable to judge the quality of the 'interpretation' due to a lack of language skills.<br />
<br />
对于不熟悉该主题或不会讲两种语言的人，这次活动给人留下了完美且完备的印象，口译显然是无间断的，听众在正确的地方鼓掌大笑，这完全是因为演讲者所说的例子和口译员的非语言信号。 由于缺乏语言技能，德国客户无法判断“口译”的质量。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 15:09, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
对于不熟悉该主题或不会讲两种语言的人来说，这次活动给他们留下了完美且完备的印象，口译显然是无间断的，听众能适时鼓掌大笑，完全是因为演讲者所说的例子和口译员的非语言信号。 由于缺乏语言技能，德国客户无法判断“口译”的质量。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 02:08, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
<br />
It is not known whether the approximately 150 Chinese participants at the event thought that the German speakers always said the same thing, or whether they realised that the interpreter only interpreted the atmosphere but not the specific content of the speeches. Perhaps the interpreter was also competent, but out of political or other consideration avoided any concretization of the idea of international understanding by giving examples?<br />
<br />
我们并不清楚在场约150名中国与会者是否认同德国发言人一直在说同一件事，或者他们是否意识到口译员仅仅描述了演讲的氛围，却没有翻译演讲的具体内容。也许这个口译者也能胜任这份工作，但是出于政治或者其他考虑，他通过举例避免将国际理解这个概念具体化。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 13:18, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在场约150名中国与会者是否认同德国发言人一直在说同一件事，或者他们是否意识到口译员仅仅传达了演讲的气氛，却没有翻译演讲的具体内容，这一点尚不清楚。也许这个口译者也能胜任这份工作，但是出于政治或者其他考虑，他通过举例说明避免将国际理解这个概念具体化。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:04, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
<br />
The listeners may also not have been aware that one of the speakers was the Lord Mayor, because his introduction and title of office by a moderator was also interpreted with: “We are delighted that we have such a good partnership that serves international understanding.”<br />
Experienced clients, on the other hand, are familiar with the quality assurance elements of the industry, such as membership in professional associations, recommendations, etc., and do not question the established fee rates.<br />
<br />
听众们可能也没有注意到其中一位演讲者是市长，因为主持人也把他的自我介绍和头衔解释成:“我们很高兴能有如此良好的合作关系，这有助于国际间相互谅解。”另一方面，有经验的客户对行业的质量保证要素很熟悉，如专业协会的会员资格、推荐信等，并且不会对既定的收费标准提出质疑。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:29, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
听众可能还没注意到其中一位演讲者是市长，因为主持人在介绍他的时候，把他的头衔解释为：“我们很高兴能有如此良好的合作关系，这有助于国际之间的相互理解。”<br />
另一方面，有经验的客户熟悉行业的质量保证要素，例如专业协会的会员资格、推荐信等，不会对既定的收费标准提出质疑。”--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 01:13, 9 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
<br />
4.1 Declining Payment Practice <br />
The 21st century witnesses the decline in payment morale, with interpreting services receiving delayed remuneration or subject to default in payment. While catering companies of the same event usually get their bills paid, interpreting services, especially for inexperienced clients, appear to be a service that cannot be concretely grasped, measured and seen. All this leads to a devaluation of the performance of the interpreter, his profession and even to a questioning of the role of an interpreter or translator in the modern age.<br />
<br />
4.1 越来越多的人不愿支付翻译服务费用<br />
21世纪，越来越多的人不愿支付翻译服务费用，译员经常被拖欠服务费。一些餐饮服务公司重复举办相同的活动，每次都能获得报酬，而对于那些没有经验的客户来说，翻译服务质量不能把握，翻译水平也不好评估，甚至他们感受不到翻译的存在，自然就低估了翻译的作用和译员的业务能力，甚至还会怀疑现代社会口笔译员存在的意义。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 08:30, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
4.1 逐降的翻译服务费用<br />
21世纪，越来越多的人不愿支付翻译服务费用，经常拖欠甚至拒付翻译薪酬。然而一些餐饮公司重复举办某些活动却总能获得报酬。尤其对那些没有经验的客户来说，翻译服务质量难以正确把控，翻译水平不好评估，及难以识别翻译。他们自然就低估了译员的能力和专业性，甚至会质疑当代口笔译员的作用。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 14:18, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
<br />
Should there really be a free artificially intelligent "conference interpreting version" of Google Translator one day, these clients will probably feel vindicated in their contempt for human interpretation.<br />
<br />
5. Networking Takes Interpreting and Translation to a New Level of Quality<br />
In the case of machine-assisted translation, for example with terminology database systems such as Trados, there are several windows/screen areas and it can be displayed how you yourself have interpreted/translated a sentence or expression in the past or how other translators have done so.<br />
<br />
如果有一天谷歌翻译真的出现了免费的人工智能“会议口译版”，那么那些客户就会理所当然的看不起人类的口译工作。<br />
<br />
5.网络将口译和笔译提升到新的水平<br />
在机器辅助翻译的情况下，例如使用Trados等的术语数据库系统，它会有好几个窗口/屏幕区域，显示你自己以前是如何翻译一个句子或一种表达的，或者其它翻译人员是如何做的。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 01:02, 9 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
如果哪天谷歌翻译真的出了免费的人工智能“会议口译版”，那么那些客户可能就会报复性的贬低人工口译了。<br />
<br />
5.网络将口笔译的翻译质量提升到了一个新水平。<br />
在机器辅助翻译的情况下，例如，在使用Trados等术语数据系统时，它会出现好几个窗口/屏幕区域，显示你自己以前是如何翻译某个句子或某种表达的，或其它翻译人员是如何翻译的。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 02:30, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
<br />
The consistent further development of such workstations for interpreters would show in real time how colleagues interpret/translate or have interpreted/translated things. This is conceivable, for example, in the case of important speeches broadcasted live, which are interpreted simultaneously by different interpreters (and possibly AI) for different clients. Thus, as in the case of simultaneous chat commentaries to a live stream, the work of different interpreters on a speech could be observed simultaneously.<br />
<br />
口译员工作站不断的发展，最终将能实时显示同事们是如何翻译或以前是如何翻译的。 这是可以想象的，例如，在重要演讲直播的情况下，由不同的口译员（可能是人工智能）为不同的客户同时进行口译。 因此，就像直播能实时聊天评论一样，可以同时看到不同口译员对演讲的翻译。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 02:12, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
此类口译员工作站的持续不断发展将实时显示口译员们如何进行翻译工作或者之前是如何翻译的。 例如，我们可以想象到在现场直播的重要演讲中，不同的口译员（可能还包括人工智能）为不同的客户同时进行翻译。 因此，就像直播中能实时聊天评论一样， 也能看到不同口译员同时对演讲进行翻译。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:14, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
<br />
If we take a closer look at this technical networking, parallels to an expanded, collective consciousness, which functions very much like the consciousness of an individual, come to mind. <br />
Artificial intelligence research focuses on the learning ability, self-perception and external perception of an individual in order to rebuild it with a machine. When a translator uses a Translation Memory (like Trados, DejaVu etc.), the artificial intelligence shows him/her how he/she him/herself has translated the same or a similar sentence earlier and, if the system is connected, how other translators have or are simultaneously translating the sentence.<br />
如果我们仔细观察这个技术网络，就会发现它与扩展的集体意识有相似之处，它的功能很像个人的意识。人工智能研究的重点是个体的学习能力、自我感知和外部感知，以便用机器重建个体。当翻译者使用翻译记忆(如塔多思、DejaVu等)时，人工智能会向他/她展示他/她自己之前是如何翻译相同或相似的句子的，如果系统连接起来，还会显示其他翻译者已经或正在同时翻译该句子的。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 07:27, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
<br />
The translator, who has several windows open (a dictionary, a speech-to-text module, a machine translation module, a translation memory etc.) may unconsciously use the hints by the artificial intelligence to produce his/her translation or interpretation.<br />
<br />
翻译人员在打开多个窗口（词典、语音文本转换模块、机器翻译模块、翻译记忆库等）的情况下，可能会无意识地利用人工智能的提示来进行笔译或口译。<br />
<br />
When a huge mass of individuals (even with different languages) react with their thoughts, comments sometimes interpretations on the same sensual impression, artificial intelligence, using Big Data analysis and self-learning algorithms, becomes more than the sum of its parts, crosses the line of swarm intelligence and may be called a consciousness.<br />
<br />
当大量的个体(甚至使用不同的语言)对他们自己的想法、评论或者解释（对于同一种感官印象）做出反应时，人工智能使用大数据分析和自学算法，变得不仅是其各个部分的总和，跨越了群体智能界限，可以被称为意识。<br />
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:55, 8 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
<br />
For example, someone is giving a speech, a global audience is watching and simultaneously commenting in their own languages. The AI can filter the most common reaction on the speech, can analyse cultural backgrounds or personality differences, can match similar comments in different languages. <br />
We have a stronger concordance of the stream of thoughts between individuals than in the purely passive reading of the texts of a foreign author between reader and foreign author.<br />
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比如，一个人演讲时，全世界都在观看并且各国观众用他们自己的母语进行点评。人工智能可以跳过那些演讲中最常见的反应，分析文化背景和个性差异，并配上不同语种的评论。<br />
与纯粹地被动阅读外国作者的文本相比，读者与外国作者之间产生的共鸣更强。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 14:33, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
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There are no brain cells linked between different individuals; rather the thinking during the translation work is visualized: I register how other individuals perform the same thought process and come to mostly different, but comparable, comprehensible results or even, in individual cases, to the same result. This process of constant comparison with the thinking of others is similar to the unconscious management process in the brain of the various subconscious thoughts, where the thought that is reinforced by the most similar thoughts makes it into consciousness.<br />
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不同个体之间没有大脑细胞相连。 而是将翻译工作中的想法可视化：我记录了其他人如何执行相同的思维过程，并得出了大部分不同但可比，可理解的结果，甚至在个别情况下也得出相同的结果。 这种与他人的思想不断进行比较的过程类似于各种潜意识思想的大脑中的无意识管理过程，在这种过程中，被最相似的思想所强化的思想变成了意识。--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 05:45, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
<br />
When interpreting and translating, we have clearly defined thought processes that are predetermined by the source text, thus creating a manageable and thus, to a certain extent, laboratory situation. If it is possible to reach a predominant consensus here, a transfer to the thought process management of several users of the same avatar with the same controlled environment and to livestream situations with the same uncontrolled environment would be conceivable.<br />
<br />
在进行口译和笔译时，我们已经明确定义了由源文本预先确定的思维过程，从而创造了一种易于管理的情况，或者从某种程度上说，一种各因素严格受控的情况。如果各方可能达成主要共识，那么我们相信处于同一受控环境下有相同头像的用户的思维过程转化是可以实现的，同一非受控环境下直播情况的转化也是可以实现的。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 03:41, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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在进行口译和笔译时，我们已经明确定义了由原文本决定的思维过程，从而创造了一种易处理的，从某种程度上说，各因素严格受控的情况。如果各方可能达成共识，那么我们相信处于同一受控环境下有相同头像的用户的思维过程转化是可以实现的，同一非受控环境下直播情况的转化也是可以实现的。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 13:43, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
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The next step, therefore, would be to extend this technically supported interpreting and translating work to align the thinking of different individuals in the same situations and to allow common thoughts to form and be visualized as text, for example when enough users write the same thing that is "I am us.". Individual mistakes could thus not assert themselves in the mass, so-called swarm intelligence. Of course, there are also the necessary learning processes with setbacks and nonsense.<br />
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因此，下一步将是扩展这一技术所支持的口译和笔译工作，以协调不同人在相同情况下的想法，并允许共同想法形成并可视化为文本，例如，足够多的用户写相同的内容 “我就是我们”。 因此，个人的错误无法在大众中断言自己，即所谓的集群智能。当然，也有伴随着一些挫折和废话的必要学习过程。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 02:42, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
因此，下一步将是扩展这一技术支持的口译和笔译工作，使不同个人在相同情况下的思维保持一致，并允许共同的思想形成和可视化为文本，例如，当足够多的用户写下“我就是我们”的相同内容时。因此，个人的错误无法在群体中自我断言，所谓的群体智能。当然，也有必要的学习过程，有挫折和无意义。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:08, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
<br />
The striving for meaning and for intelligent meaning is a sufficient driving factor for the establishment of a collective consciousness. Who does not shudder when we typed "How boring" during a live broadcast of the speech of the US President? These words were typed simultaneously by 13 million users and thus are selected by the artificial intelligence to be visualized as a statement of collective consciousness.<br />
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追求意义，追求智能意义，足够驱使人们建立共识。在直播美国总统演讲时，我们在屏幕上打出“太无聊了”，谁不会感到害怕？130亿网民同时打上这句话，然后人工智能将其呈现在大众面前，体现出我们的共识。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 07:49, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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追求意义，追求智能的意义，这足够驱使人们建立共识。在直播美国总统演讲时，我们在屏幕上打出“真无聊”，谁不会感到害怕？如果一千三百万网民同时打出这句话，然后人工智能将其呈现出来，这也体现出一种共识。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:28, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
<br />
On a much smaller scale shown below is the reaction “How exciting” stated by only 321 users, who therefore were unable to assert themselves. In this way, in a clearly defined setting with clearly defined rules of thought management, one could create collective meaning, e.g. by telling the progress of an action together in a digitally animated feature film, or, in the military use of artificially intelligent robots in war, by using swarm intelligence to develop/change a combat strategy simultaneously during the mission.<br />
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如下所示，只有321名用户表示“太激动人心了”，相对来说在数量上要小得多。这些人也因此无法主张自己的观点。这样来说，在一个有着清晰思想管理规则的明确环境下，人们就可以创造出集体意义。例如：通过一部动画电影来讲述一系列情节进展，或是，在战争中使用军用人工智能机器人，通过使用群体智能在任务的执行中同时制定/改变战争策略。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 02:13, 8 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
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6. Further Developing Translation and Interpreting Theories in the Present and the Near Future<br />
The history of translation and interpreting studies is as old as translation and interpreting itself, although it was established as a discipline only in the 1960s and 1970s. Translation and interpreting studies changed its paradigms already several times. In ancient times, it was prescriptive, favoring literal or free translation (or combinations like as literal as necessary, as free as possible). It later became more descriptive.<br />
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6.近来及不久的将来翻译理论的进一步发展<br />
尽管翻译学在20世纪六七十年代才确立为一门学科，但对翻译和口译研究的历史与它们本身一样悠久。翻译学的研究范式已经发生了数次改变。在古代，它是规定性的，倾向于直译或意译(或二者结合，尽可能意译，如必要则直译)。后来，翻译研究变得更具描述性。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 05:07, 8 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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6.现在和不久将来口笔译理论的进一步发展<br />
尽管翻译学在20世纪六七十年代才确立为一门学科，但对翻译和口译研究的历史与它们本身一样悠久。口笔译研究范式已经发生了数次改变。在古代，它是规定性的，倾向于直译或意译(或二者结合，尽可能意译，如必要则直译)。后来，翻译研究变得更具描述性。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 08:42, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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6.笔译理论和口译理论在当下及未来的发展<br />
笔译研究和口译研究（翻译学研究）在20世纪六七十年代被确立为一门独立学科，但该学科发展历史之悠久，不亚于口笔译自身的发展。翻译学的研究范式已经发生了数次改变，古代采取的是规定性研究，倾向于直译或意译的翻译方法(或二者结合，尽可能意译，如必要则直译)，后来则更偏向于描写性研究。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:59, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
<br />
Contrastive-linguistic approaches with equivalency as the main topic were followed by communicative and then functional approaches. Since the functional approaches also considered cultural backgrounds, it was called the “Cultural Turn”. With the Skopos Theory, the equivalence of the purpose of the source and target texts are stressed over the sacredness of the source, and the translator/interpreter gets back into the focus. Recent developments turned towards a sociology, a culture and the ethics of translation.<br />
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等效性，作为对比语言方式的主要内容，位于交流方式和功能方式之前。从功能方式考虑文化背景以来，其被称之为“文化转向”。在目的论的帮助下，源语言和目的语的目的平衡，相较于源语言的真实性，是更加重要的。之后，翻译家重新得到注意。最近相关的发展慢慢成为了一种社会科学，一种关于文化和到得的翻译。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 01:42, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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以等值为主题的对比语言学方法，其次是交际语言学方法，然后是功能语言学方法。由于功能方法也考虑文化背景，因此被称为“文化转向”。目的论强调了源语与目的语的对等，而不是源语的神圣性，使译者/译者重新成为焦点。最近的发展转向了翻译的社会学、文化和伦理学。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 07:35, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
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Algorithms have the characteristic that they do not have to understand any more, they just take a huge mass of data and come to results without knowing how. However, translation produced with these algorithms in general are of low quality. In a second step, the algorithms need to be able to learn from mistakes and adjust themselves. These translations are of better quality, but still qualitatively lower than human translations.<br />
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算法具有不再需要去理解的特征，它们只需要处理大量数据，而无需知道如何得出结果。 但是，用这些算法产生的翻译通常质量低下。 第二步，算法需要能够从错误中学习并自我调整。 这些翻译的质量较好，但仍低于人工翻译。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 02:01, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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算法的特点是无需理解，它们只需处理大量的数据并得出结果，不必知其处理方法。然而，用算法得出的翻译版本基本质量比较差。第二步，算法需要能够从错误中获取经验并自我调整。这些翻译的质量有所提高，但仍然比不上人工翻译。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 03:17, 9 October 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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算法具有无需深入理解的特点，仅仅只是处理大量数据，进而得出结果，却并不知其所以然。然而，借助算法产出的译文一般都是很差劲的。第二步，这些算法要能够吸取教训并自我调整。这样才能产出优质的译文，不过其质量还是比不上人工翻译。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 05:25, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
<br />
So before the machine can take over, it needs to understand humans better and needs to be ‘made more human’. Therefore, the understanding we gained through the different translation theories and experiences, we need to put into a complex set of rules, to enable the artificial intelligence not just to come to better results, but also to ‘understand’ why and how.<br />
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因此，在机器能够接管之前，它需要更好地了解人类，并且需要“让更多的人”。因此，我们从不同的翻译理论和经验中获得的理解，需要把一套复杂的规则，使人工智能不仅能够取得更好的结果，而且能够“理解”为什么和如何。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:04, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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因此，在机器能够代替人类之前，它需要更好地了解人类，并且需要更“人性化”。因此，我们需要把从不同的翻译理论和经验中获得的理解编入一套复杂的规则指令中，使机器不仅能够翻得更准确，而且能够“理解”为什么要这么翻和怎么翻。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 09:29, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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因此，在机器能够取代人类之前，它需要更好地了解人类，并且需要更“人性化”。因此，我们需要把在不同的翻译理论和实践中取得的认知编入一套复杂的规则指令中，使机器不仅能够翻得更准确，而且能够“理解”这么翻译的理由和方法。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 09:53, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
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The new forms of translating and interpreting are mostly managed by artificial intelligence, which applies big data analysis and algorithms on human translation and interpretation to find the most appropriate and most comprehensible translation/interpretation for a specific target text recipient. <br />
口笔译的新形式大多由人工智能处理完成，人工智能将大数据分析和算法应用于人工口笔译中，为特定目标文本的接受者找到最适合和最容易理解的笔译/口译。<br />
Therefore, the focus shifts from the person of the translator/interpreter to appropriateness (which is defined by analysis of cultural background and individual personalities) and comprehensiveness, the latter moving the focus further towards the audience.<br />
因此，翻译的重点从译者本身转向了“恰当性”(通过对文化背景和个人性格的分析来评定是否恰当)和综合性，而综合性又将重点进一步放在了读者身上。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 15:23, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The new forms of translating and interpreting are mostly managed by artificial intelligence, which applies big data analysis and algorithms on human translation and interpretation to find the most appropriate and most comprehensible translation/interpretation for a specific target text recipient. <br />
新的口译和笔译形式主要由人工智能管理，人工智能将大数据分析和算法应用于人工笔译和口译，为特定的目标文本接收者寻找最合适和最易理解的笔译/口译。<br />
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Therefore, the focus shifts from the person of the translator/interpreter to appropriateness (which is defined by analysis of cultural background and individual personalities) and comprehensiveness, the latter moving the focus further towards the audience.<br />
因此，研究的焦点从译员本身转移到通过分析文化背景和个性分析所确定的适当性和综合性上来，后者又进一步地将焦点转移到听众身上。<br />
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 16:16, 8 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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The new forms of translating and interpreting are mostly managed by artificial intelligence, which applies big data analysis and algorithms on human translation and interpretation to find the most appropriate and most comprehensible translation/interpretation for a specific target text recipient. <br />
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口笔译的新形式表现在其大多由人工智能完成，而人工智能将大数据分析和算法应用于人工口笔译中，为特定目标文本的接受者提供最适合和最容易理解的口笔译服务。 --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 03:03, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the focus shifts from the person of the translator/interpreter to appropriateness (which is defined by analysis of cultural background and individual personalities) and comprehensiveness, the latter moving the focus further towards the audience.<br />
因此，翻译的重点从译者本身转向了“恰当性”(通过对文化背景和个人性格的分析来评定)和综合性，而综合性又将重点进一步放在了读者身上。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 03:03, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
Since the translation or interpretation may look different depending on the individual recipient, the new translation and interpretation will be individualized and therefore the focus moves not just to the audience, but to the personality of the individual recipient and his/her social and cultural environment.<br />
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由于笔译或口译可能会因为接受者的不同而有所不同，因此新型笔译和口译将会注重个性化发展，其重点不仅仅针对于受众，而是针对于接受者的性格以及他/她的社会文化环境。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:42, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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由于笔译和口译可能会因为接受者的不同而有所不同，新型笔译和口译将会注重个性化发展，因此其焦点不仅仅转移到受众身上，也将关注每个接受者的性格以及他/她的社会文化环境。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 05:17, 8 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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由于笔译或口译可能会因接受者个体的不同而有所不同，所以新的笔译和口译将会是个性化的，因而翻译的焦点不仅会转移到受众身上，也会转移到接受者的个性和他/她的社会文化环境上。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:21, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
7. The New Type of Interpreting<br />
The new type of interpreting is a human-controlled, digital-technically supported hybrid form. The interpreter requires technical and digital skills and aids. Translation and interpreting can no longer take place without real-time technology, the minimum requirement is internet access. Quality-reducing factors currently include the use of lay interpreters in community situations, unqualified underpaid interpreters due to a lack of appreciation of the profession by inexperienced clients, and automatic translation programs, e.g., for various language versions of websites. However, a long-term trend toward qualitative improvement of automatic interpreting/translating through AI research can be observed, so that extrapolating past developments, even the complete replacement of the human interpreter by an AI in the future does not seem completely impossible any more.<br />
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新型口译是一种人工控制的，由数字技术支持的混合形式。口译员需要专业的数字技能的帮助。 没有实时技术，口笔译活动都无法进行，网络顺畅是最低要求。很多因素都导致翻译质量下降，其中包括，在一般交际场合请用非专业口译人员，经验不足的客户和自动翻译程序公司因缺乏专业认识低薪聘用不合格译者，例如有多种语言转换需求的网站。但是，通过人工智能研究来提高自动口笔译质量的长期趋势仍然存在，因此根据过去的发展趋势，甚至将来人工智能完全取代口译员工作也并非完全不可能。 --[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 00:25, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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新形口译呈人工控制,数字科技支撑的混合形式。口译员需拥有科技和数字技能和设备。 没有了实时科技的支撑，口笔译活动无法实现，而接通网络是最基本的要求。由于客户缺乏对该行业的了解，在交往中使用业余译员，资历不够的低价译员以及使用自动翻译程序，例如多语种网站，这些都是造成翻译质量下降的因素。不过，通过人工智能的研究，我们可以观测到自动化口译，翻译质量提高的长期趋势。所以根据过去发展的推断，在未来，即使用人工智能来完全取代人类口译员也不是完全不可能的事。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 02:42, 8 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
Appropriateness as the Least Common Denominator of Translation and Interpreting<br />
Foreword by Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University, China<br />
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Interpreting theories and interpreting studies are as old as human languages. Interpreting practice is exercised as soon as two individuals meet, with verbal and non-verbal languages both being an individual and a shared thing. Every person has his or her personal language and therefore is used to processing input by interpreting.When the person modifies its output according to the recipient, this is also interpreting from the personal language into one which he or she believes is better to be understood by the recipient.<br />
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翻译理论和翻译研究和人类语言一样古老。两个人相遇那一刻，翻译实践就开始了，此时，口语语言和非口语语言都既是个人也是两人共享的事情。每个人都有自己的个人语言，因此所有人都要通过翻译来处理输入信息。某个人通过回馈信息修改输出语言，也是将自己的个人语言翻译成他所认为的能被接受者更容易理解的语言。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 08:36, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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适当性是翻译和口译的最不常见的特征<br />
中国湖南师范大学，吴漠汀的前言<br />
翻译理论和翻译研究和人类语言一样古老。两个人一碰面，翻译实践就开始了，此时，口头语言和非口头语言都既是个人又是两人共享的东西。每个人都有自己的个人语言，因此习惯通过口译来处理输入的信息。人通过接收的信息修改其输出，也是将自己的个人语言翻译成他或她所认为的能更好地理解的语言。--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 14:21, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
Similarly, a grandmother and her grandchild communicate in the (supposed) language of the grandchild, the grandmother constantly interpreting complex language into a simpler one. This concept of interpreting, also called polyphony, is still valid when it comes to different (‘national’) languages. Depending on personal language abilities, the Anglophone grandmother would also choose simple French to explain things to her francophone grandchild. And in the case of any lack of respective language abilities, she would simplify things in nonverbal communication.<br />
同样，祖母和孙辈用孙辈(假定)的语言交流，祖母会不断地把复杂的语言解释为较简单的语言。这种解释的概念，也称为复调，在涉及到不同(“国家的”)语言时仍然有效。根据个人的语言能力，以英语为母语的祖母也会选择简单的法语向讲法语的孙子解释事情。在缺乏各自语言能力的情况下，她会简化非语言交际。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 00:29, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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同样，祖母和孙辈用孙辈(假定)的语言交流，祖母会不断地把复杂的语言解释为较简单的语言。这种解释的概念，也称为复调，同样适用于用不同(“国家的”)语言进行交流的情况。根据个人的语言能力，以英语为母语的祖母也会选择用简单的法语向讲法语的孙子解释事情。在缺乏各自语言能力的情况下，她会用非语言交流的方式来简要表达自己的想法。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 06:21, 11 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
The earliest evidence of interpreters dates back to 4th millennium BCE Egypt: They were held in high esteem, they were noblemen or priests. Of course translation as opposed to interpreting needs media (text and/or images etc.). In general, translation started with the introduction of the written script and the first texts around 3000 BCE in Mesopotamia, with Ancient Egyptian and the Yi language in the area of presentday China. The earliest Chinese texts date around 1500 BCE.<br />
追溯到公元前4000年，在埃及出现了最早的口译员，他们备受崇敬，多为名门贵族或牧师神父。当然，相对于口译，翻译则需要媒介，如文本或意象等。总而言之，从公元前3000年在美索不达米亚发现书面稿件和第一份文本，以及古埃及文字和目前中国所用的彝语出现时，翻译也随之兴起。而中国的文本最早可追溯到公元前1500年左右. --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 12:34, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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最早证明口译者存在的证据可追溯到公元前四世纪的埃及，他们备受崇敬，多为贵族或者牧师。当然，翻译不是解释，需要借助媒介（文本和形象，或者单纯是形象等）。总而言之，翻译始于公元前三世纪在美索不达米亚发现书面稿件和第一份文本，以及古埃及文字和目前中国所用的彝语出现之时。而中文文本最早可追溯至公元前一千五百年。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:59, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
Along the trade route which later was called the Silk Road to Europe. Along this Trade Route, archetype stories were transported and transformed into the languages along the Silk Road, so that we find the archetype of the great flood both in the Gilgamesh Epos around 3000-2500 BCE in Mesopotamia, around 1850 BCE in Egypt, around 950 BCE in the Shijing, around 350 BCE in the Shanhaijing, in ancient Indian tales and in 440 BCE in the Old Testament (of the bible).<br />
这条贸易路线，后来被称为通往欧洲的丝绸之路。沿着这条贸易路线，原型故事经沿丝绸之路传播并翻译为各种语言，因此我们能在大约公元前3000-2500年的美索不达米亚和公元前1850年的埃及、公元前950年左右的石景，山海经和古代印度传说中记载的公元前350年， 旧约圣经中公元前440年时，都能找到这次巨大洪水的原型。--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 12:22, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
Translators had an impact on the historical development of languages. The Roman dramatist Livius Andronicus (c. 285-204 BC) wrote a Latin version of the Odyssey (250 BCE) and a number of plays commissioned for the Roman Games of 240 BCE. His translations of Greek dramas into Latin founded the Roman drama tradition and shaped the Latin language. Already in the 2nd century BC translations from Greek to Latin were so popular that, for the first time in history, two translators (Plautus and Terence) were able to make a living from it.<br />
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译者对语言的历史发展有很大的影响。罗马剧作家Livius Andronicus(约公元前285-204年)写了拉丁文版的《奥德赛》(公元前250年)，并为公元前240年的罗马游戏创作了许多剧本。他把希腊戏剧翻译成拉丁文，开创了罗马戏剧的传统，塑造了拉丁语言。早在公元前2世纪，把希腊语翻译成拉丁语就已经非常流行，历史上第一次有两位译者(普劳图斯和特伦斯)能够以此谋生。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 03:40, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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翻译者们对语言的历史发展产生了影响。罗马剧作家卢修斯·李维乌斯·安得罗尼库斯（公元前285至204年）撰写了拉丁语版本的《奥赛罗》（公元前250年），并为公元前240年的罗马游戏舞台创作了大量剧本。他将希腊的戏剧翻译成了拉丁语，开创了罗马戏剧的传统，同时也塑造了拉丁语言。在公元前2世纪，将希腊语翻译成拉丁语的翻译活动就已经非常流行了，因此历史上第一次有两位翻译者(普劳图斯和特伦斯)能够以翻译作品来谋生。--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 04:48, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
The German language, for its part, was shaped by a translator Martin Luther, who translated the Bible, commonly read in Latin at the time, into German. <br />
The prescription, to translate “word for word” was raised both in China and in Europe at a very early time: In the 5th century Dao An, Director of the Imperial Translation School, advocated strict literal translation of the Buddhist scriptures into Chinese. His prescription came from the fear to miss something from the original. It is important to mention that he did not know Sanskrit at all.<br />
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德语则是由翻译家马丁·路德塑造的，他把当时读者众多的拉丁语版的《圣经》翻译成德语。“逐字逐句”的翻译这种准则很早就在中国和欧洲提出：在公元5世纪，皇家翻译学院的院长道安主张严格将佛经翻译成中文。他这样做的出发点是因为害怕丢失一些原始的东西。值得一提的是，他根本不懂梵语。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:56, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
The Indian Buddhist monk Kumarajiva (350-410) carried out a great reform of the principles and methods for the translation of Sanskrit sutras. He advocated a free translation approach with the aim to transfer the true essence of the Sanskrit Sutras. He was the first person in the history of translation in China to suggest that translators should sign their names to the translated work.<br />
印度佛教僧侣鸠摩罗吉瓦(350-410)对梵文佛经的翻译原则和方法进行了重大改革。他主张采用意译的方法，目的是传递梵文佛经的真正精髓。他是中国翻译史上第一个建议译者在译著上签名的人。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:15, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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印度佛教僧侣鸠摩罗吉瓦（350-410）对梵文佛经的翻译原则和方法进行了重大改革，他主要提倡意译的方法，目的是传达梵文佛经的真谛。他是中国翻译史上建议译者在译著上签名的第一人。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:35, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
Dao An’s prescription was partly based upon the understanding that the original texts were somehow “sacred”. A similar dogma of literal translations of religious texts was raised in Europe and even determined an ideological battle on free/literal bible translation for centuries. The translator Dolet in 1546 was burned for adding the phrase “Rien du tout. (Nothing.)” to a rhethorical passage about what existed after death.<br />
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原文某种程度上是“神圣的”。道安的译文正是部分基于这一理解而出的。在欧洲，对宗教文章进行直译时，就有一种类似于他这种观点的教条思想，这甚至可以说是几个世纪以来对《圣经》进行直译还是意译的思想之战。1546年，翻译家多莱因为在一篇描写死后有什么东西还存在的辞藻华丽的文章里面加入了“Rien du tout. (意思是“什么都没有”)”这一短语而被处以火刑。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:57, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
Cicero in his book De optimo genere oratum (The Best Kind of Orator) opposed word-for-word translation. For the orator, the target text had to be as forceful and convincing as the original text. Horace called translators, who translated word for word “slavish”. St. Jerome in his book De optimo genere interpretandi (The Best Kind of Interpreting) in 395 CE advocated: “Non verbum de verbo sed sensum de senso.” (Not word for word but sense for sense.)<br />
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西塞罗在其著作《论演说家》中对直译持有反对意见，对于演说家来说，目标文本必须像原文一样有强大的说服力。贺拉斯称直译者为“奴隶”。圣·哲罗姆则在公元395年完成的《最好的解释》一书中提出：“不能直译，而要意译。”--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:09, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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西塞罗在其《论演说家》一书中反对逐字逐句的翻译。对演说家来说，目标文本必须与原文一样有强大的说服力。贺拉斯称逐字逐句翻译的人为“奴隶”。圣·杰罗姆在公元395年所著的《最好的解释》一书中主张“不要逐字逐句翻译，要意译。”--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 02:16, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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西塞罗在其著作《论演说家》中反对逐字逐句的翻译。对于演说家来说，目标文本必须与原文一样有强大的说服力。贺拉斯称逐字逐句翻译的人为“奴隶”。圣·杰罗姆在公元395年所著的《最好的解释》一书中主张“不要逐字逐句翻译，要意译。”--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 06:40, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
However, Apuleius altered Greek dramas beyond recognition. Quintilian understood that translations shape also the target language, which he called “enrichment”. He further developed translation studies by establishing terms like metaphrasis (word-for-word translation) and paraphrasis (sentence-by-sentence translation), later further developed by Dryden (1680). Tytler (1797) advocated instead, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, with the same style, manner and ease.<br />
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然而，阿普列尤斯采用意译方法所译的希腊戏剧却令人难以理解。昆体良认为，翻译也可以对目的语进行塑造，这一观点被其称为“增润”（enrichment）。他通过建立诸如metaphrasis（逐词翻译）和paraphrasis（逐句翻译）之类的术语发展了翻译研究，随后德莱顿（1680）对此有了进一步的完善。而泰特勒（1797）则主张，译作应该完全复写出原作的思想，拥有与原作同一性质的风格和手法，并具备原作的通顺。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:31, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
In Republican times, Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai were among the prominent advocates of a literal translation. Chinese translation studies has embraced the English term “translatology”, while internationally, the research is named “translation and interpreting studies”, which is also the term for the volume in hand.<br />
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But the dichotomy of free/literal did not shape the whole discourse in translation studies. Other dichotomies were foreignizing/localizing and imitation/re-creation (Dong Qiusi 1946).<br />
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民国时期，鲁迅和瞿秋白是直译的主要倡导者。中国翻译研究已包含英文术语“翻译学”，但在国际上，该研究称为“翻译和口译研究”，这也是手头卷的术语。<br />
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然而，意译和直译的二分法并没有塑造翻译研究的整个论述。其它二分法包括异化或归化以及模仿或再创作（董秋斯，1946）。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 01:49, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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民国时期，鲁迅和瞿秋白是直译的杰出倡导者。中国翻译研究中已涵盖“翻译学”这一英文术语，但在国际上，该研究被命名为“翻译和口译研究”，这也是我手头这卷书中的术语。<br />
但意译和直译二分法并没有决定整个翻译研究的论述，其它二分法还包括异化/归化二分法及模仿/再创造二分法。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:29, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Zeng Xinyuan<br />
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== Headline text ==<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
A prominent advocate of foreignizing was Schleiermacher in the 19th century, who advocated that the source text should shine through the target text, since thoughts would shape the language. This was further elaborated by Walter Benjamin and Ortega y Gasset. The Sapir/Whorf hypothesis is the assumption that different languages lead to a different understanding of the world.<br />
在19世纪，一位杰出的“异化”提倡者施莱尔马赫认为，因为思想塑造语言, 源文本应在目标文本中表现出来。沃特·本杰明与奥特嘉·伊·加塞特进一步详细阐述了这一点。萨皮儿/沃夫假说提出一种假设，即不同语言导致对世界不同理解。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 08:27, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Zeng Xinyuan<br />
19世纪的施莱尔马赫是异化论的著名倡导者，他主张语言的形成是由思想决定的，所以源文本应该贯穿于目的文本。沃特·本杰明和奥特嘉·伊·加塞特对此做了进一步的阐述。萨丕尔-沃尔夫假说认为不同的语言会导致对世界的不同理解。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 00:37, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
Chinese translation studies is not at all referring to a Chinese tradition of translation studies, but to translation studies dealing (also) with Chinese as a language. However, most of the research conducted in this area holds also true for other languages and therefore for interpreting and translation studies in general. It might be questioned if a Chinese tradition of translation theories exists. Students of translation studies often choose the topic “Comparison of Chinese and Western Theories of Translation”.<br />
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==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
However, they get frustrated because they cannot find elaborated theories coming from China and they end up calling normative prescriptive concepts like “xin, da, ya” (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance) by Yan Fu “translation theory”. Yan Fu’s three ideals are better called a prescriptive recommendation for practical translation strategies. Of course the ideals are questionable, for why should a postmodern poem including the stuttering line “I, I c…, I can’t breath!” be translated into an elegant line in a different language?<br />
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==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
Similarly, the “transfiguration theory” by Qian Zhongshu with his concept of the “sublime” may count as an important statement, that translation and interpreting cannot be analyzed and understood to the last resort and keep their air of mystery. However, recent neurological research and artificial intelligence research have been tackling this last resort already.<br />
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同样，钱钟书的“转化理论”和他的“化境”概念可以作为一个重要的说明，即翻译和口译不能够被分析和理解到最后，并保持其神秘性。然而，最近的神经学研究和人工智能研究已经在解决这一最后的手段了。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 14:57, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
同样，钱钟书的“转化理论”和他的“化境”概念可以算作一个重要的说明，即不能够将笔译和口译分析和理解为最后一种手段，而忽略其艺术性。然而，最近的神经学研究和人工智能研究已经在解决这一最后手段了。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 15:07, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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同样的是，钱钟书所提出的化境翻译理论，以“崇高”作为其概念，是一种重要的陈述，而笔译和口译不能被分析或理解成最后一种方式来保证其神秘。然而，最近的神经研究和人工智能研究已经开始处理这一最后步骤。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 01:43, 10 October 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
Still, Chinese is an important language and it has some characteristics, which make research especially on Chinese in translation and interpreting studies valuable. One characteristic is that the meaning of a sentence may change totally until the very end of the sentence. Imagine just a “……的说法我反对。” (… is a statement I oppose.) at the end. Therefore, the decalage for conference interpreters interpreting from Chinese into other languages is quite long.<br />
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尽管如此，汉语还是一种重要的语言，并且具有一定的特征。这使得在翻译和口译的研究中对汉语的研究尤其有价值。其特征之一是，到了句子的最后，一个句子的意思还可能会完全改变。想象一下一个句子的最后是“……的说法我反对。” 因此，会议口译员将中文翻译成其他语言的时间相对较长。--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 00:50, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
Seyed Hossein Heydarian has analyzed the statistical occurrences of certain translation strategies with different pairs of languages. According to his findings, every language has a specific fingerprint of translation strategies, each fingerprint referring to specific language pairs.<br />
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The first lay interpreters naturally reflected on their interpreting work and this was the start of theories and studies. As soon as the written language was invented, critical reflection also started and with it translation theories and translation studies.<br />
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==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
The first thoughts about transferring the meaning of one language into a similar one of another language were prescriptive with precepts and principles, sometimes exaggerated into dogma with people not adhering to them being tortured or executed, especially in the religious context, when the original was declared “holy” and certain groups claimed the monopoly authority of interpreting. During translation history, the perspective changed from “prescriptive” to “descriptive”, reflecting a more neutral approach of analysis.<br />
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一开始将一种语言的含义转换为另一种相似含义的语言的想法是有规定和原则的，它有时被夸大为教条，尤其是在宗教环境中，当宣布原语言为标准或某些团体声称拥有口译权的时候。人们不会遵循这些规定而遭受酷刑或处决， 在翻译历史中，观点从“规定性”变为“描述性”，反映了一种更为中立的分析方法。--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 09:00, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
将一种语言的含义转换为另一种语言的类似含义，对于这一最初想法，人们奉为规定性原则。在某些情况下，尤其是宗教环境中，这一“原则”甚至被夸大为教条，声称原文是神圣的东西，一些团体甚至扬言有权垄断翻译。因此，人们只要是不遵守，要么接受酷刑，要么直接处死。在翻译历史中，观点从“规定性”变为“描述性”，反映了一种更为中立的分析方法。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:47, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
一开始将一种语言的含义转换为另一种相似含义的语言的想法是要遵循约定俗成的规定和原则的，它有时被夸大为教条，人们便不会遵循这些规定因而遭受酷刑或处决，尤其是在宗教环境中，当宣布原语言为标准或某些团体声称拥有口译权的时候。 在翻译历史中，观点从“规定性”变为“描述性”，反映了一种更为中立的分析方法。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 03:47, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
However, translation theory needs to be able to go beyond the description of translation to show parallels and differences between different translation processes in order to come to a generalized model which could serve to help understand the process better. Translation theories can also offer different translation methods/strategies depending on intersubjectively comprehensible criteria.<br />
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然而，翻译理论不只是翻译描述，还应体现不同翻译过程之间的异同，以得出一个通用模式，从而有助于更好地理解翻译过程。翻译理论也可根据主体间易理解的标准，提供不同翻译方法/策略。<br />
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--[[User:Zhang Weihong|Zhang Weihong]] ([[User talk:Zhang Weihong|talk]]) 15:08, 10 October 2020 (UTC) Zhang Weihong<br />
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==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
In the Renaissance, the most extensive treatise on the topic of translation is the Interpretatio linguarum (1559) by Laurence Humphrey. It is situated in the context of a debate initiated by Joachim Périon in 1540, who analyzed Cicero’s recommendations on translation. Cicero proposed, that the purpose of a translated speech was to be persuasive, therefore the translator needed to be free in his translation and not be bound by the original and by the request of a literal translation.<br />
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文艺复兴时期，在翻译这个主题上最广泛的专著是劳伦斯•汉弗莱的《翻译语言》（1559）。此专著的写作背景是约阿希姆•佩里翁于1540年发起的一场辩论，约阿希姆•佩里翁对西塞罗的翻译建议进行了分析。西塞罗提出，翻译演讲的目的是有说服力，因此译者在翻译时必须是自由自在的，不受原文和直译要求的束缚。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 05:30, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
Périon shifted the focus from the dichotomy of literal/free to the people involved in translation and to the interpersonal act. Humphrey understood translation as self-expression, a very modern understanding. There is an interesting new study by Sheldon Brammall (2018) in the Review of English Studies 68 (288) documenting the debate. It includes an annotation of the Interpretatio in 1570 by Gabriel Harvey. He recognized the text as an important document of early English translation studies. The text questions the applicability of the concepts in Interpretatio.<br />
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佩里昂将关注点从文字或自由二分法转向了翻译人员和人际交往行为上。汉弗莱认为翻译是自我表达，这是一种非常当代的理解。谢尔顿·布拉姆莫尔在《英语研究评论68》（288）中做了一项新的有趣的研究，记录了这场辩论。这个研究包含了加布里埃尔·哈维在1570年对《翻译》的注释。他认为这一文本是早期英文翻译研究的重要文献。它对概念在翻译中的适用性提出了质疑。--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 14:03, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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佩里昂将关注点从直译或意译的二分法转向了翻译人员和人际交往行为上。汉弗莱将翻译视作自我表达，这是一种非常现代化的理解。谢尔顿·布拉姆莫尔在2018年做了一项有趣的新研究，他在《英语研究评论》第68期第288页中记录了这场辩论。这个研究包含了加布里埃尔·哈维在1570年对《翻译》的注释。他认为这一文本是早期英文翻译研究的重要文献。这一文本对概念在《翻译》中的应用提出了质疑。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 02:59, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
In the 1960s, translation was simply an element of language learning. Translations of Aesop’s Fables in several languages (including in Chinese by Jesuit missionaries in China) were efforts at transmitting language learning textbooks. Only in the 1970s, did translation studies start to become aware of itself as an academic discipline, starting with a volume edited by André Lefevere. Some scholars chose the perspective of the contrastive approach.<br />
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20世纪60年代，翻译仅仅是语言学习的要素之一。《伊索寓言》多种语言的译本（包括耶稣会传教士在中国翻译的中文译本）促进了语言学习教科书的传播。仅在20世纪70年代，翻译研究开始意识到其自身作为一门学科，这一研究活动始于安德烈▪勒菲弗尔编辑的一卷书。一些学者选择从对比分析法的角度开始研究。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 04:22, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在20世纪60年代，翻译只是语言学习的一个要素。为了传播语言学习教材,《伊索寓言》被翻译成多种语言(包括耶稣会传教士在中国翻译的中文)。直到20世纪70年代，翻译研究才开始意识到自己是一门学术学科，其始于安德烈·莱弗维尔(Andre Lefevere)编辑的一部著作。一些学者选择从对比分析法的角度开始研究。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 08:29, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
Eugene Nida, a bible translator, derived theory from practice while introducing linguistic theory and formal equivalency into translation studies. He defined verbatim translation, literal translation, faithful translation, semantic translation, compilation, free translation, authentic translation and communicative translation. Later, his research was further elaborated with strong linguistic approaches and theories of equivalency and was followed by methods from discourse analysis and the speech act theory (translation as a communicative act in a social cultural context).<br />
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圣经翻译家尤金·奈达在实践中总结了理论，又将语言学理论和形式对等引入了翻译研究。 他定义了逐字翻译，直译，忠实翻译，语义翻译，编译，意译，真实翻译和交际翻译。 后来，他用强大的语言学方法和对等理论以及后来的话语分析和言语行为理论（将翻译视为在社会文化语境中一种交流行为）将研究进一步完善。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 06:27, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
There was a revival of the descriptive approach, which regards the target text as most important, and then the Skopos theory, which advocats functional equivalency and values the translator as most important. In the early 1990s, as a reaction to linguistic ‘scientific’ analysis, the theoretical and methodological shift in Translation Studies towards cultural studies is primarily associated with the works of Susan Bassnett, André Lefevere, and Lawrence Venuti.<br />
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==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
The volume at hand is both from practitioners in the field and scholars who embed their research in the theoretical framework of the field as well as into its development. In the field of translation and interpreting studies, the claim about Asian or Western traditions is overcome. We have international scholars from both sides whose only qualification is their expertise in the field. Still the voices are diverse, since they cover a large range of topics and perspectives, symbolizing how diverse the research is today. The key word today is transdisciplinary research.<br />
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现有的这本书是由该领域的从业人员和研究理论框架及其发展的学者所编写的。在口笔译研究领域，关于亚洲或西方传统的言论已经消除。我们拥有来自亚洲和西方精通专业的国际学者。至今人们仍持有不同的声音，因为它们涵盖了广泛的主题和观点，体现着现如今研究的多样性。当今的关键词是跨学科研究。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:18, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
In translation history, especially when translation studies consisted mostly of prescriptions, ideals were pursued and equivalency was sought for, although a source text and a target text can never be totally equivalent. The myth of untranslatability was created by Wilhelm von Humboldt in the 19th century and further elaborated by L. Weisgerber in the 20th century, although everything is translatable.<br />
在翻译史上，尤其是当翻译研究主要集中在翻译方法方面时，翻译就开始追求完美和对等，即使源语和目标语根本不可能完全对等。虽然一切语言都是可译的，但是19世纪威廉·冯·洪堡创造了不可译性这个谬误，20世纪里奥·韦斯伯格又对这一观念进行了进一步阐释。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 14:57, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在翻译史上，尤其是当翻译研究主要集中在翻译方法方面时，翻译就开始追求完美和对等，即使源文本和目标文本根本不可能完全对等。虽然一切语言都是可译的，但是19世纪威廉·冯·洪堡创造了不可译性这个谬误，20世纪里奥·韦斯伯格又对这一观念进行了进一步的阐释。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 15:06, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zheng Huajun 郑华君== <br />
It is more a question of appropriateness and acceptance of a translation. Evaluation criteria for the quality assessment of translations have been developed, although it can never objectively be judged, how far the translation result (also called “translat”) corresponds to the source text. In certain situations, it is appropriate to translate a pear into an apple (for example if the function of this fruit in the story stays the same and for the target audience apples are as common as for the source audience pears).<br />
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这更多的是一个翻译的适当性和接受性的问题。翻译质量评估的评价标准已经形成，但翻译结果(又称“译文”)与原文的对应程度始终无法客观地加以评判。在某些情况下，把一个梨翻译成一个苹果是合适的(例如，如果这个水果在故事中的功能保持不变，并且苹果对于目标读者而言跟梨对于原文读者而言一样常见）。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 04:57, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
As we have witnessed during the history of translation studies, the concentration has been on the different actors in the field of translation: “Skopos” concentrating on the function for the target audience and on the person and intention of the translator, “foreignizing” the text by moving it closer to the source author (and staying loyal to him/her) or “localizing” it, thus moving it closer to the target audience.<br />
在翻译研究的历史中，我们见证了翻译领域中不同的行动者的关注:“目的论”关注目标受众的功能，关注译者的个人和意图，“异化”文本，让其更接近原文作者(并保持对原文作者的忠诚)，或者“本土化”文本，从而更靠近目标受众。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 14:30, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在翻译研究史上，对翻译领域不同角色均有所关注：“目的论”关注目标受众，注重译者自身及其目的，“异化”强调使译本尽量接近原文作者（并忠实于原文作者），亦或“本土化”，强调使译文尽量接近目标语受众。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 02:03, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
“Hybrid men-machine translation” moves the focus to the individualization of the target texts, tailoring translations to the needs of individual readers/spectators. Neurology will map the thought processes necessary to create a thinking artificial intelligence and even tackles issues like consciousness, (self-)awareness, understanding as well as artificially enhanced human translation, swarm intelligence and consciousness.<br />
“人机混合翻译”关注目标文本的个性化，以满足读者或观众的个性化需求。人们根据神经学原理打造出会思考的机器人。机器人可以向人一样思考，甚至还具有意识，自我意识，理解能力，以及人为强化人工翻译，群体意识和意识。--[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 02:28, 8 October 2020 (UTC)Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿<br />
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“人机结合翻译”关注的是目标文本的个性化，根据读者或观众的个人需求提供量身定制的翻译服务。神经学将编制出一套思维程序，必要时打造出一个可以像人一样思考的机器人，甚至还能解决问题，不仅具有意识、自我认知和理解能力，同时具有人为强化的人工翻译、集群智能和集体意识。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:52, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
Besides this trend towards individualization, there is a growing interest in sociology to understand translations as social processes and to concentrate on the interaction between the different actors.<br />
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==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
Certain things have turned out to be of eternal wisdom. It is also important to know your native language well, not just the foreign language.<br />
结果证明有些事是永恒的智慧。不仅是学习外语，学习母语也很重要。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 14:24, 8 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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有些事本是永恒的智慧。学习外语的同时，更应擅长母语。--[[User:Zhang Weihong|Zhang Weihong]] ([[User talk:Zhang Weihong|talk]]) 15:07, 10 October 2020 (UTC) Zhang Weihong<br />
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==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
We have also witnessed a journey of theories over the centuries, which all highlight different aspects of the phenomenon. They constrain themselves to the medium, the area, the grammatical level, the text-type, to certain problems (like establishing equivalence), they are oriented at products, functions or processes.<br />
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纵观数世纪以来翻译理论的发展，都从不同方面强调了这一现象。翻译理论面向产品，功能和过程，并从媒介，地域，语法，文本类型和诸如建立对等关系等特定问题入手进行研究。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 10:21, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
All these theories are at hand today to explain different parts of the translation process. We see different functional approaches, empirical-pragmatic ones, including didactic questions instead of old normative/prescriptive translation studies, approaches from the neurological and the social sciences, all trying to become aware of the translation process.<br />
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所有的这些理论都可以用来解释翻译过程中的不同部分。我们所看到的功能派理论、经验主义-实用主义派理论（采用说教式的提问方法而非老式的规范化的翻译研究方式）以及从神经学和社会科学衍生出来的理论都在力图掌握诠释翻译的过程。--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 09:19, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
However, as Mary Snell-Hornby requested already in 1988 with her proposition of “integrated translation studies”, these theories need to be seen together as one today.<br />
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然而，正如Mary Snell-Hornby在1988年提出的“整合翻译研究”的主张所要求的那样，这些理论在今天需要被看作是一个整体。<br />
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All of these theories can be boiled down to one question they serve: Is the translation appropriate? In other words, is it adequate, suitable, reasonable, fair, just, apt, situationally fitting, does it work in the target language/culture?<br />
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所有这些理论都可以归结为一个问题:这样翻译合适吗? 换句话说，它是否充分、合适、合理、公平、公正、恰当、应景，在目标语言/文化中是否仍适用?--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 08:23, 9 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
Therefore, the “Appropriateness Theory” is the final theory of all translation theories. Of course there may be different answers to the question of appropriateness in different times and from different actors, perspectives, disciplines etc. An evaluation of the appropriateness of a translation can only be relative and never absolute.<br />
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因此，“适当性理论”是所有翻译理论中的的终极理论。 当然，从在不同的时间，不同的人群，不同的视角，不同的领域等方面来看，什么是适当性会有不同的答案。对翻译适当性的评估只能是相对的，绝不能是绝对的。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 08:55, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
因此,"得体论"是所有翻译理论的终极理论.当然,不同的时代,不同的译者,不同的观点,不同的学科对"得体论"的解释也会有所不同.对译文是否恰当的评价只能是相对的,而不能是绝对的.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 12:58, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
Therefore it is necessary to establish a system of evaluation, valuing the different aspects such as the function of the text, loyalty to the author, the ideals of literal/free translation, and how far a translation can ‘work’ in the target language.<br />
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Of historical importance is the question for appropriateness, which in turn leads us to fundamental ethical questions: Should you report things you overheard from the foreign negotiation team to your own team to enhance your own team’s chances?<br />
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==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
Is it appropriate to tell a standard joke in the target language when the country’s leader has told a racist joke? What implications does it have about the foreign country’s leader, when he laughs at your standard joke? The country’s leader may think he laughed at his (racist) joke. Is it appropriate to take over the role of a negotiation participant when you are hired for interpreting? (See the contribution in this volume.) When you are a wartime interpreter: Is it appropriate to translate propaganda and to interpret for a dictator?<br />
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==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
Is it appropriate to translate the German order “Feuer!” [Shoot!] by the German commander into French if the collaborating French soldiers would commit a crime against humanity when they understood and executed the order? Where to draw the line to refuse to translate? What consequences does it have if you refuse? What responsibilities do interpreters and translators have? The Appropriateness Theory is complex and shows us that a Code of Ethics needs to be established.<br />
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Bochum/Germany, September 30, 2020<br />
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德国指挥官发出命令“开火”，把这一德语命令翻译成法语，合作的法国士兵们要是听懂并执行了，就违背了人道，那这样翻译是否恰当？在哪里划分拒绝翻译的界线？如果拒绝翻译会有什么后果？口笔译者们有什么责任？恰当性理论十分复杂，表明我们需要确立道德规范。<br />
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2020年9月30日 德国/波鸿--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 09:48, 9 October 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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当德国指挥官手下的法国士兵一旦听懂其长官用德语说的“开火”命令，就会执行军令，做出违背人道主义的行为时，是否还应该将德语的“开火”翻译为对应的法语？什么时候可以不翻？如果不翻会产生怎样的后果？口笔译译员承担着怎样的责任？适当性理论较为复杂，告诉了我们道德规范准则建立的重要性。<br />
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德国，波鸿 2020年9月30日 --[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 09:55, 10 October 2020 (UTC)</div>Hu Huifanghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20200928_trans&diff=9891920200928 trans2020-10-04T16:48:36Z<p>Hu Huifang: /* Hu Jin 胡瑾 */</p>
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<div>Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage].<br />
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Dear students, this is the homework of Sep 28, due in October 2020.<br />
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=Task=<br />
An English book on contemporary Chinese literature was submitted to the Chinese editor. He has not enough time and asks his students to help to translate it paragraph by paragraph into Chinese. So this time it is easier than last time, because the translation is into Chinese. He also asks the students to help improve the translation of at least one fellow student und asks them to sign their translations with the signature button (buttons on the top, third from right).<br />
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Since it is a book on contemporary Chinese literature, some quotations from Chinese novels in English need to be identified in the original language (Chinese) instead of retranslate the translations into Chinese.<br />
<br />
==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
<br />
The Chinese contemporary literature at the beginning of the 21st century appears hardly compatible with the German book market. Many stories of the mostly young writers from the Middle Kingdom, who are often celebrated like pop stars, publish their books partly in millions of copies, such as Guo Jingming郭敬明, seem too bizarre. This cult literature is translatable, however loses its cult status.<br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
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Nevertheless, trends can be seen that reflect the extreme social upheaval process in China: Zhang Ailing 张爱玲 created women's literature with the inner view of the Shanghaier big city singles, for example, which has found a whole generation of successors. Or the vagabond literature (liumang wenxue 学 文学) of a Wang Shuo, which has become long since an establishment and whose current is attributable to the scandal literature.<br />
然而，趋势反映了中国社会的极端动荡过程。例如，张爱玲是从上海大城市单身人士的内心观点出发来创作女性文学的，这些人已经找到了整整一代的接班人。或者说王朔的流氓文学，它在该流派成立之前就早已存在，其潮流可归因于丑闻文学。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 05:07, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
然而，这些趋势反映了中国极其动荡的社会发展。例如，张爱玲通过了解上海那些大城市里的单身汉的内心想法来创作女性文学，这些人已经找到了整整一代的接班人。又比如王朔的流氓文学，它在该流派成立之前就一直存在，其如今的趋势也得益于丑闻文学。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 06:11, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
然而，种种趋势反映了中国社会跌宕起伏的发展。比如，张爱玲从上海大城市单身人士的内心出发创作女性文学，这一文学影响了整整一代人。又比如说王朔的流氓文学，早在该流派建立之前就已存在，而其得以发展得益于丑闻文学。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 11:22, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
然而，这些趋势反映出中国社会的大动乱：例如：张爱玲以一个上海大都市的单身人士的内心出发，创作了女性文学，这一文学已经影响了接下来的一整代人。又如王朔的流氓文学，成立至今已久，其现在的趋势可归因于丑闻文学。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 15:45, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
<br />
The wave of nostalgia with new interpretations of classics such as Confucius, Menzius, or the novel "Three Kingdoms," e.g. from the professor and television presenter Yu Dan.<br />
Finally, the young, realistic literature with autobiographical traits and fictive elements of an alienated urban youth, which ultimately seeks the happiness of love between alcohol, drugs and party excesses. This literature certainly belongs to youth literature, since the protagonists belong to the younger generation. The authors themselves remain ephimatic, as long as they have not made the leap into the establishment, as Mian Mian.<br />
<br />
自著名教授兼电视节目人于丹对孔孟经典、《三国志》进行新的诠释后，掀起了怀旧浪潮。最后，现实主义年轻文学具备了被疏远的城市青年的自传体特性和虚构元素，青年们最终在酒精、毒品、狂欢中追求爱的幸福。这些文学作品肯定属于青年文学范畴，因为主人公都是青年一代。作家们只要没能在文学界站住脚跟，就会像棉棉（当代中国作家）那样，一直保持谦逊。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 11:30, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
自著名教授兼电视人于丹对《孔子》《孟子》《三国志》等经典作品进行新的诠释后，掀起了一股怀旧浪潮。最后，年轻的现实主义文学具备了被疏远的城市青年的自传体特性和虚构元素，青年们最终在酒精、毒品及狂欢中追求爱的幸福。这些文学作品肯定属于青年文学的范畴，因为主人公都是青年一代。作者们只要没能在文学界站稳脚跟，就会像棉棉（当代中国作家）那样，一直保持谦逊。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 12:16, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
<br />
Surprising newcomer is the author Han Han, known for his critique of youth literature, who is bearing a humorous social criticism in his new work »Glory Days«, about a group of drop-outs in the style of Magical Realism, or almost a critical Surrealism.<br />
A colorful dance, which tells from another world, no longer as exotic as before, but still strange and fascinating.<br />
令人刮目相看的新人作家正是以青春批判文学而小有名气的韩寒。他的新作《辉煌的过往》以一种魔幻现实主义甚至说近乎超现实主义的方式，讲述了一群辍学的青年，自带一种幽默的社会批评主义。--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 14:40, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui <br />
一段讲述外来世界的绝世舞蹈，不再似以往带着异域风情，却仍旧奇幻无比。--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 14:40, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
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Before the Frankfurt Book Fair 2009, this little booklet will give an orientation guide and a small, certainly very subjective overview of the Chinese literature, as it appears at the book fair.<br />
在2009年法兰克福图书展之前，这本小册子将会提供一个入门介绍，同时也会给予一个小小的，主观性十足的中国文学概述，这是毋庸置疑的，就像它在书展上展示的那样。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 08:39, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在举办2009法兰克福图书展之前，这本小册子将对展会进行一个初步介绍，并呈现给人们一个小小的、颇具主观性的中国文学概要，就像图书展会上展现的那样。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 12:51, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
在2009年法兰克福图书展之前，这本小册子会提供一个入门介绍，并呈现中国文学泛泛而十分主观的概况，就像其在书展上展示的那样。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:40, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
2009年法兰克福书展举办之前，这本小册子的出现其实跟书展一样，会给对中国文学感兴趣的人提供一个阅读指南，也会对中国文学进行一个简略的概括。--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 11:59, 3 October 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
在举办2009年法兰克福图书展之前，这本小册子正如在展会上呈现的那样，会就中国文学给人们一个指引，以及浅显但却非常主观的概括。--[[User:Gu Dongfang|Gu Dongfang]] ([[User talk:Gu dongfang|talk]]) 02:40, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
<br />
Who is also interested in the actual Chinese literature of the present day (because the book fair shows a section, which for various reasons is not at all representative of the Chinese contemporary literary literature) should be referred to the book "Chinese Cult Literature 2008/2009".<br />
<br />
Bochum/Munich/Beijing/Shanghai<br />
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Summer 2008/ Summer 2009<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler<br />
<br />
对当代真正的中国文学感兴趣的人可以去参考《中国流行文学2008/2009版》这本书。（由于种种原因，本次图书展览会只展示了部分内容，并不能完全代表中国当代文学作品。）<br />
波鸿/慕尼黑/北京/上海<br />
2008年夏/2009年夏<br />
吴漠汀--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:40, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
By Chen Jiaxin--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 08:48, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
对于地道的中国当代文学感兴趣的人可以参考《中国流行文学》（2008版/2009版）这本书。（由于某些原因，此书中仅展示了部分中国当代文学代表作）<br />
波鸿/慕尼黑/北京/上海<br />
2008年夏/2009年夏<br />
吴漠汀（德）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 10:54, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
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Chinese literature at the Frankfurt Book Fair<br />
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China - the big department store<br />
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With China's economic prosperity since 1978 came the leisure time. Unlike in Western countries, where this time has been filled with consumption, the new middle class of the Chinese use their leisure time in two ways:<br />
法兰克福图书展上的中国文学<br />
中国—一个大百货商场<br />
自1978年中国经济大繁荣后，人们开始有了自己的休闲时间。但与西方国家不同的是，中国的新兴中产阶级不会把休闲时间都花在消费购物上，而是花在这两个方面：--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 13:56, 3 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
法兰克福书展上的中国文学<br />
中国--大型百货商场<br />
1978年以来，随着中国经济的繁荣，人们拥有了休闲时间。但与此时的西方国家不同的是，中国的新兴中产阶级并没有把休闲时间花在消费购物上，而是花在以下两个方面：--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 14:43, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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中国文学在法兰克福书展<br />
<br />
中国—巨大的百货商场<br />
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1978年中国迎来经济繁荣之后，人们终于有了闲暇时光。不像西方人总把闲暇用来消费，中国的新中产阶级用以下两种方式来度过闲时：--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 02:20, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
法兰克福书展上的中国文学<br />
<br />
中国-大型百货商场<br />
<br />
自1978年中国经济蓬勃发展后，人们拥有了闲暇时间。与闲暇时喜欢消费购物的西方人不同的是，中国的新兴中产阶级用这两种途径打发闲暇时间：--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 07:15, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
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On the one hand, one has an irresistible ambition to catch up with the Western advance in time-lapse, to learn from the West and to overcome it, which is reflected in travel, learning English and foreign studies. Even at the party school management courses are taught.<br />
一方面，人们无法抑制自己想要赶上西方国家发展脚步、向其学习然后战胜他们的野心，这一点反应在旅行、英语学习以及外国研究上。甚至党校也开设管理课程 。--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 11:08, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
一方面，人有赶上西方先进技术、向他们学习并打败他们的雄心壮志，这些反应在旅游、英语学习以及外国研究上，甚至党校管理课程也在效仿。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 11:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
一方面，人们雄心勃勃，想渐渐赶上西方的发展步伐，想向西方学习并且战胜西方，这些都在旅行，英语学习和外国研究有所体现。甚至党校也开设管理课程。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:07, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
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On the other hand, according to the zero point of the Cultural Revolution, ten years without school education in 1966-1976, the Chinese have a greed for knowledge - they devour Internet, newspapers, books and are willing to pay enormous fees for private schools.<br />
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另一方面，以十年文革（即1966年-1976年这十年间学校教育停滞不前）为基准点，中国人渴求获得知识-他们如饥似渴地浏览网页、报纸和各类书籍，愿意花重金上私立学校。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 12:34, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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另一方面，经历文革十年（1966-1976）教育缺席的中国人求知若渴——他们如饥似渴地学习互联网，阅读报纸书籍，甚至愿意花一大笔钱去上私立学校。--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 13:14, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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另一方面，由于文化大革命（1966-1976）使得中国在这期间没有学校教育，受教育程度变得极低。但是中国人极度渴望从网络，报纸，书本获得知识，他们不惜花巨款去私立学校。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 04:16, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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另一方面，由于文化大革命（1966-1976）使得中国在这期间没有严格意义上的学校教育，这使得全体中国人民受教育程度变得极低。但是中国人极度渴望从网络，报纸，书本获得知识，甚至他们不惜为此花巨款去私立学校求学。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 04:49, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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另一方面，文革期间，1966—1976这十年期间，学校教育荒废，从零开始，所以中国人渴求知识-他们如饥似渴，从互联网，报纸，书本中获取知识，也乐于花重金读私立学校。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 08:26, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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另一方面，中国人渴望学习知识，就像十年文化大革命期间即1966-1976年无法上学的人们那样。他们竭尽全力在网络和报纸上学习新知识，甚至愿意为了去私立学校就读而掷重金。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 04:40, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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另一方面，十年文革（1966年至1976年）使得中国的教育停滞不前。中国人民渴望获取知识——他们不遗余力地探索互联网世界，翻阅报刊书籍，甚至不惜花重金前往私立学校接受教育，为的就是满足他们对知识的渴求。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 12:59, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
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Both trends in leisure design coincide with a flood of translations into Chinese.<br />
两次时尚设计潮流都伴随着大量翻译作品涌入中国。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:35, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这两次轻奢设计潮流都恰好随着大量翻译作品进入中国。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 12:42, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这两次休闲理念的潮流都伴随大量翻译作品涌入中国--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:37, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这两次休闲设计的潮流都通过大量的翻译涌入中国。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 15:44, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
<br />
The situation in Western countries is quite different, the interest for China is rather an exotic and reflectes in esotericism and few works that are translated. These are then selected to serve or even enhance the foreign character of the Chinese image. One still believes in the West, as the pioneer of modernization it is the place where the action is happening.<br />
在西方国家，情况则大相径庭。他们对中国的兴趣是充满异域情调的，如中国本土宗教及为数不多的译本。然而这样的选择仅仅是为了迎合甚至加深西方对中国固有的形象。至今仍有人认为率先进入现代化的西方，也是唯一正在经历现代化的地方。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 01:41, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在西方国家，情况则大相径庭。他们对中国的兴趣是充满异域情调的，并反映在神秘主义和少数翻译作品中。然而这样的选择是为了迎合甚至加深西方对中国固有的形象。至今仍有人认为率先进入现代化的西方，也是唯一正在经历现代化的地方。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 03:14, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
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在西方国家，情况则大相径庭。他们对中国的兴趣充满异域情调，这反映在神秘主义和为数不多的译本中。这些选择是为了迎合甚至是为了加深中国形象的异域特征。至今仍有人认为，作为现代化先驱的西方仍是唯一正在经历现代化的地方。--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 11:47, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
<br />
Newspapers are not yet as exciting as in Hong Kong and Japan because of the state information monopoly in China and so one reads in the subway no newspapers but books. China is just different. The books cost only 2 € to 3.50 € and sometimes reach millions of copies. And this, although the texts are long before on the Internet. Some authors have even found a publisher only after having a fanbase of their blog on the Internet.<br />
<br />
中国的情况恰好不同。由于中国对国家信息的垄断，报纸尚未像香港和日本那样流行。因此人们在地铁上阅读的不是报纸，而是书籍。这些书籍仅售2欧元至3.50欧元。书籍的发售量有时高达数百万册，尽管它们的文本内容在互联网上早已出现。有些作者甚至只有在互联网上拥有自己的博客粉丝团之后，才去寻找出版商。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 11:44, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
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Cult literature<br />
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The Chinese bestsellers of contemporary literature of 2009 appear to be hardly compatible with the German book market, in which China is honorary guest of the Frankfurt Book Fair. Many stories of the mostly young, often celebrated like pop stars writers from the Middle Kingdom appear to be too bizarre, with their books partly written in millions, like Guo Jingming (26 years, Shanghaier, Tears against the Stream C 2007, first place of the Chinese bestseller list 2007, circulation: 550,000). Without life experience, Ms. Lin Huafeng has to raise her daughter alone after the divorce. She has to prostitute herself and her mental conflict worsens daily. The author, the Shanghai student Guo Jingming is a cultureless enfant terrible, but loved by the youth. What bears his name is immediately sold out. In the meantime, he has given his name to works by colleagues, and his book series best sellers (C 2008-2009) is a collage of love tales, comics, photographs, styling tips, etc., wrapped in foil so that all the gimmicks do not Fall out. Here, the advertising of the proper lipstick is added to the story. This cult literature is a teen phenomenon, the authors of this youth literature are pop stars. It is translatable, but however it loses the cult status. The German publishers have not chosen the books which the Chinese read, but the German readers might find interesting. In this article, these books, which are only available at the Book Fair from October, are already being presented.<br />
<br />
邪教文学<br />
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中国2009年有关现代文学的畅销作品似乎与德国的图书市场难以相容，而中国却是法兰克福书展的荣誉嘉宾。 中国作家大多是年轻人，他们经常像流行明星一样出名，他们的许多作品看起来都太过奇异，他们的书部分以百万计，比如郭敬明（26岁，上海人，2007年出版的作品《悲伤逆流成河》荣获中国2007年畅销书排行榜第一，发行量55万册）。离婚之后，没有生活经验的林华凤必须独自抚养女儿，她不得不靠卖淫过活，因此她的心理问题也日益加剧。作者郭敬明在上海求学，他文化不高，又年少不可一世，但是却深受年轻人喜爱。带有他名字的书马上就会售罄。与此同时，郭敬明以自己的名字命名了同事的作品，他2008年至2009年的系列畅销书是一副拼贴画，其中包括了爱情故事、漫画、照片以及造型技巧等，该作品由箔纸包裹，这样所有的噱头才不会掉出来。该画作里适当地添加了一些口红广告。这种邪教文学是一种青少年现象，这种青年文学的作者都是流行明星。这些作品是可以翻译的，但是却失去了值得让人崇拜的地位。德国出版商没有选择中国人读的书，但是德国读者却可能会感兴趣。在这篇文章中，这些只在10月份法兰克福书展有售的书已经在展出了。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 12:30, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
崇拜文学<br />
<br />
中国2009年的当代文学畅销作品似乎和德国图书市场难以相容，而在法兰克福书展上，中国却是一位荣誉嘉宾。中国作家大多是年轻人，他们像流行明星一样受人追捧，但是他们笔下的故事读起来似乎过于离奇，部分书籍的篇幅几乎以百万计算，如作家郭敬明（上海人，26岁，其代表作《悲伤逆流成河》于2007年出版，并登上当年中国畅销书排行榜的榜首，发行量高达55万册）。在其小说《悲伤逆流成河》中，没有生活经验的主人公林华凤，离婚之后必须独自赡养女儿。为此她不得不靠卖淫为生，其精神状态每况愈下。郭敬明于上海求学，大学未能毕业，其性情乖张，却深受年轻人喜爱。凡带有他名字的书立马告罄。此外，郭敬明也把自己的名字借给他的同事。他2008年至2009年畅销书系列是大杂烩，包括了爱情故事、漫画、照片以及造型技巧等。书籍由箔纸包裹，以确保噱头不会遗漏。书中适当地添加了一支口红广告。这种崇拜文学盛行于青少年中，而这些青年文学的作者都成为了流行明星。这些作品是可译的，但是不值得让人崇拜。德国出版商没有选择中国读者常读的书，而是德国读者可能感兴趣的。在本文中，已经列举了法兰克福书展只在10月份售出的书。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 03:20, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
<br />
Chinese world literature<br />
<br />
This is the famous wedding scene from the novel "Dream of the Red Chamber" (C 1759 G 2009) by Cao Xueqin (1715-1763?). This was the last novel of world rank written in China, and this is 250 years ago. The novel is available in all major languages, and in German only a shortened paraphrase has been written down to one third. This shortcoming is fixed by the book fair: the European University Press presents a three-volume bound edition of books with more than 200 historical illustrations and a more favorable paperback edition of 2350 pages at the book fair. It was only in the 1920s and 1930s that the literature in China in times of the republic was able to develop again, and Lu Xun's stories from this period are reissued from the publishing house Unionverlag to the book fair. Another classic, Qian Zhongshus (1910-1998) essay collection "Written on the Edge of Life" (C 2000), is translated but is still searching for a publisher. Masterful tales are certainly also Yu Huas (49) "Brothers" (C 2005).<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
<br />
Vagabond literature<br />
<br />
"Diwidi? Everything there: Hollywood, Japanese, Korean, Oscar-crowned classics ",<br />
The German reader as a tourist in Peking may have been approached like this by the flying merchants.<br />
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流浪文学<br />
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“去迪维迪吗？那里什么都有：有好莱坞的，日本的，韩国的，奥斯卡得奖的经典作品”。德国读者去北京旅游的话，可能已经有流动的批发商们像这一样跟他们接洽了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 08:58, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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流浪文学<br />
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“去迪维迪吗？那里什么书都有：有美国好莱坞的，日本的，韩国的，还有拿过奥斯卡的经典作品。”德国的读者来北京旅游可能会碰上当地批发商这样上前推销。--Ouyang Ling<br />
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流浪文学<br />
<br />
“是去迪维迪吗？那里什么都有，包括那些好莱坞、日本、韩国、甚至是得了奥斯卡奖的经典作品”，四处流动的商人很可能已经跟在北京旅游的德国读者像这样搭过讪了。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 12:53, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
流浪文学<br />
<br />
“要DVD吗？啥片都有，好莱坞的，日本的，韩国的，得过奥斯卡的。”德国读者去北京旅游的话，可能已经有流动的批发商们这般跟他们接洽了。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 02:48, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
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This scene comes from the story "Running Through Zhongguancun" (C 2008, G 2009). Here the German reader can slip for the first time into the role of the seller, who is embodied by the 25-year-old Huang. Xu Zechen (31, lives in Beijing) has drawn the milieu authentically, the characters with dry humor and yet refreshingly lively. He describes a life between hot pavement and basement hole, between the dream of making big money and bitter setbacks, the daily cat-and-mouse game with the police. He experiences the world of the crooks as shark pond and as a conspiratorial community, in which everyone gives someone the shirt off one’s back, lose their existence, but get up again, he experiences the arbitrariness and corruption of the police. Here, worlds collide: the army of unemployed agricultural workers, who become small-scale criminals, and the urban population. The world of youth, who loves the freedom of the street, and the elderly, who appreciate the security of the wealth. This is one of the most recent and most promising stories from China, which show us a completely different China than the perfectly enacted Olympia organizer.<br />
<br />
这个场景来自于《穿越中关村》中的故事。在这里，德国读者第一次进入买方身份，25岁的黄先生就是典型代表。作者徐则臣（31岁，现居北京）对本书背景环境描写真实，书中人物带有冷幽默，但精神抖擞、栩栩如生。作者描写了一个介于炙热人行路面和地下室洞之间，介于赚大钱的梦想和痛苦挫折之间的人生，该人生主人公的日常就是和警察玩“猫鼠游戏”。他生活在一个坏蛋横行的世界，跟生活在鲨鱼池塘或者阴谋密布的社区中没有什么区别。在这个世界里，每个人都会在别人背后捅刀子，这些人死去又重生。他还经历过警察的专横和腐败。在这里，世界冲突有：失业农工军队（变成了小规模罪犯）与城镇居民之间的矛盾；年轻人渴望街道自由，老年人希望财富得到保障。这是来自中国最近且最具希望的故事之一，这个故事给我们展现了一个完全不同于奥林匹克运动会完美组织国的中国。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:58, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
这个场景来自于《穿越中关村》中的故事。通过这本书德国读者第一次进入卖方身份，25岁的黄先生就是其中一位典型代表。作者徐则臣（31岁，现居北京）对本书背景环境描写真实生动，书中人物带有冷幽默，栩栩如生，令人耳目一新。作者描写了一个介于炙热人行路面和地下室洞之间，介于赚大钱的梦想和痛苦挫折之间的人生，该人生主人公的日常就是和警察玩“猫鼠游戏”。他生活在一个坏蛋横行的世界，跟生活在鲨鱼池塘或者阴谋密布的社区中没有什么区别。在这个世界里，每个人都会在别人背后捅刀子，这些人失去了一切，又挣扎着爬起来。他还经历过警察的专横和腐败。在这里，世界冲突有：失业农工军队（变成了小规模罪犯）与城镇居民之间的矛盾；年轻人热爱街道自由和老年人希望财富得到保障之间的矛盾。这是来自中国最近且最具希望的故事之一，这个故事给我们展现了一个完全不同于奥林匹克运动会完美组织国的中国。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 14:46, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
<br />
The novel "Die Taschendiebe" also fits into this realistic (C 2007, G 2009), Liu Zhenyuns (51), who was ranked No. 1 in the bestseller list in China in 2008, is a mix-up thriller about a interchanged bag, whose content can become dangerous for several important people. These types of stories appear several times at the book fair. In China, they are devoured by the young, urban audience. Wang Shuo (50) had created this kind of vagabond literatur, and his novel "Playing for Thrills" was sold 250,000 times in 2007, and stayed in place 6. One is getting deeper into storytelling with Jia Pingwa’s novel "Happy" (C 2007), which is about a farmer who sells his kidney to the city and finds a brittle happiness with a prostitute. It was sold in China 100,000 times. His even more famous novel "Ruined City" (C 1993) is also almost completely translated and is still looking for a publisher in Germany.<br />
<br />
刘震云（51岁）的小说《我叫刘跃进》（2007）也符合现实主义文学，并在2008年的中国畅销书排行榜中名列第一。这是一部关于拿错包的惊悚片，这个包牵涉到上流社会的几条人命。这些类型的故事在书展上出现过好几次，受到中国年轻观众的喜爱。王朔（50岁）创造了这种流浪文学。2007年，他的小说《玩的就是心跳》售出25万册，销售量保持在第6位。贾平凹的小说《高兴》（2007）更加深入人心，它讲述的是一个农民将自己的一颗肾卖给了城里人和一个妓女找到了脆弱的幸福。这本书在中国售出了100,000册。他更著名的小说《废都》（1993）也完全翻译成德语，并且仍在德国寻找出版商。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 12:16, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
刘震云（51岁）的小说《我叫刘跃进》（2007）也是现实主义文学，这本书名列2008年中国畅销书单首位，结合了惊险小说风格，讲述了一个拿错包，而这个包牵涉到上流社会的几条人命的故事。这些类型的小说在书展上出现过好几次，在中国广受都市的年轻人追捧。王朔（50岁）创作了这种流浪文学，他的小说《玩的就是心跳》在2007年售出25万册，销量排在第6位。贾平凹的小说《高兴》（2007）更加深入人心，它讲述了一个农民将自己的肾卖给了城里人和一个妓女在支离纷崩中找寻幸福。这本书在中国售出了100,000册。他小说《废都》（1993）更为著名，全篇译成了德语，且仍在德国寻找出版商。--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 14:27, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
<br />
Critical Surrealism <br />
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This quotation comes from the story "Glory Days" (C 2007 G 2010) of another young author, Han Han (26). He describes the experiences of a Chinese dropout troop. Han Han enjoys a similar cult status as the same-aged Guo Jingming. He is equally famous as a critical blogger, sings his own pop songs (ghost town strategy), and drives car racings on the weekend. He also wrote his first stories as a pupil (Triple Door C 2000), became famous through a literature casting, writes humorously with a pointed pen, hardly anyone has got what was coming to one. In the 1990s, with his "critical student literature", he provoked a teenage fever, brought out a sociocritical humorous novel with "Glory Days", which sold itself in 2007 with others of his books about 200,000 times and thus ranked 13th Of the Chinese bestseller list. The author says he wanted to write in the style of "Magical Realism" for the first time, the novel is very angry humorous, sociocritical and grotesque in some places, it can be better described as Critical Surrealism. His latest book, "His Kingdom" (C 2009), ranked first place in the Chinese bestseller list in April 2009.<br />
<br />
批判超现实主义 <br />
<br />
这句话出自另一位青年作家韩寒（26岁）的故事《光辉岁月》（C 2007 G 2010）。他描述了一支中国退伍军人的经历。韩寒和同龄的郭敬明一样，享有盛名。他同样是著名的评论博主，有自己的流行歌曲（鬼城攻略），周末还会去赛车。他还在学生时代写下了自己的第一篇小说（2000年的《三重门C》），通过文学比赛成名，用尖锐的笔尖写出了幽默的作品，几乎没有人得到过一个人的青睐。上世纪90年代，他以 "批判性学生文学 "引发少年热，出版了《光辉岁月》这样一部一部社会批判性幽默小说，2007年与他的其他著作一起销售，销量约20万册，位列中国畅销书排行榜第13位。作者说，他第一次想用 "魔幻现实主义 "的风格来写，小说中充满了愤怒幽默，社会批判，怪诞奇谈，不如说是一种超现实注意更好些。最新著作《他的国度》（C 2009）2009年4月在中国畅销书排行榜上排名第一。--[[User:Gudongfang|Gudongfang]] ([[User talk:Gudongfang|talk]]) 04:08, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Gu Dongfang<br />
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批判超现实主义<br />
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这句话出自另一位青年作家韩寒（26岁）的小说《光荣日》（C 2007 G 2010）。他描述了一群退出主流社会、大学毕业放弃分配的中国青年人的经历。韩寒和年纪相仿的郭敬明一样享誉盛名。他同样是一名著名的评论博主，有自己的流行音乐（空城计），周末还去开赛车。学生时代，他还写下了自己的第一篇小说（《三重门》C 2000），通过一次文学比赛一战成名。他笔触尖锐而不失幽默的写作使人们很难猜到下一步的情节发展。上个世纪九十年代，他的"批判性学生文学"在青少年中激发热潮，他又出版了一部带有社会讽刺色彩的幽默小说，即《光荣日》。2007年，《光荣日》与他的其他作品一起发售，销量约20万册，在中国畅销书排行榜上排名第13位。该作者说，他第一次以“魔幻现实主义”的风格写作，小说中一些地方充满愤怒幽默、社会批判以及荒谬怪诞，可以用批判超现实主义来形容。他的最新著作《他的国》（C 2009）在2009年4月的中国畅销书排行榜上位列第一。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 05:56, 4 October 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 06:22, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
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Underground literature<br />
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... so writes Mian Mian (38 years old, lives in Shanghai, "La la la" HK 1997, G 2000, C 2009, "Your night my day" G 2004, C 2009). With her revealing description of her own life as a partygirl, she has shaped the Shanghai youth. Mian Mian has become a lifestyle. Ultimately she also seeks the happiness of love. She was the first to write about sex, drugs and alcohol, and was promptly banned in China. Therefore it is remarkable that the KiWi publishing house is brave enough to present her latest novel Panda Sex (C 2009, G 2009) at the book fair. Also in France her novel came out and was immediately praised by the daily newspaper "Le Monde". And even in China times change: her last four novels were finally released in February 2009 and were sold out immediately.<br />
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地下文学<br />
<br />
...作家绵绵（38岁，现居北京，《啦啦啦》，香港 1997，G2000，C 2009，《你的黑夜，我的白天》 G2004，C2009）这样写道。绵绵用生动的语言描述了自己作为派对女王的经历，同时，她也塑造了一代上海青年的形象。绵绵已然活成了一种生活态度。然而，追根究底她也在追寻情爱的欢愉。她是中国第一位在作品中描写做爱，吸毒和酗酒，并被立即封杀的作家。因此，KiWi出版社敢于在书展中展出绵绵的最新小说《熊猫》(C 2009, G 2009) ，实在是一大壮举。无独有偶，《熊猫》在法国出版，且荣获日报《法国世界报》好评。即使是在中国，人们亦生出了时过境迁之感：2009年2月，绵绵的最新四部小说出版，并一售即空。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 16:29, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
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Yearnings<br />
<br />
Literature of yearning has a great market in China. With this literature one can escape the materialistic everyday life in order to be carried away into an exotic but strangely familiar world. This literature of yearning is served by two sides in China: through the Tibet exoticism and the nostalgic wave. And Tibet is a topic that is well received abroad, therefore a safe investment for publishers, even though the stories from Tibet may still be too exotic and do not show the true Tibet. Also in China, Tibet is simply ‚in’. The presentation of the own Lama's shrine in the bedroom is the highlight of every house party. Even men wear carved cherry stone bracelets. The more superstition associated with these fetishes, the more chic.<br />
渴望风<br />
渴望文学在中国有着巨大市场。这类文学能带领人们逃离物质至上的现实生活进入到一个熟悉却又陌生的异域世界。在中国渴望文学由两类构成：西藏风情和怀旧浪潮。西藏这个主题在国外反响良好，因此对出版商来说是个安全的投资，即使这些西藏故事仍十分具有异域色彩并且未展示出真实的西藏。在中国，西藏风格也一样很流行。卧室中放置的喇嘛的神龛会成为每场别墅聚会的亮点。即使男人也会戴上用雕刻的樱桃核制成的手镯。这些物神与之相关的迷信越多，就越为流行。--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:28, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
渴望风<br />
<br />
渴望文学在中国有着巨大市场。借着这类文学，人们可以不用整天崇尚物质，而是进入一个陌生又熟悉的异域世界。在中国，渴望文学分为两类：西藏风情和怀旧浪潮。西藏是一个在国外反响良好的主题，即使这些讲述西藏的故事仍十分具有异域色彩，而且未展示出真实的西藏，但对出版商来说是个安全的投资。在中国，西藏风也很流行。卧室中放置的喇嘛神龛会成为每场别墅聚会的焦点。甚至男人也会戴上雕刻樱桃核制成的手镯。你越迷信这些奉若神明之物，就越时髦。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 12:17, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
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Tibet exoticism<br />
<br />
so the story "Distant Sources" (C 2005, Unionsverlag G 2009) by the Tibetan author Alai (50) begins. Yes, even Tibetan authors are among the winners of this year's book fair. They are particularly in demand by Swiss publishers. At the confederate Chinabooks several young Tibetans are represented: Alai, Jamyang, Taering Öser, Tenzin Tsundue (34). Is it surprising that Ma Jian (56), who left Beijing for the first time and went on journeys, promptly went on a pilgrim to Tibet? "Red Dust"(C 2003). 220,000 times, the "Tibet-Code" of the hermitic He Ma, which has not yet been published in German, has sold itself, followed by three sequels. Gao Yi, who lives in Düsseldorf, writes adventure stories as well with Tibet exoticism and fantastic elements: "The Tibetan Child", "The Oracle" and "The Roman Ring" (C 2004). At the same time, a flood of nonfiction books about Tibet appears in German-speaking countries, often with mysterious titles such as "The Secret Life of the Dalai Lamas. The Story of the God-kings of Tibet "(G 2007, PB 2009)," Fleeing through Ice and Snow "," The Way of the White Clouds"or " Escape from Tibet".<br />
<br />
西藏风情<br />
<br />
西藏作家阿来的故事就此展开。没错，今年书展的赢家中也包括不少西藏作家。他们的作品在瑞士颇具市场。中国图书板块中的几位西藏作家分别有阿来、嘉木样、Taering Öser和Tenzin Tsundue。出去旅行之前，马健从未离开过北京，但这次旅行他却意外的选择去到西藏进行朝圣，从而写出《红尘》一书。何马的《西藏密码》虽尚未在德国出版，但其后的三个续作都已与出版社签约。住在杜塞尔多夫的高宜同样喜欢具有西藏风格的冒险题材，并写下了名为《藏族男孩》、《神谕》和《罗马指环》的故事。与此同时，在德国以及其他说德语的地区，有关西藏的非虚构类作品接连出版，它们常常有着神秘的标题，例如《达赖喇嘛的秘密生活》、《西藏神王秘史》、《冰雪逃亡》、《白云之路》和《逃出西藏》等。<br />
<br />
--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 12:39, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
<br />
Nostalgia<br />
<br />
Through China flows a nostalgic wave, the overthrown Communist ideology has been replaced by the return to traditional values. In 1974 Confucius had been dismantled in a campaign, since 2007 Confucius institutes have been opened all over the world. Also on the bestseller lists this literature stands at the top. The professor Yu Dan (Beijing) interpreted Confucius in a television series. Her book "Confucius from the Heart" (C 2006, G 21.08.2009) with modern commentaries around the Confucius classics "Talks" landed in China with 503,000 sold copies in 2007. It makes Confucius in simple language, with lively pictures and Current examples from everyday life. Since the trend in China goes to the second book, i. That a second book of the same kind is being postponed to a successful book, she continued to comment on the philosopher Menzius. Does this commentary also work in Germany, where one hardly knows the original texts? At the book fair, the Confucius commentary is also available, the Droemer publishing house has taken the risk and presents the comment in German translation, but not as in the Chinese edition with original text in the appendix. This nostalgia literature in China also includes comments on the classic novel "Three Kingdoms" (C 2006) by Yi Zhongtian (62), which ended up in 2007 with 340,000 copies of the bestseller list, the historical novel about the last imperial dynasty. “The Qing Prime Minister” (C 2007) by Wang Yuewen (46) and "War Drums" (C 2006) by Dou Liang (55) about old Beijing, all of them had at least 200,000 sold copies in 2007.<br />
<br />
怀旧风<br />
<br />
中国正掀起一波怀旧浪潮。传统价值观的回归代替了已经推翻的共产主义意识形态。1974年，孔学在一场运动中逐渐推出历史舞台，但是从2007年开始，孔子学院已向全世界开放。同时孔学相关书籍也在畅销书的榜首。于丹教授（北京）把孔子翻拍成了电视剧。她的书《论语心得》（C 2006, G21.08.2009）带有孔学经典《论语》的现代评论2017年在大陆发售已超过503，000册。这本书使得孔学理论以一种简单的语言，生动的图片和日常生活的例子呈现出来。自从这孔学潮流在中国推出了第二本书，i. 相同类型的第二本书的成功销量是要晚一些。于丹继续在考究着哲学家孟子。是否这种评论会在德国起到相同的效应呢，毕竟德国对原著几乎都不了解？在书会上，可以见到孔学评论相关书的身影，德语出版社冒险展出了其德语版本，但是和中文版本不同的是在附录上没有原文。这种怀旧文学在中国还包括了易中天（62）的评论关于经典小说《三国志》（C 2006），一部描述最后一个帝王朝代的历史小说，其销量在2007畅销排行榜年达到了340，000册。 王跃文（46）的《秦始皇》和窦亮（55）描写老北京的《战鼓》（C 2006），一共销售了200，000册在2007年。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 03:32, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
怀旧风<br />
<br />
中国掀起了怀旧的浪潮，传统价值观的回归取代了已经推翻了的共产主义意识形态。1974年，孔子塑像在一场运动中被拆除，但是从2007年开始，孔子学院已向全世界开放。并且孔学相关书籍也占据了畅销书榜单的榜首。于丹教授（北京）在一系列电视节目中诠释了孔子。她的书《论语心得》（C 2006, G21.08.2009），一本围绕孔子经典对话的现代评论于2007年在大陆发售，销量为503，000册。这本书用生动的图片和当代日常生活的例子将孔子以一种简单的语言呈现出来。因为这本书的风靡，于丹教授在中国推出了同系列的第二本书。第二本书的畅销势头减弱，于是于丹继续评论了哲学家孟子。但是在人们对原著都不了解的德国，这种评论会有相同的影响吗？在书会上，同样可以见到孔学评论相关书籍——德勒默尔出版社冒险推出了其德语版本，但是和中文版本不同的是，在附录页没有附上原文。在中国，这种怀旧文学还包括了易中天（62岁）评经典小说《三国志》（C 2006），其销量截止2007年在畅销排行榜达到了340，000册，王跃文（46岁）的关于最后一个帝国王朝的历史小说《大清相国》（C 2007，）和窦亮的记述老北京的小说《战鼓》（C 2006），所有这些在2007年一共销售了至少200，000册。--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 10:04, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
<br />
Women's literature<br />
<br />
The literature of the mega cities looks different in Beijing and Shanghai: just as in Beijing, the vagabond literature of a Wang Shuo is at home, Shanghai also developed with Zhang Ailing (1920-1995) her own literature, in this case an autobiographical literature of women that describes the emotional life of Shanghai single women. Mian Mian is the latest appearance of this woman literature, although her female figures often seem to depend on their partners. However, Mian Mian is the only female writer that is taken seriously and translated for the book fair. In "Frauenboxen" by Bi Shumin (57) the female figures seem, as the title suggests, more self-consciously, therefore the book has been sold 180,000 times. Her feminine novel "Female Psychologist" (C 2007) was so successful that several volumes were published. On the bestseller list, she is closely followed by Annie Baobei (34), with 175,000 first-person narrations sold, under the title "Fat years, meager years" (C 2007), in which the young women see the world with their own eyes. With 160,000 copies follows the marriage counselor follows "Holding Hands " (C 2007) of Wang Hailing (55).<br />
<br />
大城市的文学作品，像北京和上海，是大不相同的：就比如说在北京有王朔的痞子文学；而在上海流行的是张爱玲的文学小说，这种文学属于女性自传文学，主要描述了上海单身女性的情感生活。棉棉是女性文学代表人物的新兴面孔，尽管她所塑造的女性角色看起来似乎非常依赖她们的伴侣。然而，她是唯一一个认真对待书展，并且为书展做翻译的女性作家。在毕淑敏的作品《女性》中，女性人物的形象正如标题一样似乎显得更有自我意识，因此这本书畅销18万次。毕淑敏的女性小说《女心理家》（C 2007)创作地非常成功，因此出版了很多册。在畅销书单列表中，紧随其后的是安妮宝贝，她的第一人称叙述小说热销175000本，其中有一本叫《素年锦时》，主要讲述了年轻的女性用她们自己的视角看待世界。王海鸰的《牵手》成为了婚姻顾问的参考指导书，160000本复印版下发至婚姻顾问。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 03:56, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
女性的文学<br />
像在北京和上海，大城市的文学是不同的：就像北京有王朔的流浪汉文学，而上海则是孕育出了张爱玲的女性自传文学，主要描述了上海单身女性的情感生活。棉棉是这类女性文学最早出现的女性角色，尽管她所代表的女性形象似乎常常依赖于自己的伴侣。然而，棉棉是唯一一位在书展上受到重视并被翻译的女性作家。正如书名所示，从毕淑敏57岁时的作品《女性》来看，女性形象似乎更具自我意识，因此这本书的销量达18万次。她的女性小说《女性心理学家》(2007年)成功地出版了好几卷；在畅销书排行榜上，紧随其后的是34岁的安妮·宝贝(Annie Baobei)的作品，名为《素年锦时》(2007年左右)。此书以第一人称叙述，热销17.5万本，在书中年轻女性站在自己的角度去看待世界。而55岁的王海鴒的《牵手》(2007年)成了结婚顾问的参考书，由此热销16万本。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 06:35, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
女性文学<br />
在北京和上海这种大城市，他们的文学是不同的: 就像在北京,代表的有王朔的地痞文学，上海则是出现了张爱玲式的(1920 - 1995)自传文学。此种女性自传文学描述了一种上海单身女性的情感生活。棉棉则是这类女性文学的最新兴典型形象，尽管她似乎常常依赖于自己的伴侣。然而，却是唯一会为书展做认真翻译的女性作家。毕淑敏的《女性》(57)中，正如书名所示，女性形象似乎更多了些自我意识觉醒，因此这本书被畅销18万本。她的女性小说《女心理学家》(2007)也非常成功，甚至出版了好几卷。在畅销书排行榜上，紧随其后的是34岁的安妮宝贝(Annie Baobei)，这本名为《素年锦时》(2007)的书，以第一人称叙述，热销17.5万册，书中主要讲述了年轻女性用自己的角度看世界的内容。王海鸰（55）的《牵手》（2007）复印本则成了婚姻顾问们“人手一本”的参考书，狂销了16万本。<br />
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:51, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
<br />
Literature of mental distress<br />
<br />
Finally, there is still the literature of mental distress, mastermind Mo Yan has pointed out abysses of human behavior in his "Sandalwood Death" (C 2001). The framework is the German colonial history in China, the railway construction and the revolt of the boxer. Mo Yan describes a fictitious story in which Guomindang General Yuan Shikai, with the last imperial headman, wants to conduct a cruel execution by torture against a man who rebelled after his family had previously been desecrated and killed by Germans. Contrasted with this, Mo Yan portrays the last opera singer of the Maoqiang local opera from the region around Gaomi. The language is pathetic, symbolic and emotionally charged. The description of the inner conflict of the physician, who is told to keep the victim alive until the German colonizers see him, is shattered. His only advice "Remove the sandalwood!" is not obeyed, since this is precisely the torture. In this book the search for a translator was more difficult than usual, thanks to Chinese government-funded support, it was finally realized at the publishing house Insel-Verlag. Equally doubtful is the wisdom, which may result from the influential book "Wolf Totem" (C 2004 G 2009) by Jiang Rong (63), since the author wants to explain the Chinese people's folklore:<br />
<br />
关注精神苦闷的文学作品<br />
<br />
最后，仍然有关注精神苦闷的文学作品，作家莫言在他的《檀香刑》（C 2001）中指出了人类种种恶行，如临深渊。这部小说主要讲述了中国受德国殖民统治时期，当时铁路建设情况和义和团的起义。《檀香刑》是一部虚构的小说，莫言刻画了国民党将领袁世凯和大清帝国最后一位皇帝与一位反抗者的矛盾，二人企图对反抗者酷刑相加，残酷处决，而此前反抗者的家人被德国人亵渎并杀害。在书中莫言还描绘了高密地方戏曲“茂腔”，和其最后一位传承歌者，这与骇人听闻的酷刑事件截然相反。小说的语言充满悲剧性、象征性，情感充沛。当医生接到通知，在德国殖民者发现受害人之前要确保他活着，这一段关于医生内心冲突的译文描写支离破碎。他唯一的建议是“删除檀香！”遭到拒绝，因为这正是酷刑所在。因此，要给这本书找一位合格的译者比往常都难，好在中国政府给予该项目资金支持，《檀香刑》最终由岛屿出版社出版。另一本享誉中外的书——《狼图腾》(C 2004 G 2009)，作者姜戎着力刻画流传在中国人口中的民间传说，因而翻译这本书的翻译是否妥当，同样让人疑虑。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:49, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
<br />
This also means hope for freedom and democracy. A good adventure novel, but the moral of the story, natural laws instead of civilization, in today's materialistic Chinese reality the wrong advice. The book is stagnating in the middle of the bestseller lists in China, but remains there until 2008. It was heavily advertised, Random House paid for the German edition 20,000 € in license rights after Goldblatt had laid for the English 100,000 USD - somehow the investion has to roll in and so it is called in the advertising texts "The most successful book since the Mao Bible" - this decision is left to the reader.<br />
--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 16:28, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
<br />
Discrepancy Chinese Literature - Book Fair<br />
<br />
All these currents will be represented at the Frankfurt Book Fair. Some of them are preparing to refute the withering verdict of the sinologist Wolfgang Kubin from 2006, who referred to the Chinese literature since 1949 as "garbage" and especially attacked writers like Mian Mian, making her one of the most controversial writers. Although she has long been forbidden in China, had no benefits from the Chinese government's promotion of translation, and does not belong to the carefully selected semioffical writers' delegation, besides the short story "Running Through Zhongguancun", narratives such as "Brothers", "Taschendiebe" and perhaps a classic like "Dream of the Red Chamber", will be Mian Mian's book "Panda Sex" one of the bestseller of the book fair. In the following editions we will introduce individual authors and currents and begin with her - Mian Mian.<br />
中国文学差异-书展<br />
所有这些潮流将在法兰克福书展上展出。 他们中的一些人准备反驳自2006年以来的汉学家沃尔夫冈·库宾的残酷判决，自1949年以来就将中国文学称为“垃圾”，特别是像绵绵这样的受攻击的作家，这使她成为最有争议的作家之一。 尽管她早已在中国被禁止，她没有从中国政府的翻译推广中获得任何好处，并且不属于经过精心挑选的半官方作家代表团，除了短篇小说《穿越中关村》，还有诸如《兄弟》之类的故事， 《棉铃儿》，也许是《红楼梦》之类的经典作品，将成为棉棉的书《熊猫性爱》的畅销书展之一。 在接下来的版本中，我们将介绍个人作者和最新动态，并从她开始-Mian Mian。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 16:28, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
<br />
Bestseller list of Chinese authors 2007<br />
<br />
Last update: 9.11.2007, researched and reviewed in note form<br />
<br />
In the question of what to understand by contemporary literature, one has to clarify various assumptions:<br />
<br />
2007年中国作家畅销书排行榜<br />
最后更新:2007年9月11日，以注释形式研究和审查<br />
在如何理解当代文学的问题上，人们必须阐明各种假设:--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 14:24, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2007年中国畅销书排行榜<br />
最新更新：2007年9月11日，以注释形式进行了研究和审查<br />
关于当代文学应理解什么的问题，必须阐明各种假设：--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 16:48, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
<br />
Is the complete literature taken into account, or are certain categories of literature excluded? In the current case, we restrict us to literary books (no nonfiction books, for which there are often separate bestseller lists). Thus every objectively well-sold book will be named. It is only in a second step, in the evaluation for the German book market, that children's literature is excluded.<br />
是将完整的文献考虑在内，还是将某些类别的文献排除在外?在目前的情况下，我们把考虑范围限于文学书籍(不包括非小说类书籍，因为它们通常有不同的畅销书排行榜)。因此，客观上，每一本很畅销的书都会被提及。在对德国图书市场的评估中，把儿童文学排除在外也只是第二步。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 10:53, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
是将完整的文献考虑在内，还是排除某些类别的文献？目前，我们仅考虑文学书籍(不考虑非小说类书籍，因为此类书籍畅销排行榜通常不同)。因此，客观上，每本畅销书都会被提及。在对德国图书市场的评估中，排除儿童文学也只是第二步。--[[User:Zhang Weihong|Zhang Weihong]] ([[User talk:Zhang Weihong|talk]]) 12:34, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Zhang Weihong<br />
是把所有的文学类别考虑在内，还是把某些特定的文学类别排除在外？目前，我们把考虑范围限于文学书籍（不包括非小说类书籍，它们通常有不同的畅销书榜单）。因此，客观上，每本畅销书都将被提及。在对德国的书籍市场的评估中，把儿童文学排除在外也仅仅是第二步。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 12:42, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
<br />
Are the books objectively presented by sales figures? Is this the only criterion for evaluating commercial success? This has the implication that high-minded literature usually ends up further down on the bestseller list as the dime novel. An exception in the West may be e.g. Harry Potter, who has besides his youthful target group, also at least in the English original literary claim.<br />
<br />
这些书单能够代表客观的销售数据吗？这是衡量商业成就的唯一标准吗？这暗指着，在最畅销的书单上，高尚文学经常比廉价文学排名要低很多。这其中可能有一个例外，那就是《哈利波特》，因为它不仅有其年轻的读者群体，也至少属于英语本土文学之列。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:14, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
销售数据能代表这些书籍吗？销售数据是衡量商业成功的唯一标准吗? 这暗示着：相较于廉价小说，高尚文学通常在畅销榜单上不见其名。西方文学中的一个例外可能是《哈利波特》。这本书除了有年轻的读者群体之外，至少也符合英语原著文学的主张。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 12:07, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
销量的高与低就能客观的代表书籍的好与差吗？难道销量是衡量商业成功的唯一标准吗？这意味着，高尚文学通常会像廉价小说一样在畅销书排行榜上排名靠后。西方文学的一个例外可能是《哈利·波特》，除了有年轻的读者群体之外，它还属于英文原著文学之一。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 14:48, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
<br />
It is striking that there is hardly any accordance between the list of bestsellers with the list of actually translated literature and also not with the list of government-sponsored translations. The most important reason is that the bestseller list in 2007 is the current literature, as it was read in China at the beginning of 2008. But for the book fair the publishers have commissioned much older books for translation. Only in a few titles is the translation market already as fast as e.g. in the translation of American novels into German, e.g. "Wolf Totem," "Confucius from the Heart," or Mian Mian's "Panda Sex."<br />
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
<br />
This bestseller list and the evaluations were presented at the technical lecture "Rotes Kornfeld" in the German Publishers and Booksellers Association for the Frankfurt book fair on the 29th April 2008, so that the publishers who had sent their lecturers and the other translators could consider the presented titles in the planning. Some of the titles were realized. Others may stay interesting for a later time.<br />
2008年4月29日，在德国出版商协会为法兰克福书展举行的“红高粱”科技讲座中，公布了畅销书单以及相关评价。已经举办讲座的出版商和翻译人员可以考虑计划中给出的标题，其中部分已被采用，另一部分还有待商榷。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 14:55, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2008年4月29日，德国出版商和书商协会在为法兰克福书展举办的“红高粱”专业性讲座中公布了畅销书单及相关评价，方便已经进行演讲的出版商和其他翻译人员可以考虑计划公布的标题。这些标题中，部分已经采用，另一部分还有待商榷。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:57, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
<br />
For the development of the number of translations from Chinese I refer to appropriate investigations. <br />
<br />
First of all, the full list, followed by the criteria after the list has been cleared with regard to the German book market.<br />
<br />
我参考了些许相关的调查，用来研究中文的译文数量发展。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 12:50, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
首先，一份完整的畅销书单后面是其评判的标准，而德国图书市场正是通过这一标准对各种书目进行清理排除，得出了最终的书单。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 12:50, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
<br />
Note: The book cover and photos of the authors were provided by the publishers for reproduction and are reproduced here for this scientific study. Copyrights and reproduction rights of the illustrations remain at the respective publishers or rights holders.<br />
注：书的封面和作者的照片由出版商提供，用于复制，并且在这里复制，用于本次科学研究。插图的版权和复制权保留在各自的出版商或版权持有者手中。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 12:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
注：由于要再版或者出于科研目进行再版，出版商会提供书的封皮和作者的照片。插图的版权和复制权保留在各自的出版商或版权持有者手中。--[[User:Monan|Monan]] ([[User talk:Monan|talk]]) 13:50, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
<br />
1st place: Guō Jìngmíng / Guo Jingming郭敬明(born 6.6.1983, lives in Shanghai), 550.000 sold copies, »Tears against the Stream«郭敬明Changjiang literature and art publishing house, 5/2007, 340 pp. Rating: 1.0. Without life experience, Ms. Lin Huafeng has to raise her daughter alone after the divorce. She has to prostitute herself and her mental conflict worsens daily.<br />
<br />
This novel could also become a bestseller within the framework of China literature in Germany.<br />
The Shanghai student Jingming Guo is something like a cultureless enfant terrible, grades worse than Han Han, but loved by the youth.<br />
<br />
His series "Bestseller"最小说is rated 4.0. The novels are collage-like and also composed of foreign languages. They are illustrated in color and presented with all sorts of tips and gimmicks (recipes, make-up, pictures) etc. Further details and translation, see next chapter.<br />
<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki><br />
<br />
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
<br />
2nd place: Yú Dān / Yu Dan于丹(born 28.6.1965, lives in Beijing), "Thoughts on the conversations of Confucius" "论语"心 得, 503.000 copies sold, Zhonghua Book Company, 11/06 157 pp. , Evaluation score: 1.7.<br />
第二位:于丹，(生于1965年6月28日，现居北京)，《于丹<论语>感悟》、《于丹<论语>心得》，销量503,000册，中华书局，11月6日发行，第157页，评分:1.7.--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 03:19, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
Yu Dan is the moderator of a TV discussion on Confucius. In this book she explains the two-thousand-years-old classic, which the Chinese memorize by referring to the present.<br />
于丹曾主持过一档关于孔子的电视评论栏目。在这本书里，她解读了一部写于两千多年前的经典名著，直至今天，这本著作<br />
仍被中国人提及。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 03:19, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
The translation presents a special challenge because the German reader lacks the background knowledge. Here, the publishing house found the solution to attach the original in an existing translation in the appendix.<br />
Translator: Johannes Fiederling (Munich), Publisher: Knaur.<br />
阅读这本著作对于德国人来说是一个特殊的挑战，因为他们缺乏与之相关的背景知识。出版社找到了一个解决办法，将一篇已有的翻译附加在原著的附录上。译者:约翰内斯·费德林(Johannes Fiederling)(慕尼黑），出版社:科努尔(Knaur)--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 03:19, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Yú Dān于丹»Yu Dan’s Notes on Zhuangzi« "《庄子》心得Zhonghua Book Company, Rating: 4.0.<br />
This is a typical second book. This should only be tackled when the first book becomes a success.<br />
《于丹<庄子>心得》，中华书局，评分:4.0.<br />
这本书是于丹第二本经典书籍。只有读懂第一本书后，才能读懂这本书。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 03:19, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
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3rd place: Yì Zhōngtiān / Yi Zhongtian 天 中天 (born 8.2.1947, lives in): »Chronicles of the Three Kingdoms« Volume 1-2品三国（上下), 340.000 sold copies 2007, Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House , Vol. 1 7/06 248 pp., Vol. 2 3/07 274 p. Rating: 3.0.<br />
<br />
Explanations on the classical novel "Three Kingdoms", typical title of the nostalgic wave. Even less popular with the German public.<br />
<br />
4th place: Zhèng Yuānjié / Zheng Yuanjie郑渊洁 (born 15.6.1955): »Pipi Lu; Rock the Wolf "皮皮鲁总动员;大灰狼罗克, 285.000 sold copies. Rating: 4.0. Children's books.<br />
<br />
5. Ráo Xuěmàn / Rao Xueman 饶雪漫 (born 1972), "Sweet-sour" 甜酸 11/07, 235 pp., New World publishing house, 260.000 sold copies. Rating: 3.7.<br />
Love story for teenagers / sentimental kitsch.<br />
<br />
Sandglass Volume 1-3, 沙漏, 279 pp., Gegenwartswelt Publishing House, Rating: 3.7.<br />
Love story for teenagers / sentimental kitsch.<br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
<br />
6th place: Wáng Shuò / Wang Shuo: 王朔 (born 23.8.1958): "Playing for Thrills" 玩的就是心跳, 250.000 sold copies. Rating: 1.3.<br />
Already translated by Ulrich Kautz, Diogenes 5/1997.<br />
<br />
7th Place: Yáng Hóngyīng / Yang Hongying杨红樱(born 1962), "Children’s Stories about Love"爱的童话, 240.000 sold copies. Rating: 4.0. Children's books<br />
<br />
8th place: Cáo Wénxuān / Cao Wenxuan曹文轩 (born 1.1954) »Fantasy: King's Books - The Yellow Pagoda«大王书——黄琉璃, 225.000 sold copies. Rating: 4.0. Fantasy.<br />
<br />
9th place: Wáng Yuèwén / Wang Yuewen王跃文 (born 26.9.1962) »The Qing Prime Minister« 大清相国, 217.500 sold copies, 3/07, 493 pp.<br />
Rating: 3.7. Historical civil servant novel, difficult to transfer, only suitable for expert audience.<br />
<br />
10th place: Yú Qiūyǔ / Yu Qiuyu余秋雨 (born 23.8.1946): »A Life Borrowed « 借我一生, 215:000 sold copies. 8/04, 617 pp., Autorenverlag.<br />
Rating: 2.0. Autobiography of a famous Chinese writer.<br />
<br />
第六名：王朔（出生于1958年8月23日）：《玩的就是心跳》，售出25万册。评分：1.3。Ulrich Kautz译，1997年5月出版。<br />
第七名：杨红樱（出生于1962年），《爱的童话》，售出24万册。评分：4.0。儿童读物<br />
第八名：曹文轩（出生于1954年1月），《大王书——黄琉璃》售出22.5万册。评分：4.0。幻想。<br />
第九名：王跃文（出生于1962年9月26日），《大清相国》，售出21.75万册，2007年3月出版，共计493页。评分：3.7。历史悠久的公务小说，转换较难，只适合专家读者阅读。<br />
第十名：余秋雨（出生于1946年8月23日）：《借我一生》，售出21.5万册。2004年8月出版，共计617页，Autorenverlag。评分：2.0。中国著名作家的自传。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 14:21, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
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==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
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11th place: Cài Jùn / Cai Jun蔡骏 (born 23.12.1978): »Destiny volume 1: The city in deep sleep«天机: 第一季: 沉睡之城, 202.500 sold copies. 9/07, 240 pp., Shaanxi Pedagogical College Publishing House陕西师范大学出版社4 volumes. Rating: 4.0. Historical adventure / fantasy novel after the pattern of "Lost".<br />
<br />
12th place: Dōu Liáng / Dou Liang都梁(born 6.1954): "War Drums in Beijing"狼烟北平, 200.000 sold copies, Changjiang Literature and Art Publisher, 4/06, 371 pp. [Second user: Folk Literature Publishing House].<br />
Rating: 2.0. War novel about the 1930s in Beijing. Also interesting for Germans.<br />
<br />
13th place: Hán Hán / Han Han韩寒(born 23.9.1982): "Glory Days" 光荣 日, 190.000 sold copies. 6/07, 186 pp., 21st Century Publishing House. <br />
Rating: 1.0. Seven graduates drop out, instead of working in a foreign company. They perform pioneering work in the village (house construction, primary school, vegetable growing). Social critical novel with wit.<br />
第11位：蔡骏(生于1978年12月23日）《天机：第一季：沉睡之城》，销量202,500册，9/07，240页，陕西师范大学出版社。全书共四季，评分：4.0.属于“迷失”题材后的历史冒险或玄幻小说。<br />
第12位：都梁（生于1954年6月）《狼烟北平》，销量20万册，长江文艺出版社。4/06,371页，[第二个出版社：民间文学出版社].评分：2.0. 一本关于1930年北京的战争小说，该书同样引起了德国人的兴趣。<br />
第13位：韩寒（生于1982年9月23日）《光荣日》，销量19万册，6/07，186页，21世纪出版社。评分：1.0.该书叙述了7位研究生退学后，没有在外国公司上班，而是在一个村庄里开拓创新（房屋建设、小学工作、蔬菜种植）的故事，是一本充满智慧的社会批评小说。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 14:07, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
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14th place: Bì Shūmǐn / Bi Shumin毕淑敏 (born 1952): "Women's Boxes"女儿拳, 182.500 sold copies. 254 pp., Blindenschrift Publishing House.<br />
Rating: 2.0, women's narratives.<br />
<br />
Female Psychologist« 女心理师4/07 Chongqing Publishing Group, 253 pp., 2 vols. Rating: 2.0, women’s novel.<br />
<br />
15th place: Ānnī Bǎobèi / Annie Baobei安妮宝贝 (born 11.7.1974): »Fette Jahre, magere Jahre« 素年锦时, 175.000 sold copies, 9/07 264 pp., Authors Publishing House.<br />
<br />
Rating: 1.3. The female first-person narrator of these stories is in each case a young woman who sees the world with her own eyes.<br />
<br />
16th place: Wáng Hǎilíng / Wang Hailing王海鸰 (born 12.1953): »Holding Hands« 牵手, 160.000 sold copies. 7/07 346 pp. Authors Publishing House.<br />
Rating: 4.0. guidebook.<br />
<br />
17th place: Hǎi Yán / Hai Yan 海岩 (born 1954): »Five-Star Hotel« 五星大酒店, 157.500 sold copies. 8/07, 342 pp. Authors Publishing House.<br />
Rating: 2.0. Novel about a student from simple circumstances, who becomes the heir to a Korean financial group, and his girlfriend.<br />
<br />
第14位：毕淑敏（1952年生）《女儿拳》 售出182500本 254pp., 布兰登斯克瑞夫特（Blindenschrift）出版社 评分：2.0 女性记叙文 《女心理师》 4//07 重庆出版集团 253pp 2卷 评分：2.0 女性小说<br />
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第15位：安妮宝贝（1974年11月7日生） 《素年锦时》 售出175000本 9/07 264pp., 作者出版社 评分1.3 她是第一位女性讲述者，无论任何境遇下都用自己的眼光看待整个世界的一位年轻女性<br />
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第16位：王海鸥（1953年12月生） 《牵手》 售出160000本 7/07 346pp., 作者出版社 评分：4.0 指导书<br />
<br />
第17位：海岩（1954年生） 《五星大饭店》 售出157500本 8/07 342pp., 作者出版社 评分：2.0 小说讲述一位成为韩国大财团继承者的平民学生和他的女朋友的故事--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 11:53, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
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18th Place: Yán Chóngnián / Yan Chongnian阎崇年(born 24.4.1934): »Beijing: The Treasures of an Ancient Capital«中国古都北京, 150.000 sold copies. 1/08, 302 pp., Democracy and Law Publishing House.<br />
Rating: 4.0. Specialized book.<br />
<br />
19th place: Tiānxià Bàchàng / Tianxia Bachang天下霸唱(born 1978): »A bizarre story of ghost blowing out the light« 鬼吹灯, 140.000 sold copies.<br />
Vol. 1 The Perfect Ancient City, Vol. 2 The Weasel Grave, Bd. X The Valley of Insects. Rating: 4.0. Magic series on Harry Potter wave.<br />
<br />
20th place: Lù Tiānmíng [Lu Tianming] 陆天明 (born 1943): »Provincial Secretary« 省委书记, 125.000 sold copies.<br />
Rating: 4.0. The very title is currently not enforceable on the German book market.<br />
<br />
21st place: Shí Zhōngshān [Shi Zhongshan] 石钟山(born 10.1964): »Underground, Overground«地下,地上115.000 sold copies. Rating: 4.0. Plagiarism?<br />
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第18位：Yán Chóngnián / Yan Chongnian阎崇年(1934年4月24日生): 《中国古都北京》, 售出150.000 本. 1/08, 302 pp., 中国民主法制出版社.<br />
评分: 4.0. 专业书籍.<br />
<br />
第19位: Tiānxià Bàchàng / Tianxia Bachang天下霸唱(1978年生): 《鬼吹灯》, 售出140.000 本.<br />
卷一：精绝古城，卷二：黄皮子坟，卷三：云南虫谷. 评分: 4.0. 哈利波特魔法系列.<br />
<br />
第20位: Lù Tiānmíng [Lu Tianming] 陆天明 (1943年生): 《省委书记》, 售出125.000本.<br />
评分: 4.0. 该标题目前在德国图书市场上不可发行。<br />
<br />
第21位: Shí Zhōngshān [Shi Zhongshan] 石钟山(1964年10月生): «地下，地上》售出115.000 本. 评分: 4.0. 抄袭？--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 14:23, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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第18位：阎崇年(1934年4月24日生): 《中国古都北京》, 销量为15万册. 1/08, 302页, 中国民主法制出版社.<br />
评分: 4.0. 专业书籍.<br />
<br />
第19位:天下霸唱(1978年生): 《鬼吹灯》, 销量为14万册.<br />
卷一：精绝古城，卷二：黄皮子坟，卷三：云南虫谷. <br />
评分: 4.0. 哈利波特魔法系列.<br />
<br />
第20位:陆天明 (1943年生): 《省委书记》, 销量为12. 5万本.<br />
评分: 4.0. 该书名目前在德国图书市场上不可发行。<br />
<br />
第21位:石钟山(1964年10月生): 《地下，地上》 销量为11. 5万册. <br />
评分: 4.0. 抄袭？--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 02:21, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
<br />
22nd place: Dāngnián Míngyuè [Dangnian Mingyue] 当年明月 (born 1980): "Storys about Ming Dynasty (volume Yuanzhang Zhu, volume 2, 3, 4)« 明朝哪些事（朱元璋卷）, 2, 3, 4. 112.500 sold copies.<br />
Rating: 2.0. Historical novel about the Ming period (The 1st Emperor of the Ming Dynasty was transformed from beggar to emperor).<br />
<br />
23rd place: Liú Xīnwǔ [Liu Xinwu] 刘心武 (born 1942): »Liu Xinwu about …« 刘心武说, 100,000 sold copies.<br />
Rating: 4.0.<br />
Series with at least 3 volumes.<br />
<br />
24th place: Yáng Zhìjūn [Yang Zhijun] 杨志军 (born 1955): »The Tibetan ethnic group Zang'ao (Vol. 1, 2, 3)« 藏獒1, 2, 3. 90.000 sold copies.<br />
Rating: 4.0.<br />
Ethnological-historical representation<br />
<br />
第22位: 当年明月（生于1980年）：《明朝那些事（朱元璋卷）》，2，3，4. 售出112500本。<br />
评分：2.0. 一本关于明朝的历史小说（明朝的第一位皇帝最初是乞丐）。<br />
<br />
第23位：刘心武（生于1942年）：《刘心武说》，售出100000本。<br />
评分：4.0.<br />
这本书至少有三卷。<br />
<br />
第24位: 杨志军（生于1955年）：《藏獒》，1，2，3。售出90000本。<br />
评分：4.0.<br />
一本关于民族历史的书。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 11:37, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
<br />
25th place: Jiǎ Píngwā [Jia Pingwa] 贾平凹 (born 21.2.1952): »Happy« 高兴, published 9/07, 461 pp., Authors Publishing House.<br />
75.000 sold copies.<br />
<br />
Rating: 2.0.<br />
Novel about a farmer who sells his kidney to the city and finds a brittle happiness with a prostitute in the city.<br />
<br />
Not yet published in German by the same author:<br />
<br />
»Ruined City« 废都. 381 pp., 1993, Culture and Art Publishing House.<br />
Rating: 1.7.<br />
Novel with erotic elements about male men and female women, about the rotten urban life (exists to a half)<br />
<br />
第25位：贾平凹（wā）（1952年2月21日生）：《高兴》，2007年9月出版，461页，作家出版社。销量达75000册。评分：2.0<br />
小说讲述了一个农民将自己的肾卖到城市，并在城市里和一个妓女找到了脆弱的幸福。<br />
同一作者尚未出版德语版的作品：《废都》，381页，1993年，文化艺术出版社。评分：1.7<br />
小说中有关于男女的，关于腐朽的城市生活的情色元素（占了一半）--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 04:23, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
<br />
Selection procedures on the recommendations for publishers<br />
<br />
The basis for this was the bestseller list in 2007. The following exclusion criteria were applied afterwards:<br />
Already released: Wang Shuo (Playing for Thrills) - Diogenes<br />
Children's books: Zhèng Yuānjié (Pipi Lu; Rock the Wolf), Yáng Hóngyīng (Children's Books about Love)<br />
Suspicion for plagiarism: Shí Zhōngshān (Underground, Overground)<br />
Guidebook: Wang Hailing (New Age of Marriage)<br />
<br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
<br />
Specialized books: Yán Chóngnián (Beijing: The Treasures of an Ancient Capital), Yáng Zhìjūn (The Tibetan ethnical group Zang'ao)<br />
Sentimental Kitsch: Ráo Xuěmàn (Sweet-sour, Sandglass)<br />
Fantasy (Potter epigones): Cáo Wénxuān (Kings books: The yellow pagoda); Cài Jùn (Destiny volume 1: The City in deep Sleep, historical adventure / fantasy novel after the pattern of "Lost"); Tiānxià Bàchàng (A bizarre Story of Ghost blowing out the Light: Bd. 1 The Perfect Ancient Town, Vol. 2 The Weasel's Grave, Bd. X The Valley of Insects)<br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
<br />
Other socialization: Yì Zhōngtiān (comments on the "Three Kingdoms" volume 1-2); Wáng Yuèwén (The Qing Prime Minister = historic civil servant novel); Lù Tiānmíng (The secretary of the Provincial Party Committee - the title alone is not conceivable at the German book market); Liu Xīnwǔ (Liu Xinwu says: ... - The author is largely unknown in Germany, so one does not want to know anything about his multivolume sentiment about everybody and his dog - tradition such as Suixiang lu by Ba Jin.)<br />
<br />
其他社科书籍作者：易中天（《品三国》1-2卷）；王跃文（《大清相国》，一本关于举足轻重的官员的小说）；陆天明（《省委书记》——仅仅这个标题在德国图书市场来说就是不可想象的）；刘心武（《刘心武说》……该作者在德国广为人知，所以人们并不想知道他对与他有关的所有人和他的狗的写成多卷书的随感——这种随感的传统包括巴金的《随想录》）。--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:09, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
<br />
National hype: Guo Jingming (novel bestseller = Bestseller. The novels are collagen-like and also composed with foreign texts. They will be illustrated in color and presented with all kinds of tips (recipes, make-up), etc. Success can only be explained by enfant terrible Guo Jingming.) <br />
Tip: conclude general contract with Chinese publisher for an author (like Piper with Shan Sa)<br />
<br />
国内的炒作：郭敬明（新奇的畅销书也是畅销书。他的小说就像拼贴画一样，其中还有外文文本。书中有彩色插图，展示各种技巧(如食谱，化妆)，等等。年少成名，郭敬明是成功二字唯一的阐释者。小贴士:他与中国出版社签订的是一般合同(如派伯（Piper）出版社与山飒（Shan Sa）的合同一般)。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 13:46, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
国内炒作：郭敬明（小说畅销书也就是畅销书。他的小说就像拼图贴画一样，其中与外文文本相结合。书中有彩色插图，展示各种技巧(如食谱，化妆)，等等。年少成名，郭敬明是成功二字唯一的阐释者。小贴士:他与中国出版社签订的是一般合同(如派伯（Piper）出版社与山飒（Shan Sa）的合同一般)。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 02:58, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
国内炒作：郭敬明（畅销的小说也就是畅销书。郭敬明的小说是拼图版式并且常与外文文本相结合。书中有彩色插图，提供了各种各样的技巧（如食谱、化妆等）。郭敬明向我们诠释了“成功”这两个字。。小贴士：他与中国出版社签订的是一般合同（如派伯出版社和山萨的一同一般）。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 04:20, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
国内炒作：郭敬明（畅销小说也代表着畅销书作者。他的小说像胶原蛋白一样含量多，内容广，书中还结合了外文文本。书中有彩色插图，展示各种技巧(如食谱，化妆)，等等。年少成名，郭敬明是成功二字的不二诠释者。小贴士:他与中国出版社签订的是一般合同(如派伯（Piper）出版社与山飒（Shan Sa）的合同一般)。<br />
--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 22:27, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
<br />
Further recommendations for German publishers for publication<br />
<br />
At the translator meeting in Frankfurt, I had recommended two more works, which are not on the current bestseller lists, but which are absolutely necessary to translate and actually appeared at the book fair:<br />
<br />
On the one hand, the "secret bestseller", Mian Mian's Panda Sex, which was forbidden in China, appeared in Hong Kong and became a bestseller in China under the shop counter and on the Internet. It was only in February 2009 that a censored version could be published in China, which was sold out immediately after the release.<br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
<br />
1. Mián Mián棉棉 »Panda Sex« 熊猫. Prohibited in the People's Republic of China. Published in revised version 2/2009, 1st edition immediately out of print.<br />
German translation by Martin Woesler with Lihua Ji, Kiepenheuer & Witsch 2009.<br />
Published in Chinese: 12/04, 181 pp., Massenverlag Publishing House<br />
Rating: 1.3.<br />
Scandal book about a Shanghai love affair in free love, cf. La la la, Candy, Your night my day, cf .: Wei Hui: Shanghai Baby.<br />
<br />
For details, see one of the following chapters.<br />
棉棉《熊猫性爱》。此书在中华人民共和国禁止发行。修订版于2009年2月出版，第一版立即绝版。2009年德译版译者：Martin Woesler，纪丽华，Kiepenheuer & Witsch。中文版:12/04,181页，Massenverlag出版社评分:1.3。关于上海恋爱的丑闻书，《啦啦啦，坎迪，你的黑夜我的白天》，魏慧:上海宝贝。<br />
了解详细信息，请参阅以下章节之一。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 13:03, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
<br />
2. Cáo Xuěqín 曹雪芹 » Dream of the Red Chamber or The Story of the Stone« 红楼梦.<br />
This book appears in 2009 in a bound edition in three volumes and in a paperback edition in a volume.<br />
Approx. 1759, 2300 pp.<br />
Rating: 1.3.<br />
Everlasting bestseller in China, could become a longseller in Germany. Previously there was only a 70% shortened version by Franz Kuhn. The new version is uncut.<br />
曹雪芹的《红楼梦》这本书，于2009年出版了三卷的精装版以及一卷的平装版。<br />
大约有1759到2300页<br />
评分为1.3分。<br />
这本书在中国永远都是畅销书，在德国也应该会长期畅销。之前德国只有弗朗兹.库恩翻译的只包含原文70%的删减版，但最新版是无删减的版本。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 05:45, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2. Cáo Xuěqín 曹雪芹 » Dream of the Red Chamber or The Story of the Stone« 红楼梦.<br />
This book appears in 2009 in a bound edition in three volumes and in a paperback edition in a volume.<br />
Approx. 1759, 2300 pp.<br />
Rating: 1.3.<br />
Everlasting bestseller in China, could become a longseller in Germany. Previously there was only a 70% shortened version by Franz Kuhn. The new version is uncut.<br />
曹雪芹的《红楼梦》，于2009年出版了三卷的精装版以及一卷的平装版。<br />
大约有1759到2300页；<br />
评分:1.3；<br />
这本书在中国十分畅销，在德国应该会长期畅销。之前有弗朗兹.库恩翻译的删减版，只包含原文70%，但最新版是无删减的版本。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 06:29, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
<br />
3.Cáo Xuěqín 曹雪芹 » Dream of the Red Chamber or The Story of the Stone« 红楼梦.<br />
This book appears in 2009 in a bound edition in three volumes and in a paperback edition in a volume.<br />
Approx. 1759, 2300 pp.<br />
Rating: 1.3.<br />
Everlasting bestseller in China, could become a longseller in Germany. Previously there was only a 70% shortened version by Franz Kuhn. The new version is uncut.<br />
曹雪芹的《红楼梦》（又称《石头记》），这本书以三卷精装版和一卷平装版在2009年面世。<br />
大约有1759到2300页。<br />
评分：1.3。<br />
红楼梦在中国是经久不衰的畅销书，在德国应该亦然。在此之前，此书只有一个包含原文70％内容的删减版，由弗朗茨.库恩所译，而新版本是未删减的。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:01, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
<br />
On the situation of Chinese publications in Germany (selection list before the book fair)<br />
<br />
Here is a list of Chinese publications in German translation before the book fair.<br />
In 2008, only 11 literary works from Chinese to German were translated.<br />
<br />
An important translator is Ulrich Kautz, here some of the translated novels<br />
<br />
Unfortunately many translations do not come directly from Chinese, but rather from the indirection of English or French, as one of the more famous novels: Gio Waeckerlin Induni (Transl. f. Fr.) Dai Sijie: Balzac and the little Chinese Seamstress <Piper> 192007<br />
<br />
关于在德国中文出版物的情况（书展前的入选名单） <br />
这是书展前的德译中出版物清单。 <br />
2008年，仅有11部德译中的文学作品。<br />
其中一位重要的译者是乌尔里希·考茨（Ulrich Kautz），他曾翻译过一些小说。 但是，许多翻译并不是直接来自中文，而是来自英语或法语的间接翻译，因为这些译本似乎更出名：乔·瓦克林·英杜尼 戴思杰：巴尔扎克和小中国裁缝--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 09:56, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
关于德国的中文出版物情况（书展前的入选名单） 这是书展前的德语版中文出版物清单。 2008年，仅有11部中国文学作品翻译成德语， 其中，一位重要的译者是乌尔里希·考茨（Ulrich Kautz），这些是他翻译过的小说。 但是，许多翻译并不是直接从中文翻译过来的，有些是从英语或法语间接翻译过来的，比如一本著名的小说：乔·瓦克林·英杜尼 戴思杰：巴尔扎克和小中国裁缝--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 11:18, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
<br />
Recent Literary History: "Modern Chinese Literature in Translation - Historical Development and Current Trends"<br />
<br />
1. Development<br />
<br />
Chinese literature is traditionally received in Germany because of its exoticism (Diederich’s Yellow Series, etc.). In Germany operated especially the exotic translator - with a tremendous amount of translation work: Franz Kuhn.<br />
The last great Chinese literature was Dream Of The Red Chamber ca.1760<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
<br />
In the period of the Republic appeared (about 1911-1937) great novels such as Ba Jin: The Family (cf. Buddenbrooks), the end of the Republic saw the beginning of the functionalization of literature (anti - Japanese resistance, civil war parties Guomindang and the Communist Party), intellectuals contributed to the reform with essays, experimental literature was written (Lu Xun: Diary of a Madman and The True Story of Ah Q, which were as revolutionary as Kafka with minimally reduced fictional elements in realistic spelling) and essays (suibi of Zhou Zuoren and socio-critical My Miscellaneous Studies杂文 zawen from his brother Lu Xun).<br />
<br />
民国时期（约1911-1937年年间）涌现了许多优秀的作品，如巴金的《家》。民国后期出现了功能主义文学（即反日本侵略，反国共内战），文人学者们推动了文学变革，出现了实验性文学作品（如鲁迅的《狂人日记》和《阿Q正传》（这两部作品的划时代性，有如卡夫卡在写实作品中减少虚构书写的变革））和散文（如周作人的《随笔》和鲁迅的杂文集等）。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 02:02, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
<br />
In Communism, the functionalization of literature (tendency literature) and censorship (Ba Jin censored e.g. his novel The Family by himself) lowered the level, which was ultimately left to the cultural revolution, which wanted only a few model pieces to survive.<br />
在共产主义时期，文学功能化(走向文学)和审查制度(巴金审查了他自己写的小说——《家》)降低了，但是这些特征只持续到了文化大革命时期，文化大革命只想让极少几类文章保留下来。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 11:05, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在共产主义时期，文学的功能化（倾向文学）以及日渐放宽的审查制度最终延续到了文化大革命时期（巴金审查了他自己写的小说《家》）。而文化大革命只允许少部分模范作品保留下来。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:53, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
<br />
Today the exoticism begins to disappear for the first time because there is an approximation of the cultural background of the Chinese authors with the international authors, and because the functionalization has been replaced by commercialization (mass literature phenomenon Wang Shuo - but not pure fiction like Konsalik, but rather very socio-critical, language of the youth, unmasking the hollowness of slogans through use in the everyday language).<br />
现在异国情调首次出现消失的迹象，因为中国作家与国际上的作家的文化背景相近，并且由于功能化已被商业化所取代（大众文学现象 王硕-但不是像孔撒李这样的纯小说 ，但相当具有社会批判性的年轻人的语言，通过使用日常语言来揭露标语的空心性。）--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:34, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
由于中国作家与国际作家的文化背景相似，并且商业化已经代替了功能化（大众文学现象王朔-不是像孔萨利克这样的纯小说，而是非常具有社会批判性的年轻人的语言，通过使用日常语言来揭露标语的空洞，这使得如今的异国情调初现消失的迹象。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 16:32, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
<br />
Even within China, literature has become pure consumption, has lost its reputation, and loses itself towards other media consumption (Internet / film / DVD) audience.<br />
In the last decades, German publishers have published less Chinese literature, while other media genres, such as the Chinese cinema, have been particularly popular because of the exoticism of the images.<br />
<br />
Secondary literature: Martin Woesler: "50 Years of 'Impossible Literature' in the People's Republic of China: Unfreedom, the 'Attempt to End the Enlightenment' and the Lack of Quality ', in: Between Mao and Confucius, Bochum 1999, pp. 151-188.<br />
<br />
甚至在中国，文学也已经成为了纯粹的消费品，失去了其原有的名声，并且执着于向媒体消费观众方向(网络/电影/光盘)发展。在过去的几十年里，德国出版商出版的中国文学作品越来越少，而如中国电影这些其他的媒体流派则因其影像的异国风味大受欢迎。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 06:14, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
<br />
二次文献:马丁·沃斯勒:中华人民共和国的五十年的'不可能文学':无自由，试图结束启蒙运动和缺乏质量，毛泽东与孔子，波1999年，151-188页。<br />
<br />
Even within China, literature has become pure consumption, has lost its reputation, and loses itself towards other media consumption (Internet / film / DVD) audience.<br />
In the last decades, German publishers have published less Chinese literature, while other media genres, such as the Chinese cinema, have been particularly popular because of the exoticism of the images.<br />
<br />
Secondary literature: Martin Woesler: "50 Years of 'Impossible Literature' in the People's Republic of China: Unfreedom, the 'Attempt to End the Enlightenment' and the Lack of Quality ', in: Between Mao and Confucius, Bochum 1999, pp. 151-188.<br />
甚至在中国，文学已经成为了纯粹的消费品，失去了其原有的名声，并且迷失自我，转而向其他媒体消费(网络/电影/光盘)的观众倾斜。在过去的几十年里，德国出版商出版的中国文学作品越来越少，而其他的媒体类型，比如中国电影，则因其异域风情的形象大受欢迎。<br />
<br />
二次文献:马丁·沃斯勒:中华人民共和国的五十年'不可能文学':无自由，试图终结启蒙运动和缺乏质量，毛泽东与孔子，波鸿，1999年，151-188页。<br />
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 15:06, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
<br />
2. Present<br />
<br />
In the present, there is a counter-movement to mass literature, such as Shanghai's extreme individualists (Bei Bei, Wei Hui, Mian Mian)<br />
<br />
2.1 Another characteristic of contemporary literature is the mass: Helmut Martin estimated that about 800 novels appeared annually at the beginning of the nineties; after 1995 the number had increased to about 1000. In the 1980s, only 100 novels a year!<br />
<br />
2. 现在<br />
<br />
目前，社会上存在反对大众文学的运动，比如上海的某些极端个人主义者：北北、卫慧、棉棉。<br />
<br />
目前，有一场反大众文学运动，如（北北，卫慧，棉棉）等上海极端个人主义者都是该运动的拥护者。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 05:58, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.1 当代文学的另一个特点是大众化：马汉茂先生曾估算，90年代初每年出版大约800本小说；1995年之后，数量已增加到1000本。而在80年代的时候，每年只有100本！--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 03:42, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.现在<br />
<br />
目前，有一场反大众文学的运动，如上海的极端个人主义者(贝贝、卫慧、绵绵)<br />
<br />
2.1当代文学的另一个特点是大众化:赫尔穆特·马丁估计，在90年代初，每年大约有800部小说问世;1995年以后，这个数字增加到大约1000人。在20世纪80年代，每年只有100本小说!--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 04:13, 3 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
2.现况<br />
目前，存在反对大众文学的运动，如上海的极端个人主义者：贝贝，魏慧，绵绵<br />
<br />
2.1当代文学的另一个特征是大众性：赫尔穆特·马丁估计，在90年代初，每年约有800部小说问世。 1995年以后，这个数字增加到1000左右。而在1980年代，每年只有100部小说！--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 14:12, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
2. 现状<br />
目前，掀起了反大众文学的运动浪潮。例如，上海存在极端个人主义者（贝贝，卫辉，绵绵）。<br />
<br />
2.1 现代文学的另一个特点是数量众多。赫尔穆特·马丁估算，90年代初，每年大约出版800部小说；95年后，这个数字增至了1000左右。然而在80年代，一年只能出版约100本！--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:28, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
2.现状<br />
现如今，出现了一场反大众文学的运动，例如，上海的一些极端主义者（北北，卫慧，棉棉）就是其中的代表。<br />
2.1 当代文学的另一个特征就是大众化：赫尔穆特·马丁说：“九十年代初，每年大约有800部小说出版，1995年之后，这一数字达到1000，但在80年代，每年只出版100部。”--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:11, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
<br />
2.2 ,Young Literature’: It has only been defunctionalized since the 1980s, recognizes that it has started from a zero point, begins with the repressed coping with the past, dares the experiment as in the autobiographical urban literature.<br />
Wang Shuo (born 1958), Masters of Mischief, Zurich: Diogenes, 1997, Playing for Thrills, Zurich: Diogenes, 1995<br />
<br />
2.2、“青年文学”:从20世纪80年代开始才被去功能化，认识到它已经从一个原点、从压抑的应对过去开始，敢于像自传式都市文学那样进行实验。<br />
王朔(1958年出生)，《恶作剧大师》，苏黎世:第欧奇尼斯，1997年;《刺激》，苏黎世:第欧奇尼斯，1995年--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:54, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
2.2，“青年文学”：它1980年代以来才取消功能化的，也认识到此文学作品是从零开始的,始于对过去的压抑应对，敢于像自传城市文学中那样进行尝试。 王硕（生于1958年），《恶作剧大师》，苏黎世：第欧根尼，1997年，《玩刺激》，苏黎世：第欧根尼，1995年。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:42, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
<br />
Literature: Geremie Barmé: "Wang Shuo and ,Liumang’ (Hooligan) Culture," in: The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs (1992.2), pp. 23-64; Yusheng Yao: "The Elite-Class Background of Wang Shuo and His Hooligan Characters," in Modern China. An International Quarterly of History and Social Science (2004.4), pp. 431-469.<br />
Yu Hua余华(born 1960) Mastermind<br />
Mo Yan莫言(born 1956) Mastermind (figurative)<br />
Wang An-yi王安忆 (born 1954)<br />
Bei Dao北岛 (born 1949) poet<br />
<br />
文学：白杰明（Geremie Barmé）的《王朔与流氓文化》刊载于《澳大利亚中国事务杂志》（1992.2），第23-64页；姚玉生的《王朔及其流氓人物的精英阶层背景》刊载于国际历史与社会科学季刊《现代中国》（2004.4）第431-469页。余华（1960-）策划<br />
莫言（1956-）策划<br />
王安忆 (1954-) <br />
诗人北岛 ( 1949-) --[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 06:12, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
文学：白杰明（Geremie Barmé）的《王朔与流氓文化》刊载于《澳大利亚华人事务杂志》（1992.2），第23-64页；姚玉生（Yusheng Yao）的《王朔及其流氓人物的精英阶层背景》刊载于《国际历史与社会科学》季刊《现代中国》（2004.4）第431-469页。<br />
余华（1960-）策划<br />
莫言（1956-）形象策划<br />
王安忆 (1954-) <br />
诗人北岛 ( 1949-) --[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 13:18, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
<br />
1.Su Tong 苏童 (born 1963) <br />
<br />
Su Tong 苏童（生于1963年）--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 05:03, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.Wei Hui 衛慧 (born 1973): 上海寶貝Shanghai Baby, Munich: Ullstein, 2002; Marrying Buddha, Munich: Ullstein, 2005; 熊貓(not yet published in German: Pandasex)<br />
<br />
Mian棉棉(born 28.8.1970): La la la, Cologne: Kiepenheuer & Witsch, 2000; Your Night, my Day, Cologne: Kiepenheuer & Witsch, 2004; Candy糖, 2000.<br />
<br />
Wei Hui 衛慧（生于1973年）：《上海寶貝Shanghai Baby》,慕尼黑：乌尔斯坦，2020；《嫁给活佛》，慕尼黑：乌尔斯坦，2005；熊猫（还未在德国出版：熊猫之性）<br />
<br />
Mian Mian 棉棉 （生于1970年8月 28日）：《啦 啦 啦 》，科隆：Kiepenheuer & Witsch出版社，2020；《你的黑夜，我的白昼》，科隆：Kiepenheuer & Witsch出版社，2004；Candy糖，2020.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 05:03, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3.Literature:<br />
Jie Lu: "Cultural Invention and Cultural Intervention: Reading Chinese Urban Fiction of the Nineties", in: Modern Chinese Literature and Culture (2001.1), pp. 107-139.<br />
<br />
A comparison between Zhang Jie张洁(born 1937) and Mian Mian / Wei Hui: James Farrer: Opening up. Youth Sex Culture and Market Reform in Shanghai (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002).<br />
<br />
文学：<br />
杰露：“文化发明与文化干预：阅读中国九十年代城市小说” 刊载于：现代中国文学与文化（2001.1）107-139页<br />
<br />
张洁与棉棉/卫慧之比较：刘雅格：开放. 青年性文化与上海市场改革（芝加哥：芝加哥大学出版社，2020）.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 05:03, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
<br />
Thilo Diefenbach: "Chinese Literature under the Sign of the 'Upturn': Liu Jiming, Zhang Wei, Liu Qingbang<br />
And their Answer to the big City Literature, "in: Bulletin of the German China Association 2006 (in preparation) [rural China, critical against upturn]<br />
Thilo Diefenbach: Liu Jiming, Zhang Wei, Liu Qing-bang, Bochum 2006<br />
迪芬巴赫：“中国文学渐有好转迹象 ：刘继明，张伟和刘庆邦等对大城市文学的看法”刊载于2006年德中协会公报（筹备中）【中国农村，关键在好转】迪芬巴赫：刘继明，张伟，刘庆邦，波鸿（德国） 2006--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 07:50, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
迪芬巴赫：“中国文学有好转迹象 ：刘继明，张伟和刘庆邦等对大城市文学的看法”刊载于2006年德中协会公报（筹备中）【中国农村，关键在好转】迪芬巴赫：刘继明，张伟，刘庆邦，波鸿（德国） 2006--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 09:24, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 15:57, 4 October 2020 (UTC)==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
<br />
3. Specific problems on the Chinese-German translation process<br />
3.1 Translator = additional filter (further filter: place, possibly time, especially difficult, because great cultural difference)<br />
<br />
3.2 Since in Chinese with 413 phoneme combinations only a fraction of what is possible in German is available, phonetic expressions in Chinese sound strangely clumsy for German ears: "汪wāng" instead of the variations in German "Wau" and "Wuff", 喔喔喔wōwōwō" instead of ‘kikeriki’ "as in German and Czech, cf. “kokekoko” in Japanese, "cocorico" in French, "cook-a-doodle-doo" in English,"kuckeliku" in Swedish.<br />
3.中德互译中的几个问题<br />
3.1 议员=特殊的转换器（更高级的转换器：空间，或时间，由于巨大的文化差异而十分困难）<br />
3.2由于中文的413个音节组合仅有一小部分在德语里通用，中文发音对德国人也十分困难：中文的“汪”在德语里是“嗷呜”和“呜咈”；“喔喔喔”在德语和捷克语为“咯咯咯”，在日语里为“kokekoko”，法语里为“cocorico”，英文里为“cook-a-doodle-doo”，瑞典语里为“kuckeliku”。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 15:57, 4 October 2020 (UTC)MaShuya<br />
<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
<br />
At the same time the Chinese is essentialy more rhythmically accentuated by the syllable and character structure and the lack of flexion, and because of the numerous homophonies and the tonal system invites to play with the notes. Especially in pre-modern poems, the original song melodies have been lost, and the tone sequences of the reconstructed spoken language at that time are hardly to render adequate with the non-tonal and less rhythmic possibilities in German, especially since rhymed poems in German nowadays seem very antiquated. However, since the effect is important, many translators fall back on the unbounded language. Volker Klöpsch has shown that bounded translations of prehistoric Chinese poems are still not inferior to their unbounded younger sibling translations in the translation quality, since the bounded translations require more effort.<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
<br />
As in the translation from English into German, the brevity of Chinese words presents a problem which can hardly be solved, especially in the case of lyrics. One can just make contractions or e.g. to make one from two stanzas.<br />
<br />
Metaphors in Chinese usually have different meanings than in German; in Chinese, symbols, signs, quotations, and allusions are used more frequently than in German to make associations to other poems, historical events or persons.<br />
就像英语一样，汉语句子相对简洁，因此将汉语翻译成德语十分困难，特别是翻译汉语诗歌时。英汉诗人可以使用缩写把本该是两个诗节的内容简略成一个。<br />
汉语诗歌隐喻表达的含义与德语不太一样，汉语诗歌所用的象征，引用或者典故，更倾向于关联其他诗歌，历史事件或者历史人物。--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 11:29, 3 October 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
同英语翻译成德语的问题一样，中文的简洁往往会使汉语翻译成德语十分的困难，这在翻译诗歌时尤为明显。诗人只需用缩写就可以把两个诗节的内容简写成一个。 一般来说，汉语诗歌中隐喻的用法和德国的不同。在汉语诗歌中，象征，引用以及典故都比德国诗歌使用的更加频繁，这是因为汉语诗歌更习惯于和其他诗歌，历史事件或历史人物相关联。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 02:04, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
正如将英文翻译成德文，汉语词汇的简洁使得汉译德十分困难，尤其是翻译汉语诗歌时。诗人可以使用缩写把原本两个诗节的内容简缩成一个诗节。<br />
通常，汉语诗歌中隐喻表达的含义与德语不同。汉语诗歌较德语诗歌更为频繁使用象征、引用或典故，以同其他诗歌、历史事件或人物产生关联。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 02:43, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
<br />
3.3 Trend: Globalization simplifies translating <br />
Kubin complained in 1991,<br />
"The average German translator of Chinese literature goes unprepared to work. He is neither trained as a translator, nor does he bring any experience with him. Even a most sympathetic criticism is usually closed, for the goal of having not translated it wrong seems to him the only and highest command, if attained. "<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
<br />
However at the beginning of the 21st century the cultural embedding of the translation appears to be more consciously perceived:<br />
Due to the overlapping of the experience horizon by traveling and global media experiences, e.g. tragedies such as the tsunami in Southeast Asia, or Hollywood films, which are also known in China, literature is nowadays more easily translatable.<br />
不过，在21世纪初，翻译中的文化嵌入似乎更多是有意识的：由于旅游和全球化媒体体验的带来的经验和视界重叠影响，使得文学如今更加容易被翻译介绍了，比如在中国同样广为人知的东南亚海啸悲剧或与之相关的好莱坞电影。----[[User:Monan|Monan]] ([[User talk:Monan|talk]]) 13:35, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
然而在21世纪初，人们似乎更容易地感知到翻译的文化植入现象：这是因为旅行和全球传媒界限的交叉。例如，在中国也能知道像东南亚海啸的悲剧，或者好莱坞的电影，现如今，文学的可译性更强了。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 11:21, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
然而在21世纪初，人们似乎更有意识地感知到翻译的文化植入现象：<br />
这是因为旅行和全球传媒界限的交叉,例如，在中国也能知道一些悲剧，如东南亚的海啸，或者好莱坞的电影，现如今，文学的可译性更强了。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:09, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
<br />
Some translators and perhaps even readers share the author's experiences, such as the events in June 1989 or alienation by the anonymisation of the urbanization, thus the cultural distance reduces.<br />
<br />
In particular, the backlog of Chinese intellectuals since 1917, which selected themselves national literature at first and translated what was just tangible, but then also the personal experience abroad of these intellectuals during their studies, which flowed into their works, made them to translators of a special kind of culture translators. The same may be true in the other direction for early translators like Franz Kuhn.<br />
一些译者甚至读者分享了作者的经历，比如1989年6月的政治风波，将城镇化匿名化的异化翻译，从而缩短了文化距离。<br />
尤其是自1917年以来，积压的中国知识分子首先选择翻译民族文学，翻译那些有形的东西，之后他们在国外进行研究的个人经历也流入了他们的作品，这使得他们成了一种特殊的文化翻译者。对于像弗兰兹·库恩这样的早期译者来说，反过来也可能是这样。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 02:17, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
一些译者甚至可能有读者分享了作者的经历，比如1989年6月的政治风波，将城镇化匿名化的异化翻译，从而缩短了文化距离。<br />
尤其是自1917年以来，因难觅出路而积压过剩的中国知识分子首先选择翻译民族文学，翻译那些有形的东西，之后他们在国外进行学习的个人经历也流入了他们的作品，这使得他们成了一种特殊的文化翻译者。对于像弗兰兹·库恩这样的早期译者来说，反过来也可能是这样。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:22, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
<br />
Edward Hall (Beyond culture) ordered in 1976 Chinese culture to be "high-context cultures" and the German to be "low-context cultures". While the history of humanity worldwide is characterized by an intensified coding (documentation, digitization, information exchange, translation, etc.), which has become an overcoding of modern industrial societies since modernization, industrialization and the introduction of dual bookkeeping, at the same time it can be observed that there is a trend that the high-context cultures develop into low-context cultures.<br />
<br />
It remains to be noted that the convergence of the horizons of experience and the lifeworlds of the authors, translators and foreign-cultural readers strengthens the intersubjective traceability of the translator's and reader's recipe process. For the translator, the effort for the embedding of non-textual context is thus reduced in the present time.<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
<br />
3.4 Translators<br />
Florian Reißinger (The Family), Wolfgang Kubin (re-poetry), Wolf Baus (Taiwanese Lit.), Volker Klöpsch (Tang Poems), Ulrich Kautz (Modern Figures such as Wang Meng, Wang Shuo, Lu Wenfu, Yu Hua): Dream of the Red Chamber (Rainer Schwarz, Martin Woesler).<br />
Studies of translating with a literature part at the universities in Germersheim and Bonn.<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
<br />
4. Literature recommendations<br />
<br />
4.1 Bilingual literature (especially for studying sinologists): hardly available, only the following are known:<br />
<br />
4.1.1 Lyric<br />
<br />
Reclam: Chinese Literature (out of print)<br />
Reclam: Chinese lyricism of the twentieth century (out of print, reissued in the European University Press as "Bogenlinien")<br />
Arbeiterverlag: Black Suns (representative selection of German lyric, out of print)<br />
In collections (anthologies, magazine "die horen") occasionally individual Chinese poems<br />
Pohl (eds.): Tao Yuanming<br />
<br />
4.文献推荐<br />
<br />
4.1 双语文献（特别针对于正在进行研究的汉学家）：稀缺，已知文献仅如下：<br />
<br />
4.1.1 抒情诗<br />
<br />
《雷克拉姆世界文库：中国文学》（已停印）<br />
<br />
《雷克拉姆世界文库：二十世纪的中国抒情诗派》（停印后由欧洲大学出版社再版，名为"Bogenlinien（线）"）<br />
<br />
《工人阶级：黑日》（德国抒情诗代表作，已停印）<br />
<br />
由个人创作的中国诗合集（收录于"die horen(牛角)"杂志）<br />
<br />
《波尔：陶渊明》<br />
--Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
<br />
Interesting new releases are commented in e.g. minima sinica, ORIENTations, booklets for East Asian literature, Bulletin of the German China Association, magazine of the German Oriental Association etc.<br />
4.1.2 Essays<br />
<br />
"The Dragon" (bilingual reissue to the book fair of "Selected Chinese Essays of the 20th Century in Translation")<br />
《袖珍汉学》杂志评论了一些新发表的有趣的文章。这本袖珍杂志是东亚文学的方向标、它反映了中德关系，隶属于德国东方协会。<br />
“龙”（20世纪中国翻译作品选读书展的双语再版作品）--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:50, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
《袖珍汉学》期刊评论了一些新发表的有趣的文章，这本期刊定位是：东亚文学的小册子，中德协会的小报，德国东方协会的杂志。4.1.2期<br />
《龙》（20世纪中国翻译作品选读书展的双语再版作品）--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 14:04, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
<br />
4.2 Monolingual translations: literary lists of universities<br />
4.2.1 University of Trier, reading list basic studies [Fats by me]<br />
4.2.1.1 Philosophy<br />
Kungfutse [Kong, Qiu]. Conversations [Lunyu]. Assigned and published from the Chinese by Richard Wilhelm. Munich: Diederichs, 1990.<br />
Laotse [Laozi]. Tao-te-king [Daodejing]. The Book of Sense and Life. Translation and with a commentary by Richard Wilhelm. Cologne: Diederichs, 1985.<br />
* Schwarz, Ernst (ed. and trans.). Thus spoke the sage. Chinese ideas from 3 thousand years ago. Berlin: Rütten + Löning, 1986.<br />
<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
<br />
4.2.1.2 Older literature<br />
Cao, Zhan [Cao Xueqin; Gao E]. The Story of the Stone [Hongloumeng]. A novel in 5 volumes. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Pr. // A Dream of red Mansions. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1978, 1980.<br />
* The Columbia anthology of traditional Chinese literature. Mair, Victor H. (ed.). New York et al .: Columbia University Press, 1994.<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
<br />
Debon, Günther (trans.). Ein weißes Kleid, ein grau Gebände.. Munich: Piper, 1957.<br />
Debon, Günther (ed.). Mein Haus liegt menschenfern doch nah den Dingen. 3000 Jahre chines. Poesie.. First edition, Munich: Diederichs, 1988.<br />
Klöpsch, Volker (trans.). Der seidene Faden: Gedichte der Tang. Aus dem Chines. übertr. und mit einem Nachw. vers. von Volker Klöpsch. First edition, Frankfurt a. M. (i.a.): Insel Publishing House, 1991.<br />
Köser, Heide (trans.). Das Liederbuch der Chinesen [Shijing]. Guofeng. In a new German edition by Heide Köser. Philologically edited by Armin Hetzer. 1. ed. Frankfurt a .M .: Insel Publishing House, 1990.<br />
京特·德博(Debon, Günther) (译.). 白色连衣裙, 灰色卷.. 慕尼黑: 派珀(Piper), 1957年.<br />
京特·德博(Debon, Günther) (编辑.). 我的房子离人很远, 但是很近. 中国3000年. 诗歌.. 第一版, 慕尼黑: Diederichs, 1988年.<br />
克洛普施·沃尔克(Volker Klöpsch) (译.). 丝线: 唐诗. 来自中国. 转自之后. 克洛普施·沃尔克(Volker Klöpsch). 第一版, 法兰克福(i.a.): Insel出版社, 1991年.<br />
海德·科瑟(Heide Köser) (译.). 中国歌集《诗经》. 国风. 在海德·科瑟(Heide Köser)撰写的新德语版中. 由阿明·赫泽(Armin Hetzer)编辑. 法兰克福出版公司第一版: Insel出版社, 1990年.--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 14:52, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
<br />
From the Chinese assigned by Franz Kuhn. Wiesbaden: Insel Publishing House, 1970. // The golden lotus. Transl. by Clement Egerton. London: Routledge & Paul, 1972. // The plum in the golden vase, or, Chin-p'ing-mei. Transl. By David Tod Roy. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1993, 2001.<br />
<br />
Luo, Guanzhong. Die drei Reiche [Sanguozhi-yanyi]. Roman aus dem alten China. From the Chinese. By Franz Kuhn. 1. ed. Frankfurt a. M.: Insel Publishing House, 1981. // Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Transl. by C.H. Brewitt-Taylor. Rutland i.a. .: Tuttle, 1980.<br />
<br />
Schwarz, Ernst (Transl. And ed.). Der Ruf der Phönixflöte. Klassische chinesische Prosa. 2 volumes of Berlin: Rütten & Loening.<br />
<br />
弗朗兹·库恩翻译。威斯巴登：岛屿出版社，1970年。//金瓶梅。 克莱门特·埃格顿翻译。伦敦：劳特利奇&宝罗出版社，1972年。//金瓶中的梅子，中文“金瓶梅”。戴维·托德·罗伊翻译。普林斯顿：普林斯顿大学出版社，1993年，2001年。<br />
<br />
罗贯中，三国演义 [三国志演义]。旧中国的故事，弗朗兹·库恩翻译自中文。1.编辑，法兰克福 M.：岛屿出版社，1981年。//三国演义。由查尔斯·亨利·布鲁威特·泰勒翻译。拉特兰岛：塔特尔出版社，1980年。<br />
<br />
施瓦茨，恩斯特（翻译和编辑）。凤凰笛的召唤。中国古典文化。柏林2卷：吕滕＆洛宁。 --[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 10:45, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
<br />
Shi, Naian; Luo Guanzhong. Die Räuber vom Liang-Schan-Moor [Shuihu-zhuan]. From the Chinese assigned by Franz Kuhn. Frankfurt a. M.: Insel Publishing House, 1964. // Water margin. Transl. by J.H. Jackson. Hong Kong: Commercial Pr., 1979. // Outlaws of the marsh. Transl. By Sidney Shapiro. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Pr., 1981.<br />
<br />
Wu, Cheng'en. Journey to the West [Xiyou-ji]. 3 vols. Transl. by W.J.F. Jenner. Beijing: Foreign Languages Pr. // Monkeys Pilgrimage. According to eng. Transl. by Arthur Waley assigned by Georgette Boner and Maria Nils. Munich: Hugendubel, 1980. // Monkey. - Reprint. Transl. By Arthur Waley. London, Unwin, 1979.<br />
<br />
Wu, Jingzi. The scholars [Rulin-waishi]. Transl. by Yang Hsien-yi. 3. ed. Peking: Foreign Languages Press, 1973. // The road to the white clouds. Stories from the scholar's forest. 2 vols. Munich: Beck, 1990.<br />
<br />
施耐庵;罗贯中.梁山泊的强盗[水浒传].译自弗朗兹·库恩和法兰克福 a.M. 指定的中文：英瑟尔出版社,1964.// 水泊. J.H. 杰克逊译,香港:商业出版社.,1979.//荡寇.西德尼·夏皮罗译.布卢明顿:印第安纳大学出版社.,1981.<br />
吴承恩.西行之旅[西游记].三卷本.W.J.F.詹纳译.北京:外语出版社,1973.//猴的朝圣.据乔治·博纳和玛丽亚·尼拉指定的亚瑟·韦利英译本.慕尼黑:于根杜贝尔,1980.//猴.—重印本.亚瑟·韦利.伦敦,昂温,1979.<br />
吴敬梓.学者们[儒林外史].杨宪益译.第三版.北京：外语出版社,1973//青云之路.学林故事.两卷本.慕尼黑:贝克,1990.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:14, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
施耐庵;罗贯中.梁山泊的强盗[水浒传].译自弗朗兹·库恩和法兰克福 a.M. 指定的中文原本：英瑟尔出版社,1964.// 水泊. J.H. 杰克逊译,香港:商业出版社.,1979.//荡寇.西德尼·夏皮罗译.布卢明顿:印第安纳大学出版社.,1981.<br />
吴承恩.西行之旅[西游记].三卷本.W.J.F.詹纳译.北京:外语出版社,1973.//猴的朝圣.据乔治·博纳和玛丽亚·尼拉指定的亚瑟·韦利英译本.慕尼黑:于根杜贝尔,1980.//猴.—重印本.亚瑟·韦利.伦敦,昂温,1979. <br />
吴敬梓.学者们[儒林外史].杨宪益译.第三版.北京：外语出版社,1973//青云之路.学林故事.两卷本.慕尼黑:贝克,1990.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:30, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
<br />
4.2.1.3 Modern Literature<br />
Ba, Jin. Kalte Nächte [Hanye]. Novel. From the Chinese by Sabine Peschel. First ed., Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1981.<br />
<br />
Ba, Jin. Die Familie [Jia]. From the Chinese. By Florian Reissinger. Berlin: Oberbaum Publishin House., 1980.<br />
<br />
* The Columbia anthology of modern Chinese literature. Lau, Joseph S.M .; Goldblatt, Howard (eds.). New York: Columbia University Press, 1995.<br />
<br />
Donath, Andreas (eds.). Die Drachenschnur. Geschichten aus dem chinesischen Alltag. Darmstadt i.a. .: Luchterhand, 1981.<br />
<br />
Fessen-Henjes, Irmtraud (eds.). 16 chinesische Erzähler. First ed.. Berlin: Publishing House Volk u. Welt, 1984.<br />
<br />
Gao, Xiaosheng. Geschichten von Chen Huansheng. Göttingen: Lamuv Publishing House, 1988.<br />
Hoffnung auf Frühling, 1919-1949. Frankfurt a. M.: Suhrkamp, 1980. (Modern Chinese Stories; 1)<br />
<br />
4.2.1.3 现代文学 巴金小说《寒夜》译自萨宾·佩舍尔，第一版：法兰克福 苏坎普出版社，1981年。<br />
巴金小说《家》译自弗洛里安·赖辛格。柏林：奥伯鲍姆出版社，1980年。<br />
《哥伦比亚中国现代文学选集》。刘绍铭著， 戈德布拉特·霍华德（编辑）。纽约：哥伦比亚大学出版社，1995年。<br />
多纳特，安德烈亚斯（编辑）。《风筝线》，中国人的日常生活故事。达姆施塔特行政区 ：坎德拉布拉，1981年。<br />
尹虹(编辑)。《16名中国解说员》第一版。柏林：沃尔克大学出版社，1984年。<br />
《高晓升 陈焕生的故事》。 哥廷根：拉穆夫出版社，1988年出版。《春天的希望，1919-1949》， 法兰克福 苏尔坎普出版社，1980年出版（中国现代故事; 1）<br />
--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 03:53, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
<br />
Hundert Blumen, 1949-1979. Frankfurt a. M.: Suhrkamp, 1980. (Modern Chinese Stories; 2)<br />
Jiang, Zilong. 1st ed. Beijing: Publishing House for Foreign Language Literature, 1989 (Phönix-Buchreihe)<br />
Kuo, Heng-yü (eds.). Munich: Minerva publication Saur, 1986.<br />
Lao She. Frankfurt a. M .: Suhrkamp, 1985.<br />
Lao, She. Rikscha-Kuli [Luotuo Xiangzi]. A novel. From the Chinese assigned by Florian Reissinger. First ed., Frankfurt a. M.: Insel Publishing House, 1987.<br />
Lu, Wenfu. Translation and afterword by Stefan Hase-Bergen. Bochum: Brockmeyer, 1992.<br />
Lu Xun. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press. Literature, 1976.<br />
Mao, Dun. Frankfurt, 1985.<br />
Martin, Helmut (eds.). First ed., Frankfurt a. M.: Suhrkamp, 1982.<br />
Mo, Yan. The republic of wine. Transl. from the Chinese by Howard Goldblatt. London: Hamish Hamilton, 2000.<br />
Mo, Yan. Novel. Ger. by Andreas Donath. Reinbek by Hamburg: Rowohlt, 1997.<br />
Mo, Yan. Novel. Ger. by Peter Weber-Schäfer. Reinbeck: Rowohlt, 1993.<br />
Qian, Zhongshu. From the Chinese assigned by Monika Motsch. First ed., Frankfurt a. M.: Insel, 1988.<br />
Wang, Meng. Edited by Helmut Martin. Cologne: Diederichs, 1985.<br />
Wang, Shuo. Zurich: Diogenes, 1997.<br />
Wang, Shuo. Zurich: Diogenes, 2001.<br />
Yu, Hua. Novel. From the Chinese by Ulrich Kautz. Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1998. [od25109]<br />
Zhang, Jie. From the Chinese by Michael Kahn-Ackermann. Munich i.a..: Hanser, 1987.<br />
Zhang, Xinxin; Sang, Edited by Helmut Martin. First edition, Cologne: Diederichs, 1986.<br />
<br />
4.2.1.4 Dramas<br />
Eberstein, Bernd (eds.). Frankfurt a. M .: Suhrkamp, 1980.<br />
Gao, Xingjian. Bochum: Brockmeyer, 1988.<br />
Lao, She. Edited by Uwe Kräuter. Frankfurt a. M.: Suhrkamp, 1980.<br />
<br />
4.2.1.5 Poetry<br />
Hsu, Kai-Yu (eds., transl.). Twentieth century Chinese poetry. An anthology. 1. print. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Pr., 1970.<br />
Kubin, Wolfgang (eds. and trans.). First edition, Frankfurt a. M.: Suhrkamp, 1985.<br />
<br />
<br />
5. Chinese bestsellers in China<br />
<br />
Authors: http://hi.baidu.com/%D1%A7%CF%B0%D3%C0%D4%B6%B2%BB%CD%ED/blog/item/661e76fad5b669ddb48f3190.html<br />
<br />
Translator workshops<br />
These workshops are mainly offered by foundations with literary support (Litprom, Robert Bosch Foundation). In the summer of 2008, a literary translator's workshop took place in <br />
<br />
洪德特 ·布卢门（1949-1979）.《现代中国故事》(2).富兰克福： 苏坎普出版社，1980<br />
蒋子龙. 《赤橙黄绿青蓝紫》（第一版）. 凤凰系列丛书. 北京：外国语言文学出版社，1989<br />
郭恒一. 《永恒之河》. 中国台湾短篇小说. Munich：Minerva 出版社，1986<br />
老舍. 富兰克福：苏坎普出版社，1985<br />
老舍. 骆驼祥子. 弗洛里安·雷辛格编译中国小说（第一版）. 富兰克福：insel出版社，1987<br />
陆文夫. 斯特凡·哈塞-卑尔根著《翻译与后言》. 波鸿：布罗克迈尔出版社，1992<br />
鲁迅. 北京：外国语言文学出版社，1976<br />
茅盾. 富兰克福，1985. <br />
马丁， 赫尔穆特（编辑）. 第一版. 富兰克福：苏坎普出版社，1982<br />
莫言. 《酒国》. 霍华德·戈德布拉特译. 伦敦：哈米什汉密尔顿出版社，2000<br />
莫言. 小说德语版安德里 亚斯译. 汉堡：罗洛尔特出版社，1997<br />
莫言. 小说德语版皮特 韦伯-施海费尔译. 莱茵贝克：罗洛尔特出版社，1993<br />
钱钟书. 莫妮卡·莫奇编译. 第一版. 富兰克福：英赛尔出版社，1988<br />
王蒙. 赫尔穆特·马丁遍译. 科隆：迪德里希斯出版社，1985<br />
王朔. 苏黎世：提奥奇尼斯出版社，1997<br />
王朔 . 苏黎世：提奥奇尼斯出版社，2001<br />
余华. 乌尔里希·考茨译. 斯图加特：维尔他科多出版社，1998<br />
张杰. 迈克尔·卡恩-阿克曼译. 慕尼黑：汉瑟出版社，1987<br />
张鑫鑫，桑. 赫尔穆特·马丁编译（第一版）. 科隆：迪德里希斯出版社，1986<br />
4.2.1.4 戏剧 艾伯斯坦，贝恩德（编辑）. 富兰克福：苏特坎普出版社，1980<br />
高行健. 波鸿：布洛克麦尔出版社，1980<br />
4.2.1.5 诗歌 许，于凯（编辑，转写）《二十世纪中国诗歌选集》1.打印. 伊萨卡. 纽约州：康奈尔大学出版社，1970<br />
库宾，奥尔夫冈（编辑，转写）第一版. 富兰克福：苏尔坎普出版社，1985年<br />
5.中国本土畅销书<br />
作者：http://hi.baidu.com/%D1%A7%CF%B0%D3%C0%D4%B6%B2%BB%CD%ED/blog/item/661e76fad5b669ddb48f3190.html<br />
翻译研讨会 这些研讨会主要由基金会在文学支持下提供（利特姆、罗伯特 博世基金会）。2008 年夏天，在帕莱廷·埃登科本举办了文学翻译研讨会。--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 09:56, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
<br />
Chinese books in German translation: authors who are promoted from China<br />
<br />
Selection list of some Chinese literature events 2007-2009 (before the book fair):<br />
- 29 April 2008: Translator's pitch "Rotes Kornfeld", German Publishers and Booksellers Association, Frankfurt<br />
- May 2008: "Recommendation List of Chinese Contemporary Literature" of the BIZ Peking<br />
- 7.-14.7.2008 "German-Chinese workshop for Literature translators ", Künstlerhaus Edenkoben<br />
- 22.4.2009 Lecture Ulrich Kautz Hamburg at the Confucius Institute: Chinese Contemporary Literature on the German Book Market - Opportunities and Problems<br />
- 22.4.2009 Lecture Prof. Dr. Wang Hongtu王宏图, Vice Director of the Confucius Institute Hamburg, "Contemporary Chinese Literature: From Westernization to Chineseness"<br />
- 27.6.2009 Symposium "Chinese Literature in German Translation - China Honorary Guest of the Frankfurt Book Fair 2009", cf.: Symposium Volume ", Bochum: European Universities Press 2010, ISBN 978-3-89966-293-1.<br />
- 12.-13.9.2009: Symposium in Frankfurt: First meeting of dissident writers and officials, leads to scandal and is a message in the television news, which also arouses interest in the book fair.<br />
<br />
Xu Zechen - Running Through Zhongguancun<br />
"Diwidi? Everything there: Hollywood, Japanese, Korean, Oscar-crowned classics ",<br />
The German reader as a tourist in Peking may have been approached like this by the flying merchants.<br />
"Suddenly, two policemen emerge and they run, passing the southern gate of the Beijing University [...]. Breathlessly asked the friend ‚Shall we not throw the bag away? If one gets us together with the stolen property, there is really anger!’- But the policemen are just too fat, they should have held their bellies to run fast."<br />
This scene comes from the story "Running Through Zhongguancun" (C 2008, G 2009). Here the German reader can slip into the role of the seller for the first time, who is embodied by the 25-year-old Huang. Xu Zechen, 31, lives in Beijing, has created the milieu authentically, the characters with dry humor and yet refreshingly lively. He describes a life between hot pavement and basement hole, between the dream of making big money and bitter setbacks, the daily cat and mouse game with the police. He experiences the world of the crooks as shark pond and as a conspiratorial community, in which everyone gives the shirt off one’s back, lose their existence, but get up again, he experiences the arbitrariness and corruption of policemen. Here, worlds collide: the army of unemployed agricultural workers, who become small-scale criminals, and the urban population. The world of youth, who loves the freedom of the street, and the elderly, who appreciate the security of the wealth. This literature is one of the most recent and most promising stories from China, which shows us a completely different China than the perfectly staged one that the Olympia organizer presents.<br />
中国书籍的德国译本：来自中国著名的作家<br />
节选中国2007年至2009年间的一些文学活动（在书展之前）：<br />
-2008年4月29日：译者的论点“罗斯特·科恩菲尔德（Rotes Kornfeld）”，德国出版商和书商协会，法兰克福（Frankfurt）<br />
-2008年5月：北京商业的“中国当代文学推荐书籍”<br />
-2009年7月1日到-14日：“文学翻译者进行德译中研讨会”，Kunstlerhaus Edenkoben<br />
-2009年4月22日：乌尔里奇·考茨（Ulrich Kautz）在德国汉堡孔子学院举行讲座，主题是：论德国书籍市场上的中国文学——机遇还是挑战<br />
-2009年4月22日：汉堡孔子学院副主任王宏图博士讲座主题：从西方化到中国化<br />
-2009年6月27日：专题讨论会“中国文学的德国翻译之路，2009年法兰克福书展的中国名誉贵宾”，专题讨论会，波鸿：欧洲大学出版社，2010年，ISBN 978-3-89966-293-1<br />
-2009年9月12日-13日：在法兰克福的专题研讨会：持不同意见的作家和官员的第一次会面，导致了丑闻，也是电视新闻的一则消息，也在书展上引起了轰动<br />
徐则臣——《穿越中关村》<br />
“一切都在这儿：好莱坞，日本人，韩国人，奥斯卡认证的经典作品”<br />
多亏了一些商人，来北京旅游的德国读者也许可以接触到这些。<br />
“突然，两位警察出现了，他们奔跑穿过了北京大学的南门，有气无力地对那个人说，我们能不把包丢开吗？如果我们拿到了脏物，你就死定了！”不过这两个警察太胖了，他们要勒紧裤腰带才能跑起来。”<br />
这个场景来自“穿越中关村”（C 2008，G 2009）。<br />
在这里，德语读者可以首次进入由25岁的黄先生展现的卖家角色。<br />
徐则辰，31岁，生活在北京。他创造了一种千篇一律的，充满幽默感的人物，而且还活灵活现。他描述了一种在炎热路面和地下室之间，在赚大钱和遭受苦难的梦想之间，在日常生活中与警察的猫鼠游戏的生活。他经历了一个像鲨鱼池般骗子遍地和一个阴谋社区的世界，在那里所有人都脱去了衬衫，失去了存在，但又重新站起来，他也见识了警察的任性和腐败。在这里，各种世界相互碰撞：成为小规模罪犯的失业农民工与城市人口之间；热爱街道自由的年轻人和赞许财富安全的长辈之间；这是来自中国的最新，最有前途的故事之一，为我们展现了一个与完全由奥林匹亚组织者呈现的故事完全不同的中国。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 13:41, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
<br />
Full Text Xu Zechen: "Running Through Zhongguancun"<br />
<br />
Quote:<br />
"Diwidi? Everything there: Hollywood, Japanese, Korean, Oscar-crowned classics "<br />
<br />
Quote<br />
"[...] Suddenly, two policemen emerge and they run, passing the southern gate of the Beijing University [...]. Breathlessly asked the friend ‚Shall we not throw the bag away? If one gets us together with the stolen property, there is really anger!’- But the policemen are just too fat, they should have held their bellies to run fast."<br />
<br />
Alai: Distant Springs<br />
"When I was little, the old nomad Gongbosijia told me about a hot spring in a distant place. This spring became the quintessence of my childhood's longing", so the story "Distant Springs" (C 2005, Unionsverlag G 2009) begins by the Tibetan Author Alai, 50. The novel is written from the perspective of a Tibetan boy who prefers to take care on horses on the Tibetan mountain pasture rather than talking to the villagers in the valley. After hearing of the hot and healing springs, he longs to find them, because he does not feel at home in the village. He discovers his passion for photography and, as a young man, now a district photographer, actually penetrates the sources. Instead of the described springs by the nomad, he finds there an abandoned concrete landscape - a sign of a failed touristic planning.<br />
<br />
Yes, even Tibetan authors are among the winners of this year's book fair: They are particularly in demand by Swiss publishers. At the confederate Chinabooks, several young Tibetans are represented: Jamyang, Taering Öser, Tenzin Tsundue and Alai, who comes from northern Sichuan, and who had after his poems and stories a great success with his latest novel "Red Poppies".<br />
<br />
Full text of Alai: Distant Springs<br />
http://book.kanunu.cn/html/2005/0828/979.html<br />
"When I was little, the old nomad Gongbosijia told me about a hot spring in a distant place. This spring became the quintessence of my childhood's longing."<br />
<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
<br />
Yu Dan: Confucius from the Heart<br />
Yu Dan embodies a new type of female professor: Young (44), boyish, witty and funny - and her specialty is the 2,500-year-old classic "Conversations" of Confucius who was as basic to China as Plato for the West. She fetched the old text from the dust of her study room at the Beijing Normal University and moved into the spotlight of the television headlights. For seven days she was to be seen in state television with her lectures. Her illustrative elucidation of the moral principles on the basis of everyday examples from the present was the subject of discussion in 2006, which was discussed at work. She uses anecdotes and colloquial language. The teachings of Confucius are timeless, like "Do not force anyone to do anything you would not want to do either." Her daughter would also learn a lot more while playing with bottle and lid than with expensive toys. "Not everything from Confucius has yet to tell us something today, I grew up with Confucius and was brought up in a classical way and that makes me believe in myself." The book "Confucius from the Heart" emerged the second place on the bestseller list in 2007 with 503.000 sold copies. Meanwhile, she has reached the million, other statistics, which the author has not been able to confirm, speak of more than ten million of pirated material. <br />
<br />
And since the trend in China goes towards the second book, thia means, that a successful book is followed by a second similar one, she produced another commentary to the philosopher Zhuangzi in 2007. Yu Dan is so successful because she is both a Confucius researcher and an employee in the arts and media institute.<br />
<br />
于丹：《论语心得》<br />
于丹展现了新一代女性研究者的风貌：年轻（44），孩子气但又充满智慧，性格有趣。她学习孔子，也就是古代中国那位可以媲美西方柏拉图的智者，并专门研究2500年前记录下来的孔子经典语录。从北京师范大学中布满灰尘的书房里取得语录老本，她将之带到了电视荧幕中的聚光灯下，并连续七天开展讲座。2006年，她以日常事件为例，对孔子推崇的道德观念进行解说，这成为了年度话题，甚至工作时也被讨论。她口语化的语言写书，谈及轶事。孔子的教诲是永不过时的， 比如说那句“己所不欲，勿施于人”。她的女儿在玩瓶子和瓶盖时比玩昂贵玩具懂得更多。“并非所有孔子的思想有待在当下给予我们一些教诲，我从小就学习孔子，是在传统文化教育下长大的，这样的教育经历让我相信自己。”《论语心得》这本书在2007年的畅销书榜中排第二，销售量达五百三千万。同时，她成为了百万富翁，另有数据说她坐拥千万以上的财产，但后者并未得到本人证实。<br />
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自这本书掀起时代潮流起，不断有人对此模仿，于丹在2007年写了一部对另一位古代中国哲学家庄子的评论。于丹如此成功，因为她既是孔子的研究者，又是艺术和多媒体领域的宠儿。--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 11:26, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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于丹：《论语心得》<br />
于丹展现了新一代女性研究者的风貌：年轻（44岁），孩子气又充满智慧，诙谐风趣。她专研2500年前记录下来的孔子经典语录，这位智者在中国的地位可以等同于西方世界里柏拉图的地位。于丹从北京师范大学中布满灰尘的书房里取得语录老本，她将之带到了电视荧幕的聚光灯下，在国家电视台连续开展了七天的讲座。2006年，她以日常事件为例，在作品中对孔子推崇的道德观念进行阐述，这成为了年度话题。她以趣闻轶事和口语来写作。孔子的教诲是永不过时的， 比如说那句“己所不欲，勿施于人”。她的女儿在玩瓶子和瓶盖时比玩昂贵玩具懂得更多。“并非所有孔子的思想在当下仍具有教育意义，我从小就学习孔子，是在传统文化教育下长大的，这样的教育经历让我相信自己。”《论语心得》这本书在2007年的畅销书榜中排第二，销售量达五百三千万。同时，她成为了百万富翁，另有数据说她坐拥千万以上的财产，但后者并未得到本人证实。<br />
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在中国，一本书的畅销往往会带来第二本书，这意味着，一本书籍成功后，往往会有一本类似的后续--于丹在2007年写了一部对另一位哲学家庄子的评论。于丹如此成功源于她既是孔子的研究者，又是电影学院的教职工。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 15:01, 2 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
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She likes to open theatrically an arbitrary passage in the "Analects of Confucius" and provides an improvised interpretation, like a modern preacher. This has also given her some criticism from Confucius researchers who see the historical context and political implications neglected in favor of a soft-washed, harmonious Confucianism.<br />
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Why is Confucius so successful in China today? Yu Dan with the return to the common uber-father, certainly gives a new orientation in a disillusioned, materialistic time, as she herself says. In 1974, Confucius had been dismantled in a campaign and waved aside as "conservative" and "overhauled" in the last decades. Now, especially middle class and retirees discover Confucius new. Confucius is a cult, there is a whole advertising industry with devotional objects and sculptures, his place of birth Qufu is a place of pilgrimage and tourist magnet, cultural institutions all over the world bear his name since 2007. In fact, the Chinese also share Confucian values with other Asian countries: humanity, piety / loyality and social responsibility, and care of the fittest for the weaker.<br />
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Does this popular scientific commentary literature also work in Germany, where one hardly knows the original texts? Droemer Publishing House took this risk, which put the translator Johannes Fiederling, whose first major literary translation it is, in special problems. As a solution, the publisher has announced that the original "Analects of Confucius" will be printed in the back of the book as soon as it enters the bookstores on the 21st of August, 2009.<br />
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她喜欢戏剧性地随意打开《论语》中的一段，并像现代传教士那样，做出即兴解释。这也招致了一些儒学研究者的批评，他们关注历史背景和政治影响，而忽视了赞同温和与和谐的儒家思想。<br />
为何孔子在当代中国如此成功?正如于丹自己所说，她带着共识回归先祖，这在一个幻灭的、物质主义的时代，无疑指引了一个新方向。1974年，孔学在一场运动遭受打击，在过去的几十年里，人们置之不理，并视之为“保守派”和“改革派”。如今，人们发展孔学焕然一新，尤其是中产阶级和退休人员。孔子是一种信仰，他有一条完整的广告业，包含祷告对象和雕塑。他的出生地曲阜是一个朝拜和旅游胜地自2007年以来，世界各地的文化机构都以他的名字。事实上，中国人也与其他亚洲国家分享儒家价值观:人性、孝道、社会责任、锄强扶弱。<br />
这种流行的科学评论文学在德国，这个人们几乎不懂原文的国家也适用吗?德勒默出版社冒了这个险，这让第一次翻译重要文学译文的译者约翰内斯·费德林(Johannes Fiederling)陷入了特殊的困境。为了解决这个问题，出版商宣布，《论语》将尽快于2009年8月21日在书店上架，并将在书的背面印刷。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 15:24, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
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Indeed Yu Dan stayed young, she likes listening to pop music by Jay Chow and "Mother Nanquan" and is the head of the "I want fun" club at the art and media institute of the Beijing Normal University.<br />
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Yu Dan had certainly predecessors, for instance when modern writers such as Liu Xinwu or Wang Meng criticized the classic "Dream of the Red Chamber". But she has found a series of imitators that deal with classical subjects - a nostalgic wave is currently swashing through China. In place of the reconditioned Communist ideology, the return to traditional values has taken place. Also on the bestseller lists this literature stands at the top.<br />
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This nostalgia literature in China also includes comments on the classic novel "Three Kingdoms" (C 2006) by Yi Zhongtian (62), which ended up in 2007 with 340,000 copies on the third place of the bestseller list, the historical novel about the last imperial dynasty "The Qing Prime Minister" (C 2007) by Wang Yuewen (46) and "War Drums in Beijing" (C 2006) by Dou Liang (55) about old Beijing, all of them with at least 200,000 sold copies in 2007.<br />
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==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
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Cao Xueqin: Dream of the Red Chamber<br />
The wedding is sealed, the veil is lifted - but not the beloved comes in sight, but a good friend. This is the key scene in China's most famous novel "Dream of the Red Chamber", which leads the eternal bestseller list and is for the first time completely in German available. He abducts the reader into a largely untouched, authentic China: the one of the last imperial dynasty 250 years ago. He describes the life at the imperial court like the one of the servants, it is at the same time a soap opera,a generation novel, a crime novel, a love story and a Buddhist parable.<br />
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The author writes so poignantly, because he describes his own life. In a paradise-like garden, he and his twelve cousins grow up carefree, with two developing a triangular relationship. But the large family falls apart, the cousins marry and leave the garden. The tide is turning only when the protagonist passes the examination of officials. In the novel, the Emperor is impressed and returns titles and countries, in real life the author receives a modest pension, writes to the novel until shortly before his death and dies as a hermit.<br />
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In China the novel has become immortal with numerous book editions, film adaptations and own research tradition. The upcoming re-filming was a casting event. Every Chinese knows the main characters of the novel and can name their favorites.<br />
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曹雪芹：《红楼梦》<br />
订了婚，掀起盖头---呈现在眼前的不是心爱的那个人，而是一位好朋友。这是中国颇具盛名的小说《红楼梦》的经典场景，这一幕使得这部畅销书经久不衰，也让这部小说第一次在德国全本出版。他使读者认识到一个地域辽阔、未经踏染、原汁原味的中国：250年前的最后一个封建王朝。他描写得宫廷生活，好像他就是其中的仆人。此外，这部小说还是一部肥皂剧、一本古代小说、一部犯罪小说、一个爱情故事和一个佛教寓言故事。<br />
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作者写得如此令人感伤，是因为他在描写自己的亲身经历。在天堂般的乐园里，他与十二个姐妹无忧无虑地长大，与其中两位发展了一段三角恋关系。然而随着姐妹们远嫁他乡，这个大家庭变得四分五裂。小说的高潮在主人公通过科举考试时展开。小说中，皇帝深受感动，赏赐了头衔和领地。而现实中作者隐居生活，领着微薄的抚恤金，一直到去世前不久还在写小说。<br />
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在中国，这本小说流传至今，出了许多版本，改编成多部电影，形成了自己的研究传统。即将翻拍的电影一直在挑选演员。每个中国人都了解小说里的主要人物，能说出他们的喜好。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 16:25, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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曹雪芹：《红楼梦》<br />
拜完堂，掀开盖头，却发现眼前之人不是自己心爱之人，而是一位好朋友，此乃中国颇负盛名的小说《红楼梦》的名场面，情节之跌宕让该经典名著经久畅销，也让这部小说第一次在德国全本出版。曹雪芹让读者看到了一个地域辽阔、未经踏染、原汁原味的中国，那是250年前最后一个封建王朝之一。他描写的宫廷生活惟妙惟肖，仿佛自己以仆人的身份感受过一样。该作品既是一部言情肥皂剧、一部清代小说、一部犯罪小说，也是一个爱情故事和一个佛教寓言故事。<br />
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作者笔下的文字是如此令人伤感，因为他描写了自己的亲生经历：在一个天堂般的乐园里，他与十二位表姐妹们一起长大，过着无忧无虑的生活，还与其中两位发展了一段三角恋的关系。但是后来随着这些姐妹们远嫁他乡，这个大家庭变得四分五裂。这一反转在主人公中举入仕后开始展开。小说中，皇帝为之动容，赐予了主人公头衔和领地。然而在现实生活中，作者远离尘世，领着微薄的抚恤金，直到去世前不久还在坚持写作。<br />
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在中国，《红楼梦》历久弥新，经过无数版本的传承，电影的改编，还拥有了独特的研究领域。影视工作者们还一直为该作品即将再一次的搬上荧幕而挑选角色，因为每位中国人都对小说里的主要人物有所了解，并能说出自己在书中喜欢的角色。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 04:41, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
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Yu Hua - Brothers<br />
The Beijing Yu Hua was always smiling, always a joke on the lips, but also always a cigarette in the mouth. He has written the sketchy novel "Brothers", which will be available in German at the book fair.<br />
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Yu grew up in the country during the cultural revolution. Instead of school lessons, there were denunciation wall newspapers. In this he recognized the power of language and decided to write. He learned from idols like Kafka, Borges and García Márquez to incorporate the fictional into his short stories, but also sex and violence and so he quickly became famous. He wrote one decade at a historical novel, but abandoned it when he saw the extreme changes in China to capture these opposites with the novel "Brothers".<br />
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The father of the two brothers, who Yu describes, got killed by the masses in the cultural revolution. The two brothers could hardly develop more differently: The younger brother, Li Guangtou, had been successful with beauty contests for virgins and the sale of used Japanese suits. The older one, Song Gang, works in a public corporation and believes he has a crisis-proof job until he gets discharged. Now he is also trying to be an 'entrepreneur', he lets his breast enlarge surgically to sell peasant gel, which should supposedly enlarge the breast However, he fails and commits suicide.<br />
余华-《兄弟》<br />
余华先生是纯正的北京人，他总是以微笑示人，谈吐也十分幽默，嘴里常常叼着一只香烟。他已经完成了小说《兄弟》的手稿，其德语版即将在书展上出售。<br />
余华于文革时期在农村长大。当时学校里不上课，整天贴大字报搞批斗。从中他认识到了语言的力量，并决定写作。他从偶像卡夫卡，博尔赫斯和加西亚马尔克斯身上学到了将虚构，性和暴力融入自己的短篇小说中，因此他很快就成名了。他用十年写了一部历史小说，但当他亲眼目睹中国的极端变化后，他放弃了这部小说，转而创作小说《兄弟》来表现文革前后的巨大变革。<br />
据余华描述，这两兄弟的父亲在文革时被群众杀害，他俩的发展也完全不同：弟弟李光头在处女选美比赛和二手日本西装的销售上获得了成功。哥哥宋刚原来在一家上市公司工作，他认为自己的工作是“铁饭碗”，可后来还是被解雇了。现在他正努力成为一名“企业家”，为了卖丰胸膏，他还做过隆胸手术。然而他的创业最终还是失败了，之后他便自杀了。--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 12:39, 2 October 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 12:39, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
余华-《兄弟》<br />
生活在北京的余华脸上常挂着笑容，嘴里总讲着段子，也常含着一支烟。他已经完成小说《兄弟》大概内容，德语版将在书展上出售。<br />
余华在农村长大，当时正处于文革时期。学校不开课，整天贴大字报搞批斗。他从中认识到了语言的力量，并决定写作。从偶像卡夫卡、博尔赫斯和加西亚马尔克斯身上，他学会如何把虚构、性和暴力融入自己的短篇小说中，很快，他就因此成名了。他用十年写了一部历史小说，但当他亲眼目睹中国的剧烈变化后，他放弃了这部小说，转而创作小说《兄弟》来表现文革前后的巨大变革。<br />
据余华描述，这俩兄弟的父亲在文革期间被人们杀害。兄弟俩的发展完全不同。弟弟李光头举办了处美人大赛，买卖二手日本人西装，都获得了成功。哥哥宋刚原来在一家上市公司工作，他认为自己的工作是“铁饭碗”，可后来还是被解雇了。现在他正努力成为一名“企业家”，为了卖给农民丰胸膏，他还做了隆胸手术。然而他的创业还是以失败告终，之后他便自杀了。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 01:46, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
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Mo Yan: Sandalwood Death<br />
Mo Yan takes us with his Sandalwood Death (C 2001), which will be published at the book fair, to the German colonial history in China, with railway construction and the Boxer Rebellion,. Mo Yan describes a fictitious story in which Guomindang General Yuan Shikai, with the last imperial headman, wants to achieve a cruel execution by torture against a man who rebelled after his family had previously been desecrated and killed by Germans. Contrasted with this, Mo Yan portrays the last opera singer of the Maoqiang local opera from Gaomi. The language is pathetic, symbolic and emotionally charged. The description of the inner conflict of the physician, who has to keep the victim alive until the German colonizers see him, is shattered. His only advice "Remove the Sandalwood!" is not followed, since this is precisely the torture. Mo Yan is also represented at the book fair with the further masterpiece "Der Überdruss". In his afterword which is not reprinted he writes: "A great novel can not sacrifice its own dignity due to the fact that it wants to appeal to a sensuous, pseudoemotional age. It can not, in order to meet the wishes of some readers, save length, reduce the density of action, or lower the degree of difficulty. I want it clearly long, thick and heavy. Whoever wants to read it, read it, whoever does not, leave it alone! [...] Even if only a single reader remains to me! So what? I am not writing a different character. "<br />
莫言：《檀香刑》 <br />
莫言之作《檀香刑》即将在书展出版，小说讲述德国在中国的殖民历史，（德国人在山东）铁路建设以及义和团起义。莫言描述了一个虚构的故事，在这个故事中，国民党将军袁世凯和最后一个帝国首领，想要对一个在其家人被德国人侮辱和杀害后叛变的人实行酷刑。与此形成鲜明对比的是，莫言塑造了最后一位高密茂腔戏曲演唱者的形象。语言是可悲的、象征性的、以及充满感情的。医生内心冲突的描述—他必须挽救受害者的生命，直到德国殖民者看到他的那一刻—被粉碎了。他唯一的建议“去掉檀香木！”没有被采纳，因为这正是一种折磨。莫言还带着他的另一部代表作《生死疲劳》出席了书展。在未被转载的后记中，他写道：“长篇小说不能为了迎合这个煽情的时代而牺牲自己应有的尊严。长篇小说不能为了适应某些读者而缩短自己的长度、减小自己的密度、降低自己的难度。我就是要这么长，就是要这么密，就是要这么难，愿意看就看，不愿意看就不看。哪怕只剩下一个读者，我也要这样写。 ”--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 02:23, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
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Interview with Mo Yan<br />
On the occasion of a symposium in the run-up to the Frankfurt Book Fair, Martin Woesler interviewed Mo Yan on Saturday, September 12th, 2009, 9.30-9.50 am Mo Yan, who is in addition to Yu Hua one of the candidates for a Nobel Prize in Literature.<br />
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Question: You are a participant of the official Chinese authors delegation who visits Germany during the Frankfurt Book Fair and know Germany from previous visits. How do you perceive as a Chinese the German culture compared to other cultures you have met, like the American?<br />
Answer: Due to the rare and short visits I can not judge. But if you ask me about my impression, I have a different feeling in America than in Germany: In the United States, I have the impression that culture is less the essence of life than in Europe. I am lacking the thoughtfulness. On the other hand French culture appears closer to the Chinese, so I am much translated in French.<br />
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Question: You come from Gaomi, where the Germans had an inglorious past as colonial lords. This is the topic of your novel "Sandalwood Death". Have you forgiven the Germans?<br />
Answer: In the novel, I overdraw the Germans with their goose step as the epitome of the colonial lords, which is of course grotesque and purely symbolic. To the Germans I have no resentment. I really like to be in Germany, now I am here for the fourth time. I was particularly impressed by the harbor of Hamburg. You should not be surprised if the harbor of a Chinese city, which I describe in my next novels, is somehow familiar to you.<br />
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Question: What are your concrete plans for the book fair?<br />
Answer: After the symposium, I will be flying back and return from 11th to 31st October 2009 in order to participate at the book fair and to do a reading tour. I will also read in Munich, your colleague Martina Hasse knows the dates.<br />
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Question: What can we expect from Mo Yan in the future?<br />
Answer: I am writing a new novel, which will appear in November.<br />
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Note: A manifesto of the author is the afterword to the novel "Der Überdruss". This statement is published in the following book, translated by Martina Hasse: Chinesische Literatur in deutscher Übersetzung - China Ehrengast der Frankfurter Buchmesse 2009 / Symposiumsband, Bochum: European University Press 2010, ISBN 978-3-89966-293-1.<br />
2009年9月12日（星期六）上午9:30-9:50，在法兰克福国际书展研讨会上，马丁·维斯特采访了与余华同为诺贝尔文学奖候选人的莫言。<br />
问题：您是法兰克福国际书展访问德国的中国官方作家代表团成员，并对德国有所了解。作为中国人，与其它您接触过的文化相比，比如美国文化，您如何看待德国文化？<br />
回答：由于我很少去美国，且每次去的时间很短，所以我没法判断。但是如果您问的是印象的话，我在美国和在德国有不同的印象：在美国，我认为文化不如在欧洲重要，不过我是缺乏思考的。另一方面，法国文化更接近中国文化，所以我的很多作品被译为法语。<br />
问题：您来自高密，过去德国人在那里有过殖民统治历史。这就是您的小说《檀香刑》的主题。您原谅德国人了吗？<br />
回答：在小说中，我过度刻画了德国人的正步，把他们作为殖民贵族的缩影。这当然是怪诞和很具有象征性的。我对德国人没有怨恨，我很喜欢去德国，这已经是我第四次来这里了。汉堡的港口给我留下了深刻的印象。您应该不会惊讶在我下一步小说中描述的中国港口对于您来说是熟悉的。<br />
问题：您对书展有具体的计划吗？<br />
回答：研讨会结束后，我将回国。在10月11日至31日参加书展和阅读之旅。我也会去慕尼黑，您的同事玛蒂娜·哈斯知道日期。<br />
问题：我们对您的未来可以有些什么期待呢？<br />
回答：我正在写一部新小说，它将于11月份出版。<br />
注：作者的声明是小说《Der Überdruss》的后记。此声明发表在玛蒂娜·哈斯翻译的《中国文学》一书中。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:07, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
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From the "evil girl" to the "cult figure" of the Chinese contemporary literature - Mian Mian<br />
Mian Mian has influenced the young generation of the Shanghai women with her underground literature<br />
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See also my similar essay on Mian Mian in: "Chinese Literature in German Translation - China as the Honorary Guest of the Frankfurt Book Fair, Symposium Volume" 2010.<br />
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Photo: Yiqing Liu<br />
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Mian Mian stands on the terrace of the cult bistro "M on the Bund". She looks at the colorful lights of the "Bund": houses in colonial style line up to Shanghai's harbor line. A gentle gust of wind blows a strand of her face, she looks a little defiantly into the skyline: "Here we celebrated wild parties!" Of course, it did not cost anything at that time - she knows the owner of this cult bar and also from the other trendy bars here in the proximity - all foreigners.<br />
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The colorful skyline stands for a vibrant metropolis that is Mian Mian's life. Her books are a tribute to a city that has always been more modern than the other Chinese cities. And Mian Mian has breathed a soul into this city, the soul of youth, open-mindedness and culture of fun. In the socialist China she was a scandal, her literature was forbidden. And yet she was printed in Hong Kong, her texts appeared on the Internet and were sold under the shop counter. She was the insider tip of the underground literature.<br />
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A whole generation of young girls wanted to be like Mian Mian - celebrating wildly, trying out all the forbidden things: free love, alcohol, drugs. Where Mian Mian was, the underground culture was at home, a party was only hippy when she appeared. Sometimes she organized events and performed as a DJ. She has become much more than an avant-garde writer, she has become a cult, a lifestyle. Now the censorship has been lifted and her four novels appeared in February, the first edition of 200,000 copies already sold out in March.<br />
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Her latest novel, Panda Sex, is not really a novel, but a simple chronicle of her life. For this purpose the tireless partygoer took a few years ago a mini-recorder with her and recorded the sometimes irrelevant partly profound conversations of her friends. Time and again the talks deal about relationships and true love. To write down these recordings and compose a novel from it, fascinated her for more than five years, made her "addicted", as she says. The book did not let go of her. At that time, she could not write nothing else, she was "dependent on writing" "like a drug addict on the junk". In fact, she is once again experiencing her wild youth with this novel.<br />
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绵绵——从中国当代文学的“恶女形象”到“狂热形象”，绵绵以其地下文学影响了上海年轻一代女性。<br />
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另请参阅我于2010年在“德语翻译中的中国文学——中国作为法兰克福书展的名誉来宾，研讨会论文集”中发表的关于绵绵的类似文章。<br />
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摄影：刘益清<br />
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棉棉站在“米氏西餐厅”小酒馆的露台上。她看着“外滩”的灯红酒绿：殖民风格的房屋与上海的海港线齐齐相对。一阵轻风吹拂着她的脸庞，她稍带蔑然地望着天际线说：“就在这里，我们举办了狂野的派对！”当然，当时那场派对并没有花任何钱。因为她认识这家酒吧的主人，也熟悉临近一块其他新潮酒吧的主人，他们都是外国人。<br />
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多彩的天际线映照着这座充满生机的城市，就像绵绵的生活一样。她的著作向这座比其他中国城市都要现代化的城市致敬。绵绵为这座城市注入了灵魂——青春，豁达和娱乐文化的灵魂。在社会主义中国，她饱受诟病，她的文学被禁止。然而她的作品还是在香港印刷出版，她的文字出现在互联网上，也在商店柜台出售。她是地下文学的一瞥。<br />
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年轻一代女孩都想像棉棉一样，狂野庆祝，尝试所有的禁忌之物：自由之爱，酒精，毒品。棉棉在哪里，地下文化就在哪里，只有她出现，派对才称得上嬉皮。有时她组织活动并作为DJ表演。她已不仅仅是一名前卫作家，还是一个狂热分子，代表着一种生活方式。现在，审查制度已经解除，她的四本小说在二月出版，第一版200,000册已经在三月售罄。<br />
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她的最新小说《熊猫》（Panda Sex）并不是一本真正的小说，而是她一生的简单记录。为了写这本书，这位派对常客不辞疲惫，几年前就随身携带一台迷你录音机，记录了部分她与朋友之间的深刻对话，一次又一次的讨论人与人之间的关系和真爱。如她所说，从录音中提取文字并创作小说使她着迷了五年多，这让她“上瘾”。这本书没有放过她。那时，她别无选择，她“依赖写作”就像“吸毒者依赖毒品一样”。事实上，通过这部小说她再次经历了自己狂野的青春。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 22:09, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
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Also the characters exist: the male bear features of Mian Mian's partner, herself slips into different female figures. And at the end of the novel she reveals another secret about déjà vus and change of roles about the novel itself.<br />
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It was not until the reworking of the novel that Mian Mian left her wild life behind. Since two years the authoress has abjured the nicotine, the alcohol and the soft and hard drugs of her youth, became a vegetarian and Buddhist, but she is not "clean" yet, her new drug is writing. "My life has run through a transformation from dependence to the danger of self-destruction to self-realization and the readers can experience this journey in my literature."<br />
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Her books are now available in China. "And I'm very happy about that," she says brightly. There is a bit of a malice about the censors who had never understood the novels anyway, and a bit of defiance, the feeling of finally getting a piece of the Chinese economic miracle, which was officially only two years kept back, but actually nine years, namely from April 2000 to February 2009, by revenue of the sold books. In fact, the 20,000 copies of Panda Sex, which arrived in China in February, were already out of print the same month. Also her other three books with 20,000 copies, summarized in Germany in the two books "La la la" and "Your Night, my Day" are sold out. Mian Mian is in her favorite underground bookstore Jifeng and calls with her mobile phone impatiently after the reprint. In the middle of this buzzing, hectic, commercial shopping life of this corner, the approximately 300 square meter bookstore near the "Maoming nanlu" in a subway station of line 2 is an oasis of calm. There are seating possibilities, the books are divided into groups, translations from English are selling by the pile.<br />
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本书还有一些特点：即书中的男性角色有绵绵伴侣的影子，其它女性角色也有她自己的影子。在小说的结尾，她揭示了关于“女权主义”的另一个秘密以及小说本身的角色转变。<br />
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直到小说的改写，绵绵才抛弃了自己的狂野生活。两年来，这名女作家戒了尼古丁，酒和她年轻时所沉迷的软硬毒品，成了一名素食主义者和佛教徒， 但她并不是完全“戒毒的”，写作是她的新毒药。“我的生活经历了从依赖到自我毁灭的危险再到自我实现的转变，读者可以从我的文学作品中感受到这一经历。”<br />
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她的书现在在中国有售。“我对此感到非常高兴，”她开心地说道。这本书的出售，对于那些无论如何都不懂小说的审查员们，有一点恶意，甚至还有一点蔑视，感觉像是终于能从中国经济奇迹中分到一杯羹，尽管官方只保留了两年，但实际上是九年，即从2000年四月到2009年而月，以实际售出图书的收入计算。实际上，今年二月在中国出售的两万本《熊猫》已于同月绝版。另外，她其它三本书的两万册翻印，在德国收录为两本书的《啦啦啦》和《你的夜晚，我的一天》都卖完了。在她最喜欢的地下书店吉峰，绵绵在翻印后不耐烦地用手机打电话。在这个热闹、繁忙、商业购物的角落里，2号线地铁站“茂名南路”附近约300平方米大的书店是一片宁静的绿洲。书店提供座位，其中书分成了几类，以及英译版的书籍成堆出售。--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 09:21, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
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The contrast between the never full partygoer of the 1990s and the writer today could hardly be bigger. In January 2009 she was in Paris and presented the French edition of Panda Sex. There it was celebrated by the young journalists. She flirted with them, especially with the one from "Le Monde," who wrote a fantastic critique of Panda Sex. With Panda Sex, she had created a living literary monument, a modern work of art.<br />
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"Panda Sex" as a contemporary novel is highly controversial in-country and abroad, possibly the most controversial novel at all. Mian Mian is absolutely convinced of her novel: "Of course China was not ready for my novel when I wrote it, hence the censorship. The old books of mine are in the style of the 1990s. I've tried to write Panda Sex as one will write in the future. "<br />
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Now Mian Mian wants a part from the Chinese economic miracle. What does she do when she comes into money? "A movie! That would be the greatest! "This is the only thing that can be made meaningful with a lot of money. In fact, the novel Panda Sex reads like a French black and white film. Dialogues, only interrupted by short stage instructions. The French film studio Anna Sanders wants to make the novel into a film, Mian Mian has agreed to direct it.<br />
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Mian Mian leads me to the original settings of her novel. And not only the places exist, but also the stories happened as described. Today's Shanghai presents itself as a large construction site in preparation for the Expo 2010. And this Shanghai she has loved, lived, lived to the excess. But the places she leads me are no cheap nightclubs, no wicked bars, but trendy restaurants, elegant joints involving terraces with view in which the decadence of the century's turn is palpable. Even in the revolutionary nostalgic "YYs" for tourists, a bottle of champagne costs 965 yuan (over 100 euros).<br />
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20世纪90年代的派对常客和今天的作家之间的对比再大不过了。2009年1月，在巴黎，棉棉发表了法文版《熊猫》。年轻一代记者们为她举行了庆祝。她和他们调情，特别是和《世界报》(Le Monde)那位——他写了一篇关于《熊猫》的精彩评论。通过《熊猫》，棉棉创造了一座鲜活的文学丰碑，一座现代艺术作品。<br />
作为当代小说，《熊猫》在国内外引起了极大的争议，可以说是最具争议性的小说了。棉棉对自己的小说深信不疑：“在我写小说的时候，中国还没有为我的小说做好准备，所以才会有审查制度。我的旧书是90年代的风格，但我是用未来的方式来写《熊猫》。”<br />
现在棉棉想从中国的经济奇迹中分一杯羹。有钱了，她会做什么？“一个电影！那就太好了！”这是唯一一件用钱能变得有意义的事情。事实上，小说《熊猫》读起来就像一部法国黑白电影——充满对话，只被简短的阶段说明打断。法国电影制片厂安娜·桑德斯想把这部小说拍成电影，而棉棉已经同意执导。<br />
棉棉把我带到了她小说的原始背景。不仅场景真实存在，故事也如描述那样发生。今天的上海是一个为2010年世博会做准备的大型建筑工地。而这个上海，她深爱着，在这生活着并过着奢华的生活。但她带我去的地方不是廉价的夜总会，也不是邪恶的酒吧，而是时髦的餐馆，优雅的酒吧，带有露台的露台（在这些露台上可以明显感受到本世纪的颓靡）。甚至在革命性的怀旧风格的“ YYs”中，一瓶香槟也要花费965元（超过100欧元）。<br />
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--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 07:53, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
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==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
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The "Jean George" at the center with its high ceilings, the dark wooden floors and walls, the mirrors, the somewhat musty velvet, stucco and reddish twilight seems to come from the Europe of the 1910s. Busy waiters in tails dart back and forth, the cocktails are priceless. But it is not Europe, it is Shanghai. And it is not the 1910s, but exactly a century later. In the 1990s, the trendy get-together was prosperous. The bar is still popular today, but it is ghostly empty. Here is a fin-de-siècle mood nearly tactile. The restaurant is owned by Jean George, a star cook who happened to be at his restaurant that evening but is mostly in New York. Here she has recorded the monologue about Bruce Lee by Andrew Bull, which appears in the novel in the first part, chapter five.<br />
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Mian Mian is also surprised at how much the global economic crisis hit Shanghai. Even when she drives by taxi through the nocturnal, almost deserted Shanghai, she feels strange in her city, in the city where she has spent her entire life: "The breath of the financial crisis pushes people from the nightlife into the bedrooms." This empty Shanghai frightens her. But Shanghai will recover from the financial crisis faster than other cities.<br />
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In the novel Pand Sex, she describes the 16 million metropolis by the Yellow Sea like this: "Do you know what is missing in Shanghai? The sea. [...] Shanghai is really a village." Incomparably, finally, the metaphorical description of the city: "Those souls penetrate the nightly Shanghai. The pallor and emptiness are invariable. Under the sound of water scooped with bamboo baskets and leaves that are kinked, mix the sounds of cheeky and honeyed steps. Those famous streets seem like concubines in the harem, who are always ready for the favor of their ruler. These streets are crossed by the foreign concession areas, the modern dance halls, which have given up the hope for better times, the theaters, the horse betting agencys and cafes. They pass tired heroes and a population in a nightmare. They wash up from the river. Shouts like from a lonely phoenix, light reflections like a jade teapot, a sight that goes into marrow. Women with delicate and fragile posture, a skin like frozen fat, faces like the full moon. The behavior of the men is similarly trained, their character is profound, they have received the baptism of literature and art, but do not want to play the hero. The streets cross the Waipo Bridge, come closer to each other at the Broadway Mansion, climb the stairs step by step, with smooth walk, the wobbling of the butt is charming but elegant and fulfills the expectations. Their misfortune is their destiny, they have never really believed in their destiny. Finally, with an expression that is utterly unbelievable, they appear in candlelight, they have always known to hide their feelings well. They never bring anything directly to light, they do not trust anyone. "<br />
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“尚恩·乔治”( “Jean George” )餐厅位于上海市中心，店内高高的天花板，黑色的木制地板，四面的墙壁、镜子、有些许霉味的天鹅绒，粉饰灰泥以及微红的黄昏似乎都来自1910年代的欧洲。身着燕尾服的侍者来回奔忙，陈列的鸡尾酒价格不菲。但这里不是欧洲，而是上海。这里也不是上世纪初，而是一个世纪后。上世纪90年代，新潮的聚会风行。在今天，酒吧依旧很受欢迎，但却空无一人，死寂沉沉, 有种近乎真实的末世情调。这家餐厅的老板是尚恩·乔治，一位星级厨师，当晚他正好在餐厅，不过大部分时间他都呆在纽约。绵绵录制了安德鲁·布尔(Andrew Bull)关于李小龙(Bruce Lee)的独白，就在这部小说第一部分——第五章。<br />
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棉棉同样也惊诧于全球经济危机对上海造成的巨大冲击。她乘坐租车，穿行在夜幕之下，几乎被遗弃的上海，这座生活了一辈子的城市竟让她感到陌生。“金融危机迫使人们放弃夜生活，窝居在家。”空寂无人的上海令她恐惧。但相较其它城市，上海将更快从危机中恢复过来。<br />
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在《熊猫》这部小说中，棉棉这样描述黄海沿岸的一千六百多座大都市：“你知道上海少了什么吗？就是这片海……上海就是个村庄。”<br />
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对这座城的一个终极且无可比拟的隐喻性描述为：“那些灵魂穿越晚夜上海。这座城依旧是一片苍白与空寂。竹篮舀水的声音，树叶绞缠的声音，夹杂着放肆和甜蜜的脚步声。”那些著名的街道像是后宫中的嫔妃，时刻准备着得到帝王的垂青。街道两边是外国特许区、现代舞厅（它们已经失去了对美好时代的向往）剧院、赌马场和咖啡馆。它们经过疲惫的英雄和梦魇中的人们，从河边一冲而上。喊声如孤凤，光影如玉壶——一番深入人心的景象。女人们姿态娇柔纤弱，肤如凝脂，面如圆月。男人们举止得体，性格深沉，他们接受过文学和艺术的洗礼，但拒绝逞威风。街道（“嫔妃们”）跨过外婆桥，在百老汇大厦交相靠近，沿梯而上，步履流畅，摇曳的翘臀既迷人又优雅，令人餍足。她们的不幸就是她们的命运，而她们从未真正相信过自己的命运。最后，以一种完全不可思议的方式：她们在烛光中现身，她们一直以来很擅长掩藏自己的情感，从不暴露自己的一点一滴，她们也不相信任何人。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:44, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
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The German Sinologist Wolfgang Kubin, who was awarded with the Chinese State Prize and the Pamir International Poetry Prize, described her works as "garbage" in 2006. Of course, Mian Mian is not the new Lu Xun or the new Zhang Ailing.<br />
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Mian Mian at the "M on the Bund" restaurant in March 2009 in front of the Shanghai night club: Panda Sex has been completed.<br />
Photo: Martin Woesler<br />
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She also does not represent the mainstream, but was known at the age of 17 through her breach of taboo to write about her own life of sex, drugs, alcohol and rock'n roll. As a "bad girl" with a "talent to burn anger". She has been translated into more than 10 languages and is perhaps the "most promising young writer", as the International Herald Tribune wrote on 2/8/2001, "she touches the core of the experiences of her generation with her themes of sex, drugs and China's opening policy" . "Der Spiegel" described her as "China's most talented writer". The novel "Candy" was a bestseller under the shop counter and became a classic of youth literature. Herself appears in the novel Pandasex and expresses herself thus: "Great art is like the bright moon in the night sky. He enlightens the world, but he does not light himself. His glow is only borrowed by the hidden self-luminous sun. Art has helped many people to catch a glimpse at the meaning of life. Art has invisible, sacred origins and sacred goals. It makes people recognize their true nature and their place in the cosmos. It helps people to always recognize the meaning and value of their lives again and like for the first time, and the unlimited possibilities that it offers. But many modern art has lost this insight and is therefore a prisoner of its self-imposed limitation." Whether Mian Mian's literature belongs to the rubbish heap or to the hall of fame of World Literature can only one decide: the reader himself.<br />
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Is the taboo-less party girl Mian Mian dead like Little Beetle in the novel or like her friend in real life, what brought her to writing? In the novel she shines at us out of her big beautiful eyes, a whole generation of Shanghai's beauties cites her night by night. However this fan base has also become a rivalry, as can be seen in the mask-like description of the 50 girls at the gamble in the first chapter of the first part. And what does the 38-year-old think about it, who has become a little bit chubby since she quit smoking? She bought herself a swim card and says, "The number of small Mian Mians has exploded! In Shanghai you can only survive if you are slim. I just have to do a little diet, then I can go back into the jet set life - because there is only one real Mian Mian! "<br />
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==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
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Mian Mian: Panda Sex – Alternative beginning of the novel<br />
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1. Mián Mián棉棉 »Panda Sex« 熊猫. Prohibited in the People's Republic of China. Published in revised version 2/2009, 1st edition immediately out of print.<br />
German translation by Martin Woesler in cooperation with Lihua Ji, Kiepenheuer & Witsch 2009.<br />
Published in Chinese: 12/04, 181 pp., Massenverlag Publishing House<br />
Rating: 1.3.<br />
Scandal book about a Shanghai love affair in free love. (cf .: La la la, Candy, Your Night my Day, cf.: Wei Hui Shanghai Baby)<br />
<br />
The title is based on the rare pairing behavior of the panda bears, which is compared with the figure "older sister" by her younger sister. The novel is written as a drama, with brief stage directions, which draw a painting of the mood, and then the lively, colloquial/juvenile dialogues. The dialogues get very curious, but they remain entertaining.<br />
<br />
The extract of translation is based on an older Chinese edition of the novel, as it was on the Internet in 2008. Meanwhile the novel by Mian Mian has been significantly modified for the German reader and will be published in August 2009 by the Publishing House Kiepenheuer & Witsch.<br />
<br />
Critical links to the book fair<br />
http://www.de-cn.net/mag/bli/lit/deindex.htm: Many background articles on the Chinese literature and the Frankfurt Book Fair 2009.<br />
On this very informative website you will find independent information about the book fair. Even voices that criticize the book "Wolf Totem" find a place, which was hyped with a considerable amount of marketing effort by the publisher.<br />
<br />
German-Chinese culture network: http://www.de-cn.net/<br />
A wonderful institution, supported by the Goethe Institute (here the driving force Michael Kahn-Ackermann) and the Robert Bosch Foundation. Numerous recent Chinese contributions appear in excellent German translation (Julia Buddeberg, Andrea Schwedler), e.g. the interview with Liu Zhenyun in as a liberal known South Chinese weekly newspaper about the loneliness of the Chinese and its statement "One sentence weighs more than 1000 words"<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
<br />
Chinese books in German translation: Authors who are read in China<br />
中国书籍的德译版本：中国的博学作家<br />
<br />
http://litprom.de contains a database for Chinese literature in Germany<br />
http://litprom.de为德国的中国文学提供了数据库。<br />
<br />
On the website of the Buch-Informations-Zentrum (BIZ) (book-information center) Beijing http://www.peking.buchinformationszentrum.org/en/ is a database "deyu zhongwen ku" with 700 German titles in China<br />
在Buch-Informations-Zentrum（书籍信息中心）的网页上，Beijing http://www.peking.buchinformationszentrum.org/en/是一个叫做“德语中文库”的数据库，里面有700个用中文写成的德语称谓。<br />
<br />
<br />
On the website of Frankfurt Book Fair<br />
http://www.buchmesse.de/en/fbm/programm/ehrengast/2009/01145/index.html: the following books can be found (Effective: 4/30/2009, p.r.n. the information is updated and expanded in the meantime).<br />
在法兰克福书籍集市的网页上，http://www.buchmesse.de/en/fbm/programm/ehrengast/2009/01145/index.html:包括以下书籍（有效：4/30/2009, p.r.n. 相关信息都已更新且拓展）<br />
<br />
Listed authors are:<br />
例举的作者有：<br />
Annie Baobei 北京<br />
Jia Pingwa / ao 西安 西安 (born 2/21/1952, lives in Xi'an)<br />
Jiang Rong姜戎 北京 (born 4/1946)<br />
Liu Zhenyun北京 (born 5/1958)<br />
A Lai Alai阿来 成都 (born 1959, lives in Chengdu)<br />
Mo Yan莫言 (born 2/17/1955)<br />
Bi Feiyu毕飞宇 "平原" 江苏 (born 1/1964)<br />
Yu Hua余华 杭州 (born 4/3/1960)<br />
Yang Jiang杨绛 听说在北京 (born 17.7.1911)<br />
Yu Dan北京 (born 6/28/1965, lives in Beijing)<br />
<br />
Belletristic titles (end of April)<br />
Alai [阿来, Tibetan writer]<br />
Distant Springs<br />
From the Chinese by Marc Hermann<br />
Unionsverlag - ISBN 978-3-293-00405-4<br />
<br />
Bei Dao<br />
The Book of Defeat <br />
From the Chinese by Wolfgang Kubin<br />
Hanser - ISBN 978-3-446-23283-9<br />
<br />
► Survey and Review: Bei Dao's poems - formed as exile literature in the USA - <br />
mainly use paradox as stylistic device. This, he says, is the only way for him<br />
to discover the world in its inconsistency. By analyzing his life poetically the story has one´s say: the dispersed illusions of a poet, who has dreamed of another better world.<br />
调查与评论：北岛的诗歌-----在美国视为流放文学----主要借用悖论作为修辞手法。其本人表示，这是自己揭露世界的矛盾的唯一方式。我们分析北岛的诗意生活，发现他的故事有一个特点：一位满脑幻想的诗人，梦想着一个更好的世界。<br />
--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 01:27, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Chinese books in German translation: Authors who are read in China<br />
中国书籍的德译版本：中国的博学作家<br />
<br />
http://litprom.de contains a database for Chinese literature in Germany<br />
http://litprom.de为德国的中国文学提供了数据库。<br />
<br />
On the website of the Buch-Informations-Zentrum (BIZ) (book-information center) Beijing http://www.peking.buchinformationszentrum.org/en/ is a database "deyu zhongwen ku" with 700 German titles in China<br />
在Buch-Informations-Zentrum（书籍信息中心）的网页上，Beijing http://www.peking.buchinformationszentrum.org/en/是一个叫做“德语中文库”的数据库，里面有700个用中文写成的德语称谓。<br />
<br />
<br />
On the website of Frankfurt Book Fair<br />
http://www.buchmesse.de/en/fbm/programm/ehrengast/2009/01145/index.html: the following books can be found (Effective: 4/30/2009, p.r.n. the information is updated and expanded in the meantime).<br />
在法兰克福书籍集市的网页上，http://www.buchmesse.de/en/fbm/programm/ehrengast/2009/01145/index.html:包括以下书籍（有效：4/30/2009, p.r.n. 相关信息都已更新且拓展）<br />
<br />
Listed authors are:<br />
例举的作者有：<br />
Annie Baobei 北京<br />
Jia Pingwa / ao 西安 西安 (born 2/21/1952, lives in Xi'an)<br />
Jiang Rong姜戎 北京 (born 4/1946)<br />
Liu Zhenyun北京 (born 5/1958)<br />
A Lai Alai阿来 成都 (born 1959, lives in Chengdu)<br />
Mo Yan莫言 (born 2/17/1955)<br />
Bi Feiyu毕飞宇 "平原" 江苏 (born 1/1964)<br />
Yu Hua余华 杭州 (born 4/3/1960)<br />
Yang Jiang杨绛 听说在北京 (born 17.7.1911)<br />
Yu Dan北京 (born 6/28/1965, lives in Beijing)<br />
<br />
Belletristic titles (end of April)<br />
Alai [阿来, Tibetan writer]<br />
Distant Springs<br />
From the Chinese by Marc Hermann<br />
Unionsverlag - ISBN 978-3-293-00405-4<br />
<br />
Bei Dao<br />
The Book of Defeat <br />
From the Chinese by Wolfgang Kubin<br />
Hanser - ISBN 978-3-446-23283-9<br />
<br />
► Survey and Review: Bei Dao's poems - formed as exile literature in the USA - <br />
mainly use paradox as stylistic device. This, he says, is the only way for him<br />
to discover the world in its inconsistency. By analyzing his life poetically the story has one´s say: the dispersed illusions of a poet, who has dreamed of another better world.<br />
调查与评论：北岛的诗歌-----在美国视为流放文学----主要借用悖论作为修辞手法。其本人表示，这是自己揭露世界的矛盾的唯一方式。我们分析北岛的诗意生活，发现他的故事有一个特点：一位满脑幻想的诗人，梦想着一个更好的世界。Chinese books in German translation: Authors who are read in China<br />
<br />
中国书籍的德译版本：中国的博学作家<br />
<br />
http://litprom.de contains a database for Chinese literature in Germany<br />
http://litprom.de为德国的中国文学提供了数据库。<br />
<br />
On the website of the Buch-Informations-Zentrum (BIZ) (book-information center) Beijing http://www.peking.buchinformationszentrum.org/en/ is a database "deyu zhongwen ku" with 700 German titles in China<br />
在Buch-Informations-Zentrum（书籍信息中心）的网页上，Beijing http://www.peking.buchinformationszentrum.org/en/是一个叫做“德语中文库”的数据库，里面有700个用中文写成的德语名称。<br />
<br />
<br />
On the website of Frankfurt Book Fair<br />
http://www.buchmesse.de/en/fbm/programm/ehrengast/2009/01145/index.html: the following books can be found (Effective: 4/30/2009, p.r.n. the information is updated and expanded in the meantime).<br />
在法兰克福书籍集市的网页上，http://www.buchmesse.de/en/fbm/programm/ehrengast/2009/01145/index.html:包括以下书籍（有效：4/30/2009, p.r.n. 相关信息都已更新且拓展）<br />
<br />
Listed authors are:<br />
例举的作者有：<br />
Annie Baobei 安妮宝贝 北京<br />
Jia Pingwa / ao 贾平凹 西安 (born 2/21/1952, lives in Xi'an)<br />
Jiang Rong 姜戎 北京 (born 4/1946)<br />
Liu Zhenyun刘震云 北京 (born 5/1958)<br />
A Lai Alai 阿来 成都 (born 1959, lives in Chengdu)<br />
Mo Yan 莫言 (born 2/17/1955)<br />
Bi Feiyu 毕飞宇 "平原" 江苏 (born 1/1964)<br />
Yu Hua 余华 杭州 (born 4/3/1960)<br />
Yang Jiang 杨绛 听说在北京 (born 17.7.1911)<br />
Yu Dan 于丹北京 (born 6/28/1965, lives in Beijing)<br />
<br />
Belletristic titles (end of April) 标题<br />
Alai [阿来, Tibetan writer藏族作家]<br />
Distant Springs 遥远的温泉<br />
From the Chinese by Marc Hermann 马海默译（中译德）<br />
Unionsverlag - ISBN 978-3-293-00405-4 联合出版社 国际图书标准号 978-3-293-00405-4<br />
<br />
Bei Dao 北岛<br />
The Book of Defeat 《失败之书》<br />
From the Chinese by Wolfgang Kubin 沃尔夫冈·顾彬译（中译德）<br />
Hanser - ISBN 978-3-446-23283-9 翰泽尔出版社<br />
<br />
► Survey and Review: Bei Dao's poems - formed as exile literature in the USA - <br />
mainly use paradox as stylistic device. This, he says, is the only way for him<br />
to discover the world in its inconsistency. By analyzing his life poetically the story has one´s say: the dispersed illusions of a poet, who has dreamed of another better world.<br />
调查与评论：北岛的诗歌-----在美国视为流放文学----主要借用悖论作为修辞手法。其本人表示，这是自己揭露世界的矛盾的唯一方式。从诗意化的角度去分析北岛的生活，你会发现他的故事传递着这样一个讯息：一位满脑幻想的诗人，梦想着另一个更好的世界。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 09:23, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
<br />
Feng Li<br />
Translated by: Ulrich Kautz<br />
East Asia Publishing House - ISBN 978-3-940527-14-1<br />
► The novel is ironically telling the story of a middle-aged man, unhappy<br />
married, impotenet, with sparse hair growth, who decides in the mid-nineties of the 20th century,<br />
as the head of a "Research Institute for Culture" in a Chinese provincial city,<br />
to achieve something at least once in a lifetime, which matches to his principles and desires at heart,<br />
but however enmeshes himslef in a farce, of which end he<br />
no,<br />
is not quite empty-handed,<br />
but, at least! found the woman of his life, an equally prim and unconventional also<br />
intelligent and lovable personality.<br />
<br />
Guo Xiaolu<br />
From the English by Anne Rademacher<br />
Knaus - ISBN 978-3-8135-0353-1<br />
► On a hot summer afternoon in the year 2012 the young countrywoman Kwok Yun sees a strange flying disk at the sky. Shortly thereafter she finds an injured stranger in the rice field to whom she administers first<br />
aid. On the same day, the stranger disappears again, instead two secrect-service agents appear:<br />
They want to get to the bottom of the strange UFO phenomenon. A<br />
inspection machinery overflows the inhabitants of the village. Everything and everyone is checked. On the peak of the hysteria arrives a check over $ 2,000, which was sent by the rescued foreigner from America. The money of the class enemy is finally disbalancing the life in the poor village. Three years after the sighting of the UFO the once idyllic peasant areas has become a booming economic region in where only money matters. A political parable about past, change and loss.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
<br />
Ha Jin<br />
From the American English by Susanne Hornfeck, Sonja Hauser<br />
Ullstein - ISBN 978-3-550-08723-3<br />
► The Chinese student Nan Wu and his wife Pingping decided in the summer of 1989, briefly<br />
after the events on the Tiananmen Square, to stay in the USA and to begin a new<br />
Life. It should only be a study stay, but with each year in the US rises<br />
the anger on the political conditions in the distant home. Finally they are allowed to take their<br />
six-year-old son Taotao to them, who quickly gets used to the new environment. However Nan <br />
dreams of being a great poet, and has a rough ride: he is plagued by guilt feelings towards<br />
his wife, whom he feels more solidary related to her than in love because can not forget his <br />
love of his youth Beina; also the responsibility to allow his family a <br />
secure livelihood. For over twelve years we accompany as the readers the everyday life of the family Wu, their<br />
daily struggle for homeland, love and happiness. Side by side they grow dear to our hearts because our<br />
own dreams are reflected in their dreams.<br />
<br />
Hong Ying<br />
From the Chinese by Claudia Kaiser<br />
Aufbau - ISBN 978-3-351-03269-2<br />
► In the year 1907 - the Qing dynasty still reigns in China - Cassia, a poor orphan girl<br />
from the country, is sold from her uncle to a famous brothel. Although she can not fulfill the ideal of beauty of the era, <br />
she becomes the mistress of Master Chang, the leader of the dreaded triad of Shanghai.<br />
After his assassination remain two ways for her: a life in humility and self-denial, or one<br />
full of pomp, power and passion. Hong Ying describes the rise and fall of a confident woman,<br />
who went down in history as a famous concubine and godmother of Shanghai.<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
<br />
Li Dawei<br />
From the American English by Anne Rademacher.<br />
With comic drawings by Sheng Tao<br />
Knaus - ISBN 978-3-8135-0336-4<br />
► 4th June 1989: The student riots culminate in the form of the massacre on the Tiananmen Square. The art student and comic artist Dawei, actually a non-political<br />
loner, who is opposed to every form of collectivism, loves the student leader Little Kim. As he is looking for her <br />
in the turmoil on the Tiananmen Square, he finds himself in the riot , and experiences the bloody downfall.<br />
He does not find Kim, but instead a rather distracted cat, which he takes <br />
Home. One evening the cat begins to speak. He has great plans and wants to be a comic star in<br />
the USA. And in fact he succeeds to do a trip to Hollywood. Dawei stays home, beats his way through life with different jobs and escapes again and again into his comic dream worlds. Finally he follows his cat, hoping to find again his great love Little Kim in America. But the<br />
"Golden West" holds a nasty surprise for him: Haohao is abducted, and suddenly <br />
Dawei finds himself as a protagonist of a superhero comic.<br />
<br />
Li Er<br />
From the Chinese by Thekla Chabbi<br />
Klett-Cotta - ISBN 978-3-608-93794-7<br />
<br />
Li Tai-bo<br />
Poems<br />
Translated by: Günther Debon<br />
Reclam - ISBN 978-3-15-018675-6<br />
<br />
Li Yiyun<br />
From the American English by Anette Gruber<br />
Hanser - ISBN 978-3-446-23421-5<br />
► The inhabitants of a small provincial city near Beijing set off for an important <br />
event - a young woman should be executed. Her crime: she, who was during the cultural revolution<br />
one of the most fanatical Red Guardists, has recant Communism. Her mother performs <br />
defiantly the traditional rituals for the dead, while Shan's father, a subtle intellectual, has long ago given up on <br />
his daughter, who brought so much misfortune to others. Both do not sense which<br />
far-reaching consequences this death will have. For example for Kai, the radio announcer, who <br />
is the voice of the party in public, but by now doubts about what she is doing. For the<br />
crippled Nini, who is held like a slave in a household of nothing but girls. For the<br />
little Tong, who is neglected by the parents and is only loved by his dog.<br />
The novel draws a microcosm, which offers a plastic image of China in the late 1970s.<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
<br />
Liao Yiwu<br />
From the Chinese by Hans Peter Hoffmann, Karin Betz and Brigitte Höhenriede<br />
Fischer - ISBN: 978-3-10-044812-5<br />
► A prostitute, a Buddhist abbot and the manager of a social institution<br />
Falun Gong supporter, a former Red Guard and a Feng Shui Master - she and many others<br />
Liao Yiwu, one of the most famous authors of China and himself a former political prisoner, asked them all with respect,<br />
empathy and humor about their lives and their hopes.<br />
These unique conversations let us discover a China that we can not see anywhere else<br />
- a China of the outcasts, homeless, beggars and street musicians, whose<br />
Dignity, wit, and humanity could not be charged by anyone. <br />
<br />
廖义武<br />
来自中国的汉斯·彼得·霍夫曼、卡琳·贝茨和布里吉特·霍亨利德<br />
Fischer-ISBN：978-3-10-044812-5<br />
►一个妓女、一名佛教住持和一名社会机构法轮功支持者、一名前红卫兵和一名风水大师——她和许多其他人。廖亦武——中国最著名的作家之一，他自己曾是一名政治犯，作家对他们的生活和希望表达了尊重、同情和幽默。 这些独特的对话让我们发现了一个在其他任何地方都看不到的中国——一个有着被遗弃的、无家可归的乞丐和街头音乐家的中国，这些人的尊严、智慧和人性不能被任何人指控。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 11:03, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Liu Heng<br />
From the Chinese by Ingrid Müller and Zhang Rui<br />
Hanser - ISBN 978-3-446-20534-5<br />
► The servant never forgot the moment when he first saw the bride of the young Mr. Cao:<br />
during pouring rain, she got out of her red litter, and though he had only seen her too big feet,<br />
he fell in love forever. The future spouse has different sexual inclinations, but the<br />
strange guest, whom he brought from abroad, is feeling the same as the servant. The<br />
French engineer should actually install a matchmaker factory in the Chinese province,<br />
but the young Mr. Cao experiments secretly with explosives instead of matches. The older<br />
people do not care about the welfare of the house - the father always tries the<br />
most odd remedies, the mother has retreated as a Buddhist hermit - and therefore<br />
the eldest son rules with an iron fist over the degenerate extended family. These hustle and bustle is observed by the young servant, who is also witnessing what is going on in the joints by the river,<br />
in the brothels and the tea houses.<br />
In the Middle Kingdom dominate famine and<br />
civil wars, the old order is breaking, and lords and servants are sucked into the whirlpool of these events.<br />
<br />
刘恒<br />
来自中国的英格丽·穆勒和张瑞<br />
Hanser-ISBN978-3-446-20534-5<br />
►仆人从来没有忘记他第一次见到年轻曹先生的新娘的那一刻：<br />
在倾盆大雨中，她从她的红色轿子中出来，尽管他只看到她过大的双脚，但他却永久地了坠入爱河。 曹先生未来的妻子有不同的性倾向，但他从国外带来的奇怪的客人，和仆人有着相同的感觉。这个<br />
法国工程师实际上应该在中国的省份里建立一个火柴工厂，但年轻的曹先生秘密地用炸药而不是火柴进行实验。 年长的人们不关心房子的安全——父亲总是尝试最奇怪的补救办法是，母亲作为一个佛教信徒已经隐退了——<br />
因此长子对衰落的大家族实施铁拳统治。 年轻的仆人看到了这些强制措施，他也目睹着河流交界处发生着什么，<br />
在妓院和茶馆里。<br />
在中间世界里，饥饿和内战占据了统治地位，旧的秩序正在瓦解，老爷和仆人被卷入这些事件的漩涡。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 11:03, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
<br />
Liu Zhenyuns (51), who was ranked No. 1 in China's bestseller list in 2008 - a mix-up thriller about a confused bag, whose content can become dangerous for some important people.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhenyun<br />
From the Chinese by Marc Hermann<br />
DIX Publishing House ISBN 978-3-941651-01-2<br />
► As Liu Yuejin’s , a good-natured and naive cook on a Beijing construction site, money bag is<br />
stolen, a world collapses for him. In it were cash and a promissory note for buying himself <br />
a small restaurant and making himself self-employed. The victim goes on a chase for<br />
his bag - a hunt that takes him deeper and deeper into the local underworld.<br />
Instead of his own, he gets to another stolen bag, which belongs to a formerly multi-million dollar now heavily <br />
indebted construction entrepreneur, and contains a memory stick with highly volatile material.<br />
In the following series of coincidences and implications, sneaky intrigues and chess moves,<br />
the allegedly simple cook Liu Yuejin proves to be an amazing sly dog and gets out of a tight spot.<br />
However he has caused a domino reaction of complexities<br />
from which – that will be clear in the end – he will not be able to free himself so quickly.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhenyun<br />
E-book<br />
From the Chinese by Marc Hermann<br />
DIX Verlag, ISBN 978-3-941651-03-6<br />
<br />
Lu Xun<br />
From the Chinese by Raoul Findeisen, Wolfgang Kubin, Florian Reissinger<br />
Unionsverlag - ISBN 978-3-293-00407-8<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
刘震云(51)，夺得了2008年中国畅销书排行榜的第一名的作者。此作是一部关于一个神奇的包的惊悚小说，其内容中含有对一些重要人物来说危险的东西。 -《来自中国的刘震云》作者: 马克•赫尔曼-迪克斯 ISBN 978-3-941651-01-2<br />
<br />
刘跃进，一个在北京建筑工地工作的善良而天真的厨师，他那被当作全部家产钱袋被偷了后，自己的整个世界似乎都塌了。被偷的钱包里有现金和他本来准备用来给自己买一家小餐馆，自己做老板而买的一张期票。之后，作为受害者的刘跃进，毅然踏上征程去找寻他丢失的包，然而没想到这场狩猎，却使他（误打误撞地）深入了当地更深的地下中去。他找到了不属于自己的另一个被偷的包，这个包属于一位曾经拥有数百万美元资产，现在却负债累累的建筑企业家，包中还有一个用高挥发性材料制成的记忆条。而接下来的一系列巧合和暗示，狡猾的阴谋和一个个局中，从来以单纯示人的厨师刘跃进却以像猎犬一样狡猾灵敏的智慧轻易摆脱了困境。然而，他已经引起了复杂的多米诺骨牌效应—这很清晰地显示出-他不可能这么快脱身。<br />
-《刘震云系列电子书》 作者：马克•赫尔曼-迪克斯 ISBN 978-3-941651-03-6<br />
-《鲁迅》作者:拉乌尔·芬代森、沃尔夫冈·库宾、弗洛里安·赖辛格Unionsverlag, ISBN 978-3-293-00407-8<br />
----<br />
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:01, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
刘震云（51岁）是2008年在中国畅销书排行榜上排名第一的作者。其作品是一部惊悚小说，讲的是一个神奇的包的故事，包里的一些东西会对主角造成危险。-《来自中国的刘震云》作者: 马克•赫尔曼-迪克斯 ISBN 978-3-941651-01-2<br />
<br />
刘跃进是一位善良天真的厨师，在北京某建筑工地上工作。他的钱袋被偷以后，整个世界似乎都崩塌了。钱袋里有一些现金和一张期票，他本来准备用那张期票买一家小餐馆，自己做生意。之后，作为受害者的刘跃进，毅然踏上征程去寻他丢失的钱袋。然而，意想不到的是，他误打误撞深入了当地更深的地下中去。刘跃进找到了另一个不属于自己的包，这个包是一位建筑企业家的，曾经拥有数百万美元资产，现在却负债累累；包中还有一个用高挥发性材料制成的记忆条。而在接下来的一系列巧合和暗示，狡猾的阴谋和一个个局中，从来以单纯示人的厨师刘跃进却如猎犬一般狡猾灵敏地轻易摆脱了困境。然而，他已经引起了复杂的多米诺骨牌效应—这很清晰地显示出-他不可能这么快脱身。<br />
<br />
--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 02:06, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
刘震云（51岁），在2008年中国最受欢迎的作家排行榜上名列第一，他的作品讲述了关于一个神秘包裹的惊悚故事，包裹里的东西对于某些重要人物而言充满了危机感。<br />
刘震云 马克•赫尔曼（中译德）迪克斯出版社：ISBN 978-3-941651-01-2<br />
刘跃进是北京某建筑工地上的一名厨师，他心地善良又为人老实。当装着他所有家当的钱袋被偷后，他感到仿佛整个世界都崩塌了。钱袋里有一些现金和一张期票。他本来打算用那张期票自己当老板开一家小餐馆。之后，作为受害者的他，毅然踏上了寻找他丢失的包的征程。然而没想到这场追逐却使他误打误撞地深入了当地的犯罪集团。他找到了另一个被偷的包。这个包的原主是一位曾经拥有数百万美元资产，现在却负债累累的建筑企业家。这个包里有一个用高挥发性材料制成的记忆条。于是在接下来的一系列巧合和暗示、狡猾的阴谋和陷阱中，向来心思单纯的厨师刘跃进不得不如猎犬一般狡猾灵敏地摆脱险境。然而，这很明显，他已经引起了复杂的多米诺骨牌效应，他也不可能轻易地脱离险境。<br />
<br />
刘震云 电子书 马克•赫尔曼（中译德）迪克斯出版社：ISBN 978-3-941651-03-6--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 02:57, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
<br />
Ma Jian <br />
From the English by Barbara Heller<br />
Schirmer Graf - ISBN 978-3-86555-063-7<br />
► When Ma Jian turned thirty, eight years after Mao's death, he decided to move on from the tight boundaries of Beijing.<br />
His country began to change and he wanted to get to know it. Nannan, his little<br />
daughter, was always with her mother; his girlfriend cheated on him; he felt supervised as an artist;<br />
his inspiration for writing or painting was at the end. He bought himself a train ticket to the furthest<br />
Western border of China and set out.<br />
Ma Jian's journey, by train and by hitchhiker, took three years and beaconed him to the lonely high valleys of<br />
Tibet, the iconic sites of Buddhism, the beautiful salt deserts and villages<br />
where the time stood still between the Middle Ages and communism.<br />
马健 芭芭拉·海勒（英译德）希尔默·格拉夫出版社：ISBN 978-3-86555-063-7<br />
在毛主席逝世后的第八年，马健已年满三十，他决定走出北京这紧绷的边界线继续前行。他开始改变国籍，想要了解国家的意义。他的小女儿楠楠一直跟着他的前妻，他的女朋友也背叛了他。他感受到了作为艺术家的压抑，随之而来，他对写作和绘画的热爱也消失殆尽。于是他坐火车出发去了中国最遥远的西部边界。在长达三年的旅途里，无论是乘火车还是搭便车，马健途经了西藏偏僻的高谷、佛教的标志性景点、美丽的盐湖和村庄，那些仿佛停留在中世纪和共产主义时代之间的地方。<br />
Mo Yan<br />
Translated by: Martina Hasse<br />
Horlemann - ISBN 978-3-89502-272-2<br />
► The novel begins on the 1 January 1950 in hell. Shortly before the traditional order of the rural China has been abolished by Mao Tsetung’s agrarian reform.<br />
For two years Prince Yama, the ruler of the underworld, has conquered the landowner Ximen Nao with every possible torment<br />
to force him to accept the charges, which lead to his<br />
execution by the small farmers. But Ximen Nao persistently asserts his innocence.<br />
Finally Yama gives in reluctantly and allows Ximen to return to the earth to his former possessions in the <br />
impoverished Shandong. But when he arrives there, he finds out to his disappointment<br />
that he was not reborn as a man, but as a donkey. With the eyes of the beast he traces the fate of his former family, his friends, rivals and enemies.<br />
Further reincarnations cause him to become a bull, a pig, a dog and a monkey and<br />
finally to a boy with a big head, who has an astounding memory and a talent for<br />
languages. From the rough and extraordinarily entertaining perspective of each character,<br />
this novel tells the last 50 years of the stormy history of China.<br />
莫言 玛蒂娜·哈斯（中译德）霍勒曼出版社：ISBN 978-3-89502-272-2<br />
这部小说讲述了中国农村从1950年1月1日开始的苦难经历，故事开始于毛泽东提出土地改革以废除传统中国农村土地制度前不久。两年来，阎王爷用尽一切可行的酷刑来迫使地主西门闹接受农民们希望他被处决的那些指控。但西门闹坚持认为自己是清白的。最终，阎王爷勉强地答应了，允许西门闹回到了那个并不富裕的山东，回到了他曾经的地盘。可是当他到达那儿时，他感到很失望，他这并不是重生，而是投胎成了一头驴。西门闹以动物之眼目睹了他的家族、朋友、对手和敌人们的命运。接着，西门闹又转世投胎成为了牛、猪、狗和猴子。最后，他终于转生为一个拥有惊人的记忆力和语言才能的大头男孩。这部小说透过粗略的和极富娱乐性的角色视角讲述了中国近五十年来的苦难历史。<br />
Mo Yan<br />
From the Chinese by Karin Betz<br />
Island ISBN 978-3-458-17446<br />
莫言 卡琳·贝兹（中译德）冰岛出版社：ISBN 978-3-458-17446<br />
Mo Yan<br />
From the Chinese by Andreas Donath<br />
Unionsverlag<br />
莫言 安德烈亚斯·多纳特（中译德）联合会出版社--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 02:06, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
<br />
Pu Yi<br />
From the Chinese by Richard Schirach and Mulan Lehner<br />
Paperback edition, dtv - ISBN 978-3-423-21168-0<br />
► Pu Yis exciting autobiography, source material for Bertolucci’s excellent film that won nine Oscars <br />
"The Last Emperor" gives absurd and also fascinating insights into the world of the Forbidden City that has sunk with him<br />
and leads from the confusion of the Chinese Civil War to the prisons of the Peoples’s Republic <br />
where Pu Yineun was given a longstanding reeducation, which made the former ruler of millions to a convinced follower of Mao and the "New Person"<br />
<br />
Qiu Xiaolong<br />
From the English by Susanne Hornfeck<br />
Zsolnay - ISBN 978-3-551-05461-4<br />
► On a traffic island in the middle of Shanghai, the corpse of a woman is found at dawn. She<br />
is wearing a tight red silk dress, a "qipao", as it was frowned upon during the cultural revolution, and for <br />
now comes back into fashion Shortly afterwards one discovers a second and soon afterwards a third<br />
female corpse. Chief Inspector Chen, who is the only one who knows how to get the psychological profile of a serial killer,<br />
deals with a real estate scandal and finally wants to crown his literature studies with an academic degree. In the meantime, his young colleague strikes out as<br />
a decoy on a dangerous mission ...<br />
<br />
Qiu Xiaolong<br />
Translated by: Susanne Hornfeck<br />
Paperback edition, dtv - ISBN 978-3-423-21128-4<br />
►Chief Inspector Chen has long dreamed of a trip to America. And now the<br />
romancing policeman is commissioned to accompany a writer delegation to the USA. But the onetime opportunity<br />
is more than unfavorable for Chen. For he has received an order which actually requires his full<br />
commitment in Shanghai: After the death of a policeman in a brothel, the supreme party administration obliges him to finally put atop to the activities of the "red rats" - corrupt officials and bribes selling<br />
neocapitalists. However, as early as the first investigations, Chen has to realise that he will have to deal with powerful<br />
party leaders who are not sticking at nothing...<br />
<br />
摘自理查德席拉赫和木兰莱纳中文平装版书籍中有关溥仪的记载。dtv - ISBN 978-3-423-21168-0 ► 情节激动的溥仪的自传是贝托鲁奇拍摄的优秀电影《末代皇帝》的文献参考来源，这部电影获得了九项奥斯卡大奖，他对紫禁城的世界给予了荒谬而迷人的见解。溥仪在中国内乱、战争不断期间，经历了从在紫禁城里的生活一直到新中国成立被送入人民共和国的监狱里接受改造的生活，他被赋予了长期的再教育，使他这位曾经统治过许多人的统治者面目一新，成为了毛泽东思想的忠实追随者和人民共和国的新生公民。<br />
<br />
裘小龙摘自苏珊娜•霍恩菲克•兹索尔内英文版书籍的记载。 - ISBN 978-3-551-05461-4►黎明时分在上海市中心的一个交通要道上，发现了一具女尸。这具女尸穿着一件紧身的红色丝绸长裙，一件“旗袍”，这种样式在文化大革命期间曾遭到人们的冷遇，现在又流行起来了，不久之后，人们发现了第二具女尸，过了不久又发现了第三具女尸。陈警长是唯一一个擅长如何模拟连环杀手心理特征的人，他处理过一桩房地产丑闻案件，最后他希望自己的文学研究能够获得一个学位。而与此同时，他的年轻同事在一次危险的任务中充当了诱饵……<br />
<br />
裘小龙所翻译的苏珊娜•霍恩菲克平装版书籍的记载。 dtv - ISBN 978-3-423-21128-4►陈警长一直梦想着去美国旅行。现在，这位充满浪漫风度的警察被派去美国参加一个作家代表团大会，但是时机对陈警长来说非常不好。因为他收到了一份命令，上级需要他在上海着手解决一件案子。继一名警察在妓院执行任务时牺牲后，党的最高行政当局责成他查获捣毁一个靠腐败官员和贿赂新兴资本家起家的“红老鼠”活动集团。然而，早在第一次调查时，陈警长就应该意识到，他将不得不对付那些拥有一切、权势滔天的利益集团首脑们……--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 04:39, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
<br />
Jiang Rong<br />
<br />
From the Chinese by Karin Hasselblatt<br />
Goldmann - ISBN 978-3-442-31108-8<br />
► During the cultural revolution in the 1960s the Chinese student Chen Zhen is sent to the interior <br />
Mongolia. There he shall learn about the life of nomadic cattle breeders. Immediately he is<br />
completely captivated by this completely unknown and archaic world. On the side of<br />
Bilgees, his old Mongolian teacher, he defies snowstorms and torriding heat, and gets<br />
insight into the ancient myths and traditions of the Mongolian people. Especially Chen Zhen becomes acquainted with the wolves, whose wisdom and courage the have always fascinated Mongols – and soon connects him a deep love to a wolf-boy, which he is breeding. But then disaster announces itself, because when the Chinese sense the economic potential of the Mongolian steppe, greed for profit<br />
and blind faith in progress are threatening to destroy the centuries-long balance between man and nature …<br />
<br />
姜戎<br />
《中国人》作者：卡琳·哈塞尔布拉特<br />
出版社：Goldmann -ISBN 978-3-442-31108-8<br />
20世纪60年代，文化大革命时期，中国学生陈真被送到了蒙古。他将在那儿了解游牧民族的生活。他一来就完全被这个完全未知、古老的世界迷住了。在跟随蒙古老师比尔盖斯学习时，他无惧风雪酷暑，深入了解了蒙古族远古的神话和传统。最特别的是，他认识了狼群。陈真的智慧和勇敢一直让蒙古人钦佩不已-不久后，他十分疼爱一个狼孩，这个狼孩由他养育。但是一场灾难不期而至，因为当中国人察觉到蒙古大草原人的经济潜力后，对于利益的贪婪和对于进步的盲目追求威胁着打破人与自然间几百年的平衡...--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 02:04, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Tei Chiew-Siah<br />
From the English by Claudia Feldmann<br />
Droemer - ISBN 978-3-426-19823-0<br />
► China 1875: The small pavilion at the pond is the favorite place of the young Mingzhi. Finally he has a safehold, where he can prepare himself for the examination of Mandarin. By becoming an officicial he will fulfill the dream of his grandfather and give the family power and honor But strangers bring unrest into the country - and the eyes of a young woman confusion in Mingzhi's heart.<br />
<br />
德智秀<br />
《英语》作者：克劳迪娅·费尔德曼<br />
出版社：Droemer -ISBN 978-3-426-19823-0<br />
中国1875：小明志最喜欢的地方就是池塘边的小亭子。他终于有了一个安全的秘密基地，他可以在那儿准备普通话考试。要是成为了一名官员，他就能实现他祖父的梦想，给家庭带来权利和荣誉，但是陌生人却给这个国家带来了动荡-还给明志的心捎来了一双年轻女人困惑的眼眸。<br />
<br />
Emily Wu / Larry Engelmann<br />
<br />
Paperback Edition, Droemer - ISBN 978-3-426-78179-1<br />
► Emily Wu is still a child when Mao's cultural revolution throws her world into turmoil. As a daughter of a professor<br />
she must experience something unimaginable: Her family and she herself are again and again exposed to<br />
repressions and humiliations. Harassment, torture and rape are the order of the day. But with much courage and inventiveness, Emily succeeds in breasting her destiny<br />
and to win the daily struggle for survival. In the end she has matured in the years of terror – and finds a first love ...<br />
<br />
吴慧卿/拉里·恩格曼<br />
<br />
装帧：平装版，出版社：德勒默尔-ISBN 978-3-426-78179-1<br />
当毛泽东的文化革命把吴慧卿的世界推入深渊时，她还是一个小孩。作为一个教授的女儿，她一定经历一些难以想象的事情：她的家庭和她自己，一次又一次遭受打压、羞辱。骚扰、折磨和强奸是常事。但是凭借着极大的勇气和创造力，艾米丽为了生存成功地战胜了自己的命运和那些每日的艰难困苦。最终，她在恐怖的岁月里变得成熟-而且收获了自己的初恋. . .<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
<br />
Ouyang Xiu<br />
From the Chinese by Anne Guder-Meng<br />
Ostasien Verlag - ISBN 978-3-940527-24-0<br />
► Ouyang Xiu (1007-1072), a court official, who exceled as a historian, poet and essayist at the same time, belonged to the leading figures of the Song time (960-1279). In his Guitian lu,<br />
literally "notes after returning to the fields", he teases in a total of 116 anecdotes<br />
about current mischief at the imperial court and about the quirks of his colleagues at court. As a<br />
typical work of the genre "brushes" (biji) is here primarily an<br />
entertainment literature for the educated upper class given. But the attentive reader feels behind the subtle<br />
mockery the voice of the strict Confucian, who sets high standards on himself and on others and who sees the reason for the dysfunctions of his time especially in the misconduct of people in high<br />
positions. This book contains beside a first complete translation of the Guitian Lu into a Western language also the original, an introduction as well as numerous helpful comments for the text understanding..<br />
<br />
欧阳修<br />
安妮-古德曼的中文<br />
东亚出版社-ISBN 978-3-940527-24-0<br />
►欧阳修（1007-1072），法院官员，同时也是历史学件、诗人和散文家，是宋朝时期（960-1279）的先驱。在他的《归田录》里，字面意思就是“回到某处后再记录”，他记录了116件关于当时朝廷中的是非曲直以及其他同僚官员的怪癖轶事。<br />
作为笔记体的经典之作，《归田录》是给上层知识阶级的消闲读本。但是细心的读者却感到其微妙的背后来自严格的儒家嘲笑的声音，儒家为自身和其他学派、以及了解当朝衰败原因的人尤其是有较高地位却行为不正的人树立了高标准。<br />
这本书包含除了《归田录》第一版完整的西方语言译本之外，原本、简介以及大量帮助理解文本的有用评价...--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 16:27, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu Lu<br />
From the Chinese by Anna Stecher and Zhang Weiyi<br />
Edition Raetia - ISBN 978-88-7283-305-6<br />
► "And I am dumb, can not tell the weather winds / How the time of stars ticks the sky."<br />
These lines of the poet Dylan Thomas are preceded in the novel by the Chinese author Xu Lu.<br />
It is precisely this poetic ticking of time – in Chinese Dida, similar to the onomatopoeicTicktack - that forms<br />
the background melody of this novel. Xu Lu tells the story of Weila, Di Xia, Yu Qian and Huo<br />
Yining, four young people, their experiences and dreams. The novel is characterized by<br />
overlapping Language Levels: Xu Lu tries to break through the tight cage of the Chinese language with a for<br />
the so-called "after-80s generation" (ba ling hou) typical mix of everyday language, literary language<br />
and youthful street slang. Thus language and content unite into a portrait of a generation that is loooking for identity - in a country in turmoil.<br />
<br />
徐路<br />
安娜·斯蒂彻和张维义的中文 <br />
雷掣出版社- ISBN 978-88-7283-305-6<br />
► “我无以名状天气和风/ 亦或天上星星滴答烁耀的时间。“<br />
中国作家徐路将诗人迪伦托马斯的这行诗句写进其小说的前序里。<br />
ticking of time在中文里准确地说是“时间的嘀嗒”，嘀嗒和ticktack一样，是拟声词——这奠定了整篇小说的背景基调。<br />
徐路将说了四位年轻人维拉、迪夏、于倩和霍伊宁的故事、经历和梦想。这部小说的特点是语言水平重叠：徐路想要挣脱所谓80后中文紧凑特点的束缚，融合当下时兴的文学语言和年轻的街头流行语。<br />
因此语言和内容的融合是在国家处于动荡时期时，想要证明自己的年轻一代的真实写照。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 16:27, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
<br />
Xu Zechen<br />
From the Chinese by Marc Hermann<br />
Berlin Taschenbuch Verlag - ISBN 978-3-8333-0599-3<br />
► Dunhuang is in his mid-twenties. Driven by the dream of making big money in the capital<br />
he travels to Beijing. He joins a gang of document counterfeiters and works with his friend Baoding<br />
as a recruiter and deliverer on the street. The business is going well until they begin to be careless<br />
and the police arrests them. Three months later, Dunhuang comes free and goes once again to the bad. He gets to know the somewhat older Xiaorong, they sell DVD bootlegs, they<br />
have sex, then Xiaorong reconciles with her ex-boyfriend, and Dunhuang must battle his way alone.<br />
He sells porn and meets the pretty Qibao, they become a couple. But Qibao keeps an abundant eccentric life and is arrested ...<br />
<br />
Yan Lianke<br />
From the Chinese by Ulrich Kautz<br />
Taschenbuchausgabe, List, ISBN 978-35-4860-909-6<br />
► A brave soldier and the sex-hungry wife of a divisional commander reverve Maos China<br />
uncompromisingly their love and spark the most beautiful, crazy and wild counterrevolution<br />
of the People's Republic. Yan Lianke's novel became an easy prey for the censorship in China and got an international cult novel on the internet.<br />
<br />
Yang Jiang<br />
From the Chinese by Monika Motsch<br />
Schirmer Count<br />
► Yang Jian is the widow of the famous writer and scholar Qian Zhongshu (1910-<br />
1998). In her novel she portrays her life with Qian Zhongshu and the daughter of the two - up to<br />
her tragic death. But first, she describes the life of the three in a thrilling and humorous way:<br />
wedding, studying in Oxford and Paris, birth of the daughter, returning to China which ia occupied by Japan;<br />
then the founding of the PRC, Qian Zhongshu's work in the English translation committee of the works by<br />
Mao Zedongs, political campaigns and cultural revolution; Finally rehabilitation and seniority. Yang Jian<br />
not only illustrates impressively the development of the three main characters, but also the<br />
upheavals of the Chinese society into the 21st century.<br />
<br />
徐则臣，马克•赫尔曼译，柏林手抄报出版社-国际标准书号：978-3-8333-0599-3<br />
► 敦煌二十多岁。在赚大钱梦想的驱使下他来到了北京。他加入了一个伪造证件的团伙，和他的朋友保定负责街道招聘和配送工作。生意一直很好，直到他们粗心大意， 被警察逮捕。三个月后，敦煌被释放了，又一次堕落了。他认识了年纪有点大的小袖。他们售卖盗版DVD，并发生了关系。后来小袖和前男友复合，敦煌不得不一个人孤军奋战。他出售色情作品，遇见了善良的七宝，并成为了恋人。但是七宝生活十分怪异，也被捕了...<br />
<br />
阎连科，乌尔里希•考兹译，手册版-国际标准书号：978-35-4860-909-6<br />
► 一位勇敢的战士和一位性欲强的师长的妻子向往毛泽东时期的中国，对其产生了深沉的爱，激起了最美丽、疯狂的反革命情感。阎连科的小说很容易成为中国审查制度的牺牲品，变成国际邪教网络小说。<br />
<br />
杨绛，莫妮卡•莫奇译，希尔默伯爵<br />
► 杨绛是著名作家兼学者钱钟书（1910-1998）的妻子。她在小说中描绘了生前与钱钟书和女儿的生活。但首先，她用激动人心和幽默的方式描述了这三个人的生活：举行婚礼，在牛津和巴黎的学习，生女儿，回到被日本占领的中国，然后成立中华人民共和国，毛泽东在英文翻译委员会翻译钱钟书的作品，政治运动和文化大革命； 最后恢复名誉和衰老。 杨绛不仅描绘了三个令人印象深刻的主要人物的人生，而且见证了21世纪中国社会的剧变。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:14, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
徐则臣，马克•赫尔曼译，柏林手抄报出版社-国际标准书号：978-3-8333-0599-3<br />
► 敦煌二十多岁。为了赚大钱他来到了首都北京。他加入了一个伪造证件的团伙，和他的朋友保定一起在街上招人还有送货。生意一直很好，直到他们不小心被警察抓获。三个月后，敦煌被释放了，但他又一次堕落了。他认识了年纪有点大的小袖。他们售卖盗版DVD，并发生了关系。后来小袖和前男友复合，敦煌又变成了一个人。他继续出售色情作品，之后遇见了善良的七宝，并和她成为了恋人。但是七宝生活十分怪异，随后被捕。<br />
<br />
阎连科，乌尔里希•考兹译，手册版-国际标准书号：978-35-4860-909-6<br />
► 一位勇敢的战士和一位性欲很强的师长夫人向往毛泽东时期的中国，对其产生了深沉的爱，激起了最美丽、疯狂的反革命情感。阎连科的小说很容易成为中国审查制度的牺牲品，变成国际邪教网络小说。<br />
<br />
杨绛，莫妮卡•莫奇译，希尔默伯爵<br />
► 杨绛是著名作家兼学者钱钟书（1910-1998）的妻子。她在小说中描绘了生前与钱钟书和女儿的生活。但首先，她用激动人心和幽默的方式描述了这三个人的生活：举行婚礼，在牛津和巴黎的学习，生女儿，回到被日本占领的中国，然后成立中华人民共和国，毛泽东在英文翻译委员会翻译钱钟书的作品，政治运动和文化大革命； 最后恢复名誉和衰老。 杨绛不仅描绘了三个令人印象深刻的主要人物的人生，而且见证了21世纪中国社会的剧变。--[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 10:55, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
<br />
Yang Lian<br />
From the Chinese by Wolfgang Kubin and Karin Betz.<br />
Suhrkamp - ISBN 978-3-518-42121<br />
<br />
Yang Xianhui<br />
From the Chinese by Katrin Buchta.<br />
edition suhrkamp - ISBN 978-3-518-12591<br />
<br />
Yu Hua<br />
From the Chinese by Ulrich Kautz<br />
Fischer - ISBN 978-3-10-095803-7<br />
► Two brothers - two lives. Li is a clever businessman. He sells garbage and worn out<br />
suits from Japan. Li scoops up millions. Brother Song is prudent, an aesthete and eternal<br />
misadventurer. A bit too good for the modern China – the wild capitalism. But he also wants to share in the<br />
economic miracle. So he enlarges his breast surgically to sel a gel to the countrywomen which makes the breasts fuller. Brüder is the tragicomic story of Li and Song, who survive the horrors of the cultural revolution and try their luck in the new China.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jie<br />
From the Chinese by Eva Müller<br />
Unionsverlag<br />
<br />
杨莲，沃尔夫冈·库宾和卡琳·贝茨译（中译德），苏尔坎普出版社 -国际标准书号： 978-3-518-42121<br />
<br />
杨显惠，卡特林·布克塔译（中译德），苏尔坎普出版社 -国际标准书号： 978-3-518-12591<br />
<br />
余华，高力希译-国际标准书号：978-3-10-095803-7 ►《兄弟》-两种不同人生。李光头是一个聪明的商人，他倒卖日本来的废物和旧西服，并因此赚的腰缠万贯。而宋岗谨慎细微，是一个唯美主义者，也是一个永远的不幸者。这一角色对于现代中国-疯狂的资本主义来说，太过于美好。但是他也想在这一场经济奇迹中分一杯羹，于是他自己做了丰胸手术去卖丰乳霜。《兄弟》描述了李光头和宋岗两兄弟的悲惨故事，他们一边在文化大革命的恐怖之中谋求生存，一边在新中国碰碰运气。<br />
<br />
张杰，梅薏华译（中译德），联合出版社--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 03:54, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
杨莲，沃尔夫冈·库宾和卡琳·贝茨译（中译德）<br />
苏尔坎普出版社 -ISBN 978-3-518-42121<br />
<br />
杨显惠，卡特林·布克塔译（中译德）<br />
苏尔坎普出版社 -ISBN 978-3-518-12591<br />
<br />
余华，高力希译-ISBN 978-3-10-095803-7 <br />
►《兄弟》-两种人生。李光头是一个精明的商人，他废品和日本旧西服，并因此赚的腰缠万贯。而宋岗谨慎细微，是一个唯美主义者，也是一个永远的不幸者。他的理想对于现代中国-疯狂的资本主义来说，显得太过于美好，有些格格不入。但是他也想在这一场经济奇迹中分一杯羹，于是他自己做了丰胸手术去卖丰乳霜。《兄弟》描述了李光头和宋岗两兄弟的悲惨故事，他们在文化大革命的恐怖之中生存下来，在新中国做生意碰运气。<br />
<br />
<br />
张杰，梅薏华译（中译德）<br />
联合出版社<br />
--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:53, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
<br />
Zhu Wen<br />
From the Chinese by Frank Meinshausen<br />
A1-Verlag, ISBN 978-3-940666-07-9<br />
► Six stories about the modern China: laconic, with wit and sarcasm, Zhu Wen draws<br />
the image of a Chinese society that is caught between communism and capitalism<br />
in which all values and securities begin to totter.<br />
A boat trip on the Yangzi, which is ill-starred from the beginning. Meanwhile the first-person narrator feels without his assistance imperiled in Kafkaesque manner to the arbitrariness of new people; a factory worker who accidentally gets caught in the clutches of a mafiaous family, which accuses him that he bumped with a bicycle into their grandfather; a young man, who is compelled by the family of a friend to keep night watch at the sickbed of the freshly operated father.<br />
Unexpectedly he is exposed to the whims of the father and to the apparatus of a ramshackled, profit-oriented hospital; or the first-person narrator in the title story, a luckless writer in a Chinese<br />
provincial town, who gets a visit from his father and wants to make him a few nice days, in fact<br />
with the things that are most important for him in his own life: money and sex.<br />
<br />
朱文<br />
富兰克 麦恩绍泽译（德译中） A1出版社 国际标准图书号978-3-940666-07-9<br />
关于当代中国的六个故事：朱文以简洁机智和讽刺的的手法描绘了一个中国社会形象,这个社会既存在资本主义又存在社会主义，所有的价值观和信任观都开始崩塌。扬子江上的航行,开头是悲惨的。与此同时，没有他的协助主人公在卡夫卡式的随意性上是做得不好的，一位工人无意间被黑手党家庭抓住，指责他骑自行车撞倒了他们的祖父。一位年轻人被朋友的家人逼着为刚刚做完手术的父亲守夜，他无意中发现父亲的任性、一个摇摇欲坠的家庭和唯利是图的医院。题名的主人公的故事:一个悲惨的中国省城作家，他的父亲来看望他，并希望同他度过一些愉快的日子，但事实上是与他生命中最重要的钱与性过日子。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 08:37, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
朱文 ,富兰克·梅恩绍森译，A1出版社-国际标准图书号：978-3-940666-07-9<br />
►当代中国的六个故事：朱文用简洁、讽刺的手法描述了一个中国社会形象。这里资本主义和社会主义并存，所有的价值观和信任观都开始崩塌。长江之游是悲剧的开始。与此同时，没有他的帮助第一人称叙述者很难描绘对新人的蛮横刁难；一位工人无意间被黑手党抓住，并被指控骑自行车撞倒了他们的祖父；一位年轻人被朋友的家人逼着为刚刚做完手术的父亲守夜。他无意中发现了父亲奇怪的想法和一家唯利是图的医院。标题所讲故事中的第一人称叙述者是来自一个中国省城的悲剧作家。他的父亲来看望他，想和他过几天好日子。但是对于作家来说生活中最重要的是钱和性欲。<br />
--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 12:03, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
<br />
Zhu Xiao-Mei<br />
From the French of Anna Kamp<br />
Kunstmann - ISBN 978-3-88897-557-8<br />
► Beijing 1966: The musical genius kid Zhu Xiao-Mei is a great career as a Concert pianist predicted. But while Xiao-Mei is studying at the Conservatory,<br />
the Cultural revolution is starting. The cosmopolitan and culture loving Zhu family is suddenly considered as "bourgeois"<br />
which means in Mao's new China decadent, dangerous, counterrevolutionary. The young girl witnesses bewilderedly how notes get burned, her teachers get publicly humiliated, even executed. No student<br />
Can escape the force for denunciation and permanent self-criticism.<br />
Like all her classmates and relatives, Xiao-Mei is sent to a labor camp, spends five<br />
years of unimaginable hardship in a no-man’s-land on the edge of Mongolia. After years without music<br />
she discovers an old accordion in the camp, hesitantly hits a few keys. A melody is rising<br />
and with it the hope for another life.<br />
Now nothing can stop her: she puchases a piano, exercises like a possessed, flees from the camp<br />
to Beijing, finally arrives abroad after Isaac Stern's Chinatournee. Ten years takes her<br />
adventurous odyssey via Hong Kong, Los Angeles and Boston until she finally becomes in Paris an<br />
internationally acclaimed pianist and Bach interpreter.<br />
<br />
Anthologies<br />
Olga Barrio Jiménez / Eva Schestag (Eds.)<br />
A collection of Chinese classics. Volume I - IV<br />
Translated from the Chinese by Manfred Porkert<br />
Fischer<br />
► The Chinese literature is one of the oldest and richest literatures of the world. In four volumes and with numerous retranslations the collection of Chinese classics provides in its form a unprecedented panorama of the classical Chinese literature, poetry and novels in German.<br />
<br />
朱晓玫<br />
来自法国的坎普<br />
艺术家 国际标准书号978-3-8897-57-57-8<br />
► 北京 1966： 正如一位钢琴音乐家所预言，朱晓玫是一个音乐神童。但是当晓玫在音乐学院学习的时候，文化大革命开始了。胸怀世界，热爱文化的朱家突然被视为“资产阶级”，这在毛泽东当政的新中国被认为是腐朽的，危险的，反革命的。这个年轻的女孩困惑的目睹了自己的笔记本被烧毁，她的老师们被公开羞辱，甚至被处决。任何学生都逃不脱谴责和无尽的自我批评。和她所有同学和亲戚一样，晓玫被送到了劳教所，在蒙古边缘的无人地带度过了五年难以想象的艰苦生活。多年没有接触过音乐，后来她在劳教所里发现了一把旧手风琴。她犹豫地按了几个键，空气中升起了一段旋律，随之升起的是对往生的希望。现在，没有什么能够阻止她：她一逮到钢琴就像着了魔似的练习。她从劳教所逃到北京，最终又跟随艾萨克斯特恩的《唐人街》来到国外。她的冒险经历长达十年，途经香港，洛杉矶和波士顿，最终在巴黎成为国际知名钢琴家巴赫的翻译。<br />
<br />
选集<br />
奥尔加·巴里奥·希门内斯/伊娃·施塔格（编辑）<br />
《中国古典名著集》。第一卷至第四卷<br />
曼弗雷德·波克特·菲舍尔译自中文<br />
►中国文学是世界上最古老、最丰富的文学之一。《中国古典名著集》共分四卷，经多次重译，以前所未有的方式用德语展示了中国古典文学、诗歌和小说的全貌。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 09:11, 2 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
<br />
Benjamin et al.<br />
Tokyopop - ISBN 978-3-86719-738-0<br />
► 10 Chinese comic artists have got together to convey their<br />
sight of Beijing in word and image in a joint book. The approaches to the subject are very different, graphically extraordinarily diverse and always very personal.<br />
<br />
Alice Grünfelder (Eds.)<br />
Unionsverlag - ISBN 978-3-293-00406-1<br />
► Texts by Tibetan writers of the younger generation: Alai, Jamyang, Taering Oser,<br />
Tenzin Tsundue et al.<br />
<br />
Volker Klöpsch (eds.)<br />
insel taschenbuch - ISBN 978-3-458-35117-7<br />
► A butterfly in the bamboo holt, a rain of fragrant peach blossoms, shimmering jade in the moonlight<br />
- in images full of grace and poetry, the great Chinese masters extol the beloved. The<br />
present selection gathers the most beautiful poems from three thousand years. They are partially<br />
presented in German translation for the first time.<br />
Classical Chinese tales and stories<br />
Insel<br />
<br />
Liu Hsiang<br />
4 volumes<br />
From the Chinese by Hans Stumpfeldt<br />
Ostasien Verlag ISBN 978-3-940527-20, 978-3-940527-20-2, 978-3-940527-21-9, 978-3-940527-22-6<br />
► The Shuo-yüan is an early work of the Chinese narrative literature, which is here for the first time in a<br />
Translation into a Western language. It contains more than six hundred stories that are assembled after ethical-moral<br />
criteria by the librarian and archivist Liu Hsiang (79-8 BC). The stories are taken from a large number of earlier works. Many of them dropped out early from the written tardition To each of the twenty chapters an introduction will be attached.<br />
<br />
本杰明等，Tokyopop（日本著名出版社）-国际标准书号 978-3-86719-738-0<br />
► 10个中国漫画家联合创作、汇聚成书，用文字和图画来描绘他们眼中的北京。这种形式是不同寻常、千姿百态而又极具个人色彩的。<br />
<br />
爱丽丝 戈伦斐德（编辑），联合出版社-国际标准书号 978-3-293-00406-1<br />
► 来自年轻一代西藏作家的文字：阿莱，嘉央诺布， 达林奥泽，丹增尊珠等等<br />
<br />
福尔克尔 克勒普夫科（编辑），因泽儿出版社-国际标准书号-978-3-458-35117-7<br />
►竹林中的一只蝴蝶，桃花落英缤纷，香气四泄，月光下闪闪发亮的翡翠<br />
-中国大师们用充满诗意和优雅气质的意象歌颂挚爱。现有诗歌选集收录了三千年来中国古代最优美的诗歌。其中部分首次出现德语译本。<br />
经典中国传说故事<br />
因泽尔<br />
<br />
刘向<br />
4卷<br />
司徒汉选自中文<br />
东亚出版社 国际标准书号-978-3-940527-20, 978-3-940527-20-2, 978-3-940527-21-9, 978-3-940527-22-6<br />
《说苑》是中国叙述文学的一部早期作品，在此首次译作西方语言。该书包含了600多个道德准则故事，由图书、档案管理家刘向收录编辑而成。许多故事早已经偏离了书面传统，其中每二十章都附有介绍。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 03:57, 3 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
<br />
Li Jingze / Jing Bartz (eds.)<br />
From the Chinese by Hanne Chen, Johannes Fiederling, Karin Hasselblatt, Marc Hermann, Ulrich<br />
Kautz, Irmy Schweiger<br />
DIX Verlag, ISBN 978-3-941651-00-5<br />
► China is on the road, in turmoil and departure. Common certainties are shaken, conventions<br />
dissolve themselves. The present stories capture this dynamism that can hardly be hold in place. The ten<br />
Authors live in China and are also the inhabitants of a globalized world. This dynamic makes<br />
the stories so thrilling and accessible to Western readers.<br />
Broadly being spared from the trauma of the Mao period, the young authors keep pace with the times:<br />
unagitated, entertaining, and ironic, without a wagging finger and without false nostalgia, but<br />
even without the transfiguration of the gold-rush mood, that we, in the West, so gladly associate with today's China. In their very individual way they hold up a mirror to China.<br />
<br />
Li Jingze / Jing Bartz (eds.)<br />
E-book.<br />
DIX Verlag - ISBN 978-3-941651-02-9<br />
<br />
Christian Lux / Hans-Joachim Simm (eds.)<br />
Inael ISBN 978-3-458-17418-9<br />
► The Insel-Almanach for the year 2009 gives with exemplarily texts an overview on the Chinese literature in the past and present. In addition to that there are images, that convey an impression on <br />
Chinese art and calligraphy.<br />
李静泽/静巴茨编<br />
《来自中国》作者:陈汉，约翰内斯·费德尔林，卡琳·哈塞尔伯拉特，马克·赫尔曼，乌尔里希·考茨克，伊尔米·施威格 <br />
出版社名, ISBN 978-3-941651-00-5<br />
►中国正在前进，处于动荡和背离之中。共同的确定性被动摇了，传统自我消解了。现在的故事捕捉到了这种几乎无法保持的活力。这十位作者生活在中国，也是全球化世界的居民。这种动态使得故事对西方读者来说如此扣人心弦和平易近人。<br />
这些年轻的作者基本上没有受到毛泽东时代的创伤，他们与时代同步:平静、有趣、讽刺，没有摇手指，也没有虚假的怀旧，但是即使没有“淘金热”情绪的改变，我们西方人也乐于将其与当今的中国联系在一起。他们以自己独特的方式为中国树立了一面镜子。<br />
李静泽/静巴茨编<br />
电子书。<br />
出版社名 - ISBN 978-3-941651-02-9<br />
克里斯蒂安·卢克斯 / 汉斯-约阿希姆·西姆（eds）<br />
国际标准书号978-3-458-17418-9<br />
《2009年中国年鉴》以典型的文本概述了过去和现在的中国文学。除此之外，还有一些图像，它们传达了对中国艺术和书法的印象。<br />
--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 03:23, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
<br />
Frank Meinshausen / Anne Rademacher (eds.)<br />
dtv - ISBN 978-3-423-13770-6<br />
► The everyday life in the metropolises and in the province, the life in the homeland and in the emigration,<br />
family ties, friendships and love relationships, deep–rooted traditions and dreams of<br />
a self-determined future - the stories of contemporary Chinese authors are so<br />
diverse and dynamic like the Middle Kingdom itself.<br />
The stories by Fan Wu, Qi Ge, Yiyun Li, Ma Jian, Wu Chenjun, Xiaolu Guo, Sheng Keyi, Ha Jin, Li Dawei, Luo Lingyuan, Li Er and Zhu Wen. Mo Yan, Alai, Ye Zhaoyan, Li Feng, Feng Jicai. Short stories from China. Bilingual German-Chinese<br />
From the Chinese by Karin Hasselblatt and Katrin Buchta<br />
Chinabooks - ISBN 978-3-905816-19-8<br />
<br />
Alexander Saechtig (eds.)<br />
Weimar Schiller-Presse - ISBN 978-3-8372-0337-0<br />
<br />
Helga Sönnichsen (eds.)<br />
Ostasien Verlag - ISBN 978-3-940527-16-5<br />
So writes the author of the in<br />
this volume gathered poetry translations in her introduction. The poem translations are joined by the particular Chinese originals, but they are also accompanied by carefully<br />
selected pictorial material from the time the texts come from.<br />
<br />
<br />
弗兰克·梅恩斯豪森/安妮·拉德玛彻 <br />
数字电视-国际标准书号 978-3-423-13770-6<br />
►在大都市和省内的日常生活，在家乡和移民后的生活，亲情，友谊和爱情，根深蒂固的传统和自主选择的未来的梦想-当代中国作家的故事就是这样多样而又充满活力，就像中国一样。范武、齐歌、李依云、马健、吴辰君、郭小璐、盛可颐、哈金、李大为、罗玲媛、李尔、朱文。莫言、阿来、叶兆言、李峰、冯骥才。中国短篇小说。汉德双语汉译：Karin Hasselblatt和Katrin Buchta<br />
Chinabooks-国际标准书号 978-3-905816-19-8<br />
<br />
Alexander Saechtig（编辑）<br />
魏玛席勒出版社-国际标准书号 978-3-8372-0337-0<br />
<br />
Helga Sönnichsen（编辑）<br />
Ostasien Verlag-国际标准书号978-3-940527-16-5<br />
所以这本书的作者在她的介绍中收集了诗歌翻译。诗歌翻译与特定的中文原著连接，创造文本的同时还精心挑选了辅助的图片资料。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:28, 2 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao yining<br />
<br />
<br />
弗兰克·梅恩斯豪森/安妮·拉德玛彻 <br />
数字电视-国际标准书号 978-3-423-13770-6<br />
►在大都市和省内的日常生活，在家乡和移民后的生活，亲情，友谊和爱情，根深蒂固的传统和自主选择的未来的梦想-当代中国作家的故事就是这样多样而又充满活力，就像中国一样。范武、齐歌、李依云、马健、吴辰君、郭小璐、盛可颐、哈金、李大为、罗玲媛、李尔、朱文。莫言、阿来、叶兆言、李峰、冯骥才。中国短篇小说。汉德双语汉译：卡琳·哈塞尔布拉特和卡特林·布赫塔<br />
中华图书城-国际标准书号 978-3-905816-19-8<br />
<br />
亚历山大·赛奇蒂格（编辑）<br />
魏玛席勒出版社-国际标准书号 978-3-8372-0337-0<br />
<br />
赫尔加·塞尼希森（编辑）<br />
Ostasien Verlag-国际标准书号978-3-940527-16-5<br />
这样写道，这本书的作者在她的引言中收集了诗歌翻译。这些诗歌的翻译是由特定的中文原著组成的，但它们文本中也伴随着精心挑选的图片材料。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 03:39, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
<br />
Hans Stumpfeldt (eds.)<br />
Ostasien Verlag - ISBN 978-3-940527-18-9<br />
► The Han period (208 BC - 220 AD) was an epoch in which fundamental historical and philosophical traditions were originated.<br />
It is less known that it was also the May of the Chinese poetry. This volume brings together a selection of poems that were written by members of the most diverse classes, and which still appeal in their beauty and meaningfulness to the present reader. The poems are presented with the particular original text and embedded in its historical, cultural and literary context.<br />
<br />
Hans Stumpfeldt（编辑）<br />
Ostasien Verlag-国际标准书号978-3-940527-18-9<br />
► 汉朝(公元前208年至公元220年)是基本历史和哲学传统形成的时期。<br />
鲜为人知的是，汉朝是中国诗歌的五月。这个时期汇集的诗歌，由最多样化的阶级成员书写，其优美和内涵仍旧吸引着现在的读者。这些诗都以独特的文本呈现并根植于当时的历史、文化和文学之中。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:21, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Richard Wilhelm (eds.)<br />
Marix - ISBN 978-3-86539-201-5<br />
► One hundred fairy tales from the Middle Kingdom that reveal us more about Chinese thinking and feeling than the most academic treatises. This probably most famous collection of Chinese folktales was written down by Richard Wilhelm in Tsingtau in a long patient translating work. It is a whole cosmos of fairytale poetry: fairy tales and legends about gods, stories of saints and sorcerers, of natural and animal spirits, also ghost stories, historical legends and finally literary refined fairy tales like that of the monkey Sun Wu Kung, which plays through the mythological motifs and is filled with smiling humor. Soon we will be enchanted by Moon Fairy and Queen of Heaven, soon we will get to know Confucius, Laotse and the eight immortals. We experienced fantastic things about the spirits of the yellow river, the sect of the white lotus, the Monk at the Yangtsekiang.<br />
<br />
Richard Wilhelm（编辑）<br />
Marix-国际标准书号978-3-86539-201-5<br />
► 中国的一百个童话故事比大多数学术论文更能向我们展示中国人的思想和情感。这本可能是中国最著名的中国民间故事集，由理查德·威廉在青岛历史很久翻译而成。这是整个宇宙的童话诗，包括童话和神的传说、圣人和巫师、自然和动物、鬼故事、历史传说和古典童话，比如孙悟空这个形象既充满了神话色彩又幽默诙谐。通过这些故事，我们迅速迷上嫦娥和女娲,迅速了解孔子、老子和八仙。对于河伯、白莲宗、法海的奇遇，我们感同身受。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:21, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
<br />
Children’s and young people’s books<br />
Cui Aner<br />
Ueberreuter - ISBN 978-3-8000-5503-6<br />
► Chi You, the spirit of evil, has invaded the Dragonland where the people live. Just<br />
one can save them: Shaodian, a chosen young sage. Together with a warrior, a<br />
historian and a magician, he begins to search for the Great Dragon, the keeper of the people.<br />
<br />
Chen Jianghong<br />
From the French by Tobias Scheffel<br />
► The small Chen grows well-guarded with two sisters at his parents and grandparents in a<br />
city in the north of China. When Mao proclaims the Cultural Revolution in 1966, life changes:<br />
people are arrested and books burned. The family has little to eat. At school<br />
the teachers swear their students on the principles of Mao. Also Chen becomes a small red guard and<br />
proudly wears the red armband. One day the father receives a letter, which tells him that he has to go in a reeducation camp near the Russian border. The family hears just seldom of<br />
him. It is only after Mao's death in 1976 that the father can return.<br />
<br />
Chen Jianghong<br />
Lian<br />
2. Edition, Moritz - ISBN 978-3-89565-184-7<br />
► Because there were just a few fish this year, Lo, the fisherman, is sad. One day he receives from<br />
an very old woman in gratitude for bringing her in a terrible thunderstorm to the other shore of the lake, some lotus seeds. They are very special seeds, because they come from a throat of a dragon. Lo puts them in the earth and overnight a whole lotus field blooms. From one flower comes one<br />
little girl out - Lian. She is also very special, because she has a wonderful talent: Everything she touches with her magic lotus is transformed into treasures. But this evokes promptly<br />
the greed of the daughter of the Prefect...<br />
<br />
儿童书籍和青少年读本Cui Aner Ueberreuter-ISBN 978-3-8000-5503-6►邪恶的精神智友入侵了人们居住的龙之地。只有一个人可以拯救他们：少店，一位年轻的圣人。他与一个战士，一个历史学家和一个魔术师一起开始寻找人民的守护者大龙。<br />
<br />
陈江洪来自法国的作家Tobias Scheffel►在中国北方一个城市，小陈有两个姐姐在父母和祖父母的保护下长得很好。毛泽东在1966年宣布文化大革命时，生活发生了变化：人们被捕，书籍被焚毁。这个家庭几乎没饭吃。在学校，老师们以毛泽东的原则向学生发誓。陈也成为一个小的红卫兵，并自豪地戴着红色袖标。父亲有一天收到一封信，告诉他必须去俄罗斯边境附近的一个教育营。家人很少听到他的声音。只有在毛于1976年去世后，父亲才能返回。<br />
<br />
Chen Jianghong Lian 2.版，莫里茨-ISBN 978-3-89565-184-7►因为今年只有几条鱼，所以渔夫罗（Lo）感到很难过。有一天，他收到一位老妇人的谢意，感谢她将一场可怕的雷暴把一些莲子带到湖的另一岸。它们是非常特殊的种子，因为它们来自龙的喉咙。罗把它们放在地上，一夜之间，整个莲花田都盛开了。一朵小花从一个花朵里出来-莲。她也很特别，因为她拥有出色的才华：她与魔莲花接触的一切都变成了宝藏。但这立刻引起了州长女儿的贪婪...--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 13:49, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
<br />
Chen Jianghong<br />
Translated by: Erika and Karl A. Klewer<br />
Beltz & Gelberg - ISBN 978-3-407-76075-3<br />
► The history of the painter Han Gan from the 8th century has Chen Jianghong inspired to this picture book. He lived in China and only painted horses. Like Han Gan also Chen painted his pictures on silk.<br />
Spoken by Barbara Nüsse<br />
Jumbo Neue Medien - ISBN 978-3-8337-2420-6<br />
<br />
陈江洪创作这本画册起初是因为受到了公元8世纪的画家韩干的启发。韩干住在中国，只画马。像韩干一样，陈江洪也在丝绸上作画。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 09:09, 2 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
历史上，于八世纪，有个画家叫韩干，受其启发，陈江洪创作了这本画册。韩干居住在中国，而且他只画马。而陈江洪也像他一样，在丝绸上作画。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 09:21, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Daiealu<br />
edition nove - ISBN 978-3-85251-619-6<br />
<br />
Kate Dargaw / Igor Oleynikov<br />
From the Chinese by Marc Hermann<br />
DIX Verlag, ISBN 978-3-941651-40-1<br />
► Regularly at the beginning of the year, the Nian monster awakens in the sea, rises ashore and strikes everything<br />
it catches with itself: man and beast. Therefore, the villagers bundle their belongings together and<br />
flee into the mountains as soon as they hear its rumbling. Grandmother and grandson do not accomplish to escape<br />
and hide in the back of the house, they hold doors and windows ight locked. A beggar comes in search of something edible and wonders about<br />
the abandoned village. Of course, grandmother and her grandson share with him. And then he even has an idea,<br />
how to banish the monster: forever!<br />
For the returning villagers this is a miracle. That is why today the Chinese still celebrate their<br />
New Year's festival as the beggar showed it.<br />
<br />
通常，在新年之初，年兽会在大海中觉醒，跃至岸上，攻击它能抓到的一切事物，包括人和兽。因此，一听到年兽的咆哮，村民们就收拾东西逃到山里。奶奶和孙子没有跟着逃跑，他们躲在屋子后面，把门窗关得紧紧的。一个乞丐过来村里讨吃食，对这里荒凉的景象感到纳闷儿。从奶奶和孙子那里得知原因之后，他想到了一个办法，可以让年兽永远消失。<br />
年兽不见了，对回村的居民来说，这简直是天大的好事。因此，时至今日，中国人仍会庆祝春节。 --[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 09:09, 2 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
通常，于年初，年兽会在海中觉醒，跃至岸上，逮着什么，攻击什么，人兽无一幸免。因此，村民们一听到年兽咆哮，就赶紧匆忙收拾，逃去山里。有位祖母和孙子没能成功逃走，只好躲在房屋后面，把门窗死死锁住。有位乞丐边讨食边流浪到了这个废弃的村庄。祖孙俩便给了食物给他。后来，他竟然想了个主意，能驱逐年兽，让它永远进不来！这对回村的居民来说，可真是奇迹出现。这就是为什么直到今天，中国人还是会像那位乞丐所展示的那样，来庆祝春节。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 09:43, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
<br />
Kate Dargaw / Igor Oleynikov<br />
From the Chinese by Marc Hermann<br />
DIX Verlag, ISBN 978-3-941651-41-8<br />
► The Chinese count the years after 12 animals. Just why mouse, ox, tiger, bunny, dragon,<br />
snake, horse, goat, monkey, rooster, dog and pig? Well, these are the big winners of the<br />
Imperial race. But it was not that easy to be one of the chosen ones! The race, that<br />
the Jade Emperor proclaims, will be a thrill for all participants. And because the mouse went flagrantly behind the cat’s back, today the two are enemies in all countries of the world!<br />
<br />
K.T. Hao / Giuliano Ferri<br />
From the Chinese by Marc Hermann<br />
DIX Verlag, ISBN 978-3-941651-42-5<br />
► Dubai can absolutely not fall asleep. What a luck the little elephant got a<br />
Magic book as a gift. Since then he has been sleeping well and has the sweetest dreams - at least until he is scared that this treasure could get lost. No stash seems <br />
secure enough to him now. He climbs higher and higher. But that is not the solution. And then it happens: one day<br />
his book is gone. But because it's a magic book ...<br />
<br />
<br />
刘嘉路（文）/伊戈尔·欧尼可夫（图） 马海默（中译德）出版社：DIX Verlag 国际标准书号 978-3-941651-41-8►中国人用十二生肖来计算年份。为什么刚好是鼠，牛，虎，兔，龙，蛇，马，羊，猴，鸡，狗和猪呢？其实，他们都是玉皇大帝举行的渡河大赛赢家。但是要成为十二名中的一员并不简单！玉皇大帝称，渡河比赛将让所有参赛者兴奋。而且因为老鼠悄无声息地跟在了猫的背后，至今这两种动物在全世界的任何国家都还是彼此的敌人。<br />
郝广才（文）/朱里安诺•费里（图） 马海默（中译德）出版社：DIX Verlag 国际标准书号： 978-3-941651-42-5 ►大象嘟宝怎么也睡不好，幸运的是，他获得了一本魔法书。自那之后嘟宝睡得又香又甜，还做着美梦。嘟宝把这本书当作宝贝，心里害怕着它会丢失。他觉得现在似乎没有一个隐秘处能够藏好这本魔法书，于是越爬越高，但这终究也不是个办法。接着，嘟宝担心的事情发生了，魔法书不见了，正巧是因为这是一本魔法书。<br />
--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 10:25, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
<br />
Marc Hermann<br />
DIX Verlag, ISBN 978-3-941651-72-2<br />
► Lilli would never have thought that a visit to the Chinese restaurant could be so exciting! The mysterious restaurant owner Mr. Wang and his strange fat cat Dr. Fu dedicate divulge a secret to her. Through a charmed mirror she enters a magical world, where dragons and other fabulous beasts are living.<br />
She becomes friends with a little dragon, and when her mother travels with her through China, the Dragon is always secretly by her side And so the adventure begins, because a gang of robbers. who steal dragons aim for Lilli’s cocky, poodle-sized dragon friend ...<br />
<br />
作者：马克•赫尔曼；出版社：DIX Verlag ISBN 978-3-941651-72-2<br />
莉莉（Lilli）怎么也没想到这次中国饭店之行会如此有趣！神秘的饭店老板王先生和他奇怪的肥猫，名叫福博士，向她透露了一个秘密。她穿过一面诱人的镜子，来到一个魔法世界，这里生活着龙还有一些传说中的野兽。她和一条小龙成为了朋友，她和妈妈在中国旅行时，这条小龙一直悄悄地陪着她。莉莉的这个小龙朋友，犬般大小，平时无拘无束，引起了一伙盗龙劫匪的注意。冒险自此展开……--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 15:14, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Max Kruse and Marlies Rieper-Bastian<br />
Ueberreuter - ISBN 978-3-219-11372-3<br />
► When Kathi's father reveals to the family that they will live for a while in China, the girl is<br />
clueless. However in the night, she receives a visit from the friendly Dragon Lung Kuan, who takes her on a<br />
journey to the far country. This is how Kathi gets to know great secrets and small differences ...<br />
<br />
作者：马克斯•克鲁斯＆玛丽斯•莱德<br />
凯西（Kathi）的爸爸告诉家人，他们将在中国住一段时间，对此凯西毫不知情。然而就在晚上，她的龙朋友宽龙过来看她，并带她去到一个遥远的国度。凯西得以了解一些巨大的秘密和微小的差异。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 15:14, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
爸爸跟家人说，他们将在中国待一段时间，此时的凯西还全然不知。到了晚上，“宽龙”来看她，这是一只友好的龙。它带凯西去了另一个遥远的国度，凯西因此知道了一些大秘密并察觉到了一些小变化。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:32, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
<br />
Maximilian Paulin<br />
Translated by: Susanne Wechdorn<br />
Tyrolia - ISBN 978-3-7022-2905-4<br />
► Telling strange people in strange countries something about God? Today thats still a great challenge. 150 years ago a boy from a small village between the mountains of South Tyrol <br />
felt this wish deep in his heart: Josef Freinademetz from Oies. After he became a priest, he joined the Steyler missionaries and went to China. Because the Europeans wanted<br />
to establish there their rule and become rich. For sure the Chinese had understandably no pleasure with that. Josef must discover a lot of disappointments. But he does not give up. And when he is loosing his last forces,<br />
he suddenly finds out that there is still someone on his side:<br />
Fuschu. A small and very real Chinese dragon! Whether that can help him to understand the Chinese?<br />
<br />
Marie Th. Schins<br />
Sauerländer - ISBN 978-3-7941-6150-8<br />
► When the 12-year-old Siong lands with a loud bang in the pitch-black cellar of a hotel somewhere in Hong Kong, he suspects that this journey through China will be quite exciting.<br />
In addition to his adventurous grandpa, his friends Lee and the (not always) lovely<br />
Litju accompany him . Together, they travel from the gigantic skyscraper city to Beijing,<br />
Shanghai, the Great Wall, Chengde and Hainan Island. Siong is stunned by this<br />
Versatile, difficult to access culture with its moving history.<br />
马克西米利安·波林，翻译者：苏珊娜·魏希顿·蒂罗里亚 - ISBN 978-3-7022-2905-4 和陌生国度的陌生人谈论上帝的事？在今天这仍然是一个很大的挑战。150年前，在南蒂罗尔群山之中的一个小村庄中，有一个小男孩，他心中深深地怀着这个愿望：约瑟夫·弗赖纳德梅茨，来自奥伊斯。在他成为牧师之后，加入了斯特尔传教士，之后前往中国。由于欧洲人想在中国建立自己的统治并且致富。中国人自然不会因此而感到开心。约瑟夫想必目睹了许多令人失望的事情，但他却仍未放弃。在他用尽自己最后的力量时，他突然发现还是有人站在他这一边的：福初，一只小巧真切的中国龙！到底福初能否帮助他理解中国人呢？<br />
玛丽·史金斯·萨兰德- ISBN 978-3-7941-6150-8 随着一声巨响，12岁的松来到了香港某处一家宾馆漆黑的地窖里。他猜想这趟中国行一定十分精彩。除了他充满冒险精神的爷爷，他的朋友李以及可爱的李菊也随他同行。他们一起，从大厦林立的香港前往北京，上海，登上长城，去到承德，海南岛。这些丰富的，难以接触到的文化，以及动人的历史故事让松感到深深的震撼。<br />
--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 14:50, 2 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
马克西米利安·波林 <br />
翻译：苏珊·韦登·特罗里亚<br />
-ISBN 978-3-7022-2905-4<br />
►告诉陌生国家的陌生人一些关于上帝的事情？今天，这仍然是一个巨大的挑战。150年前，在南蒂罗尔山脉之间的一个小村庄里，有一个男孩深深地怀揣着这个愿望：来自奥伊斯的约瑟夫·弗赖纳德梅茨。成为牧师后，他加入了斯特尔传教士，并前往了中国。因为欧洲人想在那里建立自己的统治并致富，中国人显然对此并不高兴。约瑟夫无可奈何地经历了许多让他失望的事情。但是他并没有放弃。当他精疲力尽的时刻，突然发现还有人和他并肩作战：福初，一条小巧真诚的中国龙！福初是否真的可以帮助他理解中国人呢？<br />
玛丽·史金斯·萨兰德<br />
-ISBN 978-3-7941-6150-8<br />
►伴随一声轰鸣，12岁的松进入了香港某酒店的一个漆黑地窖之中，他预想这次中国之旅一定会非常刺激。除了他爱冒险的爷爷之外，还有他的朋友李和（并非总是）可爱的李菊陪他一起。他们一起从高楼林立的香港前往北京，上海，去了长城，承德和海南岛。 松被这种缤纷多彩，难以捉摸的文化及其动人的历史震撼到了。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 16:10, 2 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
<br />
Yang Hongying [list place 7, children’s writer]<br />
Translated by: Ulrike Lotz.<br />
Egmont Franz Schneider - ISBN 978-3-505-12660-4<br />
► It is winter and the Jade Lake Park is not busy. Until two strange dogs appear suddenly and<br />
they behave strangely. The laughing cat and his friend, the Pekinese lady, want absolutely<br />
find out what is wrong with the two, and encounter a series of mysteries secrets ...<br />
<br />
Yang Hongying [list place 7, children’s writer]<br />
Translated by: Ulrike Lotz<br />
Egmont Franz Schneider - ISBN 978-3-505-12661-1<br />
► The cats in the park are angry. On the roof of the great white tower appeared suddenly a beautiful striped cat. It is strictly forbidden to climb there up for any other cat! An extraordinary meeting is convened immediately. As an old mouse gets wind of the crazy going-ons of the cats, she figures out a plan together with the other mice ..<br />
<br />
杨红樱【名单中第七位，儿童文学作家】<br />
译者：Ulrike Lotz<br />
Egmont Franz Schneider - ISBN 978-3-505-12660-4<br />
►正值冬日，翠湖公园人迹寥落，两只陌生的狗突然出现打破了这种平静，这两只狗行动怪异,笑猫和他的朋友--那只京巴狗,下定决心要查明这两只狗是怎么回事，因而遇到了一系列神秘的谜团...<br />
<br />
正值冬日，翠湖公园人迹寥落，两只陌生又行为怪异的狗突然出现打破了这种平静。笑猫和他的朋友--那只京巴狗,下定决心要查明这两只狗是怎么回事，因而遇到了一系列神秘的谜团...--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 09:06, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
杨红樱【名单中第七位，儿童文学作家】<br />
译者：Ulrike Lotz<br />
Egmont Franz Schneider - ISBN 978-3-505-12661-1<br />
► 大白塔的顶上突然来了一只漂亮的条纹猫，这让公园里的猫们很生气，其他猫爬塔顶是被坚决禁止的！这群猫立即召开了临时会议，而一只老老鼠在得知猫的疯狂行径后，便和其他老鼠一起想出了一个计划...--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:25, 2 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
杨红樱【名单中第七位，儿童文学作家】<br />
译者：Ulrike Lotz<br />
公园里有一座美丽的白塔。一天，一只漂亮的虎皮猫突然出现在塔顶。这惹怒了一群公园里的猫，他们都上不去的地方，决不允许别的猫爬上去！他们开会咒骂，愤怒地游行……这些疯狂地行为，受到了老老鼠的嘲弄，她和公园里的老鼠们一起想出了一个计划……--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 03:23, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
<br />
Nydia Yang<br />
From the Chinese by Marc Hermann<br />
DIX Verlag, ISBN 978-3-941651-43-2<br />
► Picture books not only show the world through a rose-colored glasses. Divorce and break-up of parents belong today to the<br />
everyday life of many children. How do we talk about it - as parents and grandparents, educators and teachers,<br />
relatives or friends?<br />
'The pale red balloon' loses the brightness of its color, depending on the mood of the<br />
child of divorce, because for the boy suddenly his ideal world is burst. And for a long time<br />
no one notices how he really feels, everything seems to be regulated and reorganized. Only when father and mother<br />
understand that they go separate ways like sun and moon, but will always stay together as parents for their child, his balloon begins to shine bright again.<br />
<br />
Katharina Bachmann<br />
Let's get out. About wanderlust and blowing in the distance<br />
Shaker - ISBN 978-3-86858-182-9<br />
<br />
妮迪亚·杨<br />
马海默；赫尔曼所译中文版本<br />
出版社： DIX Verlag, ISBN 978-3-941651-43-2 <br />
图画书不仅通过一个玫瑰红的杯子来展现世界。父母的离异与分局成为了许多孩子生活的一部分。我们要怎么看待它呢？作为父母和祖父母，教育家和教师，亲戚或者朋友？<br />
褪色的红色气球失去了它本来的艳丽，这取决于经历过离婚的孩童的情绪，因为对于一些男孩来讲，他们的理想世界就坍塌了。而且在很长的一段时间里，没有任何人注意到他的感受，所有事情看上去似乎有条不紊。直到父母意识到他们的分开就像太阳和月亮，而他们将永远伴随着孩子时，他的气球才会再次明亮起来。<br />
凯瑟琳纳·波特曼<br />
出去走走吧。去远方漫游。<br />
出版社： Shaker - ISBN 978-3-86858-182-9--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 09:46, 3 October 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
图画书不是只会用乐观的方式来展现世界。父母离异成为了许多孩子生活的一部分。我们该怎么看待这个问题呢？作为父母和祖父母，教育家和教师，亲戚或者朋友？<br />
淡红色气球失去了原来艳丽的颜色，这与孩子经历父母离异后的情绪紧密相连，因为对于一些男孩来讲，他们的理想世界坍塌了。在往后的很长一段时间里，没有人关心他的真实感受，一切都重新安排并受到约束。直到父母意识到尽管他们过上了各自的生活，但是作为父母，仍会一起陪伴着孩子，他的气球才会再次鲜艳起来。 --[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 09:23, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
<br />
Bauer, Manuel<br />
Limmat - ISBN 978-3-85791-573-4<br />
► On April 1, 1995, a father and his six-year-old daughter leave Lhasa and write another<br />
chapter in the sad story of the flight of the Tibetan people. The photographer Manuel Bauer has, despite<br />
obstacles and controls, participated on this life-threatening journey into freedom and documented it.<br />
<br />
Barbara Beuys<br />
Insel Paperback - ISBN 978-3-458-35118-4<br />
鲍尔·曼努埃尔·利马特-ISBN 978-3-85791-573-4►1995年4月1日，一位父亲和他六岁的女儿离开拉萨，在藏人逃亡的悲惨故事中又续写了一章。 尽管障碍重重，限制众多，摄影师曼努埃尔·鲍尔（Manuel Bauer）仍参与了这一危及生命的自由之旅并记录了下来。<br />
<br />
Barbara Beuys Insel平装本-ISBN 978-3-458-35118-4--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 09:01, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
鲍尔·曼努埃尔·利马特-ISBN 978-3-85791-573-4►1995年4月1日，一位父亲和他六岁的女儿离开了拉萨，续写了一章西藏人民逃亡的悲惨故事。尽管障碍重重，满是荆棘，摄影师曼努埃尔·鲍尔仍参与了这一危及生命的自由之旅并将其记录了下来。<br />
<br />
Barbara Beuys Insel平装本-ISBN 978-3-458-35118-4--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 13:39, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
<br />
Miriam Collée<br />
Aufbau - ISBN 978-3-378-01106-9<br />
► A small house by the Alster, a large garden with swing, the organic box in front of the door. A young family seems to be at the goal of their dreams. If there was not the job offer from China: Miriam, 35, Tobias,37, and Amélie, 3, move into a terrace house in Shanghai Downtown, as the only long nosea in an old-established Chinese neighborhood - in a city where you can buy everything, only no fresh air. Where 20 million people live, who like to go outside just in their pyjamas and walk backwards to relax. Where the nannies have names like Crispy, Toffie or Chanel and leave one in the lurch, because they have a western nose to operate. Simply funny and sometimes on the edge of a nervous breakdown, Miriam Collée reports from the family everyday life in the<br />
Middle Kingdom.<br />
<br />
阿尔斯特旁边的一幢小房子，一个带秋千的大花园，门前有个有木盒子。这似乎对于这个年轻家庭来说是一个理想的生活环境。如果没有来自中国的工作机会： 35 岁的 Miriam Tobias，37 岁的阿美莉和 3 岁的阿美莉搬进了上海市中心的一栋露台别墅，这是唯一一间位于古老的中国社区-在一个你可以买到所有城市里的东西，只有没有新鲜空气。那里住着 2000万 人，他们喜欢穿着睡衣出门向后走放松自我。名为像克里斯比，托菲或香奈儿的保姆，其中一个可就要陷入困境了，因为他们要忍受这里糟糕的气味，简单有趣但有时处在精神崩溃的边缘，这是来自Miriam collee 在中土王国对家庭日常生活的报道。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 02:53, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
<br />
Anagarika Govinda<br />
Paperback edition, Fischer - ISBN 978-3-596-18351-7<br />
► Accompanied by one of the holy men of the country, Lama Anagarika Govinda traveled for many years through<br />
a widely unexplored world that is just accessible under dangers. Its path leads through the tropical<br />
jungle, over icy heights, past marvelous blue lakes to areas that no stranger had visited before him - into the monasteriea of the rocks and hermitage of walled hermits, into religious communities,<br />
whose ancient rituals and mysteries he may attend, before temple pictures of unimaginable<br />
beauty.<br />
在该国一位圣者的陪同下，喇嘛阿那加里卡戈文达多年来一直冒险游历于未被探索过的广泛世界。他穿过热带丛林，翻越寒冷的高地，经过壮丽的蓝色湖泊，去到除了他没有前人到过的地区。他去到岩洞中的寺院和围墙中的隐士居，他进到宗教区域，在绝美的寺庙画像前参加其古老的仪式和探寻其秘密。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 14:13, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Emily Hahn<br />
Translated by: Dagmar Yu-Dembski<br />
Edition Ebersbach - ISBN 978-3-938740-89-7<br />
► When Emily Hahn came to Shanghai in 1935, she had already established her reputation as book author and journalist with her reports for the "New Yorker." She knows she will stay here as long as they let her. It is the magic of Shanghai with its cookshops, the hustle and bustle on the streets, the rickshaws<br />
and the dancing salons that seduces her. Often ironically and with fine humor, Emily Hahn lets us participate in<br />
the feeling of life in a city that is constantly changing and in which "there are still things that will<br />
never change."<br />
1935年，当艾米丽·哈恩来到上海时，她已经凭借为《纽约客》撰写的报道建立了自己作为作家和记者的声誉。她知道她会尽可能地留在这里。这就是上海的魅力，这里有小餐馆，熙熙攘攘的街道，黄包车还有吸引着她的舞厅。艾米丽·哈恩经常幽默地调侃道让我们感受在一个不断变化的城市中生活的感觉，且这个城市中“总有一些东西会永远不会改变。”--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 14:13, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
阿纳加里卡·戈文达平装版，菲舍尔- ISBN 978-3-596-18351-7 在该国一位神职人员的陪同下，喇嘛阿纳加里卡·戈文达游历多年，历经危机穿过一片广袤的处女地。他穿过热带丛林，越过雪山高原，途经壮美的蓝色湖泊来到无人之境。—他去探寻岩石山上的寺庙和围墙中的隐士居所，他进入宗教区域，在绝美的寺庙画像前参加古老的宗教仪式，探寻其久远的秘密。<br />
埃米莉·哈恩 译者：达格玛·尤登布斯基·伊迪圣·埃伯斯巴赫- ISBN 978-3-938740-89-7 1935年，当埃米莉·哈恩来到上海的时候，她已经凭借着自己在《纽约客》上的报道，建立了自己作为作家和记者的声誉。她知道只要他们允许，自己会一直待在这里。上海的小餐馆，熙熙攘攘的街头，以及黄包车和舞厅都是充满魔力的，无一不引诱着她。埃米莉·哈恩常常幽默地调侃，让我们体会一下在一个不停变化的城市中生活的感觉，然而这里却“仍有一些永远不变的事物”。<br />
--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 15:31, 2 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
<br />
Hermann Hesse<br />
Suhrkamp - ISBN 978-3-518-46106-8<br />
► This reader book brings together the most important and most beautiful tales, narratives and reflections<br />
with Chinese motifs by Hermann Hesse as well as his essayistic and literary-critical<br />
publications and shows him as a great connoisseur of Chinese culture, literature and philosophy.<br />
<br />
Elmar Holenstein<br />
Ammann - ISBN 978-3-250-30024-3<br />
► How different is China really? With concrete examples Elmar Holenstein works on the overcoming<br />
of europe-centered thinking. A serious culture historical comparison begins with the realization of the complexity of the<br />
own as any other culture. A Clash of Civilizations is always a Clash of Complex<br />
Civilizations. A consistent front course can not be expected. In the depths of foreign culture it can be found that there are parallels to the things that appear to us in our own as "modern". Own accomplishments lose apperently their exclusivity. The West proudly points to its three centuries old »secular age«. In East Asia, the separation of religion and morality has been a peaceful aquired naturalness for two and a half thousand years. On the other hand we discover at careful comparison in our own cultural developments, which we were accustomed to view as "typically Chinese" or "typically East Asian". Whoever believes that modalities and mentalities are culturally shaped must proof them to different<br />
Contexts.<br />
<br />
==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
<br />
Ursula Krechel<br />
3. Edition. Jung und Jung - ISBN 978-3-902497-44-4<br />
►Franziska Tausig is one of many, the Berlin book dealer Ludwig Lazarus is another, and<br />
at the end there were eighteen thousand Jews who had been using one of the last loopholes since 1938<br />
and thus survived in the far-off foreign Shanghai. They came without a visa and illusions, with one<br />
suitcase and ten Reichsmark in their pockets, lawyers, craftsmen, art historians, and when they wanted to get along in this overcrowded city and the moisty heavy climate, then were powers of invention <br />
and energy challenged. Not everyone was able to do this after everything what was behind and before them.<br />
Breathtakingly diverse and complex talks Ursula Krechel about it. From long-term research developed the material to an extensive narrative curve, which brings the reader into a world,<br />
which is closer to oneself than expected.<br />
<br />
Helmut Matt<br />
Hess - ISBN 978-3-87336-911-5<br />
<br />
Sonja Piontek<br />
Conbook Medien - ISBN 978-3-934918-41-2<br />
► Chen Luyao's grandmother still does not know that her turquoise couch does absolutely not fit to the rest of the furnishings<br />
and Sonja only learns after 17 months, that the hard-won driver’s license has been blocked<br />
and so she has been illegally driving through the People's Republic for a year and a half. Against to all<br />
experiences from the German Chinese restaurants, the guest is strictly not getting any rice served in Beijing …<br />
<br />
==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
<br />
Lisa See<br />
Der Seidenfächer<br />
Translated by: Elke Link<br />
Paperback edition, Blanvalet - ISBN 978-3-442-36757-3<br />
► China in the 19th century: Lily and Winter Rose grow up in a world in which girls are regarded as a burden<br />
and in which the tying of the feet should also tie their heart. At the age of seventeen both get married. Thanks to the secret writing Nushu, which is reserved for women only,<br />
the friends succeed to stay in touch. On special occasions, the two girls even write<br />
poems in Nushu on a silk fan, who is always moving between them. But no one can take their<br />
desire for love, happiness and freedom ...<br />
<br />
Vikram Seth<br />
From the English by Anette Grube<br />
Fischer - ISBN: 978-3-596-16473-8<br />
► In 1981 the Indian writer Vikram Seth traveled through the secluded marginal provinces of<br />
China: from the " heavenly lake" Tianchi in the north-west, he set off far from established routes to the<br />
South –as far afield as Tibet. He completed his survey of unexplored territories with his homeward journey to<br />
India via Kathmandu.<br />
<br />
十九世纪的中国：在莉莉和冬玫生活的时代，人们视女孩为负担，女孩们都裹着脚，同时也束缚她们的心。在十七世纪，她们俩都结婚了。多亏只有女性能读懂的秘密女书，她们能够保持联系。在特殊情况下，这两个女孩甚至把女书写在丝扇上，而丝扇经常在她们中间传来传去。但是没有人能够夺走她们对爱，快乐和自由的渴望。<br />
<br />
在1981年，印度作家维克拉姆·塞斯穿越了中国的十分偏僻的省份：他从西北的天池出发，不走去南方的固定路线-尽量远离西藏。他探索了了无人迹的地方，并最终经由加德满都回到家乡印度。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:25, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
<br />
Jonathan D. Spence<br />
From the English by Susanne Hornfeck<br />
Hanser - ISBN 978-3-446-23415-4<br />
► When Zhang Dai was born into a well-esteemed family in 1597, the Ming Dynasty had ruled in China for over 200 years. For the contemporaries it was unthinkable that this era, that had guided the Chinese empire to a prior unattained political and cultural prosperity, could ever end. However in 1644<br />
the Manchu of the Ming Dynasty put an end to it. Zhang Dai’s family sank into insignificance. He spent the second half of his long life in rural seclusion as a private scholar and<br />
became famous as a master of the philosophical essay and chronicler of a lost era.<br />
Jonathan Spence tells the life of this scholarly eccentric - and draws at the same time the vivid panorama of a central era of the Chinese past.<br />
<br />
Hugh Trevor-Roper<br />
Translated by: Andrea Ott<br />
Eichborn - ISBN 978-3-8218-4590-6<br />
► Jing Shan was a Manchu scholar from a noble-minded family, who was related with the Chinese empress dowager<br />
and was closely connected to all the important personalities of the Imperial Court.<br />
When he was murdered in the course of the Boxer Rebellion in 1900, it was Edmund Backhouse, who saved Shans<br />
scrolls from the flames of the looters - including a mysterious diary, that allegedly described the events at the imperial court during the Boxer Rebellion minutely. Nine years<br />
Backhouse kept his discovery a secret until he published large parts of it in China under the Empress Dowager. The book became a classic, it still determines our image of China - and<br />
is based on a grandiose counterfeiting of Backhouse.<br />
<br />
==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
<br />
Nury Vittachi<br />
From the English by Ursula Ballin<br />
Zhang Jie - ISBN 978-3-293-00408-5<br />
<br />
Doris Wiedemann<br />
Delius Klasing - ISBN 978-3-7688-2606-8<br />
► For six months the authoress traveles more than 17,000 kilometers through the most populous country in the world<br />
and experiences China beyond tourist sights and state-controlled reality. She<br />
reads maps and road signs like a memory game, attends the English lessons at a<br />
middle school, climbs countless stairs and survives some adventures with the motorbike. As well she gets to know<br />
the variety of culture and cuisine, Chinese humor and Chinese hospitality at first hand.<br />
<br />
Simon Winchester<br />
From the English by Michael Müller<br />
Knaus Verlag - 987-3-8135-0287-9<br />
► Who was John Needham? In China he is still a famous person,who shaped our image of China<br />
decisively shaped and revolutionized it completely. Till the middle of the 20th century the West looked despisingly for China, the country was regarded as hopelessly underdeveloped and backward.<br />
It was only through Needham's work that it was proofed that China was one of the oldest high cultures in the world.<br />
<br />
Li Yiyun:Die Sterblichen李翊云？书中文名？<br />
Lu Xun: Sch?nste Geschichten鲁迅 书中文名？？<br />
Mo Yan: Die Knoblauchrevolte莫言《天堂蒜苔之歌》？2002<br />
<br />
Publishing Houses of the booth „Books on China“<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 02:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
Series Sinica--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 02:24, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Vol. 26<br />
Martin Woesler:<br />
Chinese literature in German translation<br />
China as honoraray guest of the Frankfurt Book Fair 2009 – Symposium edition<br />
Bochum: European University Press<br />
ISBN 978-3-89966-293-1<br />
200 pp., 19.90 €<br />
<br />
China is the honorary guest of the Frankfurt Book Fair 2009. The public interest in this literature, which has so far been underrepresented in Germany, is great.<br />
However, there is not much known about the trends in the Chinese contemporary literature except for keywords like "youth literacy". This symposium edition shows which new publications will be realised for the book fair. Contributions are given by translators to portray the peculiarities of the translation of Chinese literature, as well as literary scholars who give an overview of the Chinese literature scene, by the Chinese author Gao Yi and by connoisseurs of literary business (book fair, publishers, agencies).<br />
One focus is the question, which Chinese literature also 'works' in German translation. The reader is sensitized to questions of the selection. The advantages and disadvantages of the Chinese governmental translation support are equally part of the contributions as commercial aspects, which influence the selection on the part of the German publishers. By the way, prejudices are to be dismantled, for example, that Chinese literature is incomprehensible because of its 'Confucianism', or that Chinese imitation literature is written in the style of the Harry Potter series.<br />
中国是2009年法兰克福书展的名誉嘉宾。迄今为止，在德国人们对中国文学的了解还很少，但是公众对此都很感兴趣。但是，除了诸如“青年素养”之类的关键词外还对中国当代文学的发展趋势知之甚少。 此专题讨论会版本显示了该书展将实现哪些新出版物。翻译人员为描绘中国文学翻译的特殊性做出了贡献，而中国作家高毅和文学界（包括书展，出版商，代理机构）的鉴赏家们则为概述中国文学界做出贡献）还有一个焦点是中国文学在德语翻译中也“起作用”。读者对选择的作品十分敏感。中国政府对翻译的支持的优缺点同样在商业方面有所影响，影响了德国出版商的选择。 另外大众应该消除偏见，例如，中国文学因其“儒教”而难以理解，或者中国模仿文学是以哈利·波特系列的风格写的，诸如此类。--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 02:24, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
<br />
The volume provides in extracts an well-founded overview of the Chinese contemporary literature with the bestselling authors Guo Jingming, Han Han and others, and about currents: the trend to the second book, vagabond literature, the author as a pop star (cult literature), Literature of the mega cities, Critical Surreality, Women’s Literature, Scandal Literature, the Nostalgia wave (Reinterpretation of Classics), Teenager Phenomenon, Magical Realism, Master stories and the Literature of the emotional suffering.<br />
<br />
该书摘录了中国畅销作家郭敬明、韩寒等人对中国当代文学的有理有据的概述，并介绍了当代文学的发展趋势：第二本书走向，流浪文学，作者作为流行歌星(邪教文学)，大城市文学，批判超现实主义，女性文学，丑闻文学，怀旧浪潮(经典重释)，青少年现象，魔幻现实主义，大师故事和文学的情感苦难。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 02:49, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
该书的摘录了中国最畅销的作家郭敬明，韩寒等人的中国当代文学以及时事的概论：第二本书的趋势，流浪文学，流行歌星（邪教文学），大城市文学，批判超现实主义，女性文学，丑闻文学，怀旧浪潮（对经典的重新诠释），青少年现象，魔幻现实主义，大师故事和情感苦难文学。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 04:19, 3 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
该册在摘录中以一种全面的视角介绍了中国当代文学以及畅销书作家郭敬明，韩寒等人：第二本书的情况，流浪文学，作者为明星的邪教文学，大城市文学，批判超现实主义文学，女性文学，丑闻文学，怀旧浪潮（经典重释），青少年观象，魔幻现实主义，大家故事以及苦情文。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 09:54, 3 October 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
<br />
该书在摘录中对中国当代文学以及畅销书作家郭敬明，韩寒等人进行了有理有据的论述，并介绍了当代文学的发展趋势：第二本书的走向，流浪文学，作者为明星的邪教文学，大城市文学，批判超现实主义文学，女性文学，丑闻文学，怀旧浪潮（经典重释），青少年现象，魔幻现实主义，大家故事以及苦难文学。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 07:51, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
Vol. 25<br />
Martin Woesler:<br />
Bochum: European University Press<br />
ISBN 978-3-89966-292-4<br />
200 pp., 19.90 €<br />
This volume considers the latest Chinese bestseller lists from early 2009.<br />
<br />
Vol. 24<br />
Wolfgang Schulz:<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2009<br />
ISBN 978-3-89966-340-2<br />
168 pp., 29.90 €<br />
<br />
The present work examines with phenomenological thought tools (Edmund Husserl) the five basic emotions (Wielant Machleidt) presented in the Chinese medicine classic Huang Di Nei Jing and their refraction in the fractal affective logic of Luc Ciompis. In both cultural objects - Huang Di Nei Jing and the affective logic of Luc Ciompis – yield striking coincidences and mutual clarifications between the chaostheoretical insights of the fractal relation of the "feelings" and the important thought concepts in the early Han period of "approaching by corresponding affiliation Gan Lei" and the "personified answering event Gan Ying (Obert) "or - according to J. Needham – the "sympathetic responses between similiar kinds of existence".<br />
<br />
Vol. 23<br />
Martin Woesler:<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2008<br />
ISBN 978-3-89966-289-4<br />
200 pp., 19.90 € / 20.50 € [A]<br />
<br />
第25册 马丁·韦斯勒：波鸿：欧洲大学出版社ISBN 978-3-89966-292-42000页，19.90欧元 这一册参考了从2009年起最新的中国畅销书排行榜。<br />
第24册 沃尔夫冈·舒尔茨：波鸿：欧洲大学出版社2009 ISBN 978-3-89966-340-2168页，29.90欧元<br />
本文运用现象学思维工具（Edmund hussell）考察了中医经典《黄帝内经》中的五种基本情绪（Wielant Machleidt）及其在Luc-Ciompis的分形情感逻辑中的折射。在《黄帝内经》和吕宗培的情感逻辑中，对“感情”的分形关系的超理论见解与汉初“同属Gan Lei”的重要思想观念，“拟人化的回答事件Gan Ying（Obert）”都有着惊人的契合，还有李约瑟的“相似存在之间的共情反应”。<br />
第23册马丁·沃斯勒：波鸿：欧洲大学出版社2008 ISBN 978-3-89966-289-42000页，19.90欧元/20.50欧元[A] --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 15:42, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
<br />
The Chinese literature of the present at the beginning of the 21st century appears hardly compatible with the German book market. Many stories of the mostly young, partly celebrated like pop stars authors from the Middle Kingdom, who drop their books partly in millions of editions, such as Jingming Guo, seem too bizarre. Nevertheless, trends can be discerned that reflect especially the extreme process of social upheaval in China: the female literature created by Ailing Zhang with the insiders view of the Shanghaie big city singles, for example, which has found a whole generation of successors. Or the scandal literature of Shuo Wang, who has long since become an establishment. The nostalgia with new interpretations of classics such as Confucius, Menzius, or the novel of the Three Kingdoms, for example by Dan Yu. Finally, the young, bizarre literature of an alienated city youth, who is in the end searching for the happiness of love between alcohol, drugs and party excesses. Surprising newcomer is the author Han Han, who is known for his critically acclaimed youth literature and who exerts a humorous social criticism in his new work, "Tage des Ruhms", about a dropout group in the style of Magical Realism. A colorful roundel, which tells from another world, no longer as exotic as before, but still strange and fascinating.<br />
21世纪初的中国文学似乎很难与德国图书市场兼容。许多报道，通常是一些年轻的、像明星一样出名的中国作家比如郭敬明发行数百万册书，这似乎太离奇了。然而，我们可以看到一些趋势，特别反映了中国社会动荡的极端过程：以张爱玲的女性文学为例，她的作品以上海这一大城市的单身者的视角作为局内人视角，见证了一代又一代的后继者。或是王朔的丑闻文学，他早已成为这一领域的权威人士。又如于丹对孔子、孟子的著作以及《三国》等经典名著的新诠释，复古而怀旧。最后，是一个被疏远的城市青年年轻而又离奇的文学作品，他最终在酒精、毒品和狂欢之间寻找爱情的幸福。这位出人意料的新人是作家韩寒，他以其广受好评的青春文学而闻名，他在其魔幻现实主义的新作《荣华富贵》Tage des Ruhms 中对辍学群体进行了幽默的社会批判。一个五彩缤纷的圆形，从另一个世界诉说，不再像以前那样奇特，但依然奇异迷人。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 12:13, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
Vol. 23<br />
Martin Woesler:<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2008<br />
ISBN 978-3-89966-289-4<br />
200 pp., 19.90 € / 20.50 € [A]<br />
<br />
The Chinese literature of the present at the beginning of the 21st century appears hardly compatible with the German book market. Many stories of the mostly young, partly celebrated like pop stars authors from the Middle Kingdom, who drop their books partly in millions of editions, such as Jingming Guo, seem too bizarre. Nevertheless, trends can be discerned that reflect especially the extreme process of social upheaval in China: the female literature created by Ailing Zhang with the insiders view of the Shanghaie big city singles, for example, which has found a whole generation of successors. Or the scandal literature of Shuo Wang, who has long since become an establishment. The nostalgia with new interpretations of classics such as Confucius, Menzius, or the novel of the Three Kingdoms, for example by Dan Yu. Finally, the young, bizarre literature of an alienated city youth, who is in the end searching for the happiness of love between alcohol, drugs and party excesses. Surprising newcomer is the author Han Han, who is known for his critically acclaimed youth literature and who exerts a humorous social criticism in his new work, "Tage des Ruhms", about a dropout group in the style of Magical Realism. A colorful roundel, which tells from another world, no longer as exotic as before, but still strange and fascinating.<br />
<br />
第二十三册 <br />
吴漠汀主编 <br />
波鸿：欧洲大学出版社，2008年<br />
ISBN 978-3-89966-289-4 <br />
200页 19.90 € / 20.50 € [A]<br />
21世纪初的中国文学几乎很难用德国图书市场思路来理解。现在的中国文学书中许多故事与多数年轻人有关，部分是由中国的知名作家所作，他们的作品往往要经过无数次修订编辑。其中的作者就有郭敬明。这些故事看上去有点怪异。然而，这种趋势还是依稀可见的，因为反映的是中国社会剧变的极端过程：比如，张爱玲用上海的大都市单身人内部视角创作的女性文学，就迎来了一代人的追随；还有大有建树的王朔丑闻文学；还有用思乡之情释读的经典著作，包括孔子的、孟子的，或者是于丹所著的三国小说。最终，年轻人——怪诞文学所描绘的城市孤立年轻族群，会在酗酒、吸毒和过度聚会中寻求爱情的快感。韩寒是新生作家，他的成就令人瞠目结舌，他以其广受好评的青年文学而闻名。他还在自己的作品《Tage des Ruhms》中以魔幻现实主义风格，幽默地对一个辍学群体进行了社会批判。他的写作还用了一种多彩的圆形图案、用了另一个世界的视角。这个另一个世界不如以前那样具有异域风情，但是仍旧奇异与迷人。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 04:30, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
<br />
Vol. 22<br />
Martin Woesler (ed.)<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2010<br />
ISBN 978-3-89966-280-1<br />
251 pp., bound, cover with special color gold, 39.00 €<br />
第二十二册 吴漠汀主编 波鸿：欧洲大学出版社，2010年， ISBN 978-3-89966-280-1，251页，金色精装封面，39.00 €<br />
<br />
This festschrift is approaching to the Chinese (law) culture from different angles. It also focuses on current topics such as human rights or relevant philosophers.<br />
该纪念文集从不同的角度走进中国（法律）文化，聚焦于当前的主题，如人权或相关的哲学家。<br />
<br />
The articles deal among other things with views of Confucius, Menzius and Li Zhi. Ommerborn introduces Li Zhi as an individualist, who pronounces against spiritual authorities and the universal validity of higher principles, contrary to the (neo-Confucian norms of his contemporaries.<br />
文章还涉及了孔子、孟子和李贽的观点，欧莫伯恩认为李贽是个人主义者，他反对精神权威和更高准则的普遍有效性，这与同时代的新儒家规范背道而驰。<br />
<br />
The contribution of Harald Holz deals with cross-cultural foundations, he ascribes the 'golden rule' ultimately to an underlying sense, in which he defines the concept of sense as a broad striving for the appropriation of the own possibilities in interaction with all the others that come in line. Hence results in a recognition of his self and of the other as well as an 'ought', whereby all the other aims of action result as personal reciprocal.<br />
哈拉尔·霍尔兹的书稿谈及跨文化的基本原理，他把“黄金规则”归因于一种潜意识，他将其定义为广泛利用与他人相处的可能性，因而达成对自我、他人和“义务”的认知，据此任何行动的目标都是实现个人互惠。<br />
<br />
While Weber-Schäfer draws up the thesis and explains why China does not have an equivalent counterpart to the European concept of justice, Woesler, takes the opposite view in his essay.<br />
虽然韦伯·费舍尔在论文中提出了这一论断，并解释了为什么中国没有与欧洲的正义概念对等的对应物，但吴漠汀在论文中阐述了相反的观点。<br />
<br />
Moccia argues that in the classical China tradition and customs were before the law, and the law of Confucius was little appreciated. He wanted to speak of legislation in China only since the nineteenth century and describes the condition of today's society as a transition to a law-based system.<br />
莫可西亚认为在中国古代，传统习俗先于法律，且孔子的法则很少受到重视，他只想谈谈十九世纪以来中国的立法，把当今的社会状况描述为向法治体系的过渡。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 14:12, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
莫可西亚认为，在中国古代，传统和习俗生于法律之前，且孔子的法则鲜为人知。 他只想谈论19世纪以来的中国立法，认为当今社会的状况为向法治体系的过渡。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 16:06, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
<br />
Paul deals with the political dimension of the Menzius reception, especially in terms of the human rights, which are more progressive in Menzius than in Plato and Aristotle. He demonstrates that Menzius was in Western history of reception mainly interpreted as universalistic.<br />
While many of the assembled contributions deal with the actual legislation in China, Sapio's contribution fills a gap in the area of the more difficult gray legal practice: On the basis of diplomatic sources and examples, it proves that the practice of "shuanggui" exists in China, in form of arrest without charge, used by the Communist Party against corrupt officials or members of the party.<br />
<br />
Weyrauch deals in his contribution with the decision-making practice for Chinese asylum applications for Germany. If you are a member of the religious movement "Falun Gong" or a minority, you have resisted against the one-party rule or censorship, or if you have become a victim of the one-child policy it will be decided depending on the degree of persecution.<br />
In China rituals compete with the right: the Chinese adopted Christianity, like before various other religious practices and mixed it with their own popular religious rites and customs. In the so-called "Chinese rites controversy", two mission camps battled each other, who supported this adaptation or rejected it. Von Collani evaluates in her contribution numerous documents, which are now accessible, of the approximately one hundred years of ritual strife.<br />
<br />
Another area which is not directly connected to the main theme of the law are political guidelines: In his contribution using the example of armaments policy, Aßmann examines an aspect of security policy, here the case of an American missile defense system for Japan and Taiwan. He discusses possible power shifts in the region and warns of a new arms race. Ostendorf draws attention to the shadows of the economic boom in China, the environmental pollution. He draws future scenarios on how this destruction can be managed.<br />
<br />
保罗（Paul）谈到孟子处世思想的政治意义，特别是在人权方面，孟子的思想比柏拉图和亚里斯多德的思想更为进步。他表示，孟子在西方处世历史中主要为普遍主义所解释。虽然许多研究的对象是是中国的实际立法，但萨皮奥(Sapio)的研究成果填补了法律实践灰色地带的空白，而这一研究是更为困难的领域。研究成果如下：基于外交资料和实例，表明“双归”存在于中国，它是中国共产党以未经起诉而逮捕的形式来查处腐败官员或腐败党员的手段。<br />
<br />
韦罗克（Weyrauch）致力于为中国人申请德国的政治庇护。根据迫害程度的大小，判断该人是否为宗教运动“法轮功”的成员或者少数民族，抵制过一党统治或一党审查制度；或者是否为计划生育的受害者。在中国，宗教仪式与权力相抗衡。中国人对待基督教的方式与对待过去各种宗教的方式类似，他们将基督教引进国内，并将其与本国的宗教仪式和习俗相结合。在所谓的“中国礼仪之争”当中，两方势力相互对抗，针对基督教华化表明了支持或反对的态度。冯·柯兰霓（Von Collani）在其众多的研究成果中探讨了该历经约一百年的宗教冲突，这些研究资料如今均可获取。<br />
<br />
除宗教外，另一个与法律主旋律并无直接联系的领域则是政治指导方针。在以军备政策为例的研究中，阿斯曼（Aßmann）研究安全政策的一个方面——美国针对日本和台湾的导弹防御系统，探讨地区可能发生的权力转移，并发出了新一轮军备竞赛出现的警告。奥斯坦多夫（Ostendorf）关注到中国经济繁荣所带来的环境污染问题，并提出解决该问题的未来方案。<br />
--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:26, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
<br />
Vol. 21<br />
Chen, Hui<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2010<br />
ISBN 978-3-89966-277-1<br />
253 pp., Paperback, 29.90 €<br />
<br />
The terminology translation is a special case of the translation. Despite many parallels to the general translation, there are some differences which cause problems which not only translators in terminology transfer have to cope with, but also the respective expert groups, throughout the terminology work:<br />
<br />
a) The main difference between the two sides is: the text has to be translated as a whole, which offers the technical context in which the individual terms and expressions are embedded, and thus can fuction indicatory for the translation, but existst at the terminology transmission not in the way like it can be found at the general translation. The topic in a terminology transfer is a single subject terminus or a particular set of terms. Therefore the translator first needs to acquire the appropriate expertise, which is then used as a "text" when translating the terms.<br />
<br />
b) The non-presence of a concrete client, which has to be considered as a rule, means that the translator and other experts have to take more responsibility with regard to the quality control.<br />
<br />
c) The involvement of different translators at one and the same terminological "text", which is rare and, if so, coordinated to a limited extent, as well as a time-delayed transmission of this "text" has a "terminology diversity" as a result, which acts often more confusing than as an useful effect. This means for the terminology work that an additional task, terminology collation, is to be mastered.<br />
It should also be noted that the partial incompatibility of two parallel terminologies makes the terminology transmission more difficult.<br />
<br />
第二十一卷 陈辉 波鸿：欧洲大学出版社.2010 国际书号978-3-89966-277-1 253页，29.90欧元<br />
<br />
术语翻译是翻译的特例。尽管与通用翻译有很多相似之处，但还是存在一些差异，这些差异会造成一些问题，而这些问题不仅是术语迁移中的翻译人员需要应对的，也是各专家组在整个术语工作中需要面对的：<br />
<br />
a)两者的主要区别是：文本必须整体翻译，这为单个术语和表达提供了技术语境，从而起到指示翻译的作用，但存在于术语的传递上，而不像一般的翻译那样存在。术语转移中的主题是单个主题术语或一组特定术语。因此，翻译人员首先需要获得适当的专业知识，然后在翻译术语时将其作为“文本”使用。<br />
<br />
b)不存在一个具体的客户，这是一条规则，这意味着译者和其他专家必须在质量控制方面承担更多的责任。<br />
<br />
c)不同的翻译者参与同一个术语“文本”的情况非常罕见，如果这样的话，将在有限的范围内进行协调，而且该“文本”的延时传输具有“术语多样性”结果，这往往比有用的效果更令人困惑。这意味着对于术语工作，还需要掌握另一项任务，即术语整理。<br />
还应注意，两个并行术语的部分不兼容使术语传输更加困难。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:31, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
<br />
Vol. 20<br />
Winfried Woesler, Lü Yuan:<br />
Bochum: European University Press. 2006<br />
ISBN 978-3-89966-228-3<br />
409 pp., 29.90 €<br />
<br />
Representative selection of 54 Chinese poets with a total of approx. 100 poems mostly from the 1970s and 1980s, selected by recognized Chinese poets of the older generation Lü Yuan. New edition of the 384-pages bi-lingual Reclam anthology, published in 1992, for the first time printed in Chinese writing and thus also readable for students of sinology. Presented is the earliest generation of poets, which are writing in modern language: Ai Qing, Feng Zhi, Xin Di, Su Jinsan and Fang Jing. The second generation, who made a name for themselves in the anti-Japanese resistance war, were Lu Li, Peng Yanjiao, from the poetry circle July Zou Difan and Lü Yuan, from the circle of Nine Leaves Zheng Min and Chen Jingrong. The third generation, that despite the functionalization of literature in the 1950s, persistently focused on poetry only for the sake of poetry, is represented by Shao Yanxiang, Li Ying, Gong Lu, Cai Qijiao and Liu Shahe. The fourth generation is the vanguard of the younger generation with Bei Dao, Shu Ting, Gu Cheng, Jiang He and Fu Tianlin, their initially singled voices have long become representative voices of the people. The fifth generation is represented by Yu Jian, Han Dong, Cao Jian, and Xu Demin. These student poets discover fabrics for their subject matter directly in the everyday life.<br />
<br />
第二十卷<br />
温•沃斯勒，绿原：<br />
波鸿：欧洲大学出版社.2006<br />
国际书号 978-3-89966-228-3<br />
409页，29.90欧元<br />
<br />
由公认的老一辈中国诗人绿原选择，具有代表性的54名诗人及其所写的共计约100首诗，其中大部分于二十世纪七十至八十年代完成。新版384页的双语《Reclam选集》于1992年出版，是第一次中文出版，因此汉学学生也可阅读。以下是最早一代用现代语言写作的诗人：艾青、冯至、辛迪、苏金伞和方敬。在抗日战争中声名鹊起的第二代诗人有：鲁藜、彭燕郊，七月诗派的邹荻帆及绿原，九叶诗派郑敏和陈敬容。二十世纪五十年代，第三代诗人不管文学在诗歌中的作用，坚持把重心放在诗歌本身上，其代表作家有：邵燕祥、李瑛、公刘？、蔡其矫及流沙河。第四代诗人是年轻一代诗人的先锋：北岛、顾城、江河、傅天琳，他们起初微小的声音早已成为了代表人民的声音。第五代代表诗人有：于坚、韩东、曹健及徐德民。这些学生诗人直接从每日生活中发掘他们诗歌内容的素材。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 02:40, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Zeng Xinyuan<br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
<br />
Vol. 19<br />
CD<br />
Based on the paper edition of the Akademie-Verlag Berlin 1985. Bochum: European University Press 2006<br />
1446 pp. DIN A4, with different counting<br />
License for use: 29.90 € (natural persons),<br />
49 € (institutions, per workplace), delivery on CD only directly from publisher to final customer<br />
ISBN 978-3-89966-207-8<br />
The dictionary is continually updated and extended (cost-effective updates are available every year).<br />
<br />
Approx. 100,000 entries, effective 2006. Restricted is also to look for German terms, so that the dictionary can be used bidirectionally in contrast to the paper edition.<br />
A syllabary has been added to the present digital form for a faster search for the desired syllable from which one can see where the syllable begins, as a page number, which can be entered directly into a search field any time. In addition, you can also open the page by scrolling.<br />
<br />
If the pronunciation of a Chinese character is not known, you must search in the character index as in the book form, and search the current character number next to the character you are looking for by scrolling the pages in the dictionary text to the top left or right. To speed up the search process, two syllabaries were added to, a tone syllabary (page I) and one for character numbers (page II). Edited by Gunnar Richter. Authors of the paper edition: Helga Beutel, Horst-Dieter Gasde, Anja Gleboff, Ilse Karl, Gunnar Richter, Christiane Schwarz, Gottfried Spies, Eberhard Treppt, Horst-Dieter Gasde (administration), edited by Horst-Dieter Gasde, Ilse Karl, Christiane Schwarz; Gunnar Richter, Gottfried Spies.<br />
<br />
<br />
卷 19<br />
光盘<br />
基于1985年柏林的Akademie-Verlag纸质版。波鸿：欧洲大学出版社，2006年<br />
1446页DIN A4，具有不同的计数<br />
使用许可：29.90€（自然人），<br />
49€（根据机构，每个工作场所），仅以CD形式直接从发行商交付给最终客户<br />
书号978-3-89966-207-8<br />
该词典会不断更新和扩展（每年都会提供具有成本效益的更新）。<br />
<br />
大约 100,000个条目，从2006年开始生效。此外，还必须查找德语术语，以便该词典与纸质版相比可以双向使用。<br />
音节已添加到当前的数字形式中，以便更快地搜索所需的音节，从中可以看到该音节从何处开始，作为页码，可以随时将其直接输入到搜索字段中。 此外，您还可以通过滚动打开页面。<br />
<br />
大约100,000个条目，从2006年开始生效。德语术语查找也包含在内，因此比起纸质版，该词典可用于双向查找。<br />
音节文字表已添加到当前的数字形式中，以便更快搜索所需音节，从中可以看到该音节从何处开始，作为页码，可以随时将其直接输入到搜索字段中。此外，您还可以通过滚屏打开页面。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 03:04, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Zeng Xinyuan<br />
<br />
如果不知道中文字符的发音，则必须像在书本上那样在字符索引中进行搜索，并通过滚动字典上的页面，在左上角或右上角的搜索框中搜索所需字符旁边的当前字符。 为了加快搜索过程，添加了两个音节，一个音调音节（第一页）和一个用于字符编号的音节（第二页）。 由Gunnar Richter编辑。 论文版本的作者：Helga Beutel，Horst-Dieter Gasde，Anja Gleboff，Ilse Karl，Gunnar Richter，Christiane Schwarz，Gottfried Spies，Eberhard Treppt，Horst-Dieter Gasde（管理），由Horst-Dieter Gasde, Ilse Karl, Christiane Schwarz; Gunnar Richter, Gottfried Spies编辑。 --[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:53, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
<br />
Vol. 18<br />
Thilo Diefenbach<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2005<br />
190 pp., <Ger., Chin.><br />
ISBN 978-3-89966-169-9 (3-89966-169-9), 19 €<br />
<br />
The Chinese authors Liu Jiming (born in 1963), Zhang Wei (born in 1956) and Liu Qingbang (born 1951), who have been valued in their homeland for years by the readership and literary criticism, are largely unknown to us; translations of their works into German have not yet been available.<br />
<br />
This book presents the three authors in detail, and then gives them the opportunity to speak for themselves in selected short stories and essays. Hence Thilo Diefenbach gives an insight into their narrative complete work and in a hitherto little-studied section of China's contemporary literature. Just in a time when the international perception of the country is limited to the observation of the events in the cities and the Chinese literature largely concentrates on the city life, Diefenbach would like to remind that the still strongly agrarian coined China has also a literature that focuses on the everyday life in the countryside.<br />
<br />
Thilo Diefenbach was promoted in 2003 at the University of Cologne with a dissertation on the subject contexts of violence in modern Chinese literature. From 2004 to 2005 he worked as a scholarship holder of the Fritz Thyssen Foundation on a research project whose results this book contains. Since February 2006, he has been conducting a study on the literature of the Northern Dynasties (386-581) as a scholarship holder of the DAAD at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences in Beijing.<br />
<br />
卷18 蒂洛·迪芬巴赫·波鸿：欧洲大学出版社2005年190页，<德国，中国> ISBN 978-3-89966-169-9（3-89966-169-9），19€<br />
<br />
中国作家刘继明（1963年生），张炜（1956年生）和刘庆邦（1951年生）在他们的国家一直被读者和文学批评家珍视，而我们对此一无所知，尚未将其作品翻译成德语。<br />
<br />
本书详细介绍了这三位作者，并且为他们提供了机会，让他们能在精选的短篇小说和散文中为自己发声。因此，蒂洛·迪芬巴赫对他们的完整叙事作品以及迄今为止中国当代文学中研究较少的部分进行了深入的剖析。在这个国际视野仅限于对城市事件的观察，中国文学也主要关注城市生活的时代，迪芬巴赫想要提醒大家，中国这个仍以农业为主的国家，也有专注于农村日常生活的文学。<br />
<br />
蒂洛·迪芬巴赫于2003年在科隆大学发表了一篇关于中国现代文学中的暴力主题语境的论文。2004年至2005年，他作为弗里茨·蒂森基金会的奖学金获得者参加了一个研究项目。这本书里就包含了这个项目的成果。自2006年2月起，他作为中国社会科学院达德奖学金获得者，一直从事北朝(386-581)文学研究。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 09:13, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
<br />
Vol. 17<br />
Cordula Hunold<br />
2006, Paperback, 145 pp., 1 audio CD 15 min.<br />
ISBN 978-3-86515-031-8 (3-86515-031-4)<br />
13,90 €<br />
<br />
Study in the field of contrasting phonology / phonetics of German and Chinese, which deals with similarities and differences in the segmental and suprasegmental range. It deals with the specific articulation and intonation problems of German Chinese learners and gives hints and practice suggestions for Chinese teachers, who want to improve and make their ChaF instruction more versatile, and those who are interested in the phonetics / phonology of the modern Chinese or even wanr to improve their pronunciation.<br />
<br />
Bd 16<br />
Stefan Messmann<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2005<br />
Paperback, 167 pp.<br />
ISBN 978-3-86515-038-7 (3-86515-038-1)<br />
19,90 €<br />
<br />
The foot binding probably began in the early tenth century, spreading from the north to the south over the next centuries, whereby it was less practiced in the south. It was forbidden several times over the history, recently in 1949, but still today in some places one can see old women with bandaged feet.<br />
<br />
There are different theories about their cause. Most of them try to explain foot binding with 1. status symbol, 2. the necessity to keep the women chaste, 3. ideal of beauty, 4. sexuality, 5. fetish, 6. fashion, 7. demarcation to other peoples and 8. combat of enemies. Of these explanations, the domination of the men seems most plausible.<br />
<br />
第一卷 17<br />
Cordula Hunold<br />
2006年，平装本，145页，1张音频CD15分钟。<br />
ISBN978-3-86515-031-8（3-86515-031-4）<br />
13,90 €<br />
<br />
德语和汉语对比音韵学/语音学领域的研究，该领域涉及音段和跨语段范围的异同。 它处理了德国汉语学习者的具体发音和语调问题，并为中国教师提供了提示和实践建议，他们希望改进并使他们的教学更加多才多艺。那些对现代汉语的语音/音韵学感兴趣的人甚至希望改善他们的发音。<br />
<br />
16<br />
斯特凡·梅斯曼<br />
波鸿：欧洲大学出版社，2005<br />
平装本，167页。<br />
ISBN978-3-86515-038-7（3-86515-038-1）<br />
19,90 €<br />
<br />
绑脚可能始于10世纪初，在接下来的几个世纪里，从北方向南方蔓延，在南方绑脚的做法较少。 绑脚在历史上被禁止了几次，最近在1949年，但今天仍然在一些地方，人们可以看到老年妇女带着绷带的脚。<br />
<br />
关于他们的事业有不同的理论。 他们中的大多数人试图用以下原因来解释绑脚的做法。1.地位象征 2.保持女人贞洁的必要性 3.美丽的理想 4.性 5.恋物癖 6.时尚 7.与其他民族界限 8.敌人的战斗。 在这些解释中，男人的统治似乎是最合理的。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 15:51, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
<br />
Vol. 15<br />
Hartmut Walravens<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2005<br />
Paperback, 271 pp.<br />
ISBN 978-3-86515-027-1 (3-86515-027-6)<br />
29,90 €<br />
<br />
The volume offers a wealth of bibliographic evidence, through which important materials can initially be developed, which are not contained in the existing specialist bibliographies. The foreign countries, one of the important "Cottaschen Journals", and the magazine for the literature of foreign countries provide numerous solid contributions about East Asia for the 19th century: travel reports, political and military representations, translations from Chinese and Japanese literature Unknown. The same applies to the short-lived magazines Spirit of the East and Ho Ping Pao, the latter a news sheet of the Chinese delegation in Berlin after the Second World War. Chinese medicine is particularly popular today, but the medical texts were collected only very little. A register opens up the medical treasures of the Paris National Library. The complete translations of the poetic works of the two Tang poets Tu Fu and Han Yü, published by the excellent specialist Erwin von Zach, were made accessible by new editions by the Harvard University. Index and register allow quick access to masterpieces of Chinese poetry.<br />
<br />
卷15 哈特穆特·瓦拉尔文斯 波鸿：欧洲大学出版社 2005年 简装本 ISBN 978-3-86515-027-1 (3-86515-027-6) 29,90 €<br />
<br />
该卷提供了丰富的书目证据，通过这些证据，可以初步总结出专业书目中暂缺的重要资料。《外国》是重要的“科塔什期刊”之一，也是外国文学杂志，为19世纪东亚作出了大量重要的贡献：旅行报道、政治和军事报道、鲜为人知的中日文学翻译。两本只存在一时的杂志《东方精神》和《和平报》也是如此，后者是二战后中国驻柏林代表团的新闻稿。中医学在今天特别受欢迎，但是医学文献的收集却很少。一本登记册打开了巴黎国家图书馆的医学宝藏。哈佛大学新增订了由杰出专家埃尔文·冯·扎克出版的两位唐代诗人杜甫和韩愈诗作的全译本。通过索引和注册，可以快速访问中国诗歌的杰作。--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:23, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
卷15 哈特穆特·瓦尔拉文斯 <br />
波鸿：欧洲大学出版社 2005年 简装本 271页 <br />
ISBN 978-3-86515-027-1 (3-86515-027-6) 29,90 €<br />
该卷提供了丰富的书目材料，这些材料可以初步显露出现有专业书目中缺少的重要资料。《外国》是重要的“科塔刊杂志”之一，也是外国文学杂志，它为19世纪的东亚提供了大量可靠的投稿：旅行报道、政治和军事报道、鲜为人知的中日文学翻译。两本只存在一时的杂志《东方精神》和《和平报》也包括在内，后者是二战后中国驻柏林代表团的新闻稿。尽管中医学在今天特别受欢迎，但是与之相关的医学文献却很少被收集。一本登记册打开了巴黎国家图书馆的医学宝藏。哈佛大学新增订了由著名专家埃尔文·冯·扎克出版的两位唐代诗人杜甫和韩愈诗作的全译本。通过索引和注册，便可快速通向中国诗歌杰作的入口。--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 09:04, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
<br />
Vol. 14 (3 books)<br />
Tsau Hsuä-tjin, Gau Ë<br />
<br />
Edited and with an introduction by Martin Woesler, with an afterword by Hartmut Walravens<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2006-2007, 3 volumes, ISBN 978-3-86515-010-3 (3-86515-010-1), € 59 per part, Vol. I Tsau Hsüä-tjin, translated by Rainer Schwarz 2006 978-3-86515-011-0 (3-86515-011-X), Vol. II Tsau Hsüä-tjin, supra. Rainer Schwarz, 2006 978-3-86515-012-7 (3-86515-012-8 ), Vol. III Tsau Hsüä-tjin, Gau Ë, trans. Martin Woesler 2007 978-3-86515-013-4 (3-86515-013-6)<br />
<br />
The most famous Chinese novel for the first time in complete German translation.<br />
<br />
To part 1<br />
The goddess Nüwa does not use the 36501. stone anymore for the repair of the sky roof. This feeds a flower with dew drops. Finally, the stone is reborn as the protagonist Djia Bau-yu to whom the dew must be repaid in form of tears. The novel tells about the growing-up of Bau-yüs with his cousins in the ‘Garden of the Great Perspective’ against the backdrop of the rise and fall of the administrator family Djia in the time of the last emperors of the Ming Dynasty. However the autobiographical background is the first emperor of the Manchurian Tjing Dynasty (1644-1911).<br />
Bau-yü spends carefree children's and youth days with his cousins.<br />
In the first part of the novel, a triangular relationship develops between the talented, androgynous Djia Bau-yu, the gritty and pragmatic Hsuä Bau-chai and the desperate for love intelligent but sickly Lin Dai-yi.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
<br />
To part 2<br />
Bau-yü, talented son of the influential large family Djia, grows up together with his cousins almost carefree in the paradise-like 'Garden of the Great Perspective'. In the second part of the novel he experiences the degeneration and the moral decay of his family, the political and financial descent. The ideal world of childhood threatens to break at the transition to adolescent.<br />
Signs of imminent disaster cast a pall on the love of the androgynous Djia Bau-yü to his devoted but sickly, still-suffering and resigned cousin Lin Dai-yi.<br />
Has their love a future in a time of arranged marriages and against the backdrop of the family's decline?<br />
<br />
To part 3<br />
Gradually, the twelve girls of the Garden of the Great Perspective marry and move away. Also Djia Bau-yü believes to marry his cousin Lin Dai-yü. But when the veil is aroused, it is Hsii Bau-tschai. Lin Dai-yü dies of grief at the same time.<br />
The garden orphans. The jade stone is lost. The family falls into disgrace with the Emperor, the titles are withdrawn. The property is being robbed and plundered. Some family members are arrested and exiled. The Duchess-mother dies. The decline of the extended family Djia seems to be sealed.<br />
<br />
Only after Djia Bau-yü understands his predestined destiny and decides to live as a Buddhist monk, the tide is turning: Djia Bau-yü passes the state examinations together with his cousin Djia Lan. Titles, reputation, and goods are restored. The Djia family is looking forward to a happy future with Djia Lan and Bau-yüs son Djia Guee.<br />
But where is Bau-yü?<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
<br />
Vol. 13<br />
Martin Woesler<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2003, x, 242 pp., ISBN 978-3-89966-004-3 (3-89966-004-8)<br />
14,90 €<br />
<br />
Documentation of an exemplary discussion of politics and literature in the People's Republic of China. From September 1991 to January 1992, this debate caught the attention of the Chinese public and also made international headlines. Throughout the period, the author has been able to follow the local discussions in Beijing.<br />
The dispute proceeds like a bad crime: The resignation of the Minister of Culture Wang Meng on September 4, 1989, is linked to the story of " Zäher Brei " from the time of the democratic movement. The narrative, a political grotesque, is then awarded by a liberal literature magazine. There is a storm of indignation among the orthodox Marxists, which vents it’s spleen in two press articles. Apparently one would like to tackle the liberal literature of the 1980s at all. The former Minister of Culture fears a new political hate campaign and - a novelty in the history of the People's Republic of China –strains a lawsuit against authors and backers. This is followed by a paper- warfare, which course is followed eagerly by the Chinese intellectuals.<br />
<br />
This dispute illustrates the tug-of-war between the reformers and reformist opponents among Chinese politicians and intellectuals in the consolidation phase after 4 June 1989. In their pleading, the debates are not confessing themselves without a wink as a supporter or opponent of the mash.<br />
<br />
This volume contains the most important documents of the 'slugfest' in German translation. According to the narrative (p. 4 ff.), the chronology (pp. 55 ff.) Provides a first overview of the debate, which is documented in the following 17 texts. The background is provided by a biography of Wang Meng (p. 161 ff.), explanations of the tense relationship between politics and literature (p. 184 ff.), and a commentary essay (p 204 ff.) References, an overview of the reception, further bibliography and a sign glossary form the appendix.<br />
<br />
卷13 吴漠汀 波鸿: 欧洲大学出版社 欧洲大学出版社 2003年, x, 242页.,ISBN 978-3-89966-004-3（3-89966-004-8）14,90€<br />
<br />
中华人民共和国政治和文学的典型文献。 1991年9月至1992年1日的这场辩论不仅引起中国民众注意，也成为了国际头条。在此期间，笔者一直关注北京当地讨论。此辩论犹如一场严重罪行：1989年9月4日，文化部长王蒙的辞职与民主运动时期的“分粥”故事脱不了干系。此事虽是政治怪诞，之后却在一自由文学杂志中得奖。正统的马克思主义者由此激怒，在两篇新闻中爆发。显然，他们想解放1980年代的自由文学。前文化部长担心爆发新的政治仇恨运动（中华人民共和国的历史上的新鲜事），会加剧对作家和支持者的反抗。其次是中国知识分子们积极参与的笔战。<br />
<br />
这场辩论说明，在1989年6月4日之后，由中国政客和知识分子组成的改革派与保守派之间的拉锯战处于巩固阶段。在他们的论战中，如果没有眨眼默认为辩论的支持者或反对者，辩论就无罪。<br />
<br />
该卷包含德语“ slugfest”中的最重要的文献。据记载（第4页及以下），按时间顺序（第55页及以下）提供了辩论的第一篇概述，该摘要记录在以下17篇文章中。本书的背景是王蒙的自传（第161页及以下），论政治与文学之间的紧张关系（第184页及以下）和评论文章（第204页及以下）。附录中有反响概况，参考书目和专业术语表。<br />
<br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
<br />
Bd 12<br />
Martin Woesler, Junhua Zhang eds.<br />
China's digital dream<br />
The impact of the Internet on Chinese society<br />
Bochum: European University Press ²2003, 332 pp.<br />
ISBN 978-3-86515-190-2 (3-86515-190-6)<br />
(1st ed. 2002: ISBN 978-3-934453-90-6 (3-934453-90-2), 274 pp.)<br />
39.00 €<br />
<br />
A dream is a vision undoubtedly, part of the vision has already become reality.<br />
Through the endeavours made by China´s political elite in the past two decades. But what exactly does that vision look like, what is the reality of China´s Internet and to what extent has this modern medium influenced and how will it continue to influence the life of people in china? In Order to find out answers to these questions, we aked scholars from China, Hong Kong, the USA, and Europe engaged in the study of Chinese internet and politics to offer<br />
their thoughts and to present the results of their research. This book is intended to be an arena of discourse between scholars approaching the study of China from different perspectives and hopefully will help readers to gain an insight into China´s modernization strategy and ist praxis.<br />
<br />
中国的数字梦想互联网对中国社会的影响 吴漠汀，张军华著 波鸿：欧洲大学出版社, 2003年第二版, 332 页. ISBN 978-3-86515-190-2 (3-86515-190-6) (1st ed. 2002: ISBN 978-3-934453-90-6 (3-934453-90-2), 274 pp.) 39.00 €<br />
<br />
毫无疑问，梦想就是一种愿景，经过二十年来中国政治精英的不断努力，一部分愿景已经成为了现实。但这种愿景究竟是什么样的？中国互联网的现实是什么？互联网这种现代媒介在多大程度上影响了这种愿景？以及互联网将如何持续影响中国人的生活？为了寻找这一系列问题的答案，我们邀请了一些来自于中国、中国香港、美国和欧洲的从事中国互联网和政策研究的学者，以提出他们的想法并介绍他们的研究成果。本书旨在成为学者间从不同角度探索中国问题的交流平台，希望本书能帮助读者了解中国现代化战略和实践。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:56, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
中国的数字梦想互联网对中国社会的影响 吴漠汀，张军华著 波鸿：欧洲大学出版社, 2003年第二版, 332 页. ISBN 978-3-86515-190-2 (3-86515-190-6) (第一版. 2002: ISBN 978-3-934453-90-6 (3-934453-90-2), 274 页) 39.00 €<br />
梦想无疑是一个愿景，经过过去二十年来中国政治精英的努力，愿景的一部分已经成为现实。 但是这种愿景到底是什么样的？中国互联网的现实是什么？这种现代媒介在多大程度上影响了它？它将如何继续影响中国人民的生活？为了找出这些问题的答案，我们邀请了一些来自中国，香港，美国和欧洲的从事中国互联网和政治研究的学者们，以提出他们的想法并介绍他们的研究结果。本书旨在作为从不同角度探讨中国问题的学者之间进行交流的场所，希望能帮助读者深入了解中国的现代化战略和实践。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 13:14, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
<br />
CONTENTS<br />
Part I Proactive and Reactive Stances towards the Internet —Internet in China and Southeast Asia<br />
1. The Internet and Civil Society in China and Southeast Asia. Sh.Kalathil, pp. 31-46<br />
2. Telecom Taxonomy: How are the One Party States of East Asia Controlling the Political Impact of the Internet? Nina Hachigian, pp. 47-80<br />
<br />
Part II Social and Economical Impacts<br />
3. Digital Divide and E-Learning – Chances and Problems in China’s Approach. Junhua Zhang, pp. 81-108<br />
4. The Reality and Potential of Online Trading in China. Haifeng Huang / Ren Ma / Lin Jian / John Liang, pp. 109-120<br />
5. Internet Use in China–A Comparative Analysis. Guo Liang/Bu Wei, pp. 121-144<br />
<br />
Part III Globalization and the Clash of Civilizations<br />
6. Accession to the WTO and the Development of China’s Digital Media. Xupei Sun, pp. 145-164<br />
7. The Internet Transforms China into an "Open Society". M. Woesler, pp. 165-187<br />
<br />
Part IV Nation-Building and Information Warfare<br />
8. Assessing China´s Efforts in Constructing an e-government. Peter Lovelock / John Ure, pp. 187-211<br />
9. Is the "wolf" coming? - An empirical study on cultural in-formation spread on Chinese websites. Peng Lan, 212-230<br />
10. Technology, Markets and Nation-Building in Chinese Cyberspace. Christopher R. Hughes, pp. 231-246.<br />
11. Between Rhetoric and Reality – A Critical Examination of the Theories and Praxis of Information Warfare in China in the Light of Post-Iraq War 2003. Junhua Zhang, pp. 247-270.<br />
<br />
Part V Governance and Information Policy<br />
12. Development of E-government in China – Present Status, Problems, and Future. Xinjiao Tan, pp. 271-294.<br />
13. Internet Censorship Focus: 'Human Rights not found' in the Chinese Web. Martin Woesler, pp. 295-325<br />
Index etc.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
<br />
CONTRIBUTORS<br />
Wei Bu, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Beijing, China<br />
Liang Guo, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Beijing, China<br />
Nina Hachigian, Director, RAND Center for Asia Pacific Policy, USA<br />
Kai Haifeng Huang, Vice President, Association of Chinese Finance Professionals, San Francisco, USA<br />
Christopher R. Hughes, Director, Asia Research Centre, Senior Lecturer, International Relations, London School of Economics, United Kingdom<br />
Lin Jian, Vice President, Shenzhen Prosperity Systems Co. Ltd., Shenzhen, China<br />
Shanthi Kalathil, Project on the Information Revolution and World Politics, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace in Washington, D.C., USA<br />
Lan Peng, Associate Professor, School of Journalism of Renmin University, Beijing, China<br />
John Liang, President, Global Vision Consulting Company in Santa Clara, USA<br />
Peter Lovelock, Deputy Director, Telecommunications Research Project, University of Hong Kong, China<br />
Ren Ma, Senior Consultant, Beijing Yingce Investment Consulting Company, Beijing, China<br />
Xupei Sun, Professor, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, China<br />
Xinjiao Tan, College of Foreign Languages, Renmin University of China, Beijing, China<br />
John Ure, Director, Telecommunications Research Project, University of Hong Kong, China<br />
Martin Woesler, Lecturer, EALC, Gutenberg University Mainz, Germersheim, Germany<br />
Junhua Zhang, Research Associate, Center for Chinese and East Asian Politics, Free University Berlin, Germany<br />
<br />
编著<br />
魏步 中国社会科学院<br />
梁果 中国社会科学院<br />
Nina Hachigian 美国兰德亚太政策中心主任<br />
Kai Haifeng Huang 美国旧金山中国金融专业协会副主席<br />
Christopher R. Hughes 亚洲研究中心主任、英国伦敦经济学院国际关系高级讲师<br />
林建 深圳兴胜合作有限公司副总裁<br />
Shanthi Kalathil 美国华盛顿卡内基国际和平基金会信息革命和世界政治项目<br />
蓝鹏 中国人民大学新闻学院副教授<br />
梁约翰 美国圣克拉拉环球视野咨询公司总裁<br />
Peter Lovelock 香港大学通信研究项目副主任<br />
马仁 北京英策投资咨询公司高级咨询师<br />
孙旭培 华中科技大学教授<br />
谭新娇 中国人民大学外国语学院<br />
John Ure 香港大学通信研究项目主任<br />
吴漠汀 德国美因茨古腾堡大学东亚研究方向讲师<br />
张军华 德国柏林自由大学中国和东亚政治中心研究员--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 08:08, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
<br />
Bd 10<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2003<br />
109 pp., ISBN 978-3-932329-08-1 (3-932329-08-2)<br />
9,95 €<br />
The present collection includes contributions to the theoretical involvement with language learning software and test reports, which are intended as decision aids for pupils and teachers.<br />
Introduction to the extended new edition. P. 2, observations on the learning of languages with the computer p. 3-7, background of evaluation patterns for electronic media p. 7, thinking impulses and classification of selected literature p. 8-11, The test criteria catalog of the State Institute for School and Continuing Education S (Biaozhun Hanyu jiaocheng) p. 25-33, Biaozhun Hanyu jiaocheng - Critical Experience Report (Cornelia Menzel) p. 34, Examination of two Chinese Learning Tutors (Katharina Kehrer), pp. 35-55, Chinese Assistant 2.10 pp. 56-57, Chinese Character Tutor p. 58-59, Interactive Chinese, Professional Version p. 60-64, Interactive Chinese, Version ABC p , Language Learning Chinese p. 66, Mao's Alphabet p. 67, Wenlin 1.0 p. 69-70, Wenlin 3.1 p. 71, Dewenlin (German version of Wenlin) p. 72-74, Further Chinese Learning Programs p -Learning Chinese p. 77, Web info for Chinese -Lehrer p. 81, German as a Foreign Language: Language Course German 1-2-3 pp. 84-85, Lina and Leo p. 86-90, Japanese: Krea Kanji p. 91-95, Spanish: Interactive Language Teacher Spanish (Anja Rossig , Pp. 96-99, English: Encarta (Andreas Schnieber) pp. 100-102, Interaktive Sprachentrainer English (Sebastian Schröer) pp. 103-106, French: tmx French (Sylwia Wyszynski) p. 109-110, The author p. 111, Bibliography p. 112, List of electronic media p. 114-115, List of illustrations p. 116-117, selection index p. 118.<br />
<br />
Bd 10<br />
波鸿：欧洲大学出版社2003年<br />
109页，ISBN 978-3-932329-08-1（3-932329-08-2）<br />
9,95€<br />
本系列藏品对语言学习软件和测试报告的理论参与做出了贡献，旨在为学生和教师提供决策帮助。<br />
扩展的新版本简介。 P2，关于用计算机学习语言的意见。P3-7，电子媒体评估模式的背景。P7，思考的冲动和选定文献的分类。P8-11，国家学校和继续教育学院考试标准目录（标准汉语教程）P25-33，标准汉语教程-批判经验报告（Cornelia Menzel） P34，两位汉语学习导师考试（Katharina Kehrer） P35-55，中文助手2.10 P56-57，汉字导师。 P58-59，互动中文，专业版。P60-64，交互式中文，ABC版本，中文语言学习。 P66，毛泽东的字母表。P67温林1.0 P69-70，温林第3.1 P71，德文林（德文版温林）。P72-74，进一步的汉语学习计划 -学习中文。P77，中文-Lehrer的网页信息。 P81，德语作为外语：德语课程1-2-3页，P84-85，Lina和Leo。 P86-90，日语：Krea Kanji。 91-95，西班牙语：互动语言老师，西班牙语（Anja Rossig，P96-99，英语：Encarta（安德里亚斯·施尼伯），P100-102页，Interaktive Sprachentrainer英语（塞巴斯蒂安·施罗尔）P103-106页，法语：tmx法语（Sylwia Wyszynski） P109-110页，作者。P111，参考书目。P112，电子媒体列表。P114-115，插图列表。P116-117页，选择索引。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 07:06, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
Vol. 9<br />
Martin Woesler<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2003<br />
181 pp., ISBN 978-3-932329-15-9 (3-932329-15-5)<br />
24,50 €<br />
<br />
This book is an understandable guide on how to use Chinese under Windows 95, 98, ME, 2000, XP without additional programs.<br />
A reference book on 100 errors, which have occurred in Chinese under Windows across Europe with understandable solutions.<br />
A documentation of the first beginnings of Chinese on the computer until the Unicode.<br />
A practical guide for Internet, e-mail and text processing with Chinese.<br />
<br />
Vol. 8<br />
[Chinese / German]<br />
Karl-Heinz Pohl (ed.)<br />
Bochum: European University Press ²2003<br />
215 pp., ISBN 978-3-934453-30-2 (3-934453-30-9)<br />
19.90 €<br />
<br />
To break his back for five bushels of rice a day, he was himself to pity and quit the public service. In the country he has moved, has cultivated fields and gardens and praised what he loved: chrysanthemums and pines, even children, country people, old people, drinking with friends, silence, seclusion. He understood how to praise as to lament, to think about the vicissitudes of life, and to play down his own hardships with a dash of self-irony: hardly anything tormented him, like the idea that the wine might go out.<br />
He lived 1500 years ago and his poems are as of today. The Chinese regard Tao Yuanming as the greatest poet between Han and Tang time; countless painters are inspired by him.<br />
<br />
<br />
Vol. 7<br />
Gregor Paul, Martin Woesler (eds.)<br />
Bochum: European University Press²2003<br />
Ii, 198 pp, ISBN 978-3-932329-13-5 (3-932329-13-9)<br />
15.34 €<br />
<br />
卷9<br />
吴漠汀<br />
波鸿：欧洲大学出版社 2003<br />
ISBN 978-3-932329-15-9 (3-932329-15-5)<br />
24.5欧<br />
本书是在没有附加程序的情况下，就如何在Windows 95、98，ME，2000，XP系统中如何使用中文而撰写的一份易于理解的指南。<br />
此参考书包含100个错误，这些错误均在欧洲范围内使用Windows中文系统时发生，此书还提供了易于理解的解决方案。<br />
此书记录了自计算机上出现的第一个中文到Unicode。<br />
此书为实用的中文互联网，电子邮件和文本处理指南。<br />
<br />
卷8<br />
【中国/德国】<br />
卡尔·海因茨·波尔（编辑）<br />
波鸿：欧洲大学出版社 2003<br />
ISBN 978-3-934453-30-2 (3-934453-30-9)<br />
19.90欧<br />
他过得怡然自得，辞去了公职，舍弃了每天挣五斗米的日子。 在乡村里，他耕种田野，修理花园，称赞自己所爱的一切：菊和松树，甚至是孩子，乡下人，老人，和朋友一起喝酒的时光，安静和与世隔绝的日子。他知道如何像悼念一样赞美，如何思考人生的沧桑，如何自嘲地淡化自己的艰辛：几乎无事会让他折磨他，就像酒也会没有一样。<br />
他活在1500年前，他的诗却延续到今天。 中国人将陶渊明视为汉唐时期最伟大的诗人，他曾启发了数位画家。<br />
<br />
卷7<br />
格雷戈尔·保罗，吴漠汀（编辑）<br />
波鸿：欧洲大学出版社 2003<br />
ISBN 978-3-932329-13-5 (3-932329-13-9)<br />
15.34 欧--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:46, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
<br />
Bd 6<br />
Martin Woesler, ed.<br />
The Modern Chinese Literary Essay - Defining the Chinese Self in the 20th Century - Conference Volume, Bochum: European University Press ²2003, 327 pp., ISBN 978-3-934453-15-9 (3-934453-15-5)<br />
35.79 €<br />
<br />
Contents<br />
<br />
Introduction<br />
The Freedom of Intellectual Exchange pp. 13-14<br />
Preface: The Flourishing of the Chinese Essay pp. 15-16<br />
<br />
Keynote: “Let us Assign the Essay its Proper Place in Chinese Literature” pp. 17-28<br />
Martin Woesler, University of Mainz, Germany<br />
<br />
The Emergence of the Modern Chinese Essay: Precursors and Influences of a Major Literary Form - The Aesthetic of Marginalism and the Impact of the West on the Chinese Essay pp. 29-42<br />
Martin Woesler, University of Mainz, Germany<br />
<br />
The Modern Essay and Urban Culture in The Republican Period<br />
Formation of Modern Subjectivity and Essay: Zhou Shoujuan’s “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” pp. 43-68<br />
Jianhua Chen, Harvard University, Cambridge, USA<br />
Eileen Chang and the Modern Essay pp. 69-100<br />
Nicole Huang, University of Wisconsin, Madison, USA<br />
<br />
Perspectives on Ideology in the Essay<br />
Zhu Ziqing, Frantz Fanon, and the Fierce White Children pp. 101-116<br />
Daniel A. Fried, Harvard University, Cambridge, USA<br />
Incongruous Lyricism: Liu Baiyu, Yang Shuo and sanwen in Chinese Socialist Culture pp. 117-134<br />
Charles A. Laughlin, Yale University, New Haven, USA<br />
<br />
<br />
蓝色光碟6 吴漠汀主编，当代中国文学散文-定义二十世纪中国自我主义-会议期刊,波鸿：欧洲大学出版社，327页，2003年ISBN 978-3-934453-15-9 (3-934453-15-5) 35.79 欧<br />
<br />
目录<br />
<br />
引言 <br />
知识交流的自由 13-14页<br />
<br />
前言 <br />
中国散文的兴盛 15-16页 <br />
<br />
主题：“让我们将散文在中国文学中置于恰当的位置”17-28页 吴漠汀,美因茨大学，德国<br />
<br />
当代中国散文的兴起：文学主要形式的前身及影响-边缘主义的美学和西方文化对中国散文的影响 29-42页 吴漠汀，美因茨大学，德国<br />
<br />
民国时期现代散文和城市文化 现代主体性和散文的形成：周瘦鹃 43-68页，哈佛大学，剑桥，美国 <br />
<br />
张爱玲与当代散文 69-100页 Nicole Huang, 威斯康星大学，麦迪逊市，美国<br />
<br />
散文中意识形态观点 朱自清，佛朗茨•法农，凶猛的白人孩子 101-116页 丹尼尔•A•佛莱德，哈佛大学，剑桥市，美国 <br />
<br />
不协调的抒情：刘白羽，杨硕 中国社会主义文化中的散文 117-134页 查尔斯• A•劳克林，耶鲁大学，纽黑文市，美国--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:55, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
<br />
The Author's Self in Essays of Place and in Qian Zhongshu's Criticism<br />
A Reading of Traditional Gestures in Modern Chinese Essays of Place pp. 135-148<br />
Alexandra R. Wagner, Yale University, New Haven, USA<br />
Qian Zhongshu's Essays pp. 149-176<br />
Hong Yu, University of Münster, Germany<br />
Cultural Polemics in Contemporary China<br />
From Historical Narrative to the World of Prose: The Essayistic Mode in Contemporary Chinese Literature pp. 177-192<br />
Ban Wang, State University of New York at Stony Brook, New York, USA<br />
Mulish Essays: the Genre of Zawen in Contemporary China pp. 193-214<br />
Mary Scoggin, Humboldt State University, Arcata, USA<br />
Nostalgia without Memory: Reading Zhang Wei's Essays pp. 215-230<br />
Jie Lu, University of the Pacific, Stockton, USA<br />
Deciphering the Populist Gadfly: Cultural Polemic around Zhang Chengzhi's “Religious Sublime” pp. 231-240<br />
Xinmin Liu, Wesleyan University, Middletown, USA <br />
Discussion of this chapter: The xiaopin wen between xianshi sanwen and zawen pp. 241-246<br />
King-Fai Tam, Trinity College, Hart.ford, USA<br />
<br />
Regional Perspectives: Taiwan and Hong Kong<br />
The Changing Character of the Essay Subgenres pp. 247-290<br />
Ming-Lee Cheng, Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan<br />
The Short Miscellaneous Essay with Hong Kong Characteristics pp. 291-310<br />
Wai Leung Wong, Chinese University of Hong Kong, China<br />
Overview of the Contemporary Essay<br />
Martin Woesler, University of Mainz, Germany<br />
The 20th Century Chinese Essay - Characteristics, Actors, and Trends pp. 311-328<br />
A Survey of the Genre and New Insights Into the Essayists Ba Jin, Zhou Zuoren, Zhu Ziqing pp. 329-340<br />
Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective pp. 341-360<br />
Contributors pp. 361-372<br />
Index pp. 373-<br />
在地方散文以及钱钟书评论中的作者自我<br />
<br />
中国现代地方散文的传统阅读姿态 135-148 亚历山德拉·R·瓦格纳，耶鲁大学，纽黑文市，美国<br />
<br />
钱钟书的散文 149-176 于洪，明斯特大学，德国<br />
<br />
当代中国文化论证法<br />
<br />
从历史叙述到世界散文：当代中国文学中的散文模型 177-192 王斑，纽约石溪国立大学，纽约，美国<br />
<br />
杂文：当代中国杂文类别 193-214 玛丽·斯科金，洪堡州立大学，阿克塔，美国<br />
<br />
没有记忆的怀念：张伟散文阅读 215-230 卢杰，太平洋大学，斯托克顿市，美国<br />
<br />
破译令人讨厌的民粹主义者：关于张承志“宗教崇高性”的文化抨击 231-240 刘新民，卫斯理大学，米德尔顿，美国<br />
<br />
本章讨论：介于现实散文和杂文之间的小品文 241-246 谭景辉，圣三一学院，哈特福特，美国<br />
<br />
区域视角：台湾和香港<br />
<br />
论文子流派变化的角色 247-290，陈明礼，台湾师范大学，台北，台湾<br />
<br />
具有香港特色的短篇杂文 291-310，黄伟亮，香港中文大学，中国<br />
<br />
当代散文概述 马丁·沃斯勒，美因茨大学，德国<br />
<br />
20世纪中国散文-特点，先驱者以及倾向 311-328<br />
<br />
从全新角度对散文家巴金，周作人，朱自清流派的调查 329-340<br />
<br />
现代中国文学和散文类别：一个全新视角 341-360<br />
<br />
贡献者 361-372<br />
<br />
索引 373-<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:47, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
<br />
vol. 5<br />
Martin Woesler, ed.<br />
The Chinese Essay in The 20th Century<br />
Bochum: European University Press ²2003<br />
496 (xlii, 205, 229) pp.<br />
ISBN 978-3-934453-14-2 (3-934453-14-7)<br />
<br />
<br />
Essay-writing is an acknowledged hallmark of Chinese writers and intellectuals, past and present. The personal essay, in particular, has been widely popular ever since the Ming Dynasty and was a major genre of modern Chinese literature. The more public essay-form <br />
called zawen (miscellaneous essay), the invention of which is attributed to Lu Xun, has been used by at least two generations of modern Chinese intellectuals as a powerful weapon of social and political criticism, often from a dissident angle. All of these are well known in China but seldom studied in the West.<br />
It is time, therefore, that we welcome the publication of a volume of 20th century Chinese essays carefully selected and edited by Martin Woesler. Dr. Woesler has been a most conscientious young scholar from Germany who embarked upon such an endeavor with a singular devotion, especially in view of the fact that his mother tongue is not English. His exemplary zeal must have been contagious, for he was able to gather a like-minded group of translators who all contributed their time and energy to this magnificent volume. As his official sponsor for a year's research visit at Harvard, I am honored to be asked to write this perfunctory preface, a small task I do with pleasure for both scholarly and personal reasons. (Though no expert in this genre I am currently practicing essay-writing myself by contributing to a weekly column in Chinese for a Hong Kong newspaper.)<br />
Readers of this volume can readily discover that a most welcome feature is its comprehensiveness: samples from both the modern and contemporary periods are represented. Although ample coverage is given to writers from the Mainland, the celebrated poet and essayist from Taiwan, Yu Kwang-chung, is also included. Needless to add, this selection is chosen from a much larger collection of essays from Woesler's massive research data bank stored in his personal computer. I am sure he will welcome scholars who wish to gain access. I am delighted that after many years of hard work his labor is finally bearing fruit, and I invite all interested readers to sample its variegated taste.<br />
Leo Ou-fan Lee, July 14, 1999<br />
<br />
第五卷<br />
马丁·维斯勒 著<br />
波鸿：欧洲大学出版社，2003年<br />
496（205，229）页<br />
ISBN 978-3-934453-14-2 (3-934453-14-7)<br />
€/US$ 25.00<br />
<br />
无论是过去还是现在，散文写作是中国作家和知识分子公认的标志。特别是个人散文，自明代以来就广泛流行，是中国现代文学的主要体裁之一。更公开的散文形式<br />
被称为扎文（杂文），是由鲁迅发明的，常被至少两代中国现代知识分子用作从不同政见的角度批判社会和政治的强大武器。这些中国都是众所周知的，但西方却很少有人研究。因此，我们应当欢迎马丁·维斯勒精心挑选和编辑的20世纪中国散文集的出版。维斯勒博士是一位勤勉认真的的德国青年学者，他以非常的献身精神从事这项工作，特别是考虑到他的母语不是英语。他的模范热情是一定具有感染力，因为他能够聚集一群志同道合的翻译家，他们都为这本伟大的著作贡献了时间和精力。作为他在哈佛大学进行为期一年研究访问的官方赞助商，我很荣幸地被要求写这个敷衍的序言，这是一项我出于学术和个人原因而愉快完成的小任务。（虽然我不是这方面的专家，但我目前正在练习写论文，为一家香港报纸的每周中文专栏撰稿。）这本书的读者很容易发现，它最受欢迎的特点是它的全面性：既有现代的例子，也有当代的例子。虽然大陆作家的作品得到了充分的报道，但台湾著名诗人和散文家余光中等人的作品也被包括在内。不用说，这篇文章是沃斯勒从存储在自己个人电脑中的大量研究数据库中挑选出来的。我相信他会欢迎那些希望进一步了解的学者。我很高兴，经过多年的努力，他的劳动终于结出了硕果，我邀请所有感兴趣的读者来品尝它丰富的味道。李欧范，1999年7月14日<br />
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 05:00, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
<br />
Bd 4<br />
Manuel Fries<br />
China and Cyberspace. <br />
The Development of the Chinese National Information Infrastructure<br />
Bochum: European University Press ²2003<br />
220 pp., ISBN 978-3-934453-13-5 (3-934453-13-9)<br />
25.00 €<br />
<br />
"As a China consultant and academic whose interest in China goes as far back as 1952, I was delighted to be asked to write an introduction to "China and Cyberspace", a detailed and very up-to-date report on the development of the Chinese national information infrastructure, succinctly presented in this book by Manuel Fries.<br />
I had the pleasure of first meeting Manuel Fries in Beijing, where he undertook research for this book. Mr. Fries, who speaks fluent Chinese, mingled with ease with Chinese bureaucrats and private entre-preneurs in order to obtain the information for this publication. No doubt, this skill comes from both his training and his extensive research experience. This ideal combination allowed him to compile the vital background information on China's current communications industry, which is at the centre of this book.<br />
Much of the detailed information contained in this volume is not readily available in any form and therefore fills a vital gap as a reference tool for anybody who seeks vital information about China in Cyberspace. The appended bibliography is also of vital use for this purpose.<br />
I am delighted to be able to recommend this publication to all readers who have an interest in contem-porary China and its rapid progress in information technology."<br />
Dr. Wolfgang Frick<br />
曼纽尔弗里斯中国和网络空间。中国国家信息基础设施的发展，波鸿:欧洲大学出版社，2003年，220页，ISBN 978-3-934453-13-5(3-934453-13-9) 25.00欧元<br />
“作为一名中国顾问和学者，我对中国的兴趣可以回溯到1952年。我很高兴被邀请撰写《中国与网络空间》的引言，这是一份关于中国国家信息基础设施发展的最新的详细报告，由曼纽尔•弗莱斯(Manuel Fries)在这本书中简明扼要地阐述了这一问题。我有幸在北京第一次见到了曼纽尔•弗里斯，他在那儿为这本书进行了研究。弗莱斯先生能说一口流利的中文，能自在地与中国官员和私营企业企业家打交道，来获取本刊物所需的信息。毫无疑问，这种能力来自于他的练习和丰富的研究经验。这种理想的结合使他能够编纂有关中国目前通信行业的重要背景信息，这也是本书的核心内容。本书中所包含的许多详细信息都无法以任何形式轻易获取，所以对那些在找寻关于中国网络空间方面的重要信息的人来说，这是一个重要的参考。为这个目的，所附的书目也很重要。我很高兴能够向所有对当代中国以及对其信息技术的快速进步感兴趣的读者推荐这本刊物。”<br />
沃尔夫冈•弗里克（Wolfgang Frick）博士--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:39, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
<br />
Vol. 3<br />
Martin Woesler (ed., transl.)<br />
<Chin., Ger.><br />
Bochum: European University Press ²2003<br />
300 pp., ISBN 978-3-932329-05-0 (3-932329-05-8)<br />
15,29 €<br />
<br />
Bilingual edition with the most famous Chinese essays of the 20th century.<br />
In 1917 the Chinese essay experienced under a strong Western influence its rebirth in baihua, the written common speech. The 1920s and 1930s saw a May of essay writing: in newspapers and magazines these short contributions were a modern medium of the enlightenment in China. Since 1927, the essay was increasingly politicized as a propaganda tool. The conflict between the free (Zhou Zuoren) and the politically committed essay (Lu Xun) was decided by the latter. In the 1990s, the essays of the republics, with the exception of the ideologically affirmative texts, are widely more received than those of the present.<br />
第三卷 马丁·吴勒森（中，徳） 波鸿：欧洲大学出版社2003年 300页，出版号 978-3-932329-05-0（3-932329-05-8）€15，29<br />
20世纪最著名的中国散文，双语版。<br />
1917年，最西方的强烈影响下，中国散文经历了白话文—书面普通话的复兴。20世纪20、30年代，中国经历一场散文写作的五月运动：这些在报纸和杂志上面刊登的短文章成了中国启蒙运动的现代化媒介。自1927年以来，散文越发成为政治宣传的工具。自由（周作人）与政治散文（鲁迅）之间的矛盾受到后者的牵制。20世纪90年代，除思想积极的文章之外，共和文章较比现在的更加广受欢迎。<br />
<br />
Vol. 2 (3 subvolumes)<br />
Martin Woesler<br />
Bochum: European University Press ²2003, xiii, 900 pp., 978-3-932329-04-3 (3-932329-04-X)<br />
€ 46.00<br />
<br />
The three volumes are divided into the period 1911-1949, 1949-2000 and bibliography. To subvolume 2:<br />
In the 1980s and 1990s, the Chinese essay experienced its second flowering phase after the Republic era. Anthologies, book series, periodicals and conferences are devoted to the essay. The fast-moving nature of society requires short, diverting texts. The individual consciousness is strengthened and the essay is the most immediate form of subjective expression. Also the interest in the discussion of socio-political issues increases. The young generation of the essayists, that are born after 1949, seems to write free from ideological influence for the first time. However, short-term political topics take up less space than in the 1920s and 1930s. The essay is consciously perceived as a genre again: In the 1980s the essay scholarship began in Taiwan, some years later in the People's Republic of China.<br />
卷二（附卷三） 马丁·吴勒森 波鸿：欧洲大学出版社，第八版，900页，978-3-932329-04-3（3-932329-04-X）€46，00<br />
<br />
三卷分成1911-1949，1949-2000和自传三个。致附卷二：<br />
20世纪80和90年代，中国散文经历了共和时期之后的第二次繁荣。文选、系列书、期刊和会议都归于散文。社会快速发展的性质需要的是短小多元的文章。由于个人意识得到加强，散文成了表达主观情绪最直接的形式。同样的，人们对探讨政治社会的兴趣变得越发浓厚。1949年过后出生的新一代散文家们，似乎第一次能够在不受到意识形态的干扰下自由写作。然而，短期的政治话题较比20世纪20、30年代占据的篇幅更小。散文再次被认为是一种体裁：20世纪80年代，散文奖学金在台湾兴起，之后又在新中国开始。--[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 10:33, 3 October 2020 (UTC)周诗卿<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
<br />
Vol. 1<br />
Gunnar Richter<br />
<br />
Bochum: European University Press,<br />
104 pp., ISBN 978-3-932329-02-9 (3-932329-02-3)<br />
13,90 €<br />
NEW: TRADITIONAL CHINESE VERSION ISBN 978-3-932329-45-6 (3-932329-45-7)<br />
<br />
This grammar of the Chinese is aimed at students of the Chinese language (beginner and advanced) and is designed as a summary for teaching purposes. It is based on the tried and widespread textbook 'Praktisches Chinesisch', but is enriched by examples from other sources. All examples are marked with Pinyin transcription. Different habits in the use of grammatical terms in German and Chinese are taken into account. This book is also intended as a reference book for grammatically interested sinologists.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yushu, Winfried Woesler, Horst Thomé (Hgg.)<br />
Bo¬chum: Multi¬Lin¬gua (from Vol. 4 Königshausen & Neumann), ISSN 1616-4016, yearly, Vol. 7 2006, Vol. 6 2005, Vol. 5 2004, Vol. 4 2003, Vol. 3 2002, Vol. 2 2001.8, Vol. 1 2000.8, 311 pages, ISBN 978-3-932329-12-8 (3-932329-12-0): 15,29 € (Vol. 1, 2) 49,50 € (from Vol. 3)<br />
<br />
GERMAN CHINA ASSOCIATION<br />
Bulletin of the German China Association<br />
since 1957, ISSN 1436-8048, 18 €<br />
<br />
卷1 贡纳·里希特 编著<br />
波鸿：欧洲大学出版社，104页， ISBN 978-3-932329-02-9 (3-932329-02-3) 13,90 € 传统中文的新译本： ISBN 978-3-932329-45-6 (3-932329-45-7)<br />
<br />
该汉语语法针对的是汉语学习者（初级和高级），目的是作为教学目的的总结。它基于久经考验以及广泛传播的教科书《实用汉语课本》，但其他来源的资料也丰富了<br />
该书。所有示例均标有拼音音标，并且考虑了德语和汉语中使用语法术语的不同习惯。该书还旨在成为对语法感兴趣的汉学家的参考书。<br />
<br />
张玉书，温·沃斯勒，霍尔斯特·托美（Hgg.）波鸿: MultiLingua核心期刊 (摘自 卷4 Königshausen & Neumann出版社), ISSN 1616-4016, 年刊, 卷7 2006, 卷 2005, <br />
卷5 2004, 卷4 2003, 卷 3 2002, 卷2 2001.8, 卷 1 2000.8, 311页, ISBN 978-3-932329-12-8 (3-932329-12-0): 15,29 € (卷 1, 2) 49,50 € (摘自卷3)<br />
德中协会，自1957年以来的德意志中国联合会公报， ISSN 1436-8048, 18 €--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 12:58, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
<br />
1/2007<br />
German China Association (eds.)<br />
From Chinese novels, the Chinese literature in the sign of the "boom": Liu Jiming, Zhang Wei, Liu Qingbang and their response to the big city literature, Teodorico Pedrini, an Italian court musician in the palace of the emperor Kangxis, the awarding of the Orient-und-Okzident Prize to Ieoh Ming Pei, Josefine Huppertz's studies on Chinese seafaring and the question to what is different in China and why<br />
Issue 50 2007<br />
1. ed. 30.06.2007, Paperback<br />
92 pp.<br />
ISBN 978-3-932329-54-8<br />
36,00 Eur [Ger]<br />
<br />
1/2006<br />
Issue 49 2006/1<br />
1. ed. 30.06.2006, Paperback<br />
118 pp.<br />
ISBN 978-3-932329-48-7 (3-932329-48-1)<br />
36,00 Eur [Ger]<br />
<br />
2/2005<br />
German China Association (eds.)<br />
Issue 48 2005/2<br />
1. ed. 23.12.2005, Paperback, 82 pp.<br />
ISBN 978-3-932329-46-3 (3-932329-46-5)<br />
18,00 Eur [Ger] / 18,60 Eur [At]<br />
<br />
1/2005<br />
German China Association (eds.)<br />
Year 48 2005/1<br />
1. ed. 1.7.2005, Paperback, 82 pp.<br />
ISBN 978-3-932329-44-9 (3-932329-44-9)<br />
18,00 Eur [Ger] / 18,60 Eur [At]<br />
<br />
2/2004<br />
German China Association (eds.)<br />
Bulletin of the German China Association <br />
Issue 47 2004/2<br />
1. ed. 23.12.2004<br />
Paperback<br />
100 pp, ISBN 978-3-932329-42-5 (3-932329-42-2)<br />
18,00 Eur [Ger] / 18,60 Eur [At]<br />
<br />
1/2004<br />
German China Association (eds.)<br />
Issue 47 2004/1<br />
1. ed. 30.06.2004<br />
Paperback<br />
98 pp.<br />
ISBN 978-3-932329-40-1 (3-932329-40-6)<br />
18,00 Eur[Ger] / 18,60 Eur[At] <br />
<br />
2/2003<br />
German China Association (eds.)<br />
Issue 46 2003/2<br />
Paperback, ed. 15.12.2003<br />
90 pp.<br />
ISBN 978-3-932329-39-5 (3-932329-39-2), 18,00 Eur [Ger] / 18,60 Eur [At]<br />
1/2003<br />
German China Association (eds.)<br />
<br />
Issue 46. 2003/1, 1. ed. 2003, Paperback<br />
80 pp., numerous black and white Picture(s)<br />
ISBN 978-3-932329-38-8 (3-932329-38-4), 18,00 Eur [Ger] / 18,60 Eur [At]<br />
<br />
Still available older issues: Vol 3 / 1998.12, 66 pp, 1999.5, 116 pp, 1999.12, 66 pp, 2000.5, 78 pp, 2001, 96 pp, 2001.12, 38 pp, 2002.7, 2002.12<br />
<br />
[English / German / Chinese]<br />
European University Press, ISBN 978-3-89966-012-8 (3-89966-012-9), about 80 pages, more than 100 color photos, 29,90 €<br />
<br />
2007年7月德意志中国协会（主编）。从中国小说中看，中国文学有繁荣的迹象：刘继铭，张炜，刘庆邦及其对大城市文学的回应，意大利法院音乐家德奥多里科·佩德里尼（Teodorico Pedrini）在康熙皇帝的宫殿中，向东方明培和何塞芬·霍珀兹（Josefine Huppertz）颁发了“东方与奥克斯坦特奖”，获奖的研究为中国航海、航海对中国带来的改变，以及为什么要发行第50期2007年第1版的问题。 2007年6月30日，平装本92页，ISBN 978-3-932329-54-8 欧元 [德国]<br />
1/2006第49版，2006年1 月第1版。 2006年6月30日，平装本118页，ISBN 978-3-932329-48-7（3-932329-48-1）36,00 欧元 [德国]<br />
1/2005德国中国协会（编辑）第48期2005年1月 第一版。 2005年1月7日，平装本，第82页，ISBN 978-3-932329-44-9（3-932329-44-9）18,00欧元[德国] / 18,60欧元[奥地利]<br />
2004年2月德中协会（eds。）德中协会公报第47期2004年2月 第一版。 2004年12月23日平装本100 页，ISBN 978-3-932329-42-5（3-932329-42-2）18,00欧元[德国] / 18,60欧元[奥地利]<br />
1/2004德中协会（编辑）第47期2004年1月 第一版。 2004年6月30日平装本98 页。ISBN 978-3-932329-40-1（3-932329-40-6）18,00 Eur [Ger] / 18,60 Eur [奥地利]<br />
2/2003德中协会（编辑）第46期2003年2月平装本版本。 2003年12月15日90页ISBN 978-3-932329-39-5（3-932329-39-2），18,00欧元[德国] / 18,60欧元[奥地利] <br />
1/2003德国中国协会（编辑。）第46期。2003年1月，第1版。 2003，平装书80 页。大量黑白照片。ISBN 978-3-932329-38-8（3-932329-38-4），18,00 欧元 [德国] / 18,60 欧元 [奥地利]<br />
仍可获取到的旧期刊：第3 卷/ 1998年12月，66 页，1999年5月，116 页，1999年12月，66 页，2000年5月，78 页，2001年，96 页，2001年12月，38 页，2002年7月，2002年12月<br />
[英语/德语/中文]欧洲大学出版社，ISBN 978-3-89966-012-8（3-89966-012-9），约80页，超过100张彩色照片，29,90欧元--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 07:18, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
Chinese-Western cultural comparison<br />
Series: Inter Culturas<br />
ISSN 1613-6195<br />
Published by Hans-Peter Schütt, Ute Gahlings, Guido Rappe<br />
<br />
Interculturas means "between the cultures" and refers not only to the cultural diversity within the European present and the past, but also to the plurality that transcends space and time, in which Europe itself is always one of many cultures. Accordingly, Inter Culturas is an interdisciplinary series for studies on Europe, its culture and its history of ideas, in which not only intracultural but also intercultural work will appear.<br />
<br />
The following priorities are envisaged:<br />
- History of European Philosophy and Literature<br />
- gender research and European feminism<br />
- Europe in cultural comparison<br />
<br />
《中西文化比较》<br />
丛书：跨文化<br />
ISSN 1613-6195<br />
作者：汉斯-彼得·舒特，乌特加林斯，吉多·拉普<br />
<br />
跨文化是指“文化之间”，不仅指欧洲现在和过去的文化多样性，还指超越空间和时间的多元性，在这种多元性中，欧洲本身始终是许多文化之一。因此，国际文化是一个跨学科的系列，研究欧洲，不仅要研究文化内文化和历史思想的，而且也需要跨文化的研究工作。<br />
<br />
以下为预设优先呈现内容：<br />
-欧洲哲学和文学史<br />
-性别研究和欧洲女权主义<br />
-欧洲的文化比较<br />
--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:24, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
中西文化比较<br />
系列:跨文化<br />
ISSN 1613 - 6195<br />
由Hans-Peter Schütt, Ute Gahlings, Guido Rappe出版<br />
<br />
跨文化是指“文化间的”，它不仅指欧洲现在和过去的文化多样性，也指超越空间和时间的多元性，而欧洲本身就是众多文化中的一种。因此，跨文化研究是一个跨学科的系列研究，研究欧洲的文化和思想史，其中不仅有文化内的作品，也会出现跨文化的作品。<br />
<br />
设想了下列优先事项:<br />
-欧洲哲学史和文学史<br />
-性别研究和欧洲女权主义<br />
-文化比较下的欧洲--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 12:47, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
<br />
Vol. I-IV Guido Rappe: ISBN 978-3-86515-001-1 (3-86515-001-2 ), 4 volumes, approx. 3500 pp., Berlin et.al .: European University Press 2003-2008, with the purchase of the total work 285 euro; 1. volume 1040 pp., ISBN 978-3-86515-002-8 (3-86515-002-0)<br />
59,00 €<br />
卷1-卷4.吉多·瑞普:ISBN 978-3-86515-001-1 (3-86515-001-2 ).4卷，约3500页，柏林等:欧洲大学出版社 2003-2008.全套书售价285欧元.卷1，约1040页，ISBN 978-3-86515-002-8 (3-86515-002-0)，售价59欧元.<br />
<br />
The four-volume " Interkulturelle Ethik " attempts to acquire transcultural commonalities, which can serve to improve the philosophical understanding between people, using the example of the ancient cultural comparison between Europe and China. From a modern philosophic perspective follwing intensive examination with both the classical texts of the moral theories and the practice of ethical techniques is intended to illustrate the strengths and weaknesses of the different directions in order to promote a mutual learning process. In this way, a conceptual foundation of moral-philosophical thought is aimed at, which is no longer based on the dominance of European thought, but exposes the view to an ethics of the equated, peaceful coexistence of human beings<br />
《跨文化伦理》总共四卷，该书通过举例对比古欧洲和古中国在文化方面的异同来探寻跨文化的共性，从而进一步增进不同民族之间哲学层面上的相互理解。在对讨论道德理论的经典篇章做了大量的研究之后，该书从现代哲学角度出发，阐明了不同文化的长处和短处，以期促进文化间的相互学习。这样以来，哲学——道德的理念基础就不再以欧洲理念至上，而是将目光投向了一种人类平等和和平共处的伦理理念。--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 12:39, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
<br />
Vol. I<br />
Guido Rappe<br />
xxv, 1002 pp., 2004<br />
ISBN 978-3-86515-002-8 (3-86515-002-0)<br />
59 €<br />
<br />
In today's era of the coalescence of cultures, the question of cross-cultural ethics is of crucial importance. In view of the ever-repeated assertion that these great differences between European and outer-European thinking stand in the way, a critical review of such theses is made and proved that these are usually unauthorized. By following certain dominant European perspectives from ancient times to modern era, the volume exposes the ethnocentric aspects of the tradition of postconventional approaches. On the other hand, there are intensified similarities in time and space that are not sufficiently taken into account by many modern cultural-relativistic approaches. The volume tries to initiate a new intercultural dialogue on ethics by breaking down prejudices on both sides.<br />
在当今文化交融的时代，跨文化伦理问题至关重要。人们接连不断地断言欧洲及欧洲以外的思想之间存在的巨大差异阻碍了跨文化伦理问题的研究，该书对这些论断进行了批判性的审查，并证明这些断言通常是未经证实的。通过遵循从古至今的一些欧洲主流观点，该书册揭示了后传统习俗方法的民族中心主义。 另一方面，时间和空间上的相似性加剧，许多现代文化相对论方法没有充分考虑到这一点。 该册试图通过打破双方的偏见，开始新的跨文化伦理对话。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 13:30, 3 October 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 07:30, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
<br />
Vol. II, Part I<br />
Ethical Anthropology I.<br />
The body as the foundation of ethics,<br />
ISBN 978-3-86515-003-5 (3-86515-003-9), 1. Tlbd. 2005 € 59<br />
2 Tlbd. Together 118 €<br />
<br />
In contrast to the dominant scientific concepts of human beings, which have especially gained a stronger public impact through recent research on brain physiology, but also in a critical delimitation towards mental metaphysical ideas, which have determined the ethical discussion of the European tradition for 2500 years, this volume deals with the elaboration of fundamentals of an anthropology that is based on ethical phenomena and the moral quality of man. These are understood as a specific way of human existence, whose roots reach deep into the life of the body. Between the neuronal fire on the one hand and the 'spirit' of the 'soul' or the 'consciousness' on the other side, a critical consideration is to be found in empirical phenomena, with the concept of the body, its vitality, its mnemonic potency and its ability to communicate an orientated terminological foundation, on which both the further personal ethics with the founded moral emotions on it as well as an intercultural comparing of ancient ethics concepts can build up.<br />
<br />
第二卷，第一部分<br />
道德人类学 一<br />
身体是伦理的基础<br />
国际标准书号 978-3-86515-003-5 (3-86515-003-9),<br />
<br />
本卷基于伦理现象和人的道德素质，对人类学的基础进行阐释。和占主导地位的科学概念相反，这次对大脑生理学展开的研究对公众产生了强烈的影响，同时对精神形而上学观念进行了严格划界，这决定了欧洲2500年以来对欧洲传统的道德讨论。这些一直以来都被视作人类存在的一种方式，其根深深扎根于生命中。一方面是神经元之火，另一方面的“灵魂的精神”或“意识”，在这中间，可以从经验中得到一个重要的发现，基于身体、生命力、记忆能力、交流有针对性的术语基础等概念，可以在已发现的道德情感上进一步建立个人伦理，以及对古代伦理进行跨文化比较。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 11:25, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
<br />
Vol. II, Part. 2<br />
ISBN 978-3-86515-003-5 (2) (ISBN-10 3865150039), 2 parts 2006 59 €<br />
2 parts together 118 €<br />
<br />
A modern ethics needs a conceptual foundation which adequately takes the emotional and intellectual aspects of man into consideration. This is offered in the present Ethical Anthropology with the term of the person, to which the understanding belongs the term of the personal identity, the freedom of will and responsibility as well as the attitude and the conscience. Its development requires a phenomenological-historical view on the understanding of feelings and thinking in European culture, which reveals those aspects which were largely pushed back by the dominant branch of metaphysics in its relevance to the moral foundation. From this perspective, personal ethics explores its basis in emotional experience, without an understanding of moral quality is impossible, and this is discussed with the example of the feeling of sympathy which is found in a moral sense. But moral feelings alone are not sufficient, but require critical support through reason and through an effort for self-cultivation. Only then can they form part of the balanced path to the success of life, which allows man to counter his moral potency in the fulfillment of his life.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
<br />
Vol. III<br />
ISBN 978-3-86515-004-2 (3-86515-004-7) 59 €<br />
<br />
The virtue ethics, which has been intensified discussed since the second half of the 20th century, is now a major alternative to the established formal approaches of the metaphysical European tradition of ethics. This is because it can look back on a long history which coincides with the beginning of written philosophy in Greek and Chinese antiquity. The knowledge of the high ethical level of these approaches has been pushed back into the background for a long time, due to the ideological attitudes which have taken place during European Christianization and the persistent misleading polemic. Another non-critical and problematic effect was the uncritical use of the term 'deontological', which had been torn out of the antique context and applied to concepts that were directed against virtuous approaches. The present volume aims to help to overcome these shortcomings and confusion. In doing so it elaborates an intercultural perspective that, based on the ancient Chinese virtue ethics, offers a detailed comparison with Greek approaches. The result of this detailed presentation and intensive philosophical penetration shows not only the cross - cultural anthropological relevance of virtuous ethics, but also the fact that the ancient theories of self - cultivation can also open up perspectives for today 's people who can provide valuable guidance in a time of progressive formalization on the way to a subject-centric self-perfection.<br />
<br />
卷三 ISBN 978-3-86515-004-2 (3-86515-004-7) 59 €<br />
<br />
自二十世纪下半叶以来，人们越发热切地讨论道德伦理学。时至今日，道德伦理学已成为一个替代形而上学式欧洲伦理学传统的主要既成方法。这归因于它可以回顾一段悠久的历史，这与始于希腊和中国古代有记载的哲学相一致。由于欧洲基督教化时期意识形态态度的出现和持续的误导性争论，在很长一段时间内，人们将这些方法的高伦理水平知识推回到背景中。另一个非关键且有疑问的影响是对”义务论”一词的随意使用。这一用语从古老的文本中剥离出来并且应用于直接反对道德流派的概念中。本卷旨在帮助克服这些缺点和困惑。基于中国古代道德伦理学，本文阐述不同文化观点，并呈现中国道德伦理学与希腊道德伦理学的具体不同。这种详尽的呈现和深入的哲学渗透的结果不仅表明了道德伦理学与跨文化人类学相关，而且表明古代的修身理论也可以为现代人开拓视野。人们可以在不断形式化的时代提供价值导向，走向以主体为中心的自我完善的道路。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:13, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
<br />
Vol. IV ISBN 978-3-86515-005-9 (3-86515-005-5) 59 €<br />
<br />
ORDERING<br />
Ruhr University, P.O. Box "Bochumer Universitätsverlag", Universitätsstr. 150, 44801 Bochum, Germany Tel. +49 (0) 234 701360, Fax 701230, email info@blaetterwald.net, Publisher's delivery for the European University Press and the Bochum University Press</div>Hu Huifanghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20200928_trans&diff=9891720200928 trans2020-10-04T16:38:47Z<p>Hu Huifang: /* Hu Baihui 胡百辉 */</p>
<hr />
<div>Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage].<br />
<br />
Dear students, this is the homework of Sep 28, due in October 2020.<br />
<br />
=Task=<br />
An English book on contemporary Chinese literature was submitted to the Chinese editor. He has not enough time and asks his students to help to translate it paragraph by paragraph into Chinese. So this time it is easier than last time, because the translation is into Chinese. He also asks the students to help improve the translation of at least one fellow student und asks them to sign their translations with the signature button (buttons on the top, third from right).<br />
<br />
Since it is a book on contemporary Chinese literature, some quotations from Chinese novels in English need to be identified in the original language (Chinese) instead of retranslate the translations into Chinese.<br />
<br />
==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
<br />
The Chinese contemporary literature at the beginning of the 21st century appears hardly compatible with the German book market. Many stories of the mostly young writers from the Middle Kingdom, who are often celebrated like pop stars, publish their books partly in millions of copies, such as Guo Jingming郭敬明, seem too bizarre. This cult literature is translatable, however loses its cult status.<br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, trends can be seen that reflect the extreme social upheaval process in China: Zhang Ailing 张爱玲 created women's literature with the inner view of the Shanghaier big city singles, for example, which has found a whole generation of successors. Or the vagabond literature (liumang wenxue 学 文学) of a Wang Shuo, which has become long since an establishment and whose current is attributable to the scandal literature.<br />
然而，趋势反映了中国社会的极端动荡过程。例如，张爱玲是从上海大城市单身人士的内心观点出发来创作女性文学的，这些人已经找到了整整一代的接班人。或者说王朔的流氓文学，它在该流派成立之前就早已存在，其潮流可归因于丑闻文学。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 05:07, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
然而，这些趋势反映了中国极其动荡的社会发展。例如，张爱玲通过了解上海那些大城市里的单身汉的内心想法来创作女性文学，这些人已经找到了整整一代的接班人。又比如王朔的流氓文学，它在该流派成立之前就一直存在，其如今的趋势也得益于丑闻文学。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 06:11, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
然而，种种趋势反映了中国社会跌宕起伏的发展。比如，张爱玲从上海大城市单身人士的内心出发创作女性文学，这一文学影响了整整一代人。又比如说王朔的流氓文学，早在该流派建立之前就已存在，而其得以发展得益于丑闻文学。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 11:22, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
然而，这些趋势反映出中国社会的大动乱：例如：张爱玲以一个上海大都市的单身人士的内心出发，创作了女性文学，这一文学已经影响了接下来的一整代人。又如王朔的流氓文学，成立至今已久，其现在的趋势可归因于丑闻文学。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 15:45, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
<br />
The wave of nostalgia with new interpretations of classics such as Confucius, Menzius, or the novel "Three Kingdoms," e.g. from the professor and television presenter Yu Dan.<br />
Finally, the young, realistic literature with autobiographical traits and fictive elements of an alienated urban youth, which ultimately seeks the happiness of love between alcohol, drugs and party excesses. This literature certainly belongs to youth literature, since the protagonists belong to the younger generation. The authors themselves remain ephimatic, as long as they have not made the leap into the establishment, as Mian Mian.<br />
<br />
自著名教授兼电视节目人于丹对孔孟经典、《三国志》进行新的诠释后，掀起了怀旧浪潮。最后，现实主义年轻文学具备了被疏远的城市青年的自传体特性和虚构元素，青年们最终在酒精、毒品、狂欢中追求爱的幸福。这些文学作品肯定属于青年文学范畴，因为主人公都是青年一代。作家们只要没能在文学界站住脚跟，就会像棉棉（当代中国作家）那样，一直保持谦逊。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 11:30, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
自著名教授兼电视人于丹对《孔子》《孟子》《三国志》等经典作品进行新的诠释后，掀起了一股怀旧浪潮。最后，年轻的现实主义文学具备了被疏远的城市青年的自传体特性和虚构元素，青年们最终在酒精、毒品及狂欢中追求爱的幸福。这些文学作品肯定属于青年文学的范畴，因为主人公都是青年一代。作者们只要没能在文学界站稳脚跟，就会像棉棉（当代中国作家）那样，一直保持谦逊。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 12:16, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
<br />
Surprising newcomer is the author Han Han, known for his critique of youth literature, who is bearing a humorous social criticism in his new work »Glory Days«, about a group of drop-outs in the style of Magical Realism, or almost a critical Surrealism.<br />
A colorful dance, which tells from another world, no longer as exotic as before, but still strange and fascinating.<br />
令人刮目相看的新人作家正是以青春批判文学而小有名气的韩寒。他的新作《辉煌的过往》以一种魔幻现实主义甚至说近乎超现实主义的方式，讲述了一群辍学的青年，自带一种幽默的社会批评主义。--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 14:40, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui <br />
一段讲述外来世界的绝世舞蹈，不再似以往带着异域风情，却仍旧奇幻无比。--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 14:40, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
<br />
Before the Frankfurt Book Fair 2009, this little booklet will give an orientation guide and a small, certainly very subjective overview of the Chinese literature, as it appears at the book fair.<br />
在2009年法兰克福图书展之前，这本小册子将会提供一个入门介绍，同时也会给予一个小小的，主观性十足的中国文学概述，这是毋庸置疑的，就像它在书展上展示的那样。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 08:39, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在举办2009法兰克福图书展之前，这本小册子将对展会进行一个初步介绍，并呈现给人们一个小小的、颇具主观性的中国文学概要，就像图书展会上展现的那样。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 12:51, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
在2009年法兰克福图书展之前，这本小册子会提供一个入门介绍，并呈现中国文学泛泛而十分主观的概况，就像其在书展上展示的那样。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:40, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
2009年法兰克福书展举办之前，这本小册子的出现其实跟书展一样，会给对中国文学感兴趣的人提供一个阅读指南，也会对中国文学进行一个简略的概括。--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 11:59, 3 October 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
在举办2009年法兰克福图书展之前，这本小册子正如在展会上呈现的那样，会就中国文学给人们一个指引，以及浅显但却非常主观的概括。--[[User:Gu Dongfang|Gu Dongfang]] ([[User talk:Gu dongfang|talk]]) 02:40, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
<br />
Who is also interested in the actual Chinese literature of the present day (because the book fair shows a section, which for various reasons is not at all representative of the Chinese contemporary literary literature) should be referred to the book "Chinese Cult Literature 2008/2009".<br />
<br />
Bochum/Munich/Beijing/Shanghai<br />
<br />
Summer 2008/ Summer 2009<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler<br />
<br />
对当代真正的中国文学感兴趣的人可以去参考《中国流行文学2008/2009版》这本书。（由于种种原因，本次图书展览会只展示了部分内容，并不能完全代表中国当代文学作品。）<br />
波鸿/慕尼黑/北京/上海<br />
2008年夏/2009年夏<br />
吴漠汀--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:40, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
By Chen Jiaxin--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 08:48, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
对于地道的中国当代文学感兴趣的人可以参考《中国流行文学》（2008版/2009版）这本书。（由于某些原因，此书中仅展示了部分中国当代文学代表作）<br />
波鸿/慕尼黑/北京/上海<br />
2008年夏/2009年夏<br />
吴漠汀（德）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 10:54, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
<br />
Chinese literature at the Frankfurt Book Fair<br />
<br />
China - the big department store<br />
<br />
With China's economic prosperity since 1978 came the leisure time. Unlike in Western countries, where this time has been filled with consumption, the new middle class of the Chinese use their leisure time in two ways:<br />
法兰克福图书展上的中国文学<br />
中国—一个大百货商场<br />
自1978年中国经济大繁荣后，人们开始有了自己的休闲时间。但与西方国家不同的是，中国的新兴中产阶级不会把休闲时间都花在消费购物上，而是花在这两个方面：--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 13:56, 3 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
法兰克福书展上的中国文学<br />
中国--大型百货商场<br />
1978年以来，随着中国经济的繁荣，人们拥有了休闲时间。但与此时的西方国家不同的是，中国的新兴中产阶级并没有把休闲时间花在消费购物上，而是花在以下两个方面：--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 14:43, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
中国文学在法兰克福书展<br />
<br />
中国—巨大的百货商场<br />
<br />
1978年中国迎来经济繁荣之后，人们终于有了闲暇时光。不像西方人总把闲暇用来消费，中国的新中产阶级用以下两种方式来度过闲时：--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 02:20, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
法兰克福书展上的中国文学<br />
<br />
中国-大型百货商场<br />
<br />
自1978年中国经济蓬勃发展后，人们拥有了闲暇时间。与闲暇时喜欢消费购物的西方人不同的是，中国的新兴中产阶级用这两种途径打发闲暇时间：--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 07:15, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
<br />
On the one hand, one has an irresistible ambition to catch up with the Western advance in time-lapse, to learn from the West and to overcome it, which is reflected in travel, learning English and foreign studies. Even at the party school management courses are taught.<br />
一方面，人们无法抑制自己想要赶上西方国家发展脚步、向其学习然后战胜他们的野心，这一点反应在旅行、英语学习以及外国研究上。甚至党校也开设管理课程 。--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 11:08, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
一方面，人有赶上西方先进技术、向他们学习并打败他们的雄心壮志，这些反应在旅游、英语学习以及外国研究上，甚至党校管理课程也在效仿。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 11:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
一方面，人们雄心勃勃，想渐渐赶上西方的发展步伐，想向西方学习并且战胜西方，这些都在旅行，英语学习和外国研究有所体现。甚至党校也开设管理课程。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:07, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
<br />
On the other hand, according to the zero point of the Cultural Revolution, ten years without school education in 1966-1976, the Chinese have a greed for knowledge - they devour Internet, newspapers, books and are willing to pay enormous fees for private schools.<br />
<br />
另一方面，以十年文革（即1966年-1976年这十年间学校教育停滞不前）为基准点，中国人渴求获得知识-他们如饥似渴地浏览网页、报纸和各类书籍，愿意花重金上私立学校。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 12:34, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
另一方面，经历文革十年（1966-1976）教育缺席的中国人求知若渴——他们如饥似渴地学习互联网，阅读报纸书籍，甚至愿意花一大笔钱去上私立学校。--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 13:14, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
另一方面，由于文化大革命（1966-1976）使得中国在这期间没有学校教育，受教育程度变得极低。但是中国人极度渴望从网络，报纸，书本获得知识，他们不惜花巨款去私立学校。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 04:16, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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另一方面，由于文化大革命（1966-1976）使得中国在这期间没有严格意义上的学校教育，这使得全体中国人民受教育程度变得极低。但是中国人极度渴望从网络，报纸，书本获得知识，甚至他们不惜为此花巨款去私立学校求学。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 04:49, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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另一方面，文革期间，1966—1976这十年期间，学校教育荒废，从零开始，所以中国人渴求知识-他们如饥似渴，从互联网，报纸，书本中获取知识，也乐于花重金读私立学校。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 08:26, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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另一方面，中国人渴望学习知识，就像十年文化大革命期间即1966-1976年无法上学的人们那样。他们竭尽全力在网络和报纸上学习新知识，甚至愿意为了去私立学校就读而掷重金。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 04:40, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
另一方面，十年文革（1966年至1976年）使得中国的教育停滞不前。中国人民渴望获取知识——他们不遗余力地探索互联网世界，翻阅报刊书籍，甚至不惜花重金前往私立学校接受教育，为的就是满足他们对知识的渴求。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 12:59, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
<br />
Both trends in leisure design coincide with a flood of translations into Chinese.<br />
两次时尚设计潮流都伴随着大量翻译作品涌入中国。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:35, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这两次轻奢设计潮流都恰好随着大量翻译作品进入中国。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 12:42, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这两次休闲理念的潮流都伴随大量翻译作品涌入中国--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:37, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这两次休闲设计的潮流都通过大量的翻译涌入中国。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 15:44, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
<br />
The situation in Western countries is quite different, the interest for China is rather an exotic and reflectes in esotericism and few works that are translated. These are then selected to serve or even enhance the foreign character of the Chinese image. One still believes in the West, as the pioneer of modernization it is the place where the action is happening.<br />
在西方国家，情况则大相径庭。他们对中国的兴趣是充满异域情调的，如中国本土宗教及为数不多的译本。然而这样的选择仅仅是为了迎合甚至加深西方对中国固有的形象。至今仍有人认为率先进入现代化的西方，也是唯一正在经历现代化的地方。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 01:41, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在西方国家，情况则大相径庭。他们对中国的兴趣是充满异域情调的，并反映在神秘主义和少数翻译作品中。然而这样的选择是为了迎合甚至加深西方对中国固有的形象。至今仍有人认为率先进入现代化的西方，也是唯一正在经历现代化的地方。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 03:14, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
<br />
在西方国家，情况则大相径庭。他们对中国的兴趣充满异域情调，这反映在神秘主义和为数不多的译本中。这些选择是为了迎合甚至是为了加深中国形象的异域特征。至今仍有人认为，作为现代化先驱的西方仍是唯一正在经历现代化的地方。--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 11:47, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
<br />
Newspapers are not yet as exciting as in Hong Kong and Japan because of the state information monopoly in China and so one reads in the subway no newspapers but books. China is just different. The books cost only 2 € to 3.50 € and sometimes reach millions of copies. And this, although the texts are long before on the Internet. Some authors have even found a publisher only after having a fanbase of their blog on the Internet.<br />
<br />
中国的情况恰好不同。由于中国对国家信息的垄断，报纸尚未像香港和日本那样流行。因此人们在地铁上阅读的不是报纸，而是书籍。这些书籍仅售2欧元至3.50欧元。书籍的发售量有时高达数百万册，尽管它们的文本内容在互联网上早已出现。有些作者甚至只有在互联网上拥有自己的博客粉丝团之后，才去寻找出版商。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 11:44, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
<br />
Cult literature<br />
<br />
The Chinese bestsellers of contemporary literature of 2009 appear to be hardly compatible with the German book market, in which China is honorary guest of the Frankfurt Book Fair. Many stories of the mostly young, often celebrated like pop stars writers from the Middle Kingdom appear to be too bizarre, with their books partly written in millions, like Guo Jingming (26 years, Shanghaier, Tears against the Stream C 2007, first place of the Chinese bestseller list 2007, circulation: 550,000). Without life experience, Ms. Lin Huafeng has to raise her daughter alone after the divorce. She has to prostitute herself and her mental conflict worsens daily. The author, the Shanghai student Guo Jingming is a cultureless enfant terrible, but loved by the youth. What bears his name is immediately sold out. In the meantime, he has given his name to works by colleagues, and his book series best sellers (C 2008-2009) is a collage of love tales, comics, photographs, styling tips, etc., wrapped in foil so that all the gimmicks do not Fall out. Here, the advertising of the proper lipstick is added to the story. This cult literature is a teen phenomenon, the authors of this youth literature are pop stars. It is translatable, but however it loses the cult status. The German publishers have not chosen the books which the Chinese read, but the German readers might find interesting. In this article, these books, which are only available at the Book Fair from October, are already being presented.<br />
<br />
邪教文学<br />
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中国2009年有关现代文学的畅销作品似乎与德国的图书市场难以相容，而中国却是法兰克福书展的荣誉嘉宾。 中国作家大多是年轻人，他们经常像流行明星一样出名，他们的许多作品看起来都太过奇异，他们的书部分以百万计，比如郭敬明（26岁，上海人，2007年出版的作品《悲伤逆流成河》荣获中国2007年畅销书排行榜第一，发行量55万册）。离婚之后，没有生活经验的林华凤必须独自抚养女儿，她不得不靠卖淫过活，因此她的心理问题也日益加剧。作者郭敬明在上海求学，他文化不高，又年少不可一世，但是却深受年轻人喜爱。带有他名字的书马上就会售罄。与此同时，郭敬明以自己的名字命名了同事的作品，他2008年至2009年的系列畅销书是一副拼贴画，其中包括了爱情故事、漫画、照片以及造型技巧等，该作品由箔纸包裹，这样所有的噱头才不会掉出来。该画作里适当地添加了一些口红广告。这种邪教文学是一种青少年现象，这种青年文学的作者都是流行明星。这些作品是可以翻译的，但是却失去了值得让人崇拜的地位。德国出版商没有选择中国人读的书，但是德国读者却可能会感兴趣。在这篇文章中，这些只在10月份法兰克福书展有售的书已经在展出了。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 12:30, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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崇拜文学<br />
<br />
中国2009年的当代文学畅销作品似乎和德国图书市场难以相容，而在法兰克福书展上，中国却是一位荣誉嘉宾。中国作家大多是年轻人，他们像流行明星一样受人追捧，但是他们笔下的故事读起来似乎过于离奇，部分书籍的篇幅几乎以百万计算，如作家郭敬明（上海人，26岁，其代表作《悲伤逆流成河》于2007年出版，并登上当年中国畅销书排行榜的榜首，发行量高达55万册）。在其小说《悲伤逆流成河》中，没有生活经验的主人公林华凤，离婚之后必须独自赡养女儿。为此她不得不靠卖淫为生，其精神状态每况愈下。郭敬明于上海求学，大学未能毕业，其性情乖张，却深受年轻人喜爱。凡带有他名字的书立马告罄。此外，郭敬明也把自己的名字借给他的同事。他2008年至2009年畅销书系列是大杂烩，包括了爱情故事、漫画、照片以及造型技巧等。书籍由箔纸包裹，以确保噱头不会遗漏。书中适当地添加了一支口红广告。这种崇拜文学盛行于青少年中，而这些青年文学的作者都成为了流行明星。这些作品是可译的，但是不值得让人崇拜。德国出版商没有选择中国读者常读的书，而是德国读者可能感兴趣的。在本文中，已经列举了法兰克福书展只在10月份售出的书。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 03:20, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
<br />
Chinese world literature<br />
<br />
This is the famous wedding scene from the novel "Dream of the Red Chamber" (C 1759 G 2009) by Cao Xueqin (1715-1763?). This was the last novel of world rank written in China, and this is 250 years ago. The novel is available in all major languages, and in German only a shortened paraphrase has been written down to one third. This shortcoming is fixed by the book fair: the European University Press presents a three-volume bound edition of books with more than 200 historical illustrations and a more favorable paperback edition of 2350 pages at the book fair. It was only in the 1920s and 1930s that the literature in China in times of the republic was able to develop again, and Lu Xun's stories from this period are reissued from the publishing house Unionverlag to the book fair. Another classic, Qian Zhongshus (1910-1998) essay collection "Written on the Edge of Life" (C 2000), is translated but is still searching for a publisher. Masterful tales are certainly also Yu Huas (49) "Brothers" (C 2005).<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
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Vagabond literature<br />
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"Diwidi? Everything there: Hollywood, Japanese, Korean, Oscar-crowned classics ",<br />
The German reader as a tourist in Peking may have been approached like this by the flying merchants.<br />
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流浪文学<br />
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“去迪维迪吗？那里什么都有：有好莱坞的，日本的，韩国的，奥斯卡得奖的经典作品”。德国读者去北京旅游的话，可能已经有流动的批发商们像这一样跟他们接洽了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 08:58, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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流浪文学<br />
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“去迪维迪吗？那里什么书都有：有美国好莱坞的，日本的，韩国的，还有拿过奥斯卡的经典作品。”德国的读者来北京旅游可能会碰上当地批发商这样上前推销。--Ouyang Ling<br />
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流浪文学<br />
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“是去迪维迪吗？那里什么都有，包括那些好莱坞、日本、韩国、甚至是得了奥斯卡奖的经典作品”，四处流动的商人很可能已经跟在北京旅游的德国读者像这样搭过讪了。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 12:53, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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流浪文学<br />
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“要DVD吗？啥片都有，好莱坞的，日本的，韩国的，得过奥斯卡的。”德国读者去北京旅游的话，可能已经有流动的批发商们这般跟他们接洽了。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 02:48, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
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This scene comes from the story "Running Through Zhongguancun" (C 2008, G 2009). Here the German reader can slip for the first time into the role of the seller, who is embodied by the 25-year-old Huang. Xu Zechen (31, lives in Beijing) has drawn the milieu authentically, the characters with dry humor and yet refreshingly lively. He describes a life between hot pavement and basement hole, between the dream of making big money and bitter setbacks, the daily cat-and-mouse game with the police. He experiences the world of the crooks as shark pond and as a conspiratorial community, in which everyone gives someone the shirt off one’s back, lose their existence, but get up again, he experiences the arbitrariness and corruption of the police. Here, worlds collide: the army of unemployed agricultural workers, who become small-scale criminals, and the urban population. The world of youth, who loves the freedom of the street, and the elderly, who appreciate the security of the wealth. This is one of the most recent and most promising stories from China, which show us a completely different China than the perfectly enacted Olympia organizer.<br />
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这个场景来自于《穿越中关村》中的故事。在这里，德国读者第一次进入买方身份，25岁的黄先生就是典型代表。作者徐则臣（31岁，现居北京）对本书背景环境描写真实，书中人物带有冷幽默，但精神抖擞、栩栩如生。作者描写了一个介于炙热人行路面和地下室洞之间，介于赚大钱的梦想和痛苦挫折之间的人生，该人生主人公的日常就是和警察玩“猫鼠游戏”。他生活在一个坏蛋横行的世界，跟生活在鲨鱼池塘或者阴谋密布的社区中没有什么区别。在这个世界里，每个人都会在别人背后捅刀子，这些人死去又重生。他还经历过警察的专横和腐败。在这里，世界冲突有：失业农工军队（变成了小规模罪犯）与城镇居民之间的矛盾；年轻人渴望街道自由，老年人希望财富得到保障。这是来自中国最近且最具希望的故事之一，这个故事给我们展现了一个完全不同于奥林匹克运动会完美组织国的中国。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:58, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
这个场景来自于《穿越中关村》中的故事。通过这本书德国读者第一次进入卖方身份，25岁的黄先生就是其中一位典型代表。作者徐则臣（31岁，现居北京）对本书背景环境描写真实生动，书中人物带有冷幽默，栩栩如生，令人耳目一新。作者描写了一个介于炙热人行路面和地下室洞之间，介于赚大钱的梦想和痛苦挫折之间的人生，该人生主人公的日常就是和警察玩“猫鼠游戏”。他生活在一个坏蛋横行的世界，跟生活在鲨鱼池塘或者阴谋密布的社区中没有什么区别。在这个世界里，每个人都会在别人背后捅刀子，这些人失去了一切，又挣扎着爬起来。他还经历过警察的专横和腐败。在这里，世界冲突有：失业农工军队（变成了小规模罪犯）与城镇居民之间的矛盾；年轻人热爱街道自由和老年人希望财富得到保障之间的矛盾。这是来自中国最近且最具希望的故事之一，这个故事给我们展现了一个完全不同于奥林匹克运动会完美组织国的中国。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 14:46, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
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The novel "Die Taschendiebe" also fits into this realistic (C 2007, G 2009), Liu Zhenyuns (51), who was ranked No. 1 in the bestseller list in China in 2008, is a mix-up thriller about a interchanged bag, whose content can become dangerous for several important people. These types of stories appear several times at the book fair. In China, they are devoured by the young, urban audience. Wang Shuo (50) had created this kind of vagabond literatur, and his novel "Playing for Thrills" was sold 250,000 times in 2007, and stayed in place 6. One is getting deeper into storytelling with Jia Pingwa’s novel "Happy" (C 2007), which is about a farmer who sells his kidney to the city and finds a brittle happiness with a prostitute. It was sold in China 100,000 times. His even more famous novel "Ruined City" (C 1993) is also almost completely translated and is still looking for a publisher in Germany.<br />
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刘震云（51岁）的小说《我叫刘跃进》（2007）也符合现实主义文学，并在2008年的中国畅销书排行榜中名列第一。这是一部关于拿错包的惊悚片，这个包牵涉到上流社会的几条人命。这些类型的故事在书展上出现过好几次，受到中国年轻观众的喜爱。王朔（50岁）创造了这种流浪文学。2007年，他的小说《玩的就是心跳》售出25万册，销售量保持在第6位。贾平凹的小说《高兴》（2007）更加深入人心，它讲述的是一个农民将自己的一颗肾卖给了城里人和一个妓女找到了脆弱的幸福。这本书在中国售出了100,000册。他更著名的小说《废都》（1993）也完全翻译成德语，并且仍在德国寻找出版商。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 12:16, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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刘震云（51岁）的小说《我叫刘跃进》（2007）也是现实主义文学，这本书名列2008年中国畅销书单首位，结合了惊险小说风格，讲述了一个拿错包，而这个包牵涉到上流社会的几条人命的故事。这些类型的小说在书展上出现过好几次，在中国广受都市的年轻人追捧。王朔（50岁）创作了这种流浪文学，他的小说《玩的就是心跳》在2007年售出25万册，销量排在第6位。贾平凹的小说《高兴》（2007）更加深入人心，它讲述了一个农民将自己的肾卖给了城里人和一个妓女在支离纷崩中找寻幸福。这本书在中国售出了100,000册。他小说《废都》（1993）更为著名，全篇译成了德语，且仍在德国寻找出版商。--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 14:27, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
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Critical Surrealism <br />
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This quotation comes from the story "Glory Days" (C 2007 G 2010) of another young author, Han Han (26). He describes the experiences of a Chinese dropout troop. Han Han enjoys a similar cult status as the same-aged Guo Jingming. He is equally famous as a critical blogger, sings his own pop songs (ghost town strategy), and drives car racings on the weekend. He also wrote his first stories as a pupil (Triple Door C 2000), became famous through a literature casting, writes humorously with a pointed pen, hardly anyone has got what was coming to one. In the 1990s, with his "critical student literature", he provoked a teenage fever, brought out a sociocritical humorous novel with "Glory Days", which sold itself in 2007 with others of his books about 200,000 times and thus ranked 13th Of the Chinese bestseller list. The author says he wanted to write in the style of "Magical Realism" for the first time, the novel is very angry humorous, sociocritical and grotesque in some places, it can be better described as Critical Surrealism. His latest book, "His Kingdom" (C 2009), ranked first place in the Chinese bestseller list in April 2009.<br />
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批判超现实主义 <br />
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这句话出自另一位青年作家韩寒（26岁）的故事《光辉岁月》（C 2007 G 2010）。他描述了一支中国退伍军人的经历。韩寒和同龄的郭敬明一样，享有盛名。他同样是著名的评论博主，有自己的流行歌曲（鬼城攻略），周末还会去赛车。他还在学生时代写下了自己的第一篇小说（2000年的《三重门C》），通过文学比赛成名，用尖锐的笔尖写出了幽默的作品，几乎没有人得到过一个人的青睐。上世纪90年代，他以 "批判性学生文学 "引发少年热，出版了《光辉岁月》这样一部一部社会批判性幽默小说，2007年与他的其他著作一起销售，销量约20万册，位列中国畅销书排行榜第13位。作者说，他第一次想用 "魔幻现实主义 "的风格来写，小说中充满了愤怒幽默，社会批判，怪诞奇谈，不如说是一种超现实注意更好些。最新著作《他的国度》（C 2009）2009年4月在中国畅销书排行榜上排名第一。--[[User:Gudongfang|Gudongfang]] ([[User talk:Gudongfang|talk]]) 04:08, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Gu Dongfang<br />
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批判超现实主义<br />
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这句话出自另一位青年作家韩寒（26岁）的小说《光荣日》（C 2007 G 2010）。他描述了一群退出主流社会、大学毕业放弃分配的中国青年人的经历。韩寒和年纪相仿的郭敬明一样享誉盛名。他同样是一名著名的评论博主，有自己的流行音乐（空城计），周末还去开赛车。学生时代，他还写下了自己的第一篇小说（《三重门》C 2000），通过一次文学比赛一战成名。他笔触尖锐而不失幽默的写作使人们很难猜到下一步的情节发展。上个世纪九十年代，他的"批判性学生文学"在青少年中激发热潮，他又出版了一部带有社会讽刺色彩的幽默小说，即《光荣日》。2007年，《光荣日》与他的其他作品一起发售，销量约20万册，在中国畅销书排行榜上排名第13位。该作者说，他第一次以“魔幻现实主义”的风格写作，小说中一些地方充满愤怒幽默、社会批判以及荒谬怪诞，可以用批判超现实主义来形容。他的最新著作《他的国》（C 2009）在2009年4月的中国畅销书排行榜上位列第一。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 05:56, 4 October 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 06:22, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
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Underground literature<br />
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... so writes Mian Mian (38 years old, lives in Shanghai, "La la la" HK 1997, G 2000, C 2009, "Your night my day" G 2004, C 2009). With her revealing description of her own life as a partygirl, she has shaped the Shanghai youth. Mian Mian has become a lifestyle. Ultimately she also seeks the happiness of love. She was the first to write about sex, drugs and alcohol, and was promptly banned in China. Therefore it is remarkable that the KiWi publishing house is brave enough to present her latest novel Panda Sex (C 2009, G 2009) at the book fair. Also in France her novel came out and was immediately praised by the daily newspaper "Le Monde". And even in China times change: her last four novels were finally released in February 2009 and were sold out immediately.<br />
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地下文学<br />
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...作家绵绵（38岁，现居北京，《啦啦啦》，香港 1997，G2000，C 2009，《你的黑夜，我的白天》 G2004，C2009）这样写道。绵绵用生动的语言描述了自己作为派对女王的经历，同时，她也塑造了一代上海青年的形象。绵绵已然活成了一种生活态度。然而，追根究底她也在追寻情爱的欢愉。她是中国第一位在作品中描写做爱，吸毒和酗酒，并被立即封杀的作家。因此，KiWi出版社敢于在书展中展出绵绵的最新小说《熊猫》(C 2009, G 2009) ，实在是一大壮举。无独有偶，《熊猫》在法国出版，且荣获日报《法国世界报》好评。即使是在中国，人们亦生出了时过境迁之感：2009年2月，绵绵的最新四部小说出版，并一售即空。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 16:29, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
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Yearnings<br />
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Literature of yearning has a great market in China. With this literature one can escape the materialistic everyday life in order to be carried away into an exotic but strangely familiar world. This literature of yearning is served by two sides in China: through the Tibet exoticism and the nostalgic wave. And Tibet is a topic that is well received abroad, therefore a safe investment for publishers, even though the stories from Tibet may still be too exotic and do not show the true Tibet. Also in China, Tibet is simply ‚in’. The presentation of the own Lama's shrine in the bedroom is the highlight of every house party. Even men wear carved cherry stone bracelets. The more superstition associated with these fetishes, the more chic.<br />
渴望风<br />
渴望文学在中国有着巨大市场。这类文学能带领人们逃离物质至上的现实生活进入到一个熟悉却又陌生的异域世界。在中国渴望文学由两类构成：西藏风情和怀旧浪潮。西藏这个主题在国外反响良好，因此对出版商来说是个安全的投资，即使这些西藏故事仍十分具有异域色彩并且未展示出真实的西藏。在中国，西藏风格也一样很流行。卧室中放置的喇嘛的神龛会成为每场别墅聚会的亮点。即使男人也会戴上用雕刻的樱桃核制成的手镯。这些物神与之相关的迷信越多，就越为流行。--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:28, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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渴望风<br />
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渴望文学在中国有着巨大市场。借着这类文学，人们可以不用整天崇尚物质，而是进入一个陌生又熟悉的异域世界。在中国，渴望文学分为两类：西藏风情和怀旧浪潮。西藏是一个在国外反响良好的主题，即使这些讲述西藏的故事仍十分具有异域色彩，而且未展示出真实的西藏，但对出版商来说是个安全的投资。在中国，西藏风也很流行。卧室中放置的喇嘛神龛会成为每场别墅聚会的焦点。甚至男人也会戴上雕刻樱桃核制成的手镯。你越迷信这些奉若神明之物，就越时髦。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 12:17, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
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Tibet exoticism<br />
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so the story "Distant Sources" (C 2005, Unionsverlag G 2009) by the Tibetan author Alai (50) begins. Yes, even Tibetan authors are among the winners of this year's book fair. They are particularly in demand by Swiss publishers. At the confederate Chinabooks several young Tibetans are represented: Alai, Jamyang, Taering Öser, Tenzin Tsundue (34). Is it surprising that Ma Jian (56), who left Beijing for the first time and went on journeys, promptly went on a pilgrim to Tibet? "Red Dust"(C 2003). 220,000 times, the "Tibet-Code" of the hermitic He Ma, which has not yet been published in German, has sold itself, followed by three sequels. Gao Yi, who lives in Düsseldorf, writes adventure stories as well with Tibet exoticism and fantastic elements: "The Tibetan Child", "The Oracle" and "The Roman Ring" (C 2004). At the same time, a flood of nonfiction books about Tibet appears in German-speaking countries, often with mysterious titles such as "The Secret Life of the Dalai Lamas. The Story of the God-kings of Tibet "(G 2007, PB 2009)," Fleeing through Ice and Snow "," The Way of the White Clouds"or " Escape from Tibet".<br />
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西藏风情<br />
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西藏作家阿来的故事就此展开。没错，今年书展的赢家中也包括不少西藏作家。他们的作品在瑞士颇具市场。中国图书板块中的几位西藏作家分别有阿来、嘉木样、Taering Öser和Tenzin Tsundue。出去旅行之前，马健从未离开过北京，但这次旅行他却意外的选择去到西藏进行朝圣，从而写出《红尘》一书。何马的《西藏密码》虽尚未在德国出版，但其后的三个续作都已与出版社签约。住在杜塞尔多夫的高宜同样喜欢具有西藏风格的冒险题材，并写下了名为《藏族男孩》、《神谕》和《罗马指环》的故事。与此同时，在德国以及其他说德语的地区，有关西藏的非虚构类作品接连出版，它们常常有着神秘的标题，例如《达赖喇嘛的秘密生活》、《西藏神王秘史》、《冰雪逃亡》、《白云之路》和《逃出西藏》等。<br />
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--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 12:39, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
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Nostalgia<br />
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Through China flows a nostalgic wave, the overthrown Communist ideology has been replaced by the return to traditional values. In 1974 Confucius had been dismantled in a campaign, since 2007 Confucius institutes have been opened all over the world. Also on the bestseller lists this literature stands at the top. The professor Yu Dan (Beijing) interpreted Confucius in a television series. Her book "Confucius from the Heart" (C 2006, G 21.08.2009) with modern commentaries around the Confucius classics "Talks" landed in China with 503,000 sold copies in 2007. It makes Confucius in simple language, with lively pictures and Current examples from everyday life. Since the trend in China goes to the second book, i. That a second book of the same kind is being postponed to a successful book, she continued to comment on the philosopher Menzius. Does this commentary also work in Germany, where one hardly knows the original texts? At the book fair, the Confucius commentary is also available, the Droemer publishing house has taken the risk and presents the comment in German translation, but not as in the Chinese edition with original text in the appendix. This nostalgia literature in China also includes comments on the classic novel "Three Kingdoms" (C 2006) by Yi Zhongtian (62), which ended up in 2007 with 340,000 copies of the bestseller list, the historical novel about the last imperial dynasty. “The Qing Prime Minister” (C 2007) by Wang Yuewen (46) and "War Drums" (C 2006) by Dou Liang (55) about old Beijing, all of them had at least 200,000 sold copies in 2007.<br />
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怀旧风<br />
<br />
中国正掀起一波怀旧浪潮。传统价值观的回归代替了已经推翻的共产主义意识形态。1974年，孔学在一场运动中逐渐推出历史舞台，但是从2007年开始，孔子学院已向全世界开放。同时孔学相关书籍也在畅销书的榜首。于丹教授（北京）把孔子翻拍成了电视剧。她的书《论语心得》（C 2006, G21.08.2009）带有孔学经典《论语》的现代评论2017年在大陆发售已超过503，000册。这本书使得孔学理论以一种简单的语言，生动的图片和日常生活的例子呈现出来。自从这孔学潮流在中国推出了第二本书，i. 相同类型的第二本书的成功销量是要晚一些。于丹继续在考究着哲学家孟子。是否这种评论会在德国起到相同的效应呢，毕竟德国对原著几乎都不了解？在书会上，可以见到孔学评论相关书的身影，德语出版社冒险展出了其德语版本，但是和中文版本不同的是在附录上没有原文。这种怀旧文学在中国还包括了易中天（62）的评论关于经典小说《三国志》（C 2006），一部描述最后一个帝王朝代的历史小说，其销量在2007畅销排行榜年达到了340，000册。 王跃文（46）的《秦始皇》和窦亮（55）描写老北京的《战鼓》（C 2006），一共销售了200，000册在2007年。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 03:32, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
怀旧风<br />
<br />
中国掀起了怀旧的浪潮，传统价值观的回归取代了已经推翻了的共产主义意识形态。1974年，孔子塑像在一场运动中被拆除，但是从2007年开始，孔子学院已向全世界开放。并且孔学相关书籍也占据了畅销书榜单的榜首。于丹教授（北京）在一系列电视节目中诠释了孔子。她的书《论语心得》（C 2006, G21.08.2009），一本围绕孔子经典对话的现代评论于2007年在大陆发售，销量为503，000册。这本书用生动的图片和当代日常生活的例子将孔子以一种简单的语言呈现出来。因为这本书的风靡，于丹教授在中国推出了同系列的第二本书。第二本书的畅销势头减弱，于是于丹继续评论了哲学家孟子。但是在人们对原著都不了解的德国，这种评论会有相同的影响吗？在书会上，同样可以见到孔学评论相关书籍——德勒默尔出版社冒险推出了其德语版本，但是和中文版本不同的是，在附录页没有附上原文。在中国，这种怀旧文学还包括了易中天（62岁）评经典小说《三国志》（C 2006），其销量截止2007年在畅销排行榜达到了340，000册，王跃文（46岁）的关于最后一个帝国王朝的历史小说《大清相国》（C 2007，）和窦亮的记述老北京的小说《战鼓》（C 2006），所有这些在2007年一共销售了至少200，000册。--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 10:04, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
<br />
Women's literature<br />
<br />
The literature of the mega cities looks different in Beijing and Shanghai: just as in Beijing, the vagabond literature of a Wang Shuo is at home, Shanghai also developed with Zhang Ailing (1920-1995) her own literature, in this case an autobiographical literature of women that describes the emotional life of Shanghai single women. Mian Mian is the latest appearance of this woman literature, although her female figures often seem to depend on their partners. However, Mian Mian is the only female writer that is taken seriously and translated for the book fair. In "Frauenboxen" by Bi Shumin (57) the female figures seem, as the title suggests, more self-consciously, therefore the book has been sold 180,000 times. Her feminine novel "Female Psychologist" (C 2007) was so successful that several volumes were published. On the bestseller list, she is closely followed by Annie Baobei (34), with 175,000 first-person narrations sold, under the title "Fat years, meager years" (C 2007), in which the young women see the world with their own eyes. With 160,000 copies follows the marriage counselor follows "Holding Hands " (C 2007) of Wang Hailing (55).<br />
<br />
大城市的文学作品，像北京和上海，是大不相同的：就比如说在北京有王朔的痞子文学；而在上海流行的是张爱玲的文学小说，这种文学属于女性自传文学，主要描述了上海单身女性的情感生活。棉棉是女性文学代表人物的新兴面孔，尽管她所塑造的女性角色看起来似乎非常依赖她们的伴侣。然而，她是唯一一个认真对待书展，并且为书展做翻译的女性作家。在毕淑敏的作品《女性》中，女性人物的形象正如标题一样似乎显得更有自我意识，因此这本书畅销18万次。毕淑敏的女性小说《女心理家》（C 2007)创作地非常成功，因此出版了很多册。在畅销书单列表中，紧随其后的是安妮宝贝，她的第一人称叙述小说热销175000本，其中有一本叫《素年锦时》，主要讲述了年轻的女性用她们自己的视角看待世界。王海鸰的《牵手》成为了婚姻顾问的参考指导书，160000本复印版下发至婚姻顾问。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 03:56, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
女性的文学<br />
像在北京和上海，大城市的文学是不同的：就像北京有王朔的流浪汉文学，而上海则是孕育出了张爱玲的女性自传文学，主要描述了上海单身女性的情感生活。棉棉是这类女性文学最早出现的女性角色，尽管她所代表的女性形象似乎常常依赖于自己的伴侣。然而，棉棉是唯一一位在书展上受到重视并被翻译的女性作家。正如书名所示，从毕淑敏57岁时的作品《女性》来看，女性形象似乎更具自我意识，因此这本书的销量达18万次。她的女性小说《女性心理学家》(2007年)成功地出版了好几卷；在畅销书排行榜上，紧随其后的是34岁的安妮·宝贝(Annie Baobei)的作品，名为《素年锦时》(2007年左右)。此书以第一人称叙述，热销17.5万本，在书中年轻女性站在自己的角度去看待世界。而55岁的王海鴒的《牵手》(2007年)成了结婚顾问的参考书，由此热销16万本。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 06:35, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
女性文学<br />
在北京和上海这种大城市，他们的文学是不同的: 就像在北京,代表的有王朔的地痞文学，上海则是出现了张爱玲式的(1920 - 1995)自传文学。此种女性自传文学描述了一种上海单身女性的情感生活。棉棉则是这类女性文学的最新兴典型形象，尽管她似乎常常依赖于自己的伴侣。然而，却是唯一会为书展做认真翻译的女性作家。毕淑敏的《女性》(57)中，正如书名所示，女性形象似乎更多了些自我意识觉醒，因此这本书被畅销18万本。她的女性小说《女心理学家》(2007)也非常成功，甚至出版了好几卷。在畅销书排行榜上，紧随其后的是34岁的安妮宝贝(Annie Baobei)，这本名为《素年锦时》(2007)的书，以第一人称叙述，热销17.5万册，书中主要讲述了年轻女性用自己的角度看世界的内容。王海鸰（55）的《牵手》（2007）复印本则成了婚姻顾问们“人手一本”的参考书，狂销了16万本。<br />
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:51, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
<br />
Literature of mental distress<br />
<br />
Finally, there is still the literature of mental distress, mastermind Mo Yan has pointed out abysses of human behavior in his "Sandalwood Death" (C 2001). The framework is the German colonial history in China, the railway construction and the revolt of the boxer. Mo Yan describes a fictitious story in which Guomindang General Yuan Shikai, with the last imperial headman, wants to conduct a cruel execution by torture against a man who rebelled after his family had previously been desecrated and killed by Germans. Contrasted with this, Mo Yan portrays the last opera singer of the Maoqiang local opera from the region around Gaomi. The language is pathetic, symbolic and emotionally charged. The description of the inner conflict of the physician, who is told to keep the victim alive until the German colonizers see him, is shattered. His only advice "Remove the sandalwood!" is not obeyed, since this is precisely the torture. In this book the search for a translator was more difficult than usual, thanks to Chinese government-funded support, it was finally realized at the publishing house Insel-Verlag. Equally doubtful is the wisdom, which may result from the influential book "Wolf Totem" (C 2004 G 2009) by Jiang Rong (63), since the author wants to explain the Chinese people's folklore:<br />
<br />
关注精神苦闷的文学作品<br />
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最后，仍然有关注精神苦闷的文学作品，作家莫言在他的《檀香刑》（C 2001）中指出了人类种种恶行，如临深渊。这部小说主要讲述了中国受德国殖民统治时期，当时铁路建设情况和义和团的起义。《檀香刑》是一部虚构的小说，莫言刻画了国民党将领袁世凯和大清帝国最后一位皇帝与一位反抗者的矛盾，二人企图对反抗者酷刑相加，残酷处决，而此前反抗者的家人被德国人亵渎并杀害。在书中莫言还描绘了高密地方戏曲“茂腔”，和其最后一位传承歌者，这与骇人听闻的酷刑事件截然相反。小说的语言充满悲剧性、象征性，情感充沛。当医生接到通知，在德国殖民者发现受害人之前要确保他活着，这一段关于医生内心冲突的译文描写支离破碎。他唯一的建议是“删除檀香！”遭到拒绝，因为这正是酷刑所在。因此，要给这本书找一位合格的译者比往常都难，好在中国政府给予该项目资金支持，《檀香刑》最终由岛屿出版社出版。另一本享誉中外的书——《狼图腾》(C 2004 G 2009)，作者姜戎着力刻画流传在中国人口中的民间传说，因而翻译这本书的翻译是否妥当，同样让人疑虑。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:49, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
<br />
This also means hope for freedom and democracy. A good adventure novel, but the moral of the story, natural laws instead of civilization, in today's materialistic Chinese reality the wrong advice. The book is stagnating in the middle of the bestseller lists in China, but remains there until 2008. It was heavily advertised, Random House paid for the German edition 20,000 € in license rights after Goldblatt had laid for the English 100,000 USD - somehow the investion has to roll in and so it is called in the advertising texts "The most successful book since the Mao Bible" - this decision is left to the reader.<br />
--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 16:28, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
<br />
Discrepancy Chinese Literature - Book Fair<br />
<br />
All these currents will be represented at the Frankfurt Book Fair. Some of them are preparing to refute the withering verdict of the sinologist Wolfgang Kubin from 2006, who referred to the Chinese literature since 1949 as "garbage" and especially attacked writers like Mian Mian, making her one of the most controversial writers. Although she has long been forbidden in China, had no benefits from the Chinese government's promotion of translation, and does not belong to the carefully selected semioffical writers' delegation, besides the short story "Running Through Zhongguancun", narratives such as "Brothers", "Taschendiebe" and perhaps a classic like "Dream of the Red Chamber", will be Mian Mian's book "Panda Sex" one of the bestseller of the book fair. In the following editions we will introduce individual authors and currents and begin with her - Mian Mian.<br />
中国文学差异-书展<br />
所有这些潮流将在法兰克福书展上展出。 他们中的一些人准备反驳自2006年以来的汉学家沃尔夫冈·库宾的残酷判决，自1949年以来就将中国文学称为“垃圾”，特别是像绵绵这样的受攻击的作家，这使她成为最有争议的作家之一。 尽管她早已在中国被禁止，她没有从中国政府的翻译推广中获得任何好处，并且不属于经过精心挑选的半官方作家代表团，除了短篇小说《穿越中关村》，还有诸如《兄弟》之类的故事， 《棉铃儿》，也许是《红楼梦》之类的经典作品，将成为棉棉的书《熊猫性爱》的畅销书展之一。 在接下来的版本中，我们将介绍个人作者和最新动态，并从她开始-Mian Mian。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 16:28, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
<br />
Bestseller list of Chinese authors 2007<br />
<br />
Last update: 9.11.2007, researched and reviewed in note form<br />
<br />
In the question of what to understand by contemporary literature, one has to clarify various assumptions:<br />
<br />
2007年中国作家畅销书排行榜<br />
最后更新:2007年9月11日，以注释形式研究和审查<br />
在如何理解当代文学的问题上，人们必须阐明各种假设:--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 14:24, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
<br />
Is the complete literature taken into account, or are certain categories of literature excluded? In the current case, we restrict us to literary books (no nonfiction books, for which there are often separate bestseller lists). Thus every objectively well-sold book will be named. It is only in a second step, in the evaluation for the German book market, that children's literature is excluded.<br />
是将完整的文献考虑在内，还是将某些类别的文献排除在外?在目前的情况下，我们把考虑范围限于文学书籍(不包括非小说类书籍，因为它们通常有不同的畅销书排行榜)。因此，客观上，每一本很畅销的书都会被提及。在对德国图书市场的评估中，把儿童文学排除在外也只是第二步。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 10:53, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
是将完整的文献考虑在内，还是排除某些类别的文献？目前，我们仅考虑文学书籍(不考虑非小说类书籍，因为此类书籍畅销排行榜通常不同)。因此，客观上，每本畅销书都会被提及。在对德国图书市场的评估中，排除儿童文学也只是第二步。--[[User:Zhang Weihong|Zhang Weihong]] ([[User talk:Zhang Weihong|talk]]) 12:34, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Zhang Weihong<br />
是把所有的文学类别考虑在内，还是把某些特定的文学类别排除在外？目前，我们把考虑范围限于文学书籍（不包括非小说类书籍，它们通常有不同的畅销书榜单）。因此，客观上，每本畅销书都将被提及。在对德国的书籍市场的评估中，把儿童文学排除在外也仅仅是第二步。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 12:42, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
<br />
Are the books objectively presented by sales figures? Is this the only criterion for evaluating commercial success? This has the implication that high-minded literature usually ends up further down on the bestseller list as the dime novel. An exception in the West may be e.g. Harry Potter, who has besides his youthful target group, also at least in the English original literary claim.<br />
<br />
这些书单能够代表客观的销售数据吗？这是衡量商业成就的唯一标准吗？这暗指着，在最畅销的书单上，高尚文学经常比廉价文学排名要低很多。这其中可能有一个例外，那就是《哈利波特》，因为它不仅有其年轻的读者群体，也至少属于英语本土文学之列。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:14, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
销售数据能代表这些书籍吗？销售数据是衡量商业成功的唯一标准吗? 这暗示着：相较于廉价小说，高尚文学通常在畅销榜单上不见其名。西方文学中的一个例外可能是《哈利波特》。这本书除了有年轻的读者群体之外，至少也符合英语原著文学的主张。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 12:07, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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销量的高与低就能客观的代表书籍的好与差吗？难道销量是衡量商业成功的唯一标准吗？这意味着，高尚文学通常会像廉价小说一样在畅销书排行榜上排名靠后。西方文学的一个例外可能是《哈利·波特》，除了有年轻的读者群体之外，它还属于英文原著文学之一。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 14:48, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
<br />
It is striking that there is hardly any accordance between the list of bestsellers with the list of actually translated literature and also not with the list of government-sponsored translations. The most important reason is that the bestseller list in 2007 is the current literature, as it was read in China at the beginning of 2008. But for the book fair the publishers have commissioned much older books for translation. Only in a few titles is the translation market already as fast as e.g. in the translation of American novels into German, e.g. "Wolf Totem," "Confucius from the Heart," or Mian Mian's "Panda Sex."<br />
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
<br />
This bestseller list and the evaluations were presented at the technical lecture "Rotes Kornfeld" in the German Publishers and Booksellers Association for the Frankfurt book fair on the 29th April 2008, so that the publishers who had sent their lecturers and the other translators could consider the presented titles in the planning. Some of the titles were realized. Others may stay interesting for a later time.<br />
2008年4月29日，在德国出版商协会为法兰克福书展举行的“红高粱”科技讲座中，公布了畅销书单以及相关评价。已经举办讲座的出版商和翻译人员可以考虑计划中给出的标题，其中部分已被采用，另一部分还有待商榷。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 14:55, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2008年4月29日，德国出版商和书商协会在为法兰克福书展举办的“红高粱”专业性讲座中公布了畅销书单及相关评价，方便已经进行演讲的出版商和其他翻译人员可以考虑计划公布的标题。这些标题中，部分已经采用，另一部分还有待商榷。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:57, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
<br />
For the development of the number of translations from Chinese I refer to appropriate investigations. <br />
<br />
First of all, the full list, followed by the criteria after the list has been cleared with regard to the German book market.<br />
<br />
我参考了些许相关的调查，用来研究中文的译文数量发展。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 12:50, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
首先，一份完整的畅销书单后面是其评判的标准，而德国图书市场正是通过这一标准对各种书目进行清理排除，得出了最终的书单。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 12:50, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
<br />
Note: The book cover and photos of the authors were provided by the publishers for reproduction and are reproduced here for this scientific study. Copyrights and reproduction rights of the illustrations remain at the respective publishers or rights holders.<br />
注：书的封面和作者的照片由出版商提供，用于复制，并且在这里复制，用于本次科学研究。插图的版权和复制权保留在各自的出版商或版权持有者手中。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 12:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
注：由于要再版或者出于科研目进行再版，出版商会提供书的封皮和作者的照片。插图的版权和复制权保留在各自的出版商或版权持有者手中。--[[User:Monan|Monan]] ([[User talk:Monan|talk]]) 13:50, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
<br />
1st place: Guō Jìngmíng / Guo Jingming郭敬明(born 6.6.1983, lives in Shanghai), 550.000 sold copies, »Tears against the Stream«郭敬明Changjiang literature and art publishing house, 5/2007, 340 pp. Rating: 1.0. Without life experience, Ms. Lin Huafeng has to raise her daughter alone after the divorce. She has to prostitute herself and her mental conflict worsens daily.<br />
<br />
This novel could also become a bestseller within the framework of China literature in Germany.<br />
The Shanghai student Jingming Guo is something like a cultureless enfant terrible, grades worse than Han Han, but loved by the youth.<br />
<br />
His series "Bestseller"最小说is rated 4.0. The novels are collage-like and also composed of foreign languages. They are illustrated in color and presented with all sorts of tips and gimmicks (recipes, make-up, pictures) etc. Further details and translation, see next chapter.<br />
<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki><br />
<br />
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
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2nd place: Yú Dān / Yu Dan于丹(born 28.6.1965, lives in Beijing), "Thoughts on the conversations of Confucius" "论语"心 得, 503.000 copies sold, Zhonghua Book Company, 11/06 157 pp. , Evaluation score: 1.7.<br />
第二位:于丹，(生于1965年6月28日，现居北京)，《于丹<论语>感悟》、《于丹<论语>心得》，销量503,000册，中华书局，11月6日发行，第157页，评分:1.7.--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 03:19, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
Yu Dan is the moderator of a TV discussion on Confucius. In this book she explains the two-thousand-years-old classic, which the Chinese memorize by referring to the present.<br />
于丹曾主持过一档关于孔子的电视评论栏目。在这本书里，她解读了一部写于两千多年前的经典名著，直至今天，这本著作<br />
仍被中国人提及。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 03:19, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
The translation presents a special challenge because the German reader lacks the background knowledge. Here, the publishing house found the solution to attach the original in an existing translation in the appendix.<br />
Translator: Johannes Fiederling (Munich), Publisher: Knaur.<br />
阅读这本著作对于德国人来说是一个特殊的挑战，因为他们缺乏与之相关的背景知识。出版社找到了一个解决办法，将一篇已有的翻译附加在原著的附录上。译者:约翰内斯·费德林(Johannes Fiederling)(慕尼黑），出版社:科努尔(Knaur)--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 03:19, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Yú Dān于丹»Yu Dan’s Notes on Zhuangzi« "《庄子》心得Zhonghua Book Company, Rating: 4.0.<br />
This is a typical second book. This should only be tackled when the first book becomes a success.<br />
《于丹<庄子>心得》，中华书局，评分:4.0.<br />
这本书是于丹第二本经典书籍。只有读懂第一本书后，才能读懂这本书。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 03:19, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
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3rd place: Yì Zhōngtiān / Yi Zhongtian 天 中天 (born 8.2.1947, lives in): »Chronicles of the Three Kingdoms« Volume 1-2品三国（上下), 340.000 sold copies 2007, Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House , Vol. 1 7/06 248 pp., Vol. 2 3/07 274 p. Rating: 3.0.<br />
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Explanations on the classical novel "Three Kingdoms", typical title of the nostalgic wave. Even less popular with the German public.<br />
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4th place: Zhèng Yuānjié / Zheng Yuanjie郑渊洁 (born 15.6.1955): »Pipi Lu; Rock the Wolf "皮皮鲁总动员;大灰狼罗克, 285.000 sold copies. Rating: 4.0. Children's books.<br />
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5. Ráo Xuěmàn / Rao Xueman 饶雪漫 (born 1972), "Sweet-sour" 甜酸 11/07, 235 pp., New World publishing house, 260.000 sold copies. Rating: 3.7.<br />
Love story for teenagers / sentimental kitsch.<br />
<br />
Sandglass Volume 1-3, 沙漏, 279 pp., Gegenwartswelt Publishing House, Rating: 3.7.<br />
Love story for teenagers / sentimental kitsch.<br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
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6th place: Wáng Shuò / Wang Shuo: 王朔 (born 23.8.1958): "Playing for Thrills" 玩的就是心跳, 250.000 sold copies. Rating: 1.3.<br />
Already translated by Ulrich Kautz, Diogenes 5/1997.<br />
<br />
7th Place: Yáng Hóngyīng / Yang Hongying杨红樱(born 1962), "Children’s Stories about Love"爱的童话, 240.000 sold copies. Rating: 4.0. Children's books<br />
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8th place: Cáo Wénxuān / Cao Wenxuan曹文轩 (born 1.1954) »Fantasy: King's Books - The Yellow Pagoda«大王书——黄琉璃, 225.000 sold copies. Rating: 4.0. Fantasy.<br />
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9th place: Wáng Yuèwén / Wang Yuewen王跃文 (born 26.9.1962) »The Qing Prime Minister« 大清相国, 217.500 sold copies, 3/07, 493 pp.<br />
Rating: 3.7. Historical civil servant novel, difficult to transfer, only suitable for expert audience.<br />
<br />
10th place: Yú Qiūyǔ / Yu Qiuyu余秋雨 (born 23.8.1946): »A Life Borrowed « 借我一生, 215:000 sold copies. 8/04, 617 pp., Autorenverlag.<br />
Rating: 2.0. Autobiography of a famous Chinese writer.<br />
<br />
第六名：王朔（出生于1958年8月23日）：《玩的就是心跳》，售出25万册。评分：1.3。Ulrich Kautz译，1997年5月出版。<br />
第七名：杨红樱（出生于1962年），《爱的童话》，售出24万册。评分：4.0。儿童读物<br />
第八名：曹文轩（出生于1954年1月），《大王书——黄琉璃》售出22.5万册。评分：4.0。幻想。<br />
第九名：王跃文（出生于1962年9月26日），《大清相国》，售出21.75万册，2007年3月出版，共计493页。评分：3.7。历史悠久的公务小说，转换较难，只适合专家读者阅读。<br />
第十名：余秋雨（出生于1946年8月23日）：《借我一生》，售出21.5万册。2004年8月出版，共计617页，Autorenverlag。评分：2.0。中国著名作家的自传。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 14:21, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
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==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
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11th place: Cài Jùn / Cai Jun蔡骏 (born 23.12.1978): »Destiny volume 1: The city in deep sleep«天机: 第一季: 沉睡之城, 202.500 sold copies. 9/07, 240 pp., Shaanxi Pedagogical College Publishing House陕西师范大学出版社4 volumes. Rating: 4.0. Historical adventure / fantasy novel after the pattern of "Lost".<br />
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12th place: Dōu Liáng / Dou Liang都梁(born 6.1954): "War Drums in Beijing"狼烟北平, 200.000 sold copies, Changjiang Literature and Art Publisher, 4/06, 371 pp. [Second user: Folk Literature Publishing House].<br />
Rating: 2.0. War novel about the 1930s in Beijing. Also interesting for Germans.<br />
<br />
13th place: Hán Hán / Han Han韩寒(born 23.9.1982): "Glory Days" 光荣 日, 190.000 sold copies. 6/07, 186 pp., 21st Century Publishing House. <br />
Rating: 1.0. Seven graduates drop out, instead of working in a foreign company. They perform pioneering work in the village (house construction, primary school, vegetable growing). Social critical novel with wit.<br />
第11位：蔡骏(生于1978年12月23日）《天机：第一季：沉睡之城》，销量202,500册，9/07，240页，陕西师范大学出版社。全书共四季，评分：4.0.属于“迷失”题材后的历史冒险或玄幻小说。<br />
第12位：都梁（生于1954年6月）《狼烟北平》，销量20万册，长江文艺出版社。4/06,371页，[第二个出版社：民间文学出版社].评分：2.0. 一本关于1930年北京的战争小说，该书同样引起了德国人的兴趣。<br />
第13位：韩寒（生于1982年9月23日）《光荣日》，销量19万册，6/07，186页，21世纪出版社。评分：1.0.该书叙述了7位研究生退学后，没有在外国公司上班，而是在一个村庄里开拓创新（房屋建设、小学工作、蔬菜种植）的故事，是一本充满智慧的社会批评小说。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 14:07, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
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14th place: Bì Shūmǐn / Bi Shumin毕淑敏 (born 1952): "Women's Boxes"女儿拳, 182.500 sold copies. 254 pp., Blindenschrift Publishing House.<br />
Rating: 2.0, women's narratives.<br />
<br />
Female Psychologist« 女心理师4/07 Chongqing Publishing Group, 253 pp., 2 vols. Rating: 2.0, women’s novel.<br />
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15th place: Ānnī Bǎobèi / Annie Baobei安妮宝贝 (born 11.7.1974): »Fette Jahre, magere Jahre« 素年锦时, 175.000 sold copies, 9/07 264 pp., Authors Publishing House.<br />
<br />
Rating: 1.3. The female first-person narrator of these stories is in each case a young woman who sees the world with her own eyes.<br />
<br />
16th place: Wáng Hǎilíng / Wang Hailing王海鸰 (born 12.1953): »Holding Hands« 牵手, 160.000 sold copies. 7/07 346 pp. Authors Publishing House.<br />
Rating: 4.0. guidebook.<br />
<br />
17th place: Hǎi Yán / Hai Yan 海岩 (born 1954): »Five-Star Hotel« 五星大酒店, 157.500 sold copies. 8/07, 342 pp. Authors Publishing House.<br />
Rating: 2.0. Novel about a student from simple circumstances, who becomes the heir to a Korean financial group, and his girlfriend.<br />
<br />
第14位：毕淑敏（1952年生）《女儿拳》 售出182500本 254pp., 布兰登斯克瑞夫特（Blindenschrift）出版社 评分：2.0 女性记叙文 《女心理师》 4//07 重庆出版集团 253pp 2卷 评分：2.0 女性小说<br />
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第15位：安妮宝贝（1974年11月7日生） 《素年锦时》 售出175000本 9/07 264pp., 作者出版社 评分1.3 她是第一位女性讲述者，无论任何境遇下都用自己的眼光看待整个世界的一位年轻女性<br />
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第16位：王海鸥（1953年12月生） 《牵手》 售出160000本 7/07 346pp., 作者出版社 评分：4.0 指导书<br />
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第17位：海岩（1954年生） 《五星大饭店》 售出157500本 8/07 342pp., 作者出版社 评分：2.0 小说讲述一位成为韩国大财团继承者的平民学生和他的女朋友的故事--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 11:53, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
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18th Place: Yán Chóngnián / Yan Chongnian阎崇年(born 24.4.1934): »Beijing: The Treasures of an Ancient Capital«中国古都北京, 150.000 sold copies. 1/08, 302 pp., Democracy and Law Publishing House.<br />
Rating: 4.0. Specialized book.<br />
<br />
19th place: Tiānxià Bàchàng / Tianxia Bachang天下霸唱(born 1978): »A bizarre story of ghost blowing out the light« 鬼吹灯, 140.000 sold copies.<br />
Vol. 1 The Perfect Ancient City, Vol. 2 The Weasel Grave, Bd. X The Valley of Insects. Rating: 4.0. Magic series on Harry Potter wave.<br />
<br />
20th place: Lù Tiānmíng [Lu Tianming] 陆天明 (born 1943): »Provincial Secretary« 省委书记, 125.000 sold copies.<br />
Rating: 4.0. The very title is currently not enforceable on the German book market.<br />
<br />
21st place: Shí Zhōngshān [Shi Zhongshan] 石钟山(born 10.1964): »Underground, Overground«地下,地上115.000 sold copies. Rating: 4.0. Plagiarism?<br />
<br />
第18位：Yán Chóngnián / Yan Chongnian阎崇年(1934年4月24日生): 《中国古都北京》, 售出150.000 本. 1/08, 302 pp., 中国民主法制出版社.<br />
评分: 4.0. 专业书籍.<br />
<br />
第19位: Tiānxià Bàchàng / Tianxia Bachang天下霸唱(1978年生): 《鬼吹灯》, 售出140.000 本.<br />
卷一：精绝古城，卷二：黄皮子坟，卷三：云南虫谷. 评分: 4.0. 哈利波特魔法系列.<br />
<br />
第20位: Lù Tiānmíng [Lu Tianming] 陆天明 (1943年生): 《省委书记》, 售出125.000本.<br />
评分: 4.0. 该标题目前在德国图书市场上不可发行。<br />
<br />
第21位: Shí Zhōngshān [Shi Zhongshan] 石钟山(1964年10月生): «地下，地上》售出115.000 本. 评分: 4.0. 抄袭？--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 14:23, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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第18位：阎崇年(1934年4月24日生): 《中国古都北京》, 销量为15万册. 1/08, 302页, 中国民主法制出版社.<br />
评分: 4.0. 专业书籍.<br />
<br />
第19位:天下霸唱(1978年生): 《鬼吹灯》, 销量为14万册.<br />
卷一：精绝古城，卷二：黄皮子坟，卷三：云南虫谷. <br />
评分: 4.0. 哈利波特魔法系列.<br />
<br />
第20位:陆天明 (1943年生): 《省委书记》, 销量为12. 5万本.<br />
评分: 4.0. 该书名目前在德国图书市场上不可发行。<br />
<br />
第21位:石钟山(1964年10月生): 《地下，地上》 销量为11. 5万册. <br />
评分: 4.0. 抄袭？--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 02:21, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
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22nd place: Dāngnián Míngyuè [Dangnian Mingyue] 当年明月 (born 1980): "Storys about Ming Dynasty (volume Yuanzhang Zhu, volume 2, 3, 4)« 明朝哪些事（朱元璋卷）, 2, 3, 4. 112.500 sold copies.<br />
Rating: 2.0. Historical novel about the Ming period (The 1st Emperor of the Ming Dynasty was transformed from beggar to emperor).<br />
<br />
23rd place: Liú Xīnwǔ [Liu Xinwu] 刘心武 (born 1942): »Liu Xinwu about …« 刘心武说, 100,000 sold copies.<br />
Rating: 4.0.<br />
Series with at least 3 volumes.<br />
<br />
24th place: Yáng Zhìjūn [Yang Zhijun] 杨志军 (born 1955): »The Tibetan ethnic group Zang'ao (Vol. 1, 2, 3)« 藏獒1, 2, 3. 90.000 sold copies.<br />
Rating: 4.0.<br />
Ethnological-historical representation<br />
<br />
第22位: 当年明月（生于1980年）：《明朝那些事（朱元璋卷）》，2，3，4. 售出112500本。<br />
评分：2.0. 一本关于明朝的历史小说（明朝的第一位皇帝最初是乞丐）。<br />
<br />
第23位：刘心武（生于1942年）：《刘心武说》，售出100000本。<br />
评分：4.0.<br />
这本书至少有三卷。<br />
<br />
第24位: 杨志军（生于1955年）：《藏獒》，1，2，3。售出90000本。<br />
评分：4.0.<br />
一本关于民族历史的书。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 11:37, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
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25th place: Jiǎ Píngwā [Jia Pingwa] 贾平凹 (born 21.2.1952): »Happy« 高兴, published 9/07, 461 pp., Authors Publishing House.<br />
75.000 sold copies.<br />
<br />
Rating: 2.0.<br />
Novel about a farmer who sells his kidney to the city and finds a brittle happiness with a prostitute in the city.<br />
<br />
Not yet published in German by the same author:<br />
<br />
»Ruined City« 废都. 381 pp., 1993, Culture and Art Publishing House.<br />
Rating: 1.7.<br />
Novel with erotic elements about male men and female women, about the rotten urban life (exists to a half)<br />
<br />
第25位：贾平凹（wā）（1952年2月21日生）：《高兴》，2007年9月出版，461页，作家出版社。销量达75000册。评分：2.0<br />
小说讲述了一个农民将自己的肾卖到城市，并在城市里和一个妓女找到了脆弱的幸福。<br />
同一作者尚未出版德语版的作品：《废都》，381页，1993年，文化艺术出版社。评分：1.7<br />
小说中有关于男女的，关于腐朽的城市生活的情色元素（占了一半）--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 04:23, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
<br />
Selection procedures on the recommendations for publishers<br />
<br />
The basis for this was the bestseller list in 2007. The following exclusion criteria were applied afterwards:<br />
Already released: Wang Shuo (Playing for Thrills) - Diogenes<br />
Children's books: Zhèng Yuānjié (Pipi Lu; Rock the Wolf), Yáng Hóngyīng (Children's Books about Love)<br />
Suspicion for plagiarism: Shí Zhōngshān (Underground, Overground)<br />
Guidebook: Wang Hailing (New Age of Marriage)<br />
<br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
<br />
Specialized books: Yán Chóngnián (Beijing: The Treasures of an Ancient Capital), Yáng Zhìjūn (The Tibetan ethnical group Zang'ao)<br />
Sentimental Kitsch: Ráo Xuěmàn (Sweet-sour, Sandglass)<br />
Fantasy (Potter epigones): Cáo Wénxuān (Kings books: The yellow pagoda); Cài Jùn (Destiny volume 1: The City in deep Sleep, historical adventure / fantasy novel after the pattern of "Lost"); Tiānxià Bàchàng (A bizarre Story of Ghost blowing out the Light: Bd. 1 The Perfect Ancient Town, Vol. 2 The Weasel's Grave, Bd. X The Valley of Insects)<br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
<br />
Other socialization: Yì Zhōngtiān (comments on the "Three Kingdoms" volume 1-2); Wáng Yuèwén (The Qing Prime Minister = historic civil servant novel); Lù Tiānmíng (The secretary of the Provincial Party Committee - the title alone is not conceivable at the German book market); Liu Xīnwǔ (Liu Xinwu says: ... - The author is largely unknown in Germany, so one does not want to know anything about his multivolume sentiment about everybody and his dog - tradition such as Suixiang lu by Ba Jin.)<br />
<br />
其他社科书籍作者：易中天（《品三国》1-2卷）；王跃文（《大清相国》，一本关于举足轻重的官员的小说）；陆天明（《省委书记》——仅仅这个标题在德国图书市场来说就是不可想象的）；刘心武（《刘心武说》……该作者在德国广为人知，所以人们并不想知道他对与他有关的所有人和他的狗的写成多卷书的随感——这种随感的传统包括巴金的《随想录》）。--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:09, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
<br />
National hype: Guo Jingming (novel bestseller = Bestseller. The novels are collagen-like and also composed with foreign texts. They will be illustrated in color and presented with all kinds of tips (recipes, make-up), etc. Success can only be explained by enfant terrible Guo Jingming.) <br />
Tip: conclude general contract with Chinese publisher for an author (like Piper with Shan Sa)<br />
<br />
国内的炒作：郭敬明（新奇的畅销书也是畅销书。他的小说就像拼贴画一样，其中还有外文文本。书中有彩色插图，展示各种技巧(如食谱，化妆)，等等。年少成名，郭敬明是成功二字唯一的阐释者。小贴士:他与中国出版社签订的是一般合同(如派伯（Piper）出版社与山飒（Shan Sa）的合同一般)。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 13:46, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
国内炒作：郭敬明（小说畅销书也就是畅销书。他的小说就像拼图贴画一样，其中与外文文本相结合。书中有彩色插图，展示各种技巧(如食谱，化妆)，等等。年少成名，郭敬明是成功二字唯一的阐释者。小贴士:他与中国出版社签订的是一般合同(如派伯（Piper）出版社与山飒（Shan Sa）的合同一般)。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 02:58, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
国内炒作：郭敬明（畅销的小说也就是畅销书。郭敬明的小说是拼图版式并且常与外文文本相结合。书中有彩色插图，提供了各种各样的技巧（如食谱、化妆等）。郭敬明向我们诠释了“成功”这两个字。。小贴士：他与中国出版社签订的是一般合同（如派伯出版社和山萨的一同一般）。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 04:20, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
国内炒作：郭敬明（畅销小说也代表着畅销书作者。他的小说像胶原蛋白一样含量多，内容广，书中还结合了外文文本。书中有彩色插图，展示各种技巧(如食谱，化妆)，等等。年少成名，郭敬明是成功二字的不二诠释者。小贴士:他与中国出版社签订的是一般合同(如派伯（Piper）出版社与山飒（Shan Sa）的合同一般)。<br />
--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 22:27, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
<br />
Further recommendations for German publishers for publication<br />
<br />
At the translator meeting in Frankfurt, I had recommended two more works, which are not on the current bestseller lists, but which are absolutely necessary to translate and actually appeared at the book fair:<br />
<br />
On the one hand, the "secret bestseller", Mian Mian's Panda Sex, which was forbidden in China, appeared in Hong Kong and became a bestseller in China under the shop counter and on the Internet. It was only in February 2009 that a censored version could be published in China, which was sold out immediately after the release.<br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
<br />
1. Mián Mián棉棉 »Panda Sex« 熊猫. Prohibited in the People's Republic of China. Published in revised version 2/2009, 1st edition immediately out of print.<br />
German translation by Martin Woesler with Lihua Ji, Kiepenheuer & Witsch 2009.<br />
Published in Chinese: 12/04, 181 pp., Massenverlag Publishing House<br />
Rating: 1.3.<br />
Scandal book about a Shanghai love affair in free love, cf. La la la, Candy, Your night my day, cf .: Wei Hui: Shanghai Baby.<br />
<br />
For details, see one of the following chapters.<br />
棉棉《熊猫性爱》。此书在中华人民共和国禁止发行。修订版于2009年2月出版，第一版立即绝版。2009年德译版译者：Martin Woesler，纪丽华，Kiepenheuer & Witsch。中文版:12/04,181页，Massenverlag出版社评分:1.3。关于上海恋爱的丑闻书，《啦啦啦，坎迪，你的黑夜我的白天》，魏慧:上海宝贝。<br />
了解详细信息，请参阅以下章节之一。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 13:03, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
<br />
2. Cáo Xuěqín 曹雪芹 » Dream of the Red Chamber or The Story of the Stone« 红楼梦.<br />
This book appears in 2009 in a bound edition in three volumes and in a paperback edition in a volume.<br />
Approx. 1759, 2300 pp.<br />
Rating: 1.3.<br />
Everlasting bestseller in China, could become a longseller in Germany. Previously there was only a 70% shortened version by Franz Kuhn. The new version is uncut.<br />
曹雪芹的《红楼梦》这本书，于2009年出版了三卷的精装版以及一卷的平装版。<br />
大约有1759到2300页<br />
评分为1.3分。<br />
这本书在中国永远都是畅销书，在德国也应该会长期畅销。之前德国只有弗朗兹.库恩翻译的只包含原文70%的删减版，但最新版是无删减的版本。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 05:45, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2. Cáo Xuěqín 曹雪芹 » Dream of the Red Chamber or The Story of the Stone« 红楼梦.<br />
This book appears in 2009 in a bound edition in three volumes and in a paperback edition in a volume.<br />
Approx. 1759, 2300 pp.<br />
Rating: 1.3.<br />
Everlasting bestseller in China, could become a longseller in Germany. Previously there was only a 70% shortened version by Franz Kuhn. The new version is uncut.<br />
曹雪芹的《红楼梦》，于2009年出版了三卷的精装版以及一卷的平装版。<br />
大约有1759到2300页；<br />
评分:1.3；<br />
这本书在中国十分畅销，在德国应该会长期畅销。之前有弗朗兹.库恩翻译的删减版，只包含原文70%，但最新版是无删减的版本。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 06:29, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
<br />
3.Cáo Xuěqín 曹雪芹 » Dream of the Red Chamber or The Story of the Stone« 红楼梦.<br />
This book appears in 2009 in a bound edition in three volumes and in a paperback edition in a volume.<br />
Approx. 1759, 2300 pp.<br />
Rating: 1.3.<br />
Everlasting bestseller in China, could become a longseller in Germany. Previously there was only a 70% shortened version by Franz Kuhn. The new version is uncut.<br />
曹雪芹的《红楼梦》（又称《石头记》），这本书以三卷精装版和一卷平装版在2009年面世。<br />
大约有1759到2300页。<br />
评分：1.3。<br />
红楼梦在中国是经久不衰的畅销书，在德国应该亦然。在此之前，此书只有一个包含原文70％内容的删减版，由弗朗茨.库恩所译，而新版本是未删减的。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:01, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
<br />
On the situation of Chinese publications in Germany (selection list before the book fair)<br />
<br />
Here is a list of Chinese publications in German translation before the book fair.<br />
In 2008, only 11 literary works from Chinese to German were translated.<br />
<br />
An important translator is Ulrich Kautz, here some of the translated novels<br />
<br />
Unfortunately many translations do not come directly from Chinese, but rather from the indirection of English or French, as one of the more famous novels: Gio Waeckerlin Induni (Transl. f. Fr.) Dai Sijie: Balzac and the little Chinese Seamstress <Piper> 192007<br />
<br />
关于在德国中文出版物的情况（书展前的入选名单） <br />
这是书展前的德译中出版物清单。 <br />
2008年，仅有11部德译中的文学作品。<br />
其中一位重要的译者是乌尔里希·考茨（Ulrich Kautz），他曾翻译过一些小说。 但是，许多翻译并不是直接来自中文，而是来自英语或法语的间接翻译，因为这些译本似乎更出名：乔·瓦克林·英杜尼 戴思杰：巴尔扎克和小中国裁缝--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 09:56, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
关于德国的中文出版物情况（书展前的入选名单） 这是书展前的德语版中文出版物清单。 2008年，仅有11部中国文学作品翻译成德语， 其中，一位重要的译者是乌尔里希·考茨（Ulrich Kautz），这些是他翻译过的小说。 但是，许多翻译并不是直接从中文翻译过来的，有些是从英语或法语间接翻译过来的，比如一本著名的小说：乔·瓦克林·英杜尼 戴思杰：巴尔扎克和小中国裁缝--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 11:18, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
<br />
Recent Literary History: "Modern Chinese Literature in Translation - Historical Development and Current Trends"<br />
<br />
1. Development<br />
<br />
Chinese literature is traditionally received in Germany because of its exoticism (Diederich’s Yellow Series, etc.). In Germany operated especially the exotic translator - with a tremendous amount of translation work: Franz Kuhn.<br />
The last great Chinese literature was Dream Of The Red Chamber ca.1760<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
<br />
In the period of the Republic appeared (about 1911-1937) great novels such as Ba Jin: The Family (cf. Buddenbrooks), the end of the Republic saw the beginning of the functionalization of literature (anti - Japanese resistance, civil war parties Guomindang and the Communist Party), intellectuals contributed to the reform with essays, experimental literature was written (Lu Xun: Diary of a Madman and The True Story of Ah Q, which were as revolutionary as Kafka with minimally reduced fictional elements in realistic spelling) and essays (suibi of Zhou Zuoren and socio-critical My Miscellaneous Studies杂文 zawen from his brother Lu Xun).<br />
<br />
民国时期（约1911-1937年年间）涌现了许多优秀的作品，如巴金的《家》。民国后期出现了功能主义文学（即反日本侵略，反国共内战），文人学者们推动了文学变革，出现了实验性文学作品（如鲁迅的《狂人日记》和《阿Q正传》（这两部作品的划时代性，有如卡夫卡在写实作品中减少虚构书写的变革））和散文（如周作人的《随笔》和鲁迅的杂文集等）。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 02:02, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
<br />
In Communism, the functionalization of literature (tendency literature) and censorship (Ba Jin censored e.g. his novel The Family by himself) lowered the level, which was ultimately left to the cultural revolution, which wanted only a few model pieces to survive.<br />
在共产主义时期，文学功能化(走向文学)和审查制度(巴金审查了他自己写的小说——《家》)降低了，但是这些特征只持续到了文化大革命时期，文化大革命只想让极少几类文章保留下来。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 11:05, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在共产主义时期，文学的功能化（倾向文学）以及日渐放宽的审查制度最终延续到了文化大革命时期（巴金审查了他自己写的小说《家》）。而文化大革命只允许少部分模范作品保留下来。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:53, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
<br />
Today the exoticism begins to disappear for the first time because there is an approximation of the cultural background of the Chinese authors with the international authors, and because the functionalization has been replaced by commercialization (mass literature phenomenon Wang Shuo - but not pure fiction like Konsalik, but rather very socio-critical, language of the youth, unmasking the hollowness of slogans through use in the everyday language).<br />
现在异国情调首次出现消失的迹象，因为中国作家与国际上的作家的文化背景相近，并且由于功能化已被商业化所取代（大众文学现象 王硕-但不是像孔撒李这样的纯小说 ，但相当具有社会批判性的年轻人的语言，通过使用日常语言来揭露标语的空心性。）--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:34, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
由于中国作家与国际作家的文化背景相似，并且商业化已经代替了功能化（大众文学现象王朔-不是像孔萨利克这样的纯小说，而是非常具有社会批判性的年轻人的语言，通过使用日常语言来揭露标语的空洞，这使得如今的异国情调初现消失的迹象。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 16:32, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
<br />
Even within China, literature has become pure consumption, has lost its reputation, and loses itself towards other media consumption (Internet / film / DVD) audience.<br />
In the last decades, German publishers have published less Chinese literature, while other media genres, such as the Chinese cinema, have been particularly popular because of the exoticism of the images.<br />
<br />
Secondary literature: Martin Woesler: "50 Years of 'Impossible Literature' in the People's Republic of China: Unfreedom, the 'Attempt to End the Enlightenment' and the Lack of Quality ', in: Between Mao and Confucius, Bochum 1999, pp. 151-188.<br />
<br />
甚至在中国，文学也已经成为了纯粹的消费品，失去了其原有的名声，并且执着于向媒体消费观众方向(网络/电影/光盘)发展。在过去的几十年里，德国出版商出版的中国文学作品越来越少，而如中国电影这些其他的媒体流派则因其影像的异国风味大受欢迎。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 06:14, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
<br />
二次文献:马丁·沃斯勒:中华人民共和国的五十年的'不可能文学':无自由，试图结束启蒙运动和缺乏质量，毛泽东与孔子，波1999年，151-188页。<br />
<br />
Even within China, literature has become pure consumption, has lost its reputation, and loses itself towards other media consumption (Internet / film / DVD) audience.<br />
In the last decades, German publishers have published less Chinese literature, while other media genres, such as the Chinese cinema, have been particularly popular because of the exoticism of the images.<br />
<br />
Secondary literature: Martin Woesler: "50 Years of 'Impossible Literature' in the People's Republic of China: Unfreedom, the 'Attempt to End the Enlightenment' and the Lack of Quality ', in: Between Mao and Confucius, Bochum 1999, pp. 151-188.<br />
甚至在中国，文学已经成为了纯粹的消费品，失去了其原有的名声，并且迷失自我，转而向其他媒体消费(网络/电影/光盘)的观众倾斜。在过去的几十年里，德国出版商出版的中国文学作品越来越少，而其他的媒体类型，比如中国电影，则因其异域风情的形象大受欢迎。<br />
<br />
二次文献:马丁·沃斯勒:中华人民共和国的五十年'不可能文学':无自由，试图终结启蒙运动和缺乏质量，毛泽东与孔子，波鸿，1999年，151-188页。<br />
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 15:06, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
<br />
2. Present<br />
<br />
In the present, there is a counter-movement to mass literature, such as Shanghai's extreme individualists (Bei Bei, Wei Hui, Mian Mian)<br />
<br />
2.1 Another characteristic of contemporary literature is the mass: Helmut Martin estimated that about 800 novels appeared annually at the beginning of the nineties; after 1995 the number had increased to about 1000. In the 1980s, only 100 novels a year!<br />
<br />
2. 现在<br />
<br />
目前，社会上存在反对大众文学的运动，比如上海的某些极端个人主义者：北北、卫慧、棉棉。<br />
<br />
目前，有一场反大众文学运动，如（北北，卫慧，棉棉）等上海极端个人主义者都是该运动的拥护者。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 05:58, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.1 当代文学的另一个特点是大众化：马汉茂先生曾估算，90年代初每年出版大约800本小说；1995年之后，数量已增加到1000本。而在80年代的时候，每年只有100本！--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 03:42, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.现在<br />
<br />
目前，有一场反大众文学的运动，如上海的极端个人主义者(贝贝、卫慧、绵绵)<br />
<br />
2.1当代文学的另一个特点是大众化:赫尔穆特·马丁估计，在90年代初，每年大约有800部小说问世;1995年以后，这个数字增加到大约1000人。在20世纪80年代，每年只有100本小说!--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 04:13, 3 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
2.现况<br />
目前，存在反对大众文学的运动，如上海的极端个人主义者：贝贝，魏慧，绵绵<br />
<br />
2.1当代文学的另一个特征是大众性：赫尔穆特·马丁估计，在90年代初，每年约有800部小说问世。 1995年以后，这个数字增加到1000左右。而在1980年代，每年只有100部小说！--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 14:12, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
2. 现状<br />
目前，掀起了反大众文学的运动浪潮。例如，上海存在极端个人主义者（贝贝，卫辉，绵绵）。<br />
<br />
2.1 现代文学的另一个特点是数量众多。赫尔穆特·马丁估算，90年代初，每年大约出版800部小说；95年后，这个数字增至了1000左右。然而在80年代，一年只能出版约100本！--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:28, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
2.现状<br />
现如今，出现了一场反大众文学的运动，例如，上海的一些极端主义者（北北，卫慧，棉棉）就是其中的代表。<br />
2.1 当代文学的另一个特征就是大众化：赫尔穆特·马丁说：“九十年代初，每年大约有800部小说出版，1995年之后，这一数字达到1000，但在80年代，每年只出版100部。”--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:11, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
<br />
2.2 ,Young Literature’: It has only been defunctionalized since the 1980s, recognizes that it has started from a zero point, begins with the repressed coping with the past, dares the experiment as in the autobiographical urban literature.<br />
Wang Shuo (born 1958), Masters of Mischief, Zurich: Diogenes, 1997, Playing for Thrills, Zurich: Diogenes, 1995<br />
<br />
2.2、“青年文学”:从20世纪80年代开始才被去功能化，认识到它已经从一个原点、从压抑的应对过去开始，敢于像自传式都市文学那样进行实验。<br />
王朔(1958年出生)，《恶作剧大师》，苏黎世:第欧奇尼斯，1997年;《刺激》，苏黎世:第欧奇尼斯，1995年--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:54, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
2.2，“青年文学”：它1980年代以来才取消功能化的，也认识到此文学作品是从零开始的,始于对过去的压抑应对，敢于像自传城市文学中那样进行尝试。 王硕（生于1958年），《恶作剧大师》，苏黎世：第欧根尼，1997年，《玩刺激》，苏黎世：第欧根尼，1995年。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:42, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
<br />
Literature: Geremie Barmé: "Wang Shuo and ,Liumang’ (Hooligan) Culture," in: The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs (1992.2), pp. 23-64; Yusheng Yao: "The Elite-Class Background of Wang Shuo and His Hooligan Characters," in Modern China. An International Quarterly of History and Social Science (2004.4), pp. 431-469.<br />
Yu Hua余华(born 1960) Mastermind<br />
Mo Yan莫言(born 1956) Mastermind (figurative)<br />
Wang An-yi王安忆 (born 1954)<br />
Bei Dao北岛 (born 1949) poet<br />
<br />
文学：白杰明（Geremie Barmé）的《王朔与流氓文化》刊载于《澳大利亚中国事务杂志》（1992.2），第23-64页；姚玉生的《王朔及其流氓人物的精英阶层背景》刊载于国际历史与社会科学季刊《现代中国》（2004.4）第431-469页。余华（1960-）策划<br />
莫言（1956-）策划<br />
王安忆 (1954-) <br />
诗人北岛 ( 1949-) --[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 06:12, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
文学：白杰明（Geremie Barmé）的《王朔与流氓文化》刊载于《澳大利亚华人事务杂志》（1992.2），第23-64页；姚玉生（Yusheng Yao）的《王朔及其流氓人物的精英阶层背景》刊载于《国际历史与社会科学》季刊《现代中国》（2004.4）第431-469页。<br />
余华（1960-）策划<br />
莫言（1956-）形象策划<br />
王安忆 (1954-) <br />
诗人北岛 ( 1949-) --[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 13:18, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
<br />
1.Su Tong 苏童 (born 1963) <br />
<br />
Su Tong 苏童（生于1963年）--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 05:03, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.Wei Hui 衛慧 (born 1973): 上海寶貝Shanghai Baby, Munich: Ullstein, 2002; Marrying Buddha, Munich: Ullstein, 2005; 熊貓(not yet published in German: Pandasex)<br />
<br />
Mian棉棉(born 28.8.1970): La la la, Cologne: Kiepenheuer & Witsch, 2000; Your Night, my Day, Cologne: Kiepenheuer & Witsch, 2004; Candy糖, 2000.<br />
<br />
Wei Hui 衛慧（生于1973年）：《上海寶貝Shanghai Baby》,慕尼黑：乌尔斯坦，2020；《嫁给活佛》，慕尼黑：乌尔斯坦，2005；熊猫（还未在德国出版：熊猫之性）<br />
<br />
Mian Mian 棉棉 （生于1970年8月 28日）：《啦 啦 啦 》，科隆：Kiepenheuer & Witsch出版社，2020；《你的黑夜，我的白昼》，科隆：Kiepenheuer & Witsch出版社，2004；Candy糖，2020.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 05:03, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3.Literature:<br />
Jie Lu: "Cultural Invention and Cultural Intervention: Reading Chinese Urban Fiction of the Nineties", in: Modern Chinese Literature and Culture (2001.1), pp. 107-139.<br />
<br />
A comparison between Zhang Jie张洁(born 1937) and Mian Mian / Wei Hui: James Farrer: Opening up. Youth Sex Culture and Market Reform in Shanghai (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002).<br />
<br />
文学：<br />
杰露：“文化发明与文化干预：阅读中国九十年代城市小说” 刊载于：现代中国文学与文化（2001.1）107-139页<br />
<br />
张洁与棉棉/卫慧之比较：刘雅格：开放. 青年性文化与上海市场改革（芝加哥：芝加哥大学出版社，2020）.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 05:03, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
<br />
Thilo Diefenbach: "Chinese Literature under the Sign of the 'Upturn': Liu Jiming, Zhang Wei, Liu Qingbang<br />
And their Answer to the big City Literature, "in: Bulletin of the German China Association 2006 (in preparation) [rural China, critical against upturn]<br />
Thilo Diefenbach: Liu Jiming, Zhang Wei, Liu Qing-bang, Bochum 2006<br />
迪芬巴赫：“中国文学渐有好转迹象 ：刘继明，张伟和刘庆邦等对大城市文学的看法”刊载于2006年德中协会公报（筹备中）【中国农村，关键在好转】迪芬巴赫：刘继明，张伟，刘庆邦，波鸿（德国） 2006--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 07:50, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
迪芬巴赫：“中国文学有好转迹象 ：刘继明，张伟和刘庆邦等对大城市文学的看法”刊载于2006年德中协会公报（筹备中）【中国农村，关键在好转】迪芬巴赫：刘继明，张伟，刘庆邦，波鸿（德国） 2006--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 09:24, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 15:57, 4 October 2020 (UTC)==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
<br />
3. Specific problems on the Chinese-German translation process<br />
3.1 Translator = additional filter (further filter: place, possibly time, especially difficult, because great cultural difference)<br />
<br />
3.2 Since in Chinese with 413 phoneme combinations only a fraction of what is possible in German is available, phonetic expressions in Chinese sound strangely clumsy for German ears: "汪wāng" instead of the variations in German "Wau" and "Wuff", 喔喔喔wōwōwō" instead of ‘kikeriki’ "as in German and Czech, cf. “kokekoko” in Japanese, "cocorico" in French, "cook-a-doodle-doo" in English,"kuckeliku" in Swedish.<br />
3.中德互译中的几个问题<br />
3.1 议员=特殊的转换器（更高级的转换器：空间，或时间，由于巨大的文化差异而十分困难）<br />
3.2由于中文的413个音节组合仅有一小部分在德语里通用，中文发音对德国人也十分困难：中文的“汪”在德语里是“嗷呜”和“呜咈”；“喔喔喔”在德语和捷克语为“咯咯咯”，在日语里为“kokekoko”，法语里为“cocorico”，英文里为“cook-a-doodle-doo”，瑞典语里为“kuckeliku”。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 15:57, 4 October 2020 (UTC)MaShuya<br />
<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
<br />
At the same time the Chinese is essentialy more rhythmically accentuated by the syllable and character structure and the lack of flexion, and because of the numerous homophonies and the tonal system invites to play with the notes. Especially in pre-modern poems, the original song melodies have been lost, and the tone sequences of the reconstructed spoken language at that time are hardly to render adequate with the non-tonal and less rhythmic possibilities in German, especially since rhymed poems in German nowadays seem very antiquated. However, since the effect is important, many translators fall back on the unbounded language. Volker Klöpsch has shown that bounded translations of prehistoric Chinese poems are still not inferior to their unbounded younger sibling translations in the translation quality, since the bounded translations require more effort.<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
<br />
As in the translation from English into German, the brevity of Chinese words presents a problem which can hardly be solved, especially in the case of lyrics. One can just make contractions or e.g. to make one from two stanzas.<br />
<br />
Metaphors in Chinese usually have different meanings than in German; in Chinese, symbols, signs, quotations, and allusions are used more frequently than in German to make associations to other poems, historical events or persons.<br />
就像英语一样，汉语句子相对简洁，因此将汉语翻译成德语十分困难，特别是翻译汉语诗歌时。英汉诗人可以使用缩写把本该是两个诗节的内容简略成一个。<br />
汉语诗歌隐喻表达的含义与德语不太一样，汉语诗歌所用的象征，引用或者典故，更倾向于关联其他诗歌，历史事件或者历史人物。--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 11:29, 3 October 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
同英语翻译成德语的问题一样，中文的简洁往往会使汉语翻译成德语十分的困难，这在翻译诗歌时尤为明显。诗人只需用缩写就可以把两个诗节的内容简写成一个。 一般来说，汉语诗歌中隐喻的用法和德国的不同。在汉语诗歌中，象征，引用以及典故都比德国诗歌使用的更加频繁，这是因为汉语诗歌更习惯于和其他诗歌，历史事件或历史人物相关联。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 02:04, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
正如将英文翻译成德文，汉语词汇的简洁使得汉译德十分困难，尤其是翻译汉语诗歌时。诗人可以使用缩写把原本两个诗节的内容简缩成一个诗节。<br />
通常，汉语诗歌中隐喻表达的含义与德语不同。汉语诗歌较德语诗歌更为频繁使用象征、引用或典故，以同其他诗歌、历史事件或人物产生关联。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 02:43, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
<br />
3.3 Trend: Globalization simplifies translating <br />
Kubin complained in 1991,<br />
"The average German translator of Chinese literature goes unprepared to work. He is neither trained as a translator, nor does he bring any experience with him. Even a most sympathetic criticism is usually closed, for the goal of having not translated it wrong seems to him the only and highest command, if attained. "<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
<br />
However at the beginning of the 21st century the cultural embedding of the translation appears to be more consciously perceived:<br />
Due to the overlapping of the experience horizon by traveling and global media experiences, e.g. tragedies such as the tsunami in Southeast Asia, or Hollywood films, which are also known in China, literature is nowadays more easily translatable.<br />
不过，在21世纪初，翻译中的文化嵌入似乎更多是有意识的：由于旅游和全球化媒体体验的带来的经验和视界重叠影响，使得文学如今更加容易被翻译介绍了，比如在中国同样广为人知的东南亚海啸悲剧或与之相关的好莱坞电影。----[[User:Monan|Monan]] ([[User talk:Monan|talk]]) 13:35, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
然而在21世纪初，人们似乎更容易地感知到翻译的文化植入现象：这是因为旅行和全球传媒界限的交叉。例如，在中国也能知道像东南亚海啸的悲剧，或者好莱坞的电影，现如今，文学的可译性更强了。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 11:21, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
然而在21世纪初，人们似乎更有意识地感知到翻译的文化植入现象：<br />
这是因为旅行和全球传媒界限的交叉,例如，在中国也能知道一些悲剧，如东南亚的海啸，或者好莱坞的电影，现如今，文学的可译性更强了。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:09, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
<br />
Some translators and perhaps even readers share the author's experiences, such as the events in June 1989 or alienation by the anonymisation of the urbanization, thus the cultural distance reduces.<br />
<br />
In particular, the backlog of Chinese intellectuals since 1917, which selected themselves national literature at first and translated what was just tangible, but then also the personal experience abroad of these intellectuals during their studies, which flowed into their works, made them to translators of a special kind of culture translators. The same may be true in the other direction for early translators like Franz Kuhn.<br />
一些译者甚至读者分享了作者的经历，比如1989年6月的政治风波，将城镇化匿名化的异化翻译，从而缩短了文化距离。<br />
尤其是自1917年以来，积压的中国知识分子首先选择翻译民族文学，翻译那些有形的东西，之后他们在国外进行研究的个人经历也流入了他们的作品，这使得他们成了一种特殊的文化翻译者。对于像弗兰兹·库恩这样的早期译者来说，反过来也可能是这样。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 02:17, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
一些译者甚至可能有读者分享了作者的经历，比如1989年6月的政治风波，将城镇化匿名化的异化翻译，从而缩短了文化距离。<br />
尤其是自1917年以来，因难觅出路而积压过剩的中国知识分子首先选择翻译民族文学，翻译那些有形的东西，之后他们在国外进行学习的个人经历也流入了他们的作品，这使得他们成了一种特殊的文化翻译者。对于像弗兰兹·库恩这样的早期译者来说，反过来也可能是这样。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:22, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
<br />
Edward Hall (Beyond culture) ordered in 1976 Chinese culture to be "high-context cultures" and the German to be "low-context cultures". While the history of humanity worldwide is characterized by an intensified coding (documentation, digitization, information exchange, translation, etc.), which has become an overcoding of modern industrial societies since modernization, industrialization and the introduction of dual bookkeeping, at the same time it can be observed that there is a trend that the high-context cultures develop into low-context cultures.<br />
<br />
It remains to be noted that the convergence of the horizons of experience and the lifeworlds of the authors, translators and foreign-cultural readers strengthens the intersubjective traceability of the translator's and reader's recipe process. For the translator, the effort for the embedding of non-textual context is thus reduced in the present time.<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
<br />
3.4 Translators<br />
Florian Reißinger (The Family), Wolfgang Kubin (re-poetry), Wolf Baus (Taiwanese Lit.), Volker Klöpsch (Tang Poems), Ulrich Kautz (Modern Figures such as Wang Meng, Wang Shuo, Lu Wenfu, Yu Hua): Dream of the Red Chamber (Rainer Schwarz, Martin Woesler).<br />
Studies of translating with a literature part at the universities in Germersheim and Bonn.<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
<br />
4. Literature recommendations<br />
<br />
4.1 Bilingual literature (especially for studying sinologists): hardly available, only the following are known:<br />
<br />
4.1.1 Lyric<br />
<br />
Reclam: Chinese Literature (out of print)<br />
Reclam: Chinese lyricism of the twentieth century (out of print, reissued in the European University Press as "Bogenlinien")<br />
Arbeiterverlag: Black Suns (representative selection of German lyric, out of print)<br />
In collections (anthologies, magazine "die horen") occasionally individual Chinese poems<br />
Pohl (eds.): Tao Yuanming<br />
<br />
4.文献推荐<br />
<br />
4.1 双语文献（特别针对于正在进行研究的汉学家）：稀缺，已知文献仅如下：<br />
<br />
4.1.1 抒情诗<br />
<br />
《雷克拉姆世界文库：中国文学》（已停印）<br />
<br />
《雷克拉姆世界文库：二十世纪的中国抒情诗派》（停印后由欧洲大学出版社再版，名为"Bogenlinien（线）"）<br />
<br />
《工人阶级：黑日》（德国抒情诗代表作，已停印）<br />
<br />
由个人创作的中国诗合集（收录于"die horen(牛角)"杂志）<br />
<br />
《波尔：陶渊明》<br />
--Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
<br />
Interesting new releases are commented in e.g. minima sinica, ORIENTations, booklets for East Asian literature, Bulletin of the German China Association, magazine of the German Oriental Association etc.<br />
4.1.2 Essays<br />
<br />
"The Dragon" (bilingual reissue to the book fair of "Selected Chinese Essays of the 20th Century in Translation")<br />
《袖珍汉学》杂志评论了一些新发表的有趣的文章。这本袖珍杂志是东亚文学的方向标、它反映了中德关系，隶属于德国东方协会。<br />
“龙”（20世纪中国翻译作品选读书展的双语再版作品）--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:50, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
《袖珍汉学》期刊评论了一些新发表的有趣的文章，这本期刊定位是：东亚文学的小册子，中德协会的小报，德国东方协会的杂志。4.1.2期<br />
《龙》（20世纪中国翻译作品选读书展的双语再版作品）--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 14:04, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
<br />
4.2 Monolingual translations: literary lists of universities<br />
4.2.1 University of Trier, reading list basic studies [Fats by me]<br />
4.2.1.1 Philosophy<br />
Kungfutse [Kong, Qiu]. Conversations [Lunyu]. Assigned and published from the Chinese by Richard Wilhelm. Munich: Diederichs, 1990.<br />
Laotse [Laozi]. Tao-te-king [Daodejing]. The Book of Sense and Life. Translation and with a commentary by Richard Wilhelm. Cologne: Diederichs, 1985.<br />
* Schwarz, Ernst (ed. and trans.). Thus spoke the sage. Chinese ideas from 3 thousand years ago. Berlin: Rütten + Löning, 1986.<br />
<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
<br />
4.2.1.2 Older literature<br />
Cao, Zhan [Cao Xueqin; Gao E]. The Story of the Stone [Hongloumeng]. A novel in 5 volumes. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Pr. // A Dream of red Mansions. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1978, 1980.<br />
* The Columbia anthology of traditional Chinese literature. Mair, Victor H. (ed.). New York et al .: Columbia University Press, 1994.<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
<br />
Debon, Günther (trans.). Ein weißes Kleid, ein grau Gebände.. Munich: Piper, 1957.<br />
Debon, Günther (ed.). Mein Haus liegt menschenfern doch nah den Dingen. 3000 Jahre chines. Poesie.. First edition, Munich: Diederichs, 1988.<br />
Klöpsch, Volker (trans.). Der seidene Faden: Gedichte der Tang. Aus dem Chines. übertr. und mit einem Nachw. vers. von Volker Klöpsch. First edition, Frankfurt a. M. (i.a.): Insel Publishing House, 1991.<br />
Köser, Heide (trans.). Das Liederbuch der Chinesen [Shijing]. Guofeng. In a new German edition by Heide Köser. Philologically edited by Armin Hetzer. 1. ed. Frankfurt a .M .: Insel Publishing House, 1990.<br />
京特·德博(Debon, Günther) (译.). 白色连衣裙, 灰色卷.. 慕尼黑: 派珀(Piper), 1957年.<br />
京特·德博(Debon, Günther) (编辑.). 我的房子离人很远, 但是很近. 中国3000年. 诗歌.. 第一版, 慕尼黑: Diederichs, 1988年.<br />
克洛普施·沃尔克(Volker Klöpsch) (译.). 丝线: 唐诗. 来自中国. 转自之后. 克洛普施·沃尔克(Volker Klöpsch). 第一版, 法兰克福(i.a.): Insel出版社, 1991年.<br />
海德·科瑟(Heide Köser) (译.). 中国歌集《诗经》. 国风. 在海德·科瑟(Heide Köser)撰写的新德语版中. 由阿明·赫泽(Armin Hetzer)编辑. 法兰克福出版公司第一版: Insel出版社, 1990年.--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 14:52, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
<br />
From the Chinese assigned by Franz Kuhn. Wiesbaden: Insel Publishing House, 1970. // The golden lotus. Transl. by Clement Egerton. London: Routledge & Paul, 1972. // The plum in the golden vase, or, Chin-p'ing-mei. Transl. By David Tod Roy. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1993, 2001.<br />
<br />
Luo, Guanzhong. Die drei Reiche [Sanguozhi-yanyi]. Roman aus dem alten China. From the Chinese. By Franz Kuhn. 1. ed. Frankfurt a. M.: Insel Publishing House, 1981. // Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Transl. by C.H. Brewitt-Taylor. Rutland i.a. .: Tuttle, 1980.<br />
<br />
Schwarz, Ernst (Transl. And ed.). Der Ruf der Phönixflöte. Klassische chinesische Prosa. 2 volumes of Berlin: Rütten & Loening.<br />
<br />
弗朗兹·库恩翻译。威斯巴登：岛屿出版社，1970年。//金瓶梅。 克莱门特·埃格顿翻译。伦敦：劳特利奇&宝罗出版社，1972年。//金瓶中的梅子，中文“金瓶梅”。戴维·托德·罗伊翻译。普林斯顿：普林斯顿大学出版社，1993年，2001年。<br />
<br />
罗贯中，三国演义 [三国志演义]。旧中国的故事，弗朗兹·库恩翻译自中文。1.编辑，法兰克福 M.：岛屿出版社，1981年。//三国演义。由查尔斯·亨利·布鲁威特·泰勒翻译。拉特兰岛：塔特尔出版社，1980年。<br />
<br />
施瓦茨，恩斯特（翻译和编辑）。凤凰笛的召唤。中国古典文化。柏林2卷：吕滕＆洛宁。 --[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 10:45, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
<br />
Shi, Naian; Luo Guanzhong. Die Räuber vom Liang-Schan-Moor [Shuihu-zhuan]. From the Chinese assigned by Franz Kuhn. Frankfurt a. M.: Insel Publishing House, 1964. // Water margin. Transl. by J.H. Jackson. Hong Kong: Commercial Pr., 1979. // Outlaws of the marsh. Transl. By Sidney Shapiro. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Pr., 1981.<br />
<br />
Wu, Cheng'en. Journey to the West [Xiyou-ji]. 3 vols. Transl. by W.J.F. Jenner. Beijing: Foreign Languages Pr. // Monkeys Pilgrimage. According to eng. Transl. by Arthur Waley assigned by Georgette Boner and Maria Nils. Munich: Hugendubel, 1980. // Monkey. - Reprint. Transl. By Arthur Waley. London, Unwin, 1979.<br />
<br />
Wu, Jingzi. The scholars [Rulin-waishi]. Transl. by Yang Hsien-yi. 3. ed. Peking: Foreign Languages Press, 1973. // The road to the white clouds. Stories from the scholar's forest. 2 vols. Munich: Beck, 1990.<br />
<br />
施耐庵;罗贯中.梁山泊的强盗[水浒传].译自弗朗兹·库恩和法兰克福 a.M. 指定的中文：英瑟尔出版社,1964.// 水泊. J.H. 杰克逊译,香港:商业出版社.,1979.//荡寇.西德尼·夏皮罗译.布卢明顿:印第安纳大学出版社.,1981.<br />
吴承恩.西行之旅[西游记].三卷本.W.J.F.詹纳译.北京:外语出版社,1973.//猴的朝圣.据乔治·博纳和玛丽亚·尼拉指定的亚瑟·韦利英译本.慕尼黑:于根杜贝尔,1980.//猴.—重印本.亚瑟·韦利.伦敦,昂温,1979.<br />
吴敬梓.学者们[儒林外史].杨宪益译.第三版.北京：外语出版社,1973//青云之路.学林故事.两卷本.慕尼黑:贝克,1990.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:14, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
施耐庵;罗贯中.梁山泊的强盗[水浒传].译自弗朗兹·库恩和法兰克福 a.M. 指定的中文原本：英瑟尔出版社,1964.// 水泊. J.H. 杰克逊译,香港:商业出版社.,1979.//荡寇.西德尼·夏皮罗译.布卢明顿:印第安纳大学出版社.,1981.<br />
吴承恩.西行之旅[西游记].三卷本.W.J.F.詹纳译.北京:外语出版社,1973.//猴的朝圣.据乔治·博纳和玛丽亚·尼拉指定的亚瑟·韦利英译本.慕尼黑:于根杜贝尔,1980.//猴.—重印本.亚瑟·韦利.伦敦,昂温,1979. <br />
吴敬梓.学者们[儒林外史].杨宪益译.第三版.北京：外语出版社,1973//青云之路.学林故事.两卷本.慕尼黑:贝克,1990.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:30, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
<br />
4.2.1.3 Modern Literature<br />
Ba, Jin. Kalte Nächte [Hanye]. Novel. From the Chinese by Sabine Peschel. First ed., Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1981.<br />
<br />
Ba, Jin. Die Familie [Jia]. From the Chinese. By Florian Reissinger. Berlin: Oberbaum Publishin House., 1980.<br />
<br />
* The Columbia anthology of modern Chinese literature. Lau, Joseph S.M .; Goldblatt, Howard (eds.). New York: Columbia University Press, 1995.<br />
<br />
Donath, Andreas (eds.). Die Drachenschnur. Geschichten aus dem chinesischen Alltag. Darmstadt i.a. .: Luchterhand, 1981.<br />
<br />
Fessen-Henjes, Irmtraud (eds.). 16 chinesische Erzähler. First ed.. Berlin: Publishing House Volk u. Welt, 1984.<br />
<br />
Gao, Xiaosheng. Geschichten von Chen Huansheng. Göttingen: Lamuv Publishing House, 1988.<br />
Hoffnung auf Frühling, 1919-1949. Frankfurt a. M.: Suhrkamp, 1980. (Modern Chinese Stories; 1)<br />
<br />
4.2.1.3 现代文学 巴金小说《寒夜》译自萨宾·佩舍尔，第一版：法兰克福 苏坎普出版社，1981年。<br />
巴金小说《家》译自弗洛里安·赖辛格。柏林：奥伯鲍姆出版社，1980年。<br />
《哥伦比亚中国现代文学选集》。刘绍铭著， 戈德布拉特·霍华德（编辑）。纽约：哥伦比亚大学出版社，1995年。<br />
多纳特，安德烈亚斯（编辑）。《风筝线》，中国人的日常生活故事。达姆施塔特行政区 ：坎德拉布拉，1981年。<br />
尹虹(编辑)。《16名中国解说员》第一版。柏林：沃尔克大学出版社，1984年。<br />
《高晓升 陈焕生的故事》。 哥廷根：拉穆夫出版社，1988年出版。《春天的希望，1919-1949》， 法兰克福 苏尔坎普出版社，1980年出版（中国现代故事; 1）<br />
--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 03:53, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
<br />
Hundert Blumen, 1949-1979. Frankfurt a. M.: Suhrkamp, 1980. (Modern Chinese Stories; 2)<br />
Jiang, Zilong. 1st ed. Beijing: Publishing House for Foreign Language Literature, 1989 (Phönix-Buchreihe)<br />
Kuo, Heng-yü (eds.). Munich: Minerva publication Saur, 1986.<br />
Lao She. Frankfurt a. M .: Suhrkamp, 1985.<br />
Lao, She. Rikscha-Kuli [Luotuo Xiangzi]. A novel. From the Chinese assigned by Florian Reissinger. First ed., Frankfurt a. M.: Insel Publishing House, 1987.<br />
Lu, Wenfu. Translation and afterword by Stefan Hase-Bergen. Bochum: Brockmeyer, 1992.<br />
Lu Xun. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press. Literature, 1976.<br />
Mao, Dun. Frankfurt, 1985.<br />
Martin, Helmut (eds.). First ed., Frankfurt a. M.: Suhrkamp, 1982.<br />
Mo, Yan. The republic of wine. Transl. from the Chinese by Howard Goldblatt. London: Hamish Hamilton, 2000.<br />
Mo, Yan. Novel. Ger. by Andreas Donath. Reinbek by Hamburg: Rowohlt, 1997.<br />
Mo, Yan. Novel. Ger. by Peter Weber-Schäfer. Reinbeck: Rowohlt, 1993.<br />
Qian, Zhongshu. From the Chinese assigned by Monika Motsch. First ed., Frankfurt a. M.: Insel, 1988.<br />
Wang, Meng. Edited by Helmut Martin. Cologne: Diederichs, 1985.<br />
Wang, Shuo. Zurich: Diogenes, 1997.<br />
Wang, Shuo. Zurich: Diogenes, 2001.<br />
Yu, Hua. Novel. From the Chinese by Ulrich Kautz. Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1998. [od25109]<br />
Zhang, Jie. From the Chinese by Michael Kahn-Ackermann. Munich i.a..: Hanser, 1987.<br />
Zhang, Xinxin; Sang, Edited by Helmut Martin. First edition, Cologne: Diederichs, 1986.<br />
<br />
4.2.1.4 Dramas<br />
Eberstein, Bernd (eds.). Frankfurt a. M .: Suhrkamp, 1980.<br />
Gao, Xingjian. Bochum: Brockmeyer, 1988.<br />
Lao, She. Edited by Uwe Kräuter. Frankfurt a. M.: Suhrkamp, 1980.<br />
<br />
4.2.1.5 Poetry<br />
Hsu, Kai-Yu (eds., transl.). Twentieth century Chinese poetry. An anthology. 1. print. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Pr., 1970.<br />
Kubin, Wolfgang (eds. and trans.). First edition, Frankfurt a. M.: Suhrkamp, 1985.<br />
<br />
<br />
5. Chinese bestsellers in China<br />
<br />
Authors: http://hi.baidu.com/%D1%A7%CF%B0%D3%C0%D4%B6%B2%BB%CD%ED/blog/item/661e76fad5b669ddb48f3190.html<br />
<br />
Translator workshops<br />
These workshops are mainly offered by foundations with literary support (Litprom, Robert Bosch Foundation). In the summer of 2008, a literary translator's workshop took place in <br />
<br />
洪德特 ·布卢门（1949-1979）.《现代中国故事》(2).富兰克福： 苏坎普出版社，1980<br />
蒋子龙. 《赤橙黄绿青蓝紫》（第一版）. 凤凰系列丛书. 北京：外国语言文学出版社，1989<br />
郭恒一. 《永恒之河》. 中国台湾短篇小说. Munich：Minerva 出版社，1986<br />
老舍. 富兰克福：苏坎普出版社，1985<br />
老舍. 骆驼祥子. 弗洛里安·雷辛格编译中国小说（第一版）. 富兰克福：insel出版社，1987<br />
陆文夫. 斯特凡·哈塞-卑尔根著《翻译与后言》. 波鸿：布罗克迈尔出版社，1992<br />
鲁迅. 北京：外国语言文学出版社，1976<br />
茅盾. 富兰克福，1985. <br />
马丁， 赫尔穆特（编辑）. 第一版. 富兰克福：苏坎普出版社，1982<br />
莫言. 《酒国》. 霍华德·戈德布拉特译. 伦敦：哈米什汉密尔顿出版社，2000<br />
莫言. 小说德语版安德里 亚斯译. 汉堡：罗洛尔特出版社，1997<br />
莫言. 小说德语版皮特 韦伯-施海费尔译. 莱茵贝克：罗洛尔特出版社，1993<br />
钱钟书. 莫妮卡·莫奇编译. 第一版. 富兰克福：英赛尔出版社，1988<br />
王蒙. 赫尔穆特·马丁遍译. 科隆：迪德里希斯出版社，1985<br />
王朔. 苏黎世：提奥奇尼斯出版社，1997<br />
王朔 . 苏黎世：提奥奇尼斯出版社，2001<br />
余华. 乌尔里希·考茨译. 斯图加特：维尔他科多出版社，1998<br />
张杰. 迈克尔·卡恩-阿克曼译. 慕尼黑：汉瑟出版社，1987<br />
张鑫鑫，桑. 赫尔穆特·马丁编译（第一版）. 科隆：迪德里希斯出版社，1986<br />
4.2.1.4 戏剧 艾伯斯坦，贝恩德（编辑）. 富兰克福：苏特坎普出版社，1980<br />
高行健. 波鸿：布洛克麦尔出版社，1980<br />
4.2.1.5 诗歌 许，于凯（编辑，转写）《二十世纪中国诗歌选集》1.打印. 伊萨卡. 纽约州：康奈尔大学出版社，1970<br />
库宾，奥尔夫冈（编辑，转写）第一版. 富兰克福：苏尔坎普出版社，1985年<br />
5.中国本土畅销书<br />
作者：http://hi.baidu.com/%D1%A7%CF%B0%D3%C0%D4%B6%B2%BB%CD%ED/blog/item/661e76fad5b669ddb48f3190.html<br />
翻译研讨会 这些研讨会主要由基金会在文学支持下提供（利特姆、罗伯特 博世基金会）。2008 年夏天，在帕莱廷·埃登科本举办了文学翻译研讨会。--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 09:56, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
<br />
Chinese books in German translation: authors who are promoted from China<br />
<br />
Selection list of some Chinese literature events 2007-2009 (before the book fair):<br />
- 29 April 2008: Translator's pitch "Rotes Kornfeld", German Publishers and Booksellers Association, Frankfurt<br />
- May 2008: "Recommendation List of Chinese Contemporary Literature" of the BIZ Peking<br />
- 7.-14.7.2008 "German-Chinese workshop for Literature translators ", Künstlerhaus Edenkoben<br />
- 22.4.2009 Lecture Ulrich Kautz Hamburg at the Confucius Institute: Chinese Contemporary Literature on the German Book Market - Opportunities and Problems<br />
- 22.4.2009 Lecture Prof. Dr. Wang Hongtu王宏图, Vice Director of the Confucius Institute Hamburg, "Contemporary Chinese Literature: From Westernization to Chineseness"<br />
- 27.6.2009 Symposium "Chinese Literature in German Translation - China Honorary Guest of the Frankfurt Book Fair 2009", cf.: Symposium Volume ", Bochum: European Universities Press 2010, ISBN 978-3-89966-293-1.<br />
- 12.-13.9.2009: Symposium in Frankfurt: First meeting of dissident writers and officials, leads to scandal and is a message in the television news, which also arouses interest in the book fair.<br />
<br />
Xu Zechen - Running Through Zhongguancun<br />
"Diwidi? Everything there: Hollywood, Japanese, Korean, Oscar-crowned classics ",<br />
The German reader as a tourist in Peking may have been approached like this by the flying merchants.<br />
"Suddenly, two policemen emerge and they run, passing the southern gate of the Beijing University [...]. Breathlessly asked the friend ‚Shall we not throw the bag away? If one gets us together with the stolen property, there is really anger!’- But the policemen are just too fat, they should have held their bellies to run fast."<br />
This scene comes from the story "Running Through Zhongguancun" (C 2008, G 2009). Here the German reader can slip into the role of the seller for the first time, who is embodied by the 25-year-old Huang. Xu Zechen, 31, lives in Beijing, has created the milieu authentically, the characters with dry humor and yet refreshingly lively. He describes a life between hot pavement and basement hole, between the dream of making big money and bitter setbacks, the daily cat and mouse game with the police. He experiences the world of the crooks as shark pond and as a conspiratorial community, in which everyone gives the shirt off one’s back, lose their existence, but get up again, he experiences the arbitrariness and corruption of policemen. Here, worlds collide: the army of unemployed agricultural workers, who become small-scale criminals, and the urban population. The world of youth, who loves the freedom of the street, and the elderly, who appreciate the security of the wealth. This literature is one of the most recent and most promising stories from China, which shows us a completely different China than the perfectly staged one that the Olympia organizer presents.<br />
中国书籍的德国译本：来自中国著名的作家<br />
节选中国2007年至2009年间的一些文学活动（在书展之前）：<br />
-2008年4月29日：译者的论点“罗斯特·科恩菲尔德（Rotes Kornfeld）”，德国出版商和书商协会，法兰克福（Frankfurt）<br />
-2008年5月：北京商业的“中国当代文学推荐书籍”<br />
-2009年7月1日到-14日：“文学翻译者进行德译中研讨会”，Kunstlerhaus Edenkoben<br />
-2009年4月22日：乌尔里奇·考茨（Ulrich Kautz）在德国汉堡孔子学院举行讲座，主题是：论德国书籍市场上的中国文学——机遇还是挑战<br />
-2009年4月22日：汉堡孔子学院副主任王宏图博士讲座主题：从西方化到中国化<br />
-2009年6月27日：专题讨论会“中国文学的德国翻译之路，2009年法兰克福书展的中国名誉贵宾”，专题讨论会，波鸿：欧洲大学出版社，2010年，ISBN 978-3-89966-293-1<br />
-2009年9月12日-13日：在法兰克福的专题研讨会：持不同意见的作家和官员的第一次会面，导致了丑闻，也是电视新闻的一则消息，也在书展上引起了轰动<br />
徐则臣——《穿越中关村》<br />
“一切都在这儿：好莱坞，日本人，韩国人，奥斯卡认证的经典作品”<br />
多亏了一些商人，来北京旅游的德国读者也许可以接触到这些。<br />
“突然，两位警察出现了，他们奔跑穿过了北京大学的南门，有气无力地对那个人说，我们能不把包丢开吗？如果我们拿到了脏物，你就死定了！”不过这两个警察太胖了，他们要勒紧裤腰带才能跑起来。”<br />
这个场景来自“穿越中关村”（C 2008，G 2009）。<br />
在这里，德语读者可以首次进入由25岁的黄先生展现的卖家角色。<br />
徐则辰，31岁，生活在北京。他创造了一种千篇一律的，充满幽默感的人物，而且还活灵活现。他描述了一种在炎热路面和地下室之间，在赚大钱和遭受苦难的梦想之间，在日常生活中与警察的猫鼠游戏的生活。他经历了一个像鲨鱼池般骗子遍地和一个阴谋社区的世界，在那里所有人都脱去了衬衫，失去了存在，但又重新站起来，他也见识了警察的任性和腐败。在这里，各种世界相互碰撞：成为小规模罪犯的失业农民工与城市人口之间；热爱街道自由的年轻人和赞许财富安全的长辈之间；这是来自中国的最新，最有前途的故事之一，为我们展现了一个与完全由奥林匹亚组织者呈现的故事完全不同的中国。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 13:41, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
<br />
Full Text Xu Zechen: "Running Through Zhongguancun"<br />
<br />
Quote:<br />
"Diwidi? Everything there: Hollywood, Japanese, Korean, Oscar-crowned classics "<br />
<br />
Quote<br />
"[...] Suddenly, two policemen emerge and they run, passing the southern gate of the Beijing University [...]. Breathlessly asked the friend ‚Shall we not throw the bag away? If one gets us together with the stolen property, there is really anger!’- But the policemen are just too fat, they should have held their bellies to run fast."<br />
<br />
Alai: Distant Springs<br />
"When I was little, the old nomad Gongbosijia told me about a hot spring in a distant place. This spring became the quintessence of my childhood's longing", so the story "Distant Springs" (C 2005, Unionsverlag G 2009) begins by the Tibetan Author Alai, 50. The novel is written from the perspective of a Tibetan boy who prefers to take care on horses on the Tibetan mountain pasture rather than talking to the villagers in the valley. After hearing of the hot and healing springs, he longs to find them, because he does not feel at home in the village. He discovers his passion for photography and, as a young man, now a district photographer, actually penetrates the sources. Instead of the described springs by the nomad, he finds there an abandoned concrete landscape - a sign of a failed touristic planning.<br />
<br />
Yes, even Tibetan authors are among the winners of this year's book fair: They are particularly in demand by Swiss publishers. At the confederate Chinabooks, several young Tibetans are represented: Jamyang, Taering Öser, Tenzin Tsundue and Alai, who comes from northern Sichuan, and who had after his poems and stories a great success with his latest novel "Red Poppies".<br />
<br />
Full text of Alai: Distant Springs<br />
http://book.kanunu.cn/html/2005/0828/979.html<br />
"When I was little, the old nomad Gongbosijia told me about a hot spring in a distant place. This spring became the quintessence of my childhood's longing."<br />
<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
<br />
Yu Dan: Confucius from the Heart<br />
Yu Dan embodies a new type of female professor: Young (44), boyish, witty and funny - and her specialty is the 2,500-year-old classic "Conversations" of Confucius who was as basic to China as Plato for the West. She fetched the old text from the dust of her study room at the Beijing Normal University and moved into the spotlight of the television headlights. For seven days she was to be seen in state television with her lectures. Her illustrative elucidation of the moral principles on the basis of everyday examples from the present was the subject of discussion in 2006, which was discussed at work. She uses anecdotes and colloquial language. The teachings of Confucius are timeless, like "Do not force anyone to do anything you would not want to do either." Her daughter would also learn a lot more while playing with bottle and lid than with expensive toys. "Not everything from Confucius has yet to tell us something today, I grew up with Confucius and was brought up in a classical way and that makes me believe in myself." The book "Confucius from the Heart" emerged the second place on the bestseller list in 2007 with 503.000 sold copies. Meanwhile, she has reached the million, other statistics, which the author has not been able to confirm, speak of more than ten million of pirated material. <br />
<br />
And since the trend in China goes towards the second book, thia means, that a successful book is followed by a second similar one, she produced another commentary to the philosopher Zhuangzi in 2007. Yu Dan is so successful because she is both a Confucius researcher and an employee in the arts and media institute.<br />
<br />
于丹：《论语心得》<br />
于丹展现了新一代女性研究者的风貌：年轻（44），孩子气但又充满智慧，性格有趣。她学习孔子，也就是古代中国那位可以媲美西方柏拉图的智者，并专门研究2500年前记录下来的孔子经典语录。从北京师范大学中布满灰尘的书房里取得语录老本，她将之带到了电视荧幕中的聚光灯下，并连续七天开展讲座。2006年，她以日常事件为例，对孔子推崇的道德观念进行解说，这成为了年度话题，甚至工作时也被讨论。她口语化的语言写书，谈及轶事。孔子的教诲是永不过时的， 比如说那句“己所不欲，勿施于人”。她的女儿在玩瓶子和瓶盖时比玩昂贵玩具懂得更多。“并非所有孔子的思想有待在当下给予我们一些教诲，我从小就学习孔子，是在传统文化教育下长大的，这样的教育经历让我相信自己。”《论语心得》这本书在2007年的畅销书榜中排第二，销售量达五百三千万。同时，她成为了百万富翁，另有数据说她坐拥千万以上的财产，但后者并未得到本人证实。<br />
<br />
自这本书掀起时代潮流起，不断有人对此模仿，于丹在2007年写了一部对另一位古代中国哲学家庄子的评论。于丹如此成功，因为她既是孔子的研究者，又是艺术和多媒体领域的宠儿。--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 11:26, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
于丹：《论语心得》<br />
于丹展现了新一代女性研究者的风貌：年轻（44岁），孩子气又充满智慧，诙谐风趣。她专研2500年前记录下来的孔子经典语录，这位智者在中国的地位可以等同于西方世界里柏拉图的地位。于丹从北京师范大学中布满灰尘的书房里取得语录老本，她将之带到了电视荧幕的聚光灯下，在国家电视台连续开展了七天的讲座。2006年，她以日常事件为例，在作品中对孔子推崇的道德观念进行阐述，这成为了年度话题。她以趣闻轶事和口语来写作。孔子的教诲是永不过时的， 比如说那句“己所不欲，勿施于人”。她的女儿在玩瓶子和瓶盖时比玩昂贵玩具懂得更多。“并非所有孔子的思想在当下仍具有教育意义，我从小就学习孔子，是在传统文化教育下长大的，这样的教育经历让我相信自己。”《论语心得》这本书在2007年的畅销书榜中排第二，销售量达五百三千万。同时，她成为了百万富翁，另有数据说她坐拥千万以上的财产，但后者并未得到本人证实。<br />
<br />
在中国，一本书的畅销往往会带来第二本书，这意味着，一本书籍成功后，往往会有一本类似的后续--于丹在2007年写了一部对另一位哲学家庄子的评论。于丹如此成功源于她既是孔子的研究者，又是电影学院的教职工。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 15:01, 2 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
<br />
She likes to open theatrically an arbitrary passage in the "Analects of Confucius" and provides an improvised interpretation, like a modern preacher. This has also given her some criticism from Confucius researchers who see the historical context and political implications neglected in favor of a soft-washed, harmonious Confucianism.<br />
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Why is Confucius so successful in China today? Yu Dan with the return to the common uber-father, certainly gives a new orientation in a disillusioned, materialistic time, as she herself says. In 1974, Confucius had been dismantled in a campaign and waved aside as "conservative" and "overhauled" in the last decades. Now, especially middle class and retirees discover Confucius new. Confucius is a cult, there is a whole advertising industry with devotional objects and sculptures, his place of birth Qufu is a place of pilgrimage and tourist magnet, cultural institutions all over the world bear his name since 2007. In fact, the Chinese also share Confucian values with other Asian countries: humanity, piety / loyality and social responsibility, and care of the fittest for the weaker.<br />
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Does this popular scientific commentary literature also work in Germany, where one hardly knows the original texts? Droemer Publishing House took this risk, which put the translator Johannes Fiederling, whose first major literary translation it is, in special problems. As a solution, the publisher has announced that the original "Analects of Confucius" will be printed in the back of the book as soon as it enters the bookstores on the 21st of August, 2009.<br />
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她喜欢戏剧性地随意打开《论语》中的一段，并像现代传教士那样，做出即兴解释。这也招致了一些儒学研究者的批评，他们关注历史背景和政治影响，而忽视了赞同温和与和谐的儒家思想。<br />
为何孔子在当代中国如此成功?正如于丹自己所说，她带着共识回归先祖，这在一个幻灭的、物质主义的时代，无疑指引了一个新方向。1974年，孔学在一场运动遭受打击，在过去的几十年里，人们置之不理，并视之为“保守派”和“改革派”。如今，人们发展孔学焕然一新，尤其是中产阶级和退休人员。孔子是一种信仰，他有一条完整的广告业，包含祷告对象和雕塑。他的出生地曲阜是一个朝拜和旅游胜地自2007年以来，世界各地的文化机构都以他的名字。事实上，中国人也与其他亚洲国家分享儒家价值观:人性、孝道、社会责任、锄强扶弱。<br />
这种流行的科学评论文学在德国，这个人们几乎不懂原文的国家也适用吗?德勒默出版社冒了这个险，这让第一次翻译重要文学译文的译者约翰内斯·费德林(Johannes Fiederling)陷入了特殊的困境。为了解决这个问题，出版商宣布，《论语》将尽快于2009年8月21日在书店上架，并将在书的背面印刷。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 15:24, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
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Indeed Yu Dan stayed young, she likes listening to pop music by Jay Chow and "Mother Nanquan" and is the head of the "I want fun" club at the art and media institute of the Beijing Normal University.<br />
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Yu Dan had certainly predecessors, for instance when modern writers such as Liu Xinwu or Wang Meng criticized the classic "Dream of the Red Chamber". But she has found a series of imitators that deal with classical subjects - a nostalgic wave is currently swashing through China. In place of the reconditioned Communist ideology, the return to traditional values has taken place. Also on the bestseller lists this literature stands at the top.<br />
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This nostalgia literature in China also includes comments on the classic novel "Three Kingdoms" (C 2006) by Yi Zhongtian (62), which ended up in 2007 with 340,000 copies on the third place of the bestseller list, the historical novel about the last imperial dynasty "The Qing Prime Minister" (C 2007) by Wang Yuewen (46) and "War Drums in Beijing" (C 2006) by Dou Liang (55) about old Beijing, all of them with at least 200,000 sold copies in 2007.<br />
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==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
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Cao Xueqin: Dream of the Red Chamber<br />
The wedding is sealed, the veil is lifted - but not the beloved comes in sight, but a good friend. This is the key scene in China's most famous novel "Dream of the Red Chamber", which leads the eternal bestseller list and is for the first time completely in German available. He abducts the reader into a largely untouched, authentic China: the one of the last imperial dynasty 250 years ago. He describes the life at the imperial court like the one of the servants, it is at the same time a soap opera,a generation novel, a crime novel, a love story and a Buddhist parable.<br />
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The author writes so poignantly, because he describes his own life. In a paradise-like garden, he and his twelve cousins grow up carefree, with two developing a triangular relationship. But the large family falls apart, the cousins marry and leave the garden. The tide is turning only when the protagonist passes the examination of officials. In the novel, the Emperor is impressed and returns titles and countries, in real life the author receives a modest pension, writes to the novel until shortly before his death and dies as a hermit.<br />
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In China the novel has become immortal with numerous book editions, film adaptations and own research tradition. The upcoming re-filming was a casting event. Every Chinese knows the main characters of the novel and can name their favorites.<br />
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曹雪芹：《红楼梦》<br />
订了婚，掀起盖头---呈现在眼前的不是心爱的那个人，而是一位好朋友。这是中国颇具盛名的小说《红楼梦》的经典场景，这一幕使得这部畅销书经久不衰，也让这部小说第一次在德国全本出版。他使读者认识到一个地域辽阔、未经踏染、原汁原味的中国：250年前的最后一个封建王朝。他描写得宫廷生活，好像他就是其中的仆人。此外，这部小说还是一部肥皂剧、一本古代小说、一部犯罪小说、一个爱情故事和一个佛教寓言故事。<br />
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作者写得如此令人感伤，是因为他在描写自己的亲身经历。在天堂般的乐园里，他与十二个姐妹无忧无虑地长大，与其中两位发展了一段三角恋关系。然而随着姐妹们远嫁他乡，这个大家庭变得四分五裂。小说的高潮在主人公通过科举考试时展开。小说中，皇帝深受感动，赏赐了头衔和领地。而现实中作者隐居生活，领着微薄的抚恤金，一直到去世前不久还在写小说。<br />
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在中国，这本小说流传至今，出了许多版本，改编成多部电影，形成了自己的研究传统。即将翻拍的电影一直在挑选演员。每个中国人都了解小说里的主要人物，能说出他们的喜好。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 16:25, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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曹雪芹：《红楼梦》<br />
拜完堂，掀开盖头，却发现眼前之人不是自己心爱之人，而是一位好朋友，此乃中国颇负盛名的小说《红楼梦》的名场面，情节之跌宕让该经典名著经久畅销，也让这部小说第一次在德国全本出版。曹雪芹让读者看到了一个地域辽阔、未经踏染、原汁原味的中国，那是250年前最后一个封建王朝之一。他描写的宫廷生活惟妙惟肖，仿佛自己以仆人的身份感受过一样。该作品既是一部言情肥皂剧、一部清代小说、一部犯罪小说，也是一个爱情故事和一个佛教寓言故事。<br />
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作者笔下的文字是如此令人伤感，因为他描写了自己的亲生经历：在一个天堂般的乐园里，他与十二位表姐妹们一起长大，过着无忧无虑的生活，还与其中两位发展了一段三角恋的关系。但是后来随着这些姐妹们远嫁他乡，这个大家庭变得四分五裂。这一反转在主人公中举入仕后开始展开。小说中，皇帝为之动容，赐予了主人公头衔和领地。然而在现实生活中，作者远离尘世，领着微薄的抚恤金，直到去世前不久还在坚持写作。<br />
<br />
在中国，《红楼梦》历久弥新，经过无数版本的传承，电影的改编，还拥有了独特的研究领域。影视工作者们还一直为该作品即将再一次的搬上荧幕而挑选角色，因为每位中国人都对小说里的主要人物有所了解，并能说出自己在书中喜欢的角色。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 04:41, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
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Yu Hua - Brothers<br />
The Beijing Yu Hua was always smiling, always a joke on the lips, but also always a cigarette in the mouth. He has written the sketchy novel "Brothers", which will be available in German at the book fair.<br />
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Yu grew up in the country during the cultural revolution. Instead of school lessons, there were denunciation wall newspapers. In this he recognized the power of language and decided to write. He learned from idols like Kafka, Borges and García Márquez to incorporate the fictional into his short stories, but also sex and violence and so he quickly became famous. He wrote one decade at a historical novel, but abandoned it when he saw the extreme changes in China to capture these opposites with the novel "Brothers".<br />
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The father of the two brothers, who Yu describes, got killed by the masses in the cultural revolution. The two brothers could hardly develop more differently: The younger brother, Li Guangtou, had been successful with beauty contests for virgins and the sale of used Japanese suits. The older one, Song Gang, works in a public corporation and believes he has a crisis-proof job until he gets discharged. Now he is also trying to be an 'entrepreneur', he lets his breast enlarge surgically to sell peasant gel, which should supposedly enlarge the breast However, he fails and commits suicide.<br />
余华-《兄弟》<br />
余华先生是纯正的北京人，他总是以微笑示人，谈吐也十分幽默，嘴里常常叼着一只香烟。他已经完成了小说《兄弟》的手稿，其德语版即将在书展上出售。<br />
余华于文革时期在农村长大。当时学校里不上课，整天贴大字报搞批斗。从中他认识到了语言的力量，并决定写作。他从偶像卡夫卡，博尔赫斯和加西亚马尔克斯身上学到了将虚构，性和暴力融入自己的短篇小说中，因此他很快就成名了。他用十年写了一部历史小说，但当他亲眼目睹中国的极端变化后，他放弃了这部小说，转而创作小说《兄弟》来表现文革前后的巨大变革。<br />
据余华描述，这两兄弟的父亲在文革时被群众杀害，他俩的发展也完全不同：弟弟李光头在处女选美比赛和二手日本西装的销售上获得了成功。哥哥宋刚原来在一家上市公司工作，他认为自己的工作是“铁饭碗”，可后来还是被解雇了。现在他正努力成为一名“企业家”，为了卖丰胸膏，他还做过隆胸手术。然而他的创业最终还是失败了，之后他便自杀了。--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 12:39, 2 October 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 12:39, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
余华-《兄弟》<br />
生活在北京的余华脸上常挂着笑容，嘴里总讲着段子，也常含着一支烟。他已经完成小说《兄弟》大概内容，德语版将在书展上出售。<br />
余华在农村长大，当时正处于文革时期。学校不开课，整天贴大字报搞批斗。他从中认识到了语言的力量，并决定写作。从偶像卡夫卡、博尔赫斯和加西亚马尔克斯身上，他学会如何把虚构、性和暴力融入自己的短篇小说中，很快，他就因此成名了。他用十年写了一部历史小说，但当他亲眼目睹中国的剧烈变化后，他放弃了这部小说，转而创作小说《兄弟》来表现文革前后的巨大变革。<br />
据余华描述，这俩兄弟的父亲在文革期间被人们杀害。兄弟俩的发展完全不同。弟弟李光头举办了处美人大赛，买卖二手日本人西装，都获得了成功。哥哥宋刚原来在一家上市公司工作，他认为自己的工作是“铁饭碗”，可后来还是被解雇了。现在他正努力成为一名“企业家”，为了卖给农民丰胸膏，他还做了隆胸手术。然而他的创业还是以失败告终，之后他便自杀了。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 01:46, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
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Mo Yan: Sandalwood Death<br />
Mo Yan takes us with his Sandalwood Death (C 2001), which will be published at the book fair, to the German colonial history in China, with railway construction and the Boxer Rebellion,. Mo Yan describes a fictitious story in which Guomindang General Yuan Shikai, with the last imperial headman, wants to achieve a cruel execution by torture against a man who rebelled after his family had previously been desecrated and killed by Germans. Contrasted with this, Mo Yan portrays the last opera singer of the Maoqiang local opera from Gaomi. The language is pathetic, symbolic and emotionally charged. The description of the inner conflict of the physician, who has to keep the victim alive until the German colonizers see him, is shattered. His only advice "Remove the Sandalwood!" is not followed, since this is precisely the torture. Mo Yan is also represented at the book fair with the further masterpiece "Der Überdruss". In his afterword which is not reprinted he writes: "A great novel can not sacrifice its own dignity due to the fact that it wants to appeal to a sensuous, pseudoemotional age. It can not, in order to meet the wishes of some readers, save length, reduce the density of action, or lower the degree of difficulty. I want it clearly long, thick and heavy. Whoever wants to read it, read it, whoever does not, leave it alone! [...] Even if only a single reader remains to me! So what? I am not writing a different character. "<br />
莫言：《檀香刑》 <br />
莫言之作《檀香刑》即将在书展出版，小说讲述德国在中国的殖民历史，（德国人在山东）铁路建设以及义和团起义。莫言描述了一个虚构的故事，在这个故事中，国民党将军袁世凯和最后一个帝国首领，想要对一个在其家人被德国人侮辱和杀害后叛变的人实行酷刑。与此形成鲜明对比的是，莫言塑造了最后一位高密茂腔戏曲演唱者的形象。语言是可悲的、象征性的、以及充满感情的。医生内心冲突的描述—他必须挽救受害者的生命，直到德国殖民者看到他的那一刻—被粉碎了。他唯一的建议“去掉檀香木！”没有被采纳，因为这正是一种折磨。莫言还带着他的另一部代表作《生死疲劳》出席了书展。在未被转载的后记中，他写道：“长篇小说不能为了迎合这个煽情的时代而牺牲自己应有的尊严。长篇小说不能为了适应某些读者而缩短自己的长度、减小自己的密度、降低自己的难度。我就是要这么长，就是要这么密，就是要这么难，愿意看就看，不愿意看就不看。哪怕只剩下一个读者，我也要这样写。 ”--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 02:23, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
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Interview with Mo Yan<br />
On the occasion of a symposium in the run-up to the Frankfurt Book Fair, Martin Woesler interviewed Mo Yan on Saturday, September 12th, 2009, 9.30-9.50 am Mo Yan, who is in addition to Yu Hua one of the candidates for a Nobel Prize in Literature.<br />
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Question: You are a participant of the official Chinese authors delegation who visits Germany during the Frankfurt Book Fair and know Germany from previous visits. How do you perceive as a Chinese the German culture compared to other cultures you have met, like the American?<br />
Answer: Due to the rare and short visits I can not judge. But if you ask me about my impression, I have a different feeling in America than in Germany: In the United States, I have the impression that culture is less the essence of life than in Europe. I am lacking the thoughtfulness. On the other hand French culture appears closer to the Chinese, so I am much translated in French.<br />
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Question: You come from Gaomi, where the Germans had an inglorious past as colonial lords. This is the topic of your novel "Sandalwood Death". Have you forgiven the Germans?<br />
Answer: In the novel, I overdraw the Germans with their goose step as the epitome of the colonial lords, which is of course grotesque and purely symbolic. To the Germans I have no resentment. I really like to be in Germany, now I am here for the fourth time. I was particularly impressed by the harbor of Hamburg. You should not be surprised if the harbor of a Chinese city, which I describe in my next novels, is somehow familiar to you.<br />
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Question: What are your concrete plans for the book fair?<br />
Answer: After the symposium, I will be flying back and return from 11th to 31st October 2009 in order to participate at the book fair and to do a reading tour. I will also read in Munich, your colleague Martina Hasse knows the dates.<br />
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Question: What can we expect from Mo Yan in the future?<br />
Answer: I am writing a new novel, which will appear in November.<br />
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Note: A manifesto of the author is the afterword to the novel "Der Überdruss". This statement is published in the following book, translated by Martina Hasse: Chinesische Literatur in deutscher Übersetzung - China Ehrengast der Frankfurter Buchmesse 2009 / Symposiumsband, Bochum: European University Press 2010, ISBN 978-3-89966-293-1.<br />
2009年9月12日（星期六）上午9:30-9:50，在法兰克福国际书展研讨会上，马丁·维斯特采访了与余华同为诺贝尔文学奖候选人的莫言。<br />
问题：您是法兰克福国际书展访问德国的中国官方作家代表团成员，并对德国有所了解。作为中国人，与其它您接触过的文化相比，比如美国文化，您如何看待德国文化？<br />
回答：由于我很少去美国，且每次去的时间很短，所以我没法判断。但是如果您问的是印象的话，我在美国和在德国有不同的印象：在美国，我认为文化不如在欧洲重要，不过我是缺乏思考的。另一方面，法国文化更接近中国文化，所以我的很多作品被译为法语。<br />
问题：您来自高密，过去德国人在那里有过殖民统治历史。这就是您的小说《檀香刑》的主题。您原谅德国人了吗？<br />
回答：在小说中，我过度刻画了德国人的正步，把他们作为殖民贵族的缩影。这当然是怪诞和很具有象征性的。我对德国人没有怨恨，我很喜欢去德国，这已经是我第四次来这里了。汉堡的港口给我留下了深刻的印象。您应该不会惊讶在我下一步小说中描述的中国港口对于您来说是熟悉的。<br />
问题：您对书展有具体的计划吗？<br />
回答：研讨会结束后，我将回国。在10月11日至31日参加书展和阅读之旅。我也会去慕尼黑，您的同事玛蒂娜·哈斯知道日期。<br />
问题：我们对您的未来可以有些什么期待呢？<br />
回答：我正在写一部新小说，它将于11月份出版。<br />
注：作者的声明是小说《Der Überdruss》的后记。此声明发表在玛蒂娜·哈斯翻译的《中国文学》一书中。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:07, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
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From the "evil girl" to the "cult figure" of the Chinese contemporary literature - Mian Mian<br />
Mian Mian has influenced the young generation of the Shanghai women with her underground literature<br />
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See also my similar essay on Mian Mian in: "Chinese Literature in German Translation - China as the Honorary Guest of the Frankfurt Book Fair, Symposium Volume" 2010.<br />
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Photo: Yiqing Liu<br />
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Mian Mian stands on the terrace of the cult bistro "M on the Bund". She looks at the colorful lights of the "Bund": houses in colonial style line up to Shanghai's harbor line. A gentle gust of wind blows a strand of her face, she looks a little defiantly into the skyline: "Here we celebrated wild parties!" Of course, it did not cost anything at that time - she knows the owner of this cult bar and also from the other trendy bars here in the proximity - all foreigners.<br />
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The colorful skyline stands for a vibrant metropolis that is Mian Mian's life. Her books are a tribute to a city that has always been more modern than the other Chinese cities. And Mian Mian has breathed a soul into this city, the soul of youth, open-mindedness and culture of fun. In the socialist China she was a scandal, her literature was forbidden. And yet she was printed in Hong Kong, her texts appeared on the Internet and were sold under the shop counter. She was the insider tip of the underground literature.<br />
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A whole generation of young girls wanted to be like Mian Mian - celebrating wildly, trying out all the forbidden things: free love, alcohol, drugs. Where Mian Mian was, the underground culture was at home, a party was only hippy when she appeared. Sometimes she organized events and performed as a DJ. She has become much more than an avant-garde writer, she has become a cult, a lifestyle. Now the censorship has been lifted and her four novels appeared in February, the first edition of 200,000 copies already sold out in March.<br />
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Her latest novel, Panda Sex, is not really a novel, but a simple chronicle of her life. For this purpose the tireless partygoer took a few years ago a mini-recorder with her and recorded the sometimes irrelevant partly profound conversations of her friends. Time and again the talks deal about relationships and true love. To write down these recordings and compose a novel from it, fascinated her for more than five years, made her "addicted", as she says. The book did not let go of her. At that time, she could not write nothing else, she was "dependent on writing" "like a drug addict on the junk". In fact, she is once again experiencing her wild youth with this novel.<br />
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绵绵——从中国当代文学的“恶女形象”到“狂热形象”，绵绵以其地下文学影响了上海年轻一代女性。<br />
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另请参阅我于2010年在“德语翻译中的中国文学——中国作为法兰克福书展的名誉来宾，研讨会论文集”中发表的关于绵绵的类似文章。<br />
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摄影：刘益清<br />
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棉棉站在“米氏西餐厅”小酒馆的露台上。她看着“外滩”的灯红酒绿：殖民风格的房屋与上海的海港线齐齐相对。一阵轻风吹拂着她的脸庞，她稍带蔑然地望着天际线说：“就在这里，我们举办了狂野的派对！”当然，当时那场派对并没有花任何钱。因为她认识这家酒吧的主人，也熟悉临近一块其他新潮酒吧的主人，他们都是外国人。<br />
<br />
<br />
多彩的天际线映照着这座充满生机的城市，就像绵绵的生活一样。她的著作向这座比其他中国城市都要现代化的城市致敬。绵绵为这座城市注入了灵魂——青春，豁达和娱乐文化的灵魂。在社会主义中国，她饱受诟病，她的文学被禁止。然而她的作品还是在香港印刷出版，她的文字出现在互联网上，也在商店柜台出售。她是地下文学的一瞥。<br />
<br />
年轻一代女孩都想像棉棉一样，狂野庆祝，尝试所有的禁忌之物：自由之爱，酒精，毒品。棉棉在哪里，地下文化就在哪里，只有她出现，派对才称得上嬉皮。有时她组织活动并作为DJ表演。她已不仅仅是一名前卫作家，还是一个狂热分子，代表着一种生活方式。现在，审查制度已经解除，她的四本小说在二月出版，第一版200,000册已经在三月售罄。<br />
<br />
她的最新小说《熊猫》（Panda Sex）并不是一本真正的小说，而是她一生的简单记录。为了写这本书，这位派对常客不辞疲惫，几年前就随身携带一台迷你录音机，记录了部分她与朋友之间的深刻对话，一次又一次的讨论人与人之间的关系和真爱。如她所说，从录音中提取文字并创作小说使她着迷了五年多，这让她“上瘾”。这本书没有放过她。那时，她别无选择，她“依赖写作”就像“吸毒者依赖毒品一样”。事实上，通过这部小说她再次经历了自己狂野的青春。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 22:09, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
<br />
Also the characters exist: the male bear features of Mian Mian's partner, herself slips into different female figures. And at the end of the novel she reveals another secret about déjà vus and change of roles about the novel itself.<br />
<br />
It was not until the reworking of the novel that Mian Mian left her wild life behind. Since two years the authoress has abjured the nicotine, the alcohol and the soft and hard drugs of her youth, became a vegetarian and Buddhist, but she is not "clean" yet, her new drug is writing. "My life has run through a transformation from dependence to the danger of self-destruction to self-realization and the readers can experience this journey in my literature."<br />
<br />
Her books are now available in China. "And I'm very happy about that," she says brightly. There is a bit of a malice about the censors who had never understood the novels anyway, and a bit of defiance, the feeling of finally getting a piece of the Chinese economic miracle, which was officially only two years kept back, but actually nine years, namely from April 2000 to February 2009, by revenue of the sold books. In fact, the 20,000 copies of Panda Sex, which arrived in China in February, were already out of print the same month. Also her other three books with 20,000 copies, summarized in Germany in the two books "La la la" and "Your Night, my Day" are sold out. Mian Mian is in her favorite underground bookstore Jifeng and calls with her mobile phone impatiently after the reprint. In the middle of this buzzing, hectic, commercial shopping life of this corner, the approximately 300 square meter bookstore near the "Maoming nanlu" in a subway station of line 2 is an oasis of calm. There are seating possibilities, the books are divided into groups, translations from English are selling by the pile.<br />
<br />
本书还有一些特点：即书中的男性角色有绵绵伴侣的影子，其它女性角色也有她自己的影子。在小说的结尾，她揭示了关于“女权主义”的另一个秘密以及小说本身的角色转变。<br />
<br />
直到小说的改写，绵绵才抛弃了自己的狂野生活。两年来，这名女作家戒了尼古丁，酒和她年轻时所沉迷的软硬毒品，成了一名素食主义者和佛教徒， 但她并不是完全“戒毒的”，写作是她的新毒药。“我的生活经历了从依赖到自我毁灭的危险再到自我实现的转变，读者可以从我的文学作品中感受到这一经历。”<br />
<br />
她的书现在在中国有售。“我对此感到非常高兴，”她开心地说道。这本书的出售，对于那些无论如何都不懂小说的审查员们，有一点恶意，甚至还有一点蔑视，感觉像是终于能从中国经济奇迹中分到一杯羹，尽管官方只保留了两年，但实际上是九年，即从2000年四月到2009年而月，以实际售出图书的收入计算。实际上，今年二月在中国出售的两万本《熊猫》已于同月绝版。另外，她其它三本书的两万册翻印，在德国收录为两本书的《啦啦啦》和《你的夜晚，我的一天》都卖完了。在她最喜欢的地下书店吉峰，绵绵在翻印后不耐烦地用手机打电话。在这个热闹、繁忙、商业购物的角落里，2号线地铁站“茂名南路”附近约300平方米大的书店是一片宁静的绿洲。书店提供座位，其中书分成了几类，以及英译版的书籍成堆出售。--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 09:21, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
<br />
The contrast between the never full partygoer of the 1990s and the writer today could hardly be bigger. In January 2009 she was in Paris and presented the French edition of Panda Sex. There it was celebrated by the young journalists. She flirted with them, especially with the one from "Le Monde," who wrote a fantastic critique of Panda Sex. With Panda Sex, she had created a living literary monument, a modern work of art.<br />
<br />
"Panda Sex" as a contemporary novel is highly controversial in-country and abroad, possibly the most controversial novel at all. Mian Mian is absolutely convinced of her novel: "Of course China was not ready for my novel when I wrote it, hence the censorship. The old books of mine are in the style of the 1990s. I've tried to write Panda Sex as one will write in the future. "<br />
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Now Mian Mian wants a part from the Chinese economic miracle. What does she do when she comes into money? "A movie! That would be the greatest! "This is the only thing that can be made meaningful with a lot of money. In fact, the novel Panda Sex reads like a French black and white film. Dialogues, only interrupted by short stage instructions. The French film studio Anna Sanders wants to make the novel into a film, Mian Mian has agreed to direct it.<br />
<br />
Mian Mian leads me to the original settings of her novel. And not only the places exist, but also the stories happened as described. Today's Shanghai presents itself as a large construction site in preparation for the Expo 2010. And this Shanghai she has loved, lived, lived to the excess. But the places she leads me are no cheap nightclubs, no wicked bars, but trendy restaurants, elegant joints involving terraces with view in which the decadence of the century's turn is palpable. Even in the revolutionary nostalgic "YYs" for tourists, a bottle of champagne costs 965 yuan (over 100 euros).<br />
<br />
20世纪90年代的派对常客和今天的作家之间的对比再大不过了。2009年1月，在巴黎，棉棉发表了法文版《熊猫》。年轻一代记者们为她举行了庆祝。她和他们调情，特别是和《世界报》(Le Monde)那位——他写了一篇关于《熊猫》的精彩评论。通过《熊猫》，棉棉创造了一座鲜活的文学丰碑，一座现代艺术作品。<br />
作为当代小说，《熊猫》在国内外引起了极大的争议，可以说是最具争议性的小说了。棉棉对自己的小说深信不疑：“在我写小说的时候，中国还没有为我的小说做好准备，所以才会有审查制度。我的旧书是90年代的风格，但我是用未来的方式来写《熊猫》。”<br />
现在棉棉想从中国的经济奇迹中分一杯羹。有钱了，她会做什么？“一个电影！那就太好了！”这是唯一一件用钱能变得有意义的事情。事实上，小说《熊猫》读起来就像一部法国黑白电影——充满对话，只被简短的阶段说明打断。法国电影制片厂安娜·桑德斯想把这部小说拍成电影，而棉棉已经同意执导。<br />
棉棉把我带到了她小说的原始背景。不仅场景真实存在，故事也如描述那样发生。今天的上海是一个为2010年世博会做准备的大型建筑工地。而这个上海，她深爱着，在这生活着并过着奢华的生活。但她带我去的地方不是廉价的夜总会，也不是邪恶的酒吧，而是时髦的餐馆，优雅的酒吧，带有露台的露台（在这些露台上可以明显感受到本世纪的颓靡）。甚至在革命性的怀旧风格的“ YYs”中，一瓶香槟也要花费965元（超过100欧元）。<br />
<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 07:53, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
<br />
The "Jean George" at the center with its high ceilings, the dark wooden floors and walls, the mirrors, the somewhat musty velvet, stucco and reddish twilight seems to come from the Europe of the 1910s. Busy waiters in tails dart back and forth, the cocktails are priceless. But it is not Europe, it is Shanghai. And it is not the 1910s, but exactly a century later. In the 1990s, the trendy get-together was prosperous. The bar is still popular today, but it is ghostly empty. Here is a fin-de-siècle mood nearly tactile. The restaurant is owned by Jean George, a star cook who happened to be at his restaurant that evening but is mostly in New York. Here she has recorded the monologue about Bruce Lee by Andrew Bull, which appears in the novel in the first part, chapter five.<br />
<br />
Mian Mian is also surprised at how much the global economic crisis hit Shanghai. Even when she drives by taxi through the nocturnal, almost deserted Shanghai, she feels strange in her city, in the city where she has spent her entire life: "The breath of the financial crisis pushes people from the nightlife into the bedrooms." This empty Shanghai frightens her. But Shanghai will recover from the financial crisis faster than other cities.<br />
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In the novel Pand Sex, she describes the 16 million metropolis by the Yellow Sea like this: "Do you know what is missing in Shanghai? The sea. [...] Shanghai is really a village." Incomparably, finally, the metaphorical description of the city: "Those souls penetrate the nightly Shanghai. The pallor and emptiness are invariable. Under the sound of water scooped with bamboo baskets and leaves that are kinked, mix the sounds of cheeky and honeyed steps. Those famous streets seem like concubines in the harem, who are always ready for the favor of their ruler. These streets are crossed by the foreign concession areas, the modern dance halls, which have given up the hope for better times, the theaters, the horse betting agencys and cafes. They pass tired heroes and a population in a nightmare. They wash up from the river. Shouts like from a lonely phoenix, light reflections like a jade teapot, a sight that goes into marrow. Women with delicate and fragile posture, a skin like frozen fat, faces like the full moon. The behavior of the men is similarly trained, their character is profound, they have received the baptism of literature and art, but do not want to play the hero. The streets cross the Waipo Bridge, come closer to each other at the Broadway Mansion, climb the stairs step by step, with smooth walk, the wobbling of the butt is charming but elegant and fulfills the expectations. Their misfortune is their destiny, they have never really believed in their destiny. Finally, with an expression that is utterly unbelievable, they appear in candlelight, they have always known to hide their feelings well. They never bring anything directly to light, they do not trust anyone. "<br />
<br />
“尚恩·乔治”( “Jean George” )餐厅位于上海市中心，店内高高的天花板，黑色的木制地板，四面的墙壁、镜子、有些许霉味的天鹅绒，粉饰灰泥以及微红的黄昏似乎都来自1910年代的欧洲。身着燕尾服的侍者来回奔忙，陈列的鸡尾酒价格不菲。但这里不是欧洲，而是上海。这里也不是上世纪初，而是一个世纪后。上世纪90年代，新潮的聚会风行。在今天，酒吧依旧很受欢迎，但却空无一人，死寂沉沉, 有种近乎真实的末世情调。这家餐厅的老板是尚恩·乔治，一位星级厨师，当晚他正好在餐厅，不过大部分时间他都呆在纽约。绵绵录制了安德鲁·布尔(Andrew Bull)关于李小龙(Bruce Lee)的独白，就在这部小说第一部分——第五章。<br />
<br />
棉棉同样也惊诧于全球经济危机对上海造成的巨大冲击。她乘坐租车，穿行在夜幕之下，几乎被遗弃的上海，这座生活了一辈子的城市竟让她感到陌生。“金融危机迫使人们放弃夜生活，窝居在家。”空寂无人的上海令她恐惧。但相较其它城市，上海将更快从危机中恢复过来。<br />
<br />
在《熊猫》这部小说中，棉棉这样描述黄海沿岸的一千六百多座大都市：“你知道上海少了什么吗？就是这片海……上海就是个村庄。”<br />
<br />
对这座城的一个终极且无可比拟的隐喻性描述为：“那些灵魂穿越晚夜上海。这座城依旧是一片苍白与空寂。竹篮舀水的声音，树叶绞缠的声音，夹杂着放肆和甜蜜的脚步声。”那些著名的街道像是后宫中的嫔妃，时刻准备着得到帝王的垂青。街道两边是外国特许区、现代舞厅（它们已经失去了对美好时代的向往）剧院、赌马场和咖啡馆。它们经过疲惫的英雄和梦魇中的人们，从河边一冲而上。喊声如孤凤，光影如玉壶——一番深入人心的景象。女人们姿态娇柔纤弱，肤如凝脂，面如圆月。男人们举止得体，性格深沉，他们接受过文学和艺术的洗礼，但拒绝逞威风。街道（“嫔妃们”）跨过外婆桥，在百老汇大厦交相靠近，沿梯而上，步履流畅，摇曳的翘臀既迷人又优雅，令人餍足。她们的不幸就是她们的命运，而她们从未真正相信过自己的命运。最后，以一种完全不可思议的方式：她们在烛光中现身，她们一直以来很擅长掩藏自己的情感，从不暴露自己的一点一滴，她们也不相信任何人。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:44, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
<br />
The German Sinologist Wolfgang Kubin, who was awarded with the Chinese State Prize and the Pamir International Poetry Prize, described her works as "garbage" in 2006. Of course, Mian Mian is not the new Lu Xun or the new Zhang Ailing.<br />
<br />
Mian Mian at the "M on the Bund" restaurant in March 2009 in front of the Shanghai night club: Panda Sex has been completed.<br />
Photo: Martin Woesler<br />
<br />
She also does not represent the mainstream, but was known at the age of 17 through her breach of taboo to write about her own life of sex, drugs, alcohol and rock'n roll. As a "bad girl" with a "talent to burn anger". She has been translated into more than 10 languages and is perhaps the "most promising young writer", as the International Herald Tribune wrote on 2/8/2001, "she touches the core of the experiences of her generation with her themes of sex, drugs and China's opening policy" . "Der Spiegel" described her as "China's most talented writer". The novel "Candy" was a bestseller under the shop counter and became a classic of youth literature. Herself appears in the novel Pandasex and expresses herself thus: "Great art is like the bright moon in the night sky. He enlightens the world, but he does not light himself. His glow is only borrowed by the hidden self-luminous sun. Art has helped many people to catch a glimpse at the meaning of life. Art has invisible, sacred origins and sacred goals. It makes people recognize their true nature and their place in the cosmos. It helps people to always recognize the meaning and value of their lives again and like for the first time, and the unlimited possibilities that it offers. But many modern art has lost this insight and is therefore a prisoner of its self-imposed limitation." Whether Mian Mian's literature belongs to the rubbish heap or to the hall of fame of World Literature can only one decide: the reader himself.<br />
<br />
Is the taboo-less party girl Mian Mian dead like Little Beetle in the novel or like her friend in real life, what brought her to writing? In the novel she shines at us out of her big beautiful eyes, a whole generation of Shanghai's beauties cites her night by night. However this fan base has also become a rivalry, as can be seen in the mask-like description of the 50 girls at the gamble in the first chapter of the first part. And what does the 38-year-old think about it, who has become a little bit chubby since she quit smoking? She bought herself a swim card and says, "The number of small Mian Mians has exploded! In Shanghai you can only survive if you are slim. I just have to do a little diet, then I can go back into the jet set life - because there is only one real Mian Mian! "<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
<br />
Mian Mian: Panda Sex – Alternative beginning of the novel<br />
<br />
1. Mián Mián棉棉 »Panda Sex« 熊猫. Prohibited in the People's Republic of China. Published in revised version 2/2009, 1st edition immediately out of print.<br />
German translation by Martin Woesler in cooperation with Lihua Ji, Kiepenheuer & Witsch 2009.<br />
Published in Chinese: 12/04, 181 pp., Massenverlag Publishing House<br />
Rating: 1.3.<br />
Scandal book about a Shanghai love affair in free love. (cf .: La la la, Candy, Your Night my Day, cf.: Wei Hui Shanghai Baby)<br />
<br />
The title is based on the rare pairing behavior of the panda bears, which is compared with the figure "older sister" by her younger sister. The novel is written as a drama, with brief stage directions, which draw a painting of the mood, and then the lively, colloquial/juvenile dialogues. The dialogues get very curious, but they remain entertaining.<br />
<br />
The extract of translation is based on an older Chinese edition of the novel, as it was on the Internet in 2008. Meanwhile the novel by Mian Mian has been significantly modified for the German reader and will be published in August 2009 by the Publishing House Kiepenheuer & Witsch.<br />
<br />
Critical links to the book fair<br />
http://www.de-cn.net/mag/bli/lit/deindex.htm: Many background articles on the Chinese literature and the Frankfurt Book Fair 2009.<br />
On this very informative website you will find independent information about the book fair. Even voices that criticize the book "Wolf Totem" find a place, which was hyped with a considerable amount of marketing effort by the publisher.<br />
<br />
German-Chinese culture network: http://www.de-cn.net/<br />
A wonderful institution, supported by the Goethe Institute (here the driving force Michael Kahn-Ackermann) and the Robert Bosch Foundation. Numerous recent Chinese contributions appear in excellent German translation (Julia Buddeberg, Andrea Schwedler), e.g. the interview with Liu Zhenyun in as a liberal known South Chinese weekly newspaper about the loneliness of the Chinese and its statement "One sentence weighs more than 1000 words"<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
<br />
Chinese books in German translation: Authors who are read in China<br />
中国书籍的德译版本：中国的博学作家<br />
<br />
http://litprom.de contains a database for Chinese literature in Germany<br />
http://litprom.de为德国的中国文学提供了数据库。<br />
<br />
On the website of the Buch-Informations-Zentrum (BIZ) (book-information center) Beijing http://www.peking.buchinformationszentrum.org/en/ is a database "deyu zhongwen ku" with 700 German titles in China<br />
在Buch-Informations-Zentrum（书籍信息中心）的网页上，Beijing http://www.peking.buchinformationszentrum.org/en/是一个叫做“德语中文库”的数据库，里面有700个用中文写成的德语称谓。<br />
<br />
<br />
On the website of Frankfurt Book Fair<br />
http://www.buchmesse.de/en/fbm/programm/ehrengast/2009/01145/index.html: the following books can be found (Effective: 4/30/2009, p.r.n. the information is updated and expanded in the meantime).<br />
在法兰克福书籍集市的网页上，http://www.buchmesse.de/en/fbm/programm/ehrengast/2009/01145/index.html:包括以下书籍（有效：4/30/2009, p.r.n. 相关信息都已更新且拓展）<br />
<br />
Listed authors are:<br />
例举的作者有：<br />
Annie Baobei 北京<br />
Jia Pingwa / ao 西安 西安 (born 2/21/1952, lives in Xi'an)<br />
Jiang Rong姜戎 北京 (born 4/1946)<br />
Liu Zhenyun北京 (born 5/1958)<br />
A Lai Alai阿来 成都 (born 1959, lives in Chengdu)<br />
Mo Yan莫言 (born 2/17/1955)<br />
Bi Feiyu毕飞宇 "平原" 江苏 (born 1/1964)<br />
Yu Hua余华 杭州 (born 4/3/1960)<br />
Yang Jiang杨绛 听说在北京 (born 17.7.1911)<br />
Yu Dan北京 (born 6/28/1965, lives in Beijing)<br />
<br />
Belletristic titles (end of April)<br />
Alai [阿来, Tibetan writer]<br />
Distant Springs<br />
From the Chinese by Marc Hermann<br />
Unionsverlag - ISBN 978-3-293-00405-4<br />
<br />
Bei Dao<br />
The Book of Defeat <br />
From the Chinese by Wolfgang Kubin<br />
Hanser - ISBN 978-3-446-23283-9<br />
<br />
► Survey and Review: Bei Dao's poems - formed as exile literature in the USA - <br />
mainly use paradox as stylistic device. This, he says, is the only way for him<br />
to discover the world in its inconsistency. By analyzing his life poetically the story has one´s say: the dispersed illusions of a poet, who has dreamed of another better world.<br />
调查与评论：北岛的诗歌-----在美国视为流放文学----主要借用悖论作为修辞手法。其本人表示，这是自己揭露世界的矛盾的唯一方式。我们分析北岛的诗意生活，发现他的故事有一个特点：一位满脑幻想的诗人，梦想着一个更好的世界。<br />
--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 01:27, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Chinese books in German translation: Authors who are read in China<br />
中国书籍的德译版本：中国的博学作家<br />
<br />
http://litprom.de contains a database for Chinese literature in Germany<br />
http://litprom.de为德国的中国文学提供了数据库。<br />
<br />
On the website of the Buch-Informations-Zentrum (BIZ) (book-information center) Beijing http://www.peking.buchinformationszentrum.org/en/ is a database "deyu zhongwen ku" with 700 German titles in China<br />
在Buch-Informations-Zentrum（书籍信息中心）的网页上，Beijing http://www.peking.buchinformationszentrum.org/en/是一个叫做“德语中文库”的数据库，里面有700个用中文写成的德语称谓。<br />
<br />
<br />
On the website of Frankfurt Book Fair<br />
http://www.buchmesse.de/en/fbm/programm/ehrengast/2009/01145/index.html: the following books can be found (Effective: 4/30/2009, p.r.n. the information is updated and expanded in the meantime).<br />
在法兰克福书籍集市的网页上，http://www.buchmesse.de/en/fbm/programm/ehrengast/2009/01145/index.html:包括以下书籍（有效：4/30/2009, p.r.n. 相关信息都已更新且拓展）<br />
<br />
Listed authors are:<br />
例举的作者有：<br />
Annie Baobei 北京<br />
Jia Pingwa / ao 西安 西安 (born 2/21/1952, lives in Xi'an)<br />
Jiang Rong姜戎 北京 (born 4/1946)<br />
Liu Zhenyun北京 (born 5/1958)<br />
A Lai Alai阿来 成都 (born 1959, lives in Chengdu)<br />
Mo Yan莫言 (born 2/17/1955)<br />
Bi Feiyu毕飞宇 "平原" 江苏 (born 1/1964)<br />
Yu Hua余华 杭州 (born 4/3/1960)<br />
Yang Jiang杨绛 听说在北京 (born 17.7.1911)<br />
Yu Dan北京 (born 6/28/1965, lives in Beijing)<br />
<br />
Belletristic titles (end of April)<br />
Alai [阿来, Tibetan writer]<br />
Distant Springs<br />
From the Chinese by Marc Hermann<br />
Unionsverlag - ISBN 978-3-293-00405-4<br />
<br />
Bei Dao<br />
The Book of Defeat <br />
From the Chinese by Wolfgang Kubin<br />
Hanser - ISBN 978-3-446-23283-9<br />
<br />
► Survey and Review: Bei Dao's poems - formed as exile literature in the USA - <br />
mainly use paradox as stylistic device. This, he says, is the only way for him<br />
to discover the world in its inconsistency. By analyzing his life poetically the story has one´s say: the dispersed illusions of a poet, who has dreamed of another better world.<br />
调查与评论：北岛的诗歌-----在美国视为流放文学----主要借用悖论作为修辞手法。其本人表示，这是自己揭露世界的矛盾的唯一方式。我们分析北岛的诗意生活，发现他的故事有一个特点：一位满脑幻想的诗人，梦想着一个更好的世界。Chinese books in German translation: Authors who are read in China<br />
<br />
中国书籍的德译版本：中国的博学作家<br />
<br />
http://litprom.de contains a database for Chinese literature in Germany<br />
http://litprom.de为德国的中国文学提供了数据库。<br />
<br />
On the website of the Buch-Informations-Zentrum (BIZ) (book-information center) Beijing http://www.peking.buchinformationszentrum.org/en/ is a database "deyu zhongwen ku" with 700 German titles in China<br />
在Buch-Informations-Zentrum（书籍信息中心）的网页上，Beijing http://www.peking.buchinformationszentrum.org/en/是一个叫做“德语中文库”的数据库，里面有700个用中文写成的德语名称。<br />
<br />
<br />
On the website of Frankfurt Book Fair<br />
http://www.buchmesse.de/en/fbm/programm/ehrengast/2009/01145/index.html: the following books can be found (Effective: 4/30/2009, p.r.n. the information is updated and expanded in the meantime).<br />
在法兰克福书籍集市的网页上，http://www.buchmesse.de/en/fbm/programm/ehrengast/2009/01145/index.html:包括以下书籍（有效：4/30/2009, p.r.n. 相关信息都已更新且拓展）<br />
<br />
Listed authors are:<br />
例举的作者有：<br />
Annie Baobei 安妮宝贝 北京<br />
Jia Pingwa / ao 贾平凹 西安 (born 2/21/1952, lives in Xi'an)<br />
Jiang Rong 姜戎 北京 (born 4/1946)<br />
Liu Zhenyun刘震云 北京 (born 5/1958)<br />
A Lai Alai 阿来 成都 (born 1959, lives in Chengdu)<br />
Mo Yan 莫言 (born 2/17/1955)<br />
Bi Feiyu 毕飞宇 "平原" 江苏 (born 1/1964)<br />
Yu Hua 余华 杭州 (born 4/3/1960)<br />
Yang Jiang 杨绛 听说在北京 (born 17.7.1911)<br />
Yu Dan 于丹北京 (born 6/28/1965, lives in Beijing)<br />
<br />
Belletristic titles (end of April) 标题<br />
Alai [阿来, Tibetan writer藏族作家]<br />
Distant Springs 遥远的温泉<br />
From the Chinese by Marc Hermann 马海默译（中译德）<br />
Unionsverlag - ISBN 978-3-293-00405-4 联合出版社 国际图书标准号 978-3-293-00405-4<br />
<br />
Bei Dao 北岛<br />
The Book of Defeat 《失败之书》<br />
From the Chinese by Wolfgang Kubin 沃尔夫冈·顾彬译（中译德）<br />
Hanser - ISBN 978-3-446-23283-9 翰泽尔出版社<br />
<br />
► Survey and Review: Bei Dao's poems - formed as exile literature in the USA - <br />
mainly use paradox as stylistic device. This, he says, is the only way for him<br />
to discover the world in its inconsistency. By analyzing his life poetically the story has one´s say: the dispersed illusions of a poet, who has dreamed of another better world.<br />
调查与评论：北岛的诗歌-----在美国视为流放文学----主要借用悖论作为修辞手法。其本人表示，这是自己揭露世界的矛盾的唯一方式。从诗意化的角度去分析北岛的生活，你会发现他的故事传递着这样一个讯息：一位满脑幻想的诗人，梦想着另一个更好的世界。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 09:23, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
<br />
Feng Li<br />
Translated by: Ulrich Kautz<br />
East Asia Publishing House - ISBN 978-3-940527-14-1<br />
► The novel is ironically telling the story of a middle-aged man, unhappy<br />
married, impotenet, with sparse hair growth, who decides in the mid-nineties of the 20th century,<br />
as the head of a "Research Institute for Culture" in a Chinese provincial city,<br />
to achieve something at least once in a lifetime, which matches to his principles and desires at heart,<br />
but however enmeshes himslef in a farce, of which end he<br />
no,<br />
is not quite empty-handed,<br />
but, at least! found the woman of his life, an equally prim and unconventional also<br />
intelligent and lovable personality.<br />
<br />
Guo Xiaolu<br />
From the English by Anne Rademacher<br />
Knaus - ISBN 978-3-8135-0353-1<br />
► On a hot summer afternoon in the year 2012 the young countrywoman Kwok Yun sees a strange flying disk at the sky. Shortly thereafter she finds an injured stranger in the rice field to whom she administers first<br />
aid. On the same day, the stranger disappears again, instead two secrect-service agents appear:<br />
They want to get to the bottom of the strange UFO phenomenon. A<br />
inspection machinery overflows the inhabitants of the village. Everything and everyone is checked. On the peak of the hysteria arrives a check over $ 2,000, which was sent by the rescued foreigner from America. The money of the class enemy is finally disbalancing the life in the poor village. Three years after the sighting of the UFO the once idyllic peasant areas has become a booming economic region in where only money matters. A political parable about past, change and loss.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
<br />
Ha Jin<br />
From the American English by Susanne Hornfeck, Sonja Hauser<br />
Ullstein - ISBN 978-3-550-08723-3<br />
► The Chinese student Nan Wu and his wife Pingping decided in the summer of 1989, briefly<br />
after the events on the Tiananmen Square, to stay in the USA and to begin a new<br />
Life. It should only be a study stay, but with each year in the US rises<br />
the anger on the political conditions in the distant home. Finally they are allowed to take their<br />
six-year-old son Taotao to them, who quickly gets used to the new environment. However Nan <br />
dreams of being a great poet, and has a rough ride: he is plagued by guilt feelings towards<br />
his wife, whom he feels more solidary related to her than in love because can not forget his <br />
love of his youth Beina; also the responsibility to allow his family a <br />
secure livelihood. For over twelve years we accompany as the readers the everyday life of the family Wu, their<br />
daily struggle for homeland, love and happiness. Side by side they grow dear to our hearts because our<br />
own dreams are reflected in their dreams.<br />
<br />
Hong Ying<br />
From the Chinese by Claudia Kaiser<br />
Aufbau - ISBN 978-3-351-03269-2<br />
► In the year 1907 - the Qing dynasty still reigns in China - Cassia, a poor orphan girl<br />
from the country, is sold from her uncle to a famous brothel. Although she can not fulfill the ideal of beauty of the era, <br />
she becomes the mistress of Master Chang, the leader of the dreaded triad of Shanghai.<br />
After his assassination remain two ways for her: a life in humility and self-denial, or one<br />
full of pomp, power and passion. Hong Ying describes the rise and fall of a confident woman,<br />
who went down in history as a famous concubine and godmother of Shanghai.<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
<br />
Li Dawei<br />
From the American English by Anne Rademacher.<br />
With comic drawings by Sheng Tao<br />
Knaus - ISBN 978-3-8135-0336-4<br />
► 4th June 1989: The student riots culminate in the form of the massacre on the Tiananmen Square. The art student and comic artist Dawei, actually a non-political<br />
loner, who is opposed to every form of collectivism, loves the student leader Little Kim. As he is looking for her <br />
in the turmoil on the Tiananmen Square, he finds himself in the riot , and experiences the bloody downfall.<br />
He does not find Kim, but instead a rather distracted cat, which he takes <br />
Home. One evening the cat begins to speak. He has great plans and wants to be a comic star in<br />
the USA. And in fact he succeeds to do a trip to Hollywood. Dawei stays home, beats his way through life with different jobs and escapes again and again into his comic dream worlds. Finally he follows his cat, hoping to find again his great love Little Kim in America. But the<br />
"Golden West" holds a nasty surprise for him: Haohao is abducted, and suddenly <br />
Dawei finds himself as a protagonist of a superhero comic.<br />
<br />
Li Er<br />
From the Chinese by Thekla Chabbi<br />
Klett-Cotta - ISBN 978-3-608-93794-7<br />
<br />
Li Tai-bo<br />
Poems<br />
Translated by: Günther Debon<br />
Reclam - ISBN 978-3-15-018675-6<br />
<br />
Li Yiyun<br />
From the American English by Anette Gruber<br />
Hanser - ISBN 978-3-446-23421-5<br />
► The inhabitants of a small provincial city near Beijing set off for an important <br />
event - a young woman should be executed. Her crime: she, who was during the cultural revolution<br />
one of the most fanatical Red Guardists, has recant Communism. Her mother performs <br />
defiantly the traditional rituals for the dead, while Shan's father, a subtle intellectual, has long ago given up on <br />
his daughter, who brought so much misfortune to others. Both do not sense which<br />
far-reaching consequences this death will have. For example for Kai, the radio announcer, who <br />
is the voice of the party in public, but by now doubts about what she is doing. For the<br />
crippled Nini, who is held like a slave in a household of nothing but girls. For the<br />
little Tong, who is neglected by the parents and is only loved by his dog.<br />
The novel draws a microcosm, which offers a plastic image of China in the late 1970s.<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
<br />
Liao Yiwu<br />
From the Chinese by Hans Peter Hoffmann, Karin Betz and Brigitte Höhenriede<br />
Fischer - ISBN: 978-3-10-044812-5<br />
► A prostitute, a Buddhist abbot and the manager of a social institution<br />
Falun Gong supporter, a former Red Guard and a Feng Shui Master - she and many others<br />
Liao Yiwu, one of the most famous authors of China and himself a former political prisoner, asked them all with respect,<br />
empathy and humor about their lives and their hopes.<br />
These unique conversations let us discover a China that we can not see anywhere else<br />
- a China of the outcasts, homeless, beggars and street musicians, whose<br />
Dignity, wit, and humanity could not be charged by anyone. <br />
<br />
廖义武<br />
来自中国的汉斯·彼得·霍夫曼、卡琳·贝茨和布里吉特·霍亨利德<br />
Fischer-ISBN：978-3-10-044812-5<br />
►一个妓女、一名佛教住持和一名社会机构法轮功支持者、一名前红卫兵和一名风水大师——她和许多其他人。廖亦武——中国最著名的作家之一，他自己曾是一名政治犯，作家对他们的生活和希望表达了尊重、同情和幽默。 这些独特的对话让我们发现了一个在其他任何地方都看不到的中国——一个有着被遗弃的、无家可归的乞丐和街头音乐家的中国，这些人的尊严、智慧和人性不能被任何人指控。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 11:03, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Liu Heng<br />
From the Chinese by Ingrid Müller and Zhang Rui<br />
Hanser - ISBN 978-3-446-20534-5<br />
► The servant never forgot the moment when he first saw the bride of the young Mr. Cao:<br />
during pouring rain, she got out of her red litter, and though he had only seen her too big feet,<br />
he fell in love forever. The future spouse has different sexual inclinations, but the<br />
strange guest, whom he brought from abroad, is feeling the same as the servant. The<br />
French engineer should actually install a matchmaker factory in the Chinese province,<br />
but the young Mr. Cao experiments secretly with explosives instead of matches. The older<br />
people do not care about the welfare of the house - the father always tries the<br />
most odd remedies, the mother has retreated as a Buddhist hermit - and therefore<br />
the eldest son rules with an iron fist over the degenerate extended family. These hustle and bustle is observed by the young servant, who is also witnessing what is going on in the joints by the river,<br />
in the brothels and the tea houses.<br />
In the Middle Kingdom dominate famine and<br />
civil wars, the old order is breaking, and lords and servants are sucked into the whirlpool of these events.<br />
<br />
刘恒<br />
来自中国的英格丽·穆勒和张瑞<br />
Hanser-ISBN978-3-446-20534-5<br />
►仆人从来没有忘记他第一次见到年轻曹先生的新娘的那一刻：<br />
在倾盆大雨中，她从她的红色轿子中出来，尽管他只看到她过大的双脚，但他却永久地了坠入爱河。 曹先生未来的妻子有不同的性倾向，但他从国外带来的奇怪的客人，和仆人有着相同的感觉。这个<br />
法国工程师实际上应该在中国的省份里建立一个火柴工厂，但年轻的曹先生秘密地用炸药而不是火柴进行实验。 年长的人们不关心房子的安全——父亲总是尝试最奇怪的补救办法是，母亲作为一个佛教信徒已经隐退了——<br />
因此长子对衰落的大家族实施铁拳统治。 年轻的仆人看到了这些强制措施，他也目睹着河流交界处发生着什么，<br />
在妓院和茶馆里。<br />
在中间世界里，饥饿和内战占据了统治地位，旧的秩序正在瓦解，老爷和仆人被卷入这些事件的漩涡。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 11:03, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
<br />
Liu Zhenyuns (51), who was ranked No. 1 in China's bestseller list in 2008 - a mix-up thriller about a confused bag, whose content can become dangerous for some important people.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhenyun<br />
From the Chinese by Marc Hermann<br />
DIX Publishing House ISBN 978-3-941651-01-2<br />
► As Liu Yuejin’s , a good-natured and naive cook on a Beijing construction site, money bag is<br />
stolen, a world collapses for him. In it were cash and a promissory note for buying himself <br />
a small restaurant and making himself self-employed. The victim goes on a chase for<br />
his bag - a hunt that takes him deeper and deeper into the local underworld.<br />
Instead of his own, he gets to another stolen bag, which belongs to a formerly multi-million dollar now heavily <br />
indebted construction entrepreneur, and contains a memory stick with highly volatile material.<br />
In the following series of coincidences and implications, sneaky intrigues and chess moves,<br />
the allegedly simple cook Liu Yuejin proves to be an amazing sly dog and gets out of a tight spot.<br />
However he has caused a domino reaction of complexities<br />
from which – that will be clear in the end – he will not be able to free himself so quickly.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhenyun<br />
E-book<br />
From the Chinese by Marc Hermann<br />
DIX Verlag, ISBN 978-3-941651-03-6<br />
<br />
Lu Xun<br />
From the Chinese by Raoul Findeisen, Wolfgang Kubin, Florian Reissinger<br />
Unionsverlag - ISBN 978-3-293-00407-8<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
刘震云(51)，夺得了2008年中国畅销书排行榜的第一名的作者。此作是一部关于一个神奇的包的惊悚小说，其内容中含有对一些重要人物来说危险的东西。 -《来自中国的刘震云》作者: 马克•赫尔曼-迪克斯 ISBN 978-3-941651-01-2<br />
<br />
刘跃进，一个在北京建筑工地工作的善良而天真的厨师，他那被当作全部家产钱袋被偷了后，自己的整个世界似乎都塌了。被偷的钱包里有现金和他本来准备用来给自己买一家小餐馆，自己做老板而买的一张期票。之后，作为受害者的刘跃进，毅然踏上征程去找寻他丢失的包，然而没想到这场狩猎，却使他（误打误撞地）深入了当地更深的地下中去。他找到了不属于自己的另一个被偷的包，这个包属于一位曾经拥有数百万美元资产，现在却负债累累的建筑企业家，包中还有一个用高挥发性材料制成的记忆条。而接下来的一系列巧合和暗示，狡猾的阴谋和一个个局中，从来以单纯示人的厨师刘跃进却以像猎犬一样狡猾灵敏的智慧轻易摆脱了困境。然而，他已经引起了复杂的多米诺骨牌效应—这很清晰地显示出-他不可能这么快脱身。<br />
-《刘震云系列电子书》 作者：马克•赫尔曼-迪克斯 ISBN 978-3-941651-03-6<br />
-《鲁迅》作者:拉乌尔·芬代森、沃尔夫冈·库宾、弗洛里安·赖辛格Unionsverlag, ISBN 978-3-293-00407-8<br />
----<br />
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:01, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
刘震云（51岁）是2008年在中国畅销书排行榜上排名第一的作者。其作品是一部惊悚小说，讲的是一个神奇的包的故事，包里的一些东西会对主角造成危险。-《来自中国的刘震云》作者: 马克•赫尔曼-迪克斯 ISBN 978-3-941651-01-2<br />
<br />
刘跃进是一位善良天真的厨师，在北京某建筑工地上工作。他的钱袋被偷以后，整个世界似乎都崩塌了。钱袋里有一些现金和一张期票，他本来准备用那张期票买一家小餐馆，自己做生意。之后，作为受害者的刘跃进，毅然踏上征程去寻他丢失的钱袋。然而，意想不到的是，他误打误撞深入了当地更深的地下中去。刘跃进找到了另一个不属于自己的包，这个包是一位建筑企业家的，曾经拥有数百万美元资产，现在却负债累累；包中还有一个用高挥发性材料制成的记忆条。而在接下来的一系列巧合和暗示，狡猾的阴谋和一个个局中，从来以单纯示人的厨师刘跃进却如猎犬一般狡猾灵敏地轻易摆脱了困境。然而，他已经引起了复杂的多米诺骨牌效应—这很清晰地显示出-他不可能这么快脱身。<br />
<br />
--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 02:06, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
刘震云（51岁），在2008年中国最受欢迎的作家排行榜上名列第一，他的作品讲述了关于一个神秘包裹的惊悚故事，包裹里的东西对于某些重要人物而言充满了危机感。<br />
刘震云 马克•赫尔曼（中译德）迪克斯出版社：ISBN 978-3-941651-01-2<br />
刘跃进是北京某建筑工地上的一名厨师，他心地善良又为人老实。当装着他所有家当的钱袋被偷后，他感到仿佛整个世界都崩塌了。钱袋里有一些现金和一张期票。他本来打算用那张期票自己当老板开一家小餐馆。之后，作为受害者的他，毅然踏上了寻找他丢失的包的征程。然而没想到这场追逐却使他误打误撞地深入了当地的犯罪集团。他找到了另一个被偷的包。这个包的原主是一位曾经拥有数百万美元资产，现在却负债累累的建筑企业家。这个包里有一个用高挥发性材料制成的记忆条。于是在接下来的一系列巧合和暗示、狡猾的阴谋和陷阱中，向来心思单纯的厨师刘跃进不得不如猎犬一般狡猾灵敏地摆脱险境。然而，这很明显，他已经引起了复杂的多米诺骨牌效应，他也不可能轻易地脱离险境。<br />
<br />
刘震云 电子书 马克•赫尔曼（中译德）迪克斯出版社：ISBN 978-3-941651-03-6--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 02:57, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
<br />
Ma Jian <br />
From the English by Barbara Heller<br />
Schirmer Graf - ISBN 978-3-86555-063-7<br />
► When Ma Jian turned thirty, eight years after Mao's death, he decided to move on from the tight boundaries of Beijing.<br />
His country began to change and he wanted to get to know it. Nannan, his little<br />
daughter, was always with her mother; his girlfriend cheated on him; he felt supervised as an artist;<br />
his inspiration for writing or painting was at the end. He bought himself a train ticket to the furthest<br />
Western border of China and set out.<br />
Ma Jian's journey, by train and by hitchhiker, took three years and beaconed him to the lonely high valleys of<br />
Tibet, the iconic sites of Buddhism, the beautiful salt deserts and villages<br />
where the time stood still between the Middle Ages and communism.<br />
马健 芭芭拉·海勒（英译德）希尔默·格拉夫出版社：ISBN 978-3-86555-063-7<br />
在毛主席逝世后的第八年，马健已年满三十，他决定走出北京这紧绷的边界线继续前行。他开始改变国籍，想要了解国家的意义。他的小女儿楠楠一直跟着他的前妻，他的女朋友也背叛了他。他感受到了作为艺术家的压抑，随之而来，他对写作和绘画的热爱也消失殆尽。于是他坐火车出发去了中国最遥远的西部边界。在长达三年的旅途里，无论是乘火车还是搭便车，马健途经了西藏偏僻的高谷、佛教的标志性景点、美丽的盐湖和村庄，那些仿佛停留在中世纪和共产主义时代之间的地方。<br />
Mo Yan<br />
Translated by: Martina Hasse<br />
Horlemann - ISBN 978-3-89502-272-2<br />
► The novel begins on the 1 January 1950 in hell. Shortly before the traditional order of the rural China has been abolished by Mao Tsetung’s agrarian reform.<br />
For two years Prince Yama, the ruler of the underworld, has conquered the landowner Ximen Nao with every possible torment<br />
to force him to accept the charges, which lead to his<br />
execution by the small farmers. But Ximen Nao persistently asserts his innocence.<br />
Finally Yama gives in reluctantly and allows Ximen to return to the earth to his former possessions in the <br />
impoverished Shandong. But when he arrives there, he finds out to his disappointment<br />
that he was not reborn as a man, but as a donkey. With the eyes of the beast he traces the fate of his former family, his friends, rivals and enemies.<br />
Further reincarnations cause him to become a bull, a pig, a dog and a monkey and<br />
finally to a boy with a big head, who has an astounding memory and a talent for<br />
languages. From the rough and extraordinarily entertaining perspective of each character,<br />
this novel tells the last 50 years of the stormy history of China.<br />
莫言 玛蒂娜·哈斯（中译德）霍勒曼出版社：ISBN 978-3-89502-272-2<br />
这部小说讲述了中国农村从1950年1月1日开始的苦难经历，故事开始于毛泽东提出土地改革以废除传统中国农村土地制度前不久。两年来，阎王爷用尽一切可行的酷刑来迫使地主西门闹接受农民们希望他被处决的那些指控。但西门闹坚持认为自己是清白的。最终，阎王爷勉强地答应了，允许西门闹回到了那个并不富裕的山东，回到了他曾经的地盘。可是当他到达那儿时，他感到很失望，他这并不是重生，而是投胎成了一头驴。西门闹以动物之眼目睹了他的家族、朋友、对手和敌人们的命运。接着，西门闹又转世投胎成为了牛、猪、狗和猴子。最后，他终于转生为一个拥有惊人的记忆力和语言才能的大头男孩。这部小说透过粗略的和极富娱乐性的角色视角讲述了中国近五十年来的苦难历史。<br />
Mo Yan<br />
From the Chinese by Karin Betz<br />
Island ISBN 978-3-458-17446<br />
莫言 卡琳·贝兹（中译德）冰岛出版社：ISBN 978-3-458-17446<br />
Mo Yan<br />
From the Chinese by Andreas Donath<br />
Unionsverlag<br />
莫言 安德烈亚斯·多纳特（中译德）联合会出版社--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 02:06, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
<br />
Pu Yi<br />
From the Chinese by Richard Schirach and Mulan Lehner<br />
Paperback edition, dtv - ISBN 978-3-423-21168-0<br />
► Pu Yis exciting autobiography, source material for Bertolucci’s excellent film that won nine Oscars <br />
"The Last Emperor" gives absurd and also fascinating insights into the world of the Forbidden City that has sunk with him<br />
and leads from the confusion of the Chinese Civil War to the prisons of the Peoples’s Republic <br />
where Pu Yineun was given a longstanding reeducation, which made the former ruler of millions to a convinced follower of Mao and the "New Person"<br />
<br />
Qiu Xiaolong<br />
From the English by Susanne Hornfeck<br />
Zsolnay - ISBN 978-3-551-05461-4<br />
► On a traffic island in the middle of Shanghai, the corpse of a woman is found at dawn. She<br />
is wearing a tight red silk dress, a "qipao", as it was frowned upon during the cultural revolution, and for <br />
now comes back into fashion Shortly afterwards one discovers a second and soon afterwards a third<br />
female corpse. Chief Inspector Chen, who is the only one who knows how to get the psychological profile of a serial killer,<br />
deals with a real estate scandal and finally wants to crown his literature studies with an academic degree. In the meantime, his young colleague strikes out as<br />
a decoy on a dangerous mission ...<br />
<br />
Qiu Xiaolong<br />
Translated by: Susanne Hornfeck<br />
Paperback edition, dtv - ISBN 978-3-423-21128-4<br />
►Chief Inspector Chen has long dreamed of a trip to America. And now the<br />
romancing policeman is commissioned to accompany a writer delegation to the USA. But the onetime opportunity<br />
is more than unfavorable for Chen. For he has received an order which actually requires his full<br />
commitment in Shanghai: After the death of a policeman in a brothel, the supreme party administration obliges him to finally put atop to the activities of the "red rats" - corrupt officials and bribes selling<br />
neocapitalists. However, as early as the first investigations, Chen has to realise that he will have to deal with powerful<br />
party leaders who are not sticking at nothing...<br />
<br />
摘自理查德席拉赫和木兰莱纳中文平装版书籍中有关溥仪的记载。dtv - ISBN 978-3-423-21168-0 ► 情节激动的溥仪的自传是贝托鲁奇拍摄的优秀电影《末代皇帝》的文献参考来源，这部电影获得了九项奥斯卡大奖，他对紫禁城的世界给予了荒谬而迷人的见解。溥仪在中国内乱、战争不断期间，经历了从在紫禁城里的生活一直到新中国成立被送入人民共和国的监狱里接受改造的生活，他被赋予了长期的再教育，使他这位曾经统治过许多人的统治者面目一新，成为了毛泽东思想的忠实追随者和人民共和国的新生公民。<br />
<br />
裘小龙摘自苏珊娜•霍恩菲克•兹索尔内英文版书籍的记载。 - ISBN 978-3-551-05461-4►黎明时分在上海市中心的一个交通要道上，发现了一具女尸。这具女尸穿着一件紧身的红色丝绸长裙，一件“旗袍”，这种样式在文化大革命期间曾遭到人们的冷遇，现在又流行起来了，不久之后，人们发现了第二具女尸，过了不久又发现了第三具女尸。陈警长是唯一一个擅长如何模拟连环杀手心理特征的人，他处理过一桩房地产丑闻案件，最后他希望自己的文学研究能够获得一个学位。而与此同时，他的年轻同事在一次危险的任务中充当了诱饵……<br />
<br />
裘小龙所翻译的苏珊娜•霍恩菲克平装版书籍的记载。 dtv - ISBN 978-3-423-21128-4►陈警长一直梦想着去美国旅行。现在，这位充满浪漫风度的警察被派去美国参加一个作家代表团大会，但是时机对陈警长来说非常不好。因为他收到了一份命令，上级需要他在上海着手解决一件案子。继一名警察在妓院执行任务时牺牲后，党的最高行政当局责成他查获捣毁一个靠腐败官员和贿赂新兴资本家起家的“红老鼠”活动集团。然而，早在第一次调查时，陈警长就应该意识到，他将不得不对付那些拥有一切、权势滔天的利益集团首脑们……--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 04:39, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
<br />
Jiang Rong<br />
<br />
From the Chinese by Karin Hasselblatt<br />
Goldmann - ISBN 978-3-442-31108-8<br />
► During the cultural revolution in the 1960s the Chinese student Chen Zhen is sent to the interior <br />
Mongolia. There he shall learn about the life of nomadic cattle breeders. Immediately he is<br />
completely captivated by this completely unknown and archaic world. On the side of<br />
Bilgees, his old Mongolian teacher, he defies snowstorms and torriding heat, and gets<br />
insight into the ancient myths and traditions of the Mongolian people. Especially Chen Zhen becomes acquainted with the wolves, whose wisdom and courage the have always fascinated Mongols – and soon connects him a deep love to a wolf-boy, which he is breeding. But then disaster announces itself, because when the Chinese sense the economic potential of the Mongolian steppe, greed for profit<br />
and blind faith in progress are threatening to destroy the centuries-long balance between man and nature …<br />
<br />
姜戎<br />
《中国人》作者：卡琳·哈塞尔布拉特<br />
出版社：Goldmann -ISBN 978-3-442-31108-8<br />
20世纪60年代，文化大革命时期，中国学生陈真被送到了蒙古。他将在那儿了解游牧民族的生活。他一来就完全被这个完全未知、古老的世界迷住了。在跟随蒙古老师比尔盖斯学习时，他无惧风雪酷暑，深入了解了蒙古族远古的神话和传统。最特别的是，他认识了狼群。陈真的智慧和勇敢一直让蒙古人钦佩不已-不久后，他十分疼爱一个狼孩，这个狼孩由他养育。但是一场灾难不期而至，因为当中国人察觉到蒙古大草原人的经济潜力后，对于利益的贪婪和对于进步的盲目追求威胁着打破人与自然间几百年的平衡...--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 02:04, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Tei Chiew-Siah<br />
From the English by Claudia Feldmann<br />
Droemer - ISBN 978-3-426-19823-0<br />
► China 1875: The small pavilion at the pond is the favorite place of the young Mingzhi. Finally he has a safehold, where he can prepare himself for the examination of Mandarin. By becoming an officicial he will fulfill the dream of his grandfather and give the family power and honor But strangers bring unrest into the country - and the eyes of a young woman confusion in Mingzhi's heart.<br />
<br />
德智秀<br />
《英语》作者：克劳迪娅·费尔德曼<br />
出版社：Droemer -ISBN 978-3-426-19823-0<br />
中国1875：小明志最喜欢的地方就是池塘边的小亭子。他终于有了一个安全的秘密基地，他可以在那儿准备普通话考试。要是成为了一名官员，他就能实现他祖父的梦想，给家庭带来权利和荣誉，但是陌生人却给这个国家带来了动荡-还给明志的心捎来了一双年轻女人困惑的眼眸。<br />
<br />
Emily Wu / Larry Engelmann<br />
<br />
Paperback Edition, Droemer - ISBN 978-3-426-78179-1<br />
► Emily Wu is still a child when Mao's cultural revolution throws her world into turmoil. As a daughter of a professor<br />
she must experience something unimaginable: Her family and she herself are again and again exposed to<br />
repressions and humiliations. Harassment, torture and rape are the order of the day. But with much courage and inventiveness, Emily succeeds in breasting her destiny<br />
and to win the daily struggle for survival. In the end she has matured in the years of terror – and finds a first love ...<br />
<br />
吴慧卿/拉里·恩格曼<br />
<br />
装帧：平装版，出版社：德勒默尔-ISBN 978-3-426-78179-1<br />
当毛泽东的文化革命把吴慧卿的世界推入深渊时，她还是一个小孩。作为一个教授的女儿，她一定经历一些难以想象的事情：她的家庭和她自己，一次又一次遭受打压、羞辱。骚扰、折磨和强奸是常事。但是凭借着极大的勇气和创造力，艾米丽为了生存成功地战胜了自己的命运和那些每日的艰难困苦。最终，她在恐怖的岁月里变得成熟-而且收获了自己的初恋. . .<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
<br />
Ouyang Xiu<br />
From the Chinese by Anne Guder-Meng<br />
Ostasien Verlag - ISBN 978-3-940527-24-0<br />
► Ouyang Xiu (1007-1072), a court official, who exceled as a historian, poet and essayist at the same time, belonged to the leading figures of the Song time (960-1279). In his Guitian lu,<br />
literally "notes after returning to the fields", he teases in a total of 116 anecdotes<br />
about current mischief at the imperial court and about the quirks of his colleagues at court. As a<br />
typical work of the genre "brushes" (biji) is here primarily an<br />
entertainment literature for the educated upper class given. But the attentive reader feels behind the subtle<br />
mockery the voice of the strict Confucian, who sets high standards on himself and on others and who sees the reason for the dysfunctions of his time especially in the misconduct of people in high<br />
positions. This book contains beside a first complete translation of the Guitian Lu into a Western language also the original, an introduction as well as numerous helpful comments for the text understanding..<br />
<br />
欧阳修<br />
安妮-古德曼的中文<br />
东亚出版社-ISBN 978-3-940527-24-0<br />
►欧阳修（1007-1072），法院官员，同时也是历史学件、诗人和散文家，是宋朝时期（960-1279）的先驱。在他的《归田录》里，字面意思就是“回到某处后再记录”，他记录了116件关于当时朝廷中的是非曲直以及其他同僚官员的怪癖轶事。<br />
作为笔记体的经典之作，《归田录》是给上层知识阶级的消闲读本。但是细心的读者却感到其微妙的背后来自严格的儒家嘲笑的声音，儒家为自身和其他学派、以及了解当朝衰败原因的人尤其是有较高地位却行为不正的人树立了高标准。<br />
这本书包含除了《归田录》第一版完整的西方语言译本之外，原本、简介以及大量帮助理解文本的有用评价...--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 16:27, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu Lu<br />
From the Chinese by Anna Stecher and Zhang Weiyi<br />
Edition Raetia - ISBN 978-88-7283-305-6<br />
► "And I am dumb, can not tell the weather winds / How the time of stars ticks the sky."<br />
These lines of the poet Dylan Thomas are preceded in the novel by the Chinese author Xu Lu.<br />
It is precisely this poetic ticking of time – in Chinese Dida, similar to the onomatopoeicTicktack - that forms<br />
the background melody of this novel. Xu Lu tells the story of Weila, Di Xia, Yu Qian and Huo<br />
Yining, four young people, their experiences and dreams. The novel is characterized by<br />
overlapping Language Levels: Xu Lu tries to break through the tight cage of the Chinese language with a for<br />
the so-called "after-80s generation" (ba ling hou) typical mix of everyday language, literary language<br />
and youthful street slang. Thus language and content unite into a portrait of a generation that is loooking for identity - in a country in turmoil.<br />
<br />
徐路<br />
安娜·斯蒂彻和张维义的中文 <br />
雷掣出版社- ISBN 978-88-7283-305-6<br />
► “我无以名状天气和风/ 亦或天上星星滴答烁耀的时间。“<br />
中国作家徐路将诗人迪伦托马斯的这行诗句写进其小说的前序里。<br />
ticking of time在中文里准确地说是“时间的嘀嗒”，嘀嗒和ticktack一样，是拟声词——这奠定了整篇小说的背景基调。<br />
徐路将说了四位年轻人维拉、迪夏、于倩和霍伊宁的故事、经历和梦想。这部小说的特点是语言水平重叠：徐路想要挣脱所谓80后中文紧凑特点的束缚，融合当下时兴的文学语言和年轻的街头流行语。<br />
因此语言和内容的融合是在国家处于动荡时期时，想要证明自己的年轻一代的真实写照。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 16:27, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
<br />
Xu Zechen<br />
From the Chinese by Marc Hermann<br />
Berlin Taschenbuch Verlag - ISBN 978-3-8333-0599-3<br />
► Dunhuang is in his mid-twenties. Driven by the dream of making big money in the capital<br />
he travels to Beijing. He joins a gang of document counterfeiters and works with his friend Baoding<br />
as a recruiter and deliverer on the street. The business is going well until they begin to be careless<br />
and the police arrests them. Three months later, Dunhuang comes free and goes once again to the bad. He gets to know the somewhat older Xiaorong, they sell DVD bootlegs, they<br />
have sex, then Xiaorong reconciles with her ex-boyfriend, and Dunhuang must battle his way alone.<br />
He sells porn and meets the pretty Qibao, they become a couple. But Qibao keeps an abundant eccentric life and is arrested ...<br />
<br />
Yan Lianke<br />
From the Chinese by Ulrich Kautz<br />
Taschenbuchausgabe, List, ISBN 978-35-4860-909-6<br />
► A brave soldier and the sex-hungry wife of a divisional commander reverve Maos China<br />
uncompromisingly their love and spark the most beautiful, crazy and wild counterrevolution<br />
of the People's Republic. Yan Lianke's novel became an easy prey for the censorship in China and got an international cult novel on the internet.<br />
<br />
Yang Jiang<br />
From the Chinese by Monika Motsch<br />
Schirmer Count<br />
► Yang Jian is the widow of the famous writer and scholar Qian Zhongshu (1910-<br />
1998). In her novel she portrays her life with Qian Zhongshu and the daughter of the two - up to<br />
her tragic death. But first, she describes the life of the three in a thrilling and humorous way:<br />
wedding, studying in Oxford and Paris, birth of the daughter, returning to China which ia occupied by Japan;<br />
then the founding of the PRC, Qian Zhongshu's work in the English translation committee of the works by<br />
Mao Zedongs, political campaigns and cultural revolution; Finally rehabilitation and seniority. Yang Jian<br />
not only illustrates impressively the development of the three main characters, but also the<br />
upheavals of the Chinese society into the 21st century.<br />
<br />
徐则臣，马克•赫尔曼译，柏林手抄报出版社-国际标准书号：978-3-8333-0599-3<br />
► 敦煌二十多岁。在赚大钱梦想的驱使下他来到了北京。他加入了一个伪造证件的团伙，和他的朋友保定负责街道招聘和配送工作。生意一直很好，直到他们粗心大意， 被警察逮捕。三个月后，敦煌被释放了，又一次堕落了。他认识了年纪有点大的小袖。他们售卖盗版DVD，并发生了关系。后来小袖和前男友复合，敦煌不得不一个人孤军奋战。他出售色情作品，遇见了善良的七宝，并成为了恋人。但是七宝生活十分怪异，也被捕了...<br />
<br />
阎连科，乌尔里希•考兹译，手册版-国际标准书号：978-35-4860-909-6<br />
► 一位勇敢的战士和一位性欲强的师长的妻子向往毛泽东时期的中国，对其产生了深沉的爱，激起了最美丽、疯狂的反革命情感。阎连科的小说很容易成为中国审查制度的牺牲品，变成国际邪教网络小说。<br />
<br />
杨绛，莫妮卡•莫奇译，希尔默伯爵<br />
► 杨绛是著名作家兼学者钱钟书（1910-1998）的妻子。她在小说中描绘了生前与钱钟书和女儿的生活。但首先，她用激动人心和幽默的方式描述了这三个人的生活：举行婚礼，在牛津和巴黎的学习，生女儿，回到被日本占领的中国，然后成立中华人民共和国，毛泽东在英文翻译委员会翻译钱钟书的作品，政治运动和文化大革命； 最后恢复名誉和衰老。 杨绛不仅描绘了三个令人印象深刻的主要人物的人生，而且见证了21世纪中国社会的剧变。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:14, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
徐则臣，马克•赫尔曼译，柏林手抄报出版社-国际标准书号：978-3-8333-0599-3<br />
► 敦煌二十多岁。为了赚大钱他来到了首都北京。他加入了一个伪造证件的团伙，和他的朋友保定一起在街上招人还有送货。生意一直很好，直到他们不小心被警察抓获。三个月后，敦煌被释放了，但他又一次堕落了。他认识了年纪有点大的小袖。他们售卖盗版DVD，并发生了关系。后来小袖和前男友复合，敦煌又变成了一个人。他继续出售色情作品，之后遇见了善良的七宝，并和她成为了恋人。但是七宝生活十分怪异，随后被捕。<br />
<br />
阎连科，乌尔里希•考兹译，手册版-国际标准书号：978-35-4860-909-6<br />
► 一位勇敢的战士和一位性欲很强的师长夫人向往毛泽东时期的中国，对其产生了深沉的爱，激起了最美丽、疯狂的反革命情感。阎连科的小说很容易成为中国审查制度的牺牲品，变成国际邪教网络小说。<br />
<br />
杨绛，莫妮卡•莫奇译，希尔默伯爵<br />
► 杨绛是著名作家兼学者钱钟书（1910-1998）的妻子。她在小说中描绘了生前与钱钟书和女儿的生活。但首先，她用激动人心和幽默的方式描述了这三个人的生活：举行婚礼，在牛津和巴黎的学习，生女儿，回到被日本占领的中国，然后成立中华人民共和国，毛泽东在英文翻译委员会翻译钱钟书的作品，政治运动和文化大革命； 最后恢复名誉和衰老。 杨绛不仅描绘了三个令人印象深刻的主要人物的人生，而且见证了21世纪中国社会的剧变。--[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 10:55, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
<br />
Yang Lian<br />
From the Chinese by Wolfgang Kubin and Karin Betz.<br />
Suhrkamp - ISBN 978-3-518-42121<br />
<br />
Yang Xianhui<br />
From the Chinese by Katrin Buchta.<br />
edition suhrkamp - ISBN 978-3-518-12591<br />
<br />
Yu Hua<br />
From the Chinese by Ulrich Kautz<br />
Fischer - ISBN 978-3-10-095803-7<br />
► Two brothers - two lives. Li is a clever businessman. He sells garbage and worn out<br />
suits from Japan. Li scoops up millions. Brother Song is prudent, an aesthete and eternal<br />
misadventurer. A bit too good for the modern China – the wild capitalism. But he also wants to share in the<br />
economic miracle. So he enlarges his breast surgically to sel a gel to the countrywomen which makes the breasts fuller. Brüder is the tragicomic story of Li and Song, who survive the horrors of the cultural revolution and try their luck in the new China.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jie<br />
From the Chinese by Eva Müller<br />
Unionsverlag<br />
<br />
杨莲，沃尔夫冈·库宾和卡琳·贝茨译（中译德），苏尔坎普出版社 -国际标准书号： 978-3-518-42121<br />
<br />
杨显惠，卡特林·布克塔译（中译德），苏尔坎普出版社 -国际标准书号： 978-3-518-12591<br />
<br />
余华，高力希译-国际标准书号：978-3-10-095803-7 ►《兄弟》-两种不同人生。李光头是一个聪明的商人，他倒卖日本来的废物和旧西服，并因此赚的腰缠万贯。而宋岗谨慎细微，是一个唯美主义者，也是一个永远的不幸者。这一角色对于现代中国-疯狂的资本主义来说，太过于美好。但是他也想在这一场经济奇迹中分一杯羹，于是他自己做了丰胸手术去卖丰乳霜。《兄弟》描述了李光头和宋岗两兄弟的悲惨故事，他们一边在文化大革命的恐怖之中谋求生存，一边在新中国碰碰运气。<br />
<br />
张杰，梅薏华译（中译德），联合出版社--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 03:54, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
杨莲，沃尔夫冈·库宾和卡琳·贝茨译（中译德）<br />
苏尔坎普出版社 -ISBN 978-3-518-42121<br />
<br />
杨显惠，卡特林·布克塔译（中译德）<br />
苏尔坎普出版社 -ISBN 978-3-518-12591<br />
<br />
余华，高力希译-ISBN 978-3-10-095803-7 <br />
►《兄弟》-两种人生。李光头是一个精明的商人，他废品和日本旧西服，并因此赚的腰缠万贯。而宋岗谨慎细微，是一个唯美主义者，也是一个永远的不幸者。他的理想对于现代中国-疯狂的资本主义来说，显得太过于美好，有些格格不入。但是他也想在这一场经济奇迹中分一杯羹，于是他自己做了丰胸手术去卖丰乳霜。《兄弟》描述了李光头和宋岗两兄弟的悲惨故事，他们在文化大革命的恐怖之中生存下来，在新中国做生意碰运气。<br />
<br />
<br />
张杰，梅薏华译（中译德）<br />
联合出版社<br />
--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:53, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
<br />
Zhu Wen<br />
From the Chinese by Frank Meinshausen<br />
A1-Verlag, ISBN 978-3-940666-07-9<br />
► Six stories about the modern China: laconic, with wit and sarcasm, Zhu Wen draws<br />
the image of a Chinese society that is caught between communism and capitalism<br />
in which all values and securities begin to totter.<br />
A boat trip on the Yangzi, which is ill-starred from the beginning. Meanwhile the first-person narrator feels without his assistance imperiled in Kafkaesque manner to the arbitrariness of new people; a factory worker who accidentally gets caught in the clutches of a mafiaous family, which accuses him that he bumped with a bicycle into their grandfather; a young man, who is compelled by the family of a friend to keep night watch at the sickbed of the freshly operated father.<br />
Unexpectedly he is exposed to the whims of the father and to the apparatus of a ramshackled, profit-oriented hospital; or the first-person narrator in the title story, a luckless writer in a Chinese<br />
provincial town, who gets a visit from his father and wants to make him a few nice days, in fact<br />
with the things that are most important for him in his own life: money and sex.<br />
<br />
朱文<br />
富兰克 麦恩绍泽译（德译中） A1出版社 国际标准图书号978-3-940666-07-9<br />
关于当代中国的六个故事：朱文以简洁机智和讽刺的的手法描绘了一个中国社会形象,这个社会既存在资本主义又存在社会主义，所有的价值观和信任观都开始崩塌。扬子江上的航行,开头是悲惨的。与此同时，没有他的协助主人公在卡夫卡式的随意性上是做得不好的，一位工人无意间被黑手党家庭抓住，指责他骑自行车撞倒了他们的祖父。一位年轻人被朋友的家人逼着为刚刚做完手术的父亲守夜，他无意中发现父亲的任性、一个摇摇欲坠的家庭和唯利是图的医院。题名的主人公的故事:一个悲惨的中国省城作家，他的父亲来看望他，并希望同他度过一些愉快的日子，但事实上是与他生命中最重要的钱与性过日子。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 08:37, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
朱文 ,富兰克·梅恩绍森译，A1出版社-国际标准图书号：978-3-940666-07-9<br />
►当代中国的六个故事：朱文用简洁、讽刺的手法描述了一个中国社会形象。这里资本主义和社会主义并存，所有的价值观和信任观都开始崩塌。长江之游是悲剧的开始。与此同时，没有他的帮助第一人称叙述者很难描绘对新人的蛮横刁难；一位工人无意间被黑手党抓住，并被指控骑自行车撞倒了他们的祖父；一位年轻人被朋友的家人逼着为刚刚做完手术的父亲守夜。他无意中发现了父亲奇怪的想法和一家唯利是图的医院。标题所讲故事中的第一人称叙述者是来自一个中国省城的悲剧作家。他的父亲来看望他，想和他过几天好日子。但是对于作家来说生活中最重要的是钱和性欲。<br />
--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 12:03, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
<br />
Zhu Xiao-Mei<br />
From the French of Anna Kamp<br />
Kunstmann - ISBN 978-3-88897-557-8<br />
► Beijing 1966: The musical genius kid Zhu Xiao-Mei is a great career as a Concert pianist predicted. But while Xiao-Mei is studying at the Conservatory,<br />
the Cultural revolution is starting. The cosmopolitan and culture loving Zhu family is suddenly considered as "bourgeois"<br />
which means in Mao's new China decadent, dangerous, counterrevolutionary. The young girl witnesses bewilderedly how notes get burned, her teachers get publicly humiliated, even executed. No student<br />
Can escape the force for denunciation and permanent self-criticism.<br />
Like all her classmates and relatives, Xiao-Mei is sent to a labor camp, spends five<br />
years of unimaginable hardship in a no-man’s-land on the edge of Mongolia. After years without music<br />
she discovers an old accordion in the camp, hesitantly hits a few keys. A melody is rising<br />
and with it the hope for another life.<br />
Now nothing can stop her: she puchases a piano, exercises like a possessed, flees from the camp<br />
to Beijing, finally arrives abroad after Isaac Stern's Chinatournee. Ten years takes her<br />
adventurous odyssey via Hong Kong, Los Angeles and Boston until she finally becomes in Paris an<br />
internationally acclaimed pianist and Bach interpreter.<br />
<br />
Anthologies<br />
Olga Barrio Jiménez / Eva Schestag (Eds.)<br />
A collection of Chinese classics. Volume I - IV<br />
Translated from the Chinese by Manfred Porkert<br />
Fischer<br />
► The Chinese literature is one of the oldest and richest literatures of the world. In four volumes and with numerous retranslations the collection of Chinese classics provides in its form a unprecedented panorama of the classical Chinese literature, poetry and novels in German.<br />
<br />
朱晓玫<br />
来自法国的坎普<br />
艺术家 国际标准书号978-3-8897-57-57-8<br />
► 北京 1966： 正如一位钢琴音乐家所预言，朱晓玫是一个音乐神童。但是当晓玫在音乐学院学习的时候，文化大革命开始了。胸怀世界，热爱文化的朱家突然被视为“资产阶级”，这在毛泽东当政的新中国被认为是腐朽的，危险的，反革命的。这个年轻的女孩困惑的目睹了自己的笔记本被烧毁，她的老师们被公开羞辱，甚至被处决。任何学生都逃不脱谴责和无尽的自我批评。和她所有同学和亲戚一样，晓玫被送到了劳教所，在蒙古边缘的无人地带度过了五年难以想象的艰苦生活。多年没有接触过音乐，后来她在劳教所里发现了一把旧手风琴。她犹豫地按了几个键，空气中升起了一段旋律，随之升起的是对往生的希望。现在，没有什么能够阻止她：她一逮到钢琴就像着了魔似的练习。她从劳教所逃到北京，最终又跟随艾萨克斯特恩的《唐人街》来到国外。她的冒险经历长达十年，途经香港，洛杉矶和波士顿，最终在巴黎成为国际知名钢琴家巴赫的翻译。<br />
<br />
选集<br />
奥尔加·巴里奥·希门内斯/伊娃·施塔格（编辑）<br />
《中国古典名著集》。第一卷至第四卷<br />
曼弗雷德·波克特·菲舍尔译自中文<br />
►中国文学是世界上最古老、最丰富的文学之一。《中国古典名著集》共分四卷，经多次重译，以前所未有的方式用德语展示了中国古典文学、诗歌和小说的全貌。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 09:11, 2 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
<br />
Benjamin et al.<br />
Tokyopop - ISBN 978-3-86719-738-0<br />
► 10 Chinese comic artists have got together to convey their<br />
sight of Beijing in word and image in a joint book. The approaches to the subject are very different, graphically extraordinarily diverse and always very personal.<br />
<br />
Alice Grünfelder (Eds.)<br />
Unionsverlag - ISBN 978-3-293-00406-1<br />
► Texts by Tibetan writers of the younger generation: Alai, Jamyang, Taering Oser,<br />
Tenzin Tsundue et al.<br />
<br />
Volker Klöpsch (eds.)<br />
insel taschenbuch - ISBN 978-3-458-35117-7<br />
► A butterfly in the bamboo holt, a rain of fragrant peach blossoms, shimmering jade in the moonlight<br />
- in images full of grace and poetry, the great Chinese masters extol the beloved. The<br />
present selection gathers the most beautiful poems from three thousand years. They are partially<br />
presented in German translation for the first time.<br />
Classical Chinese tales and stories<br />
Insel<br />
<br />
Liu Hsiang<br />
4 volumes<br />
From the Chinese by Hans Stumpfeldt<br />
Ostasien Verlag ISBN 978-3-940527-20, 978-3-940527-20-2, 978-3-940527-21-9, 978-3-940527-22-6<br />
► The Shuo-yüan is an early work of the Chinese narrative literature, which is here for the first time in a<br />
Translation into a Western language. It contains more than six hundred stories that are assembled after ethical-moral<br />
criteria by the librarian and archivist Liu Hsiang (79-8 BC). The stories are taken from a large number of earlier works. Many of them dropped out early from the written tardition To each of the twenty chapters an introduction will be attached.<br />
<br />
本杰明等，Tokyopop（日本著名出版社）-国际标准书号 978-3-86719-738-0<br />
► 10个中国漫画家联合创作、汇聚成书，用文字和图画来描绘他们眼中的北京。这种形式是不同寻常、千姿百态而又极具个人色彩的。<br />
<br />
爱丽丝 戈伦斐德（编辑），联合出版社-国际标准书号 978-3-293-00406-1<br />
► 来自年轻一代西藏作家的文字：阿莱，嘉央诺布， 达林奥泽，丹增尊珠等等<br />
<br />
福尔克尔 克勒普夫科（编辑），因泽儿出版社-国际标准书号-978-3-458-35117-7<br />
►竹林中的一只蝴蝶，桃花落英缤纷，香气四泄，月光下闪闪发亮的翡翠<br />
-中国大师们用充满诗意和优雅气质的意象歌颂挚爱。现有诗歌选集收录了三千年来中国古代最优美的诗歌。其中部分首次出现德语译本。<br />
经典中国传说故事<br />
因泽尔<br />
<br />
刘向<br />
4卷<br />
司徒汉选自中文<br />
东亚出版社 国际标准书号-978-3-940527-20, 978-3-940527-20-2, 978-3-940527-21-9, 978-3-940527-22-6<br />
《说苑》是中国叙述文学的一部早期作品，在此首次译作西方语言。该书包含了600多个道德准则故事，由图书、档案管理家刘向收录编辑而成。许多故事早已经偏离了书面传统，其中每二十章都附有介绍。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 03:57, 3 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
<br />
Li Jingze / Jing Bartz (eds.)<br />
From the Chinese by Hanne Chen, Johannes Fiederling, Karin Hasselblatt, Marc Hermann, Ulrich<br />
Kautz, Irmy Schweiger<br />
DIX Verlag, ISBN 978-3-941651-00-5<br />
► China is on the road, in turmoil and departure. Common certainties are shaken, conventions<br />
dissolve themselves. The present stories capture this dynamism that can hardly be hold in place. The ten<br />
Authors live in China and are also the inhabitants of a globalized world. This dynamic makes<br />
the stories so thrilling and accessible to Western readers.<br />
Broadly being spared from the trauma of the Mao period, the young authors keep pace with the times:<br />
unagitated, entertaining, and ironic, without a wagging finger and without false nostalgia, but<br />
even without the transfiguration of the gold-rush mood, that we, in the West, so gladly associate with today's China. In their very individual way they hold up a mirror to China.<br />
<br />
Li Jingze / Jing Bartz (eds.)<br />
E-book.<br />
DIX Verlag - ISBN 978-3-941651-02-9<br />
<br />
Christian Lux / Hans-Joachim Simm (eds.)<br />
Inael ISBN 978-3-458-17418-9<br />
► The Insel-Almanach for the year 2009 gives with exemplarily texts an overview on the Chinese literature in the past and present. In addition to that there are images, that convey an impression on <br />
Chinese art and calligraphy.<br />
李静泽/静巴茨编<br />
《来自中国》作者:陈汉，约翰内斯·费德尔林，卡琳·哈塞尔伯拉特，马克·赫尔曼，乌尔里希·考茨克，伊尔米·施威格 <br />
出版社名, ISBN 978-3-941651-00-5<br />
►中国正在前进，处于动荡和背离之中。共同的确定性被动摇了，传统自我消解了。现在的故事捕捉到了这种几乎无法保持的活力。这十位作者生活在中国，也是全球化世界的居民。这种动态使得故事对西方读者来说如此扣人心弦和平易近人。<br />
这些年轻的作者基本上没有受到毛泽东时代的创伤，他们与时代同步:平静、有趣、讽刺，没有摇手指，也没有虚假的怀旧，但是即使没有“淘金热”情绪的改变，我们西方人也乐于将其与当今的中国联系在一起。他们以自己独特的方式为中国树立了一面镜子。<br />
李静泽/静巴茨编<br />
电子书。<br />
出版社名 - ISBN 978-3-941651-02-9<br />
克里斯蒂安·卢克斯 / 汉斯-约阿希姆·西姆（eds）<br />
国际标准书号978-3-458-17418-9<br />
《2009年中国年鉴》以典型的文本概述了过去和现在的中国文学。除此之外，还有一些图像，它们传达了对中国艺术和书法的印象。<br />
--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 03:23, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
<br />
Frank Meinshausen / Anne Rademacher (eds.)<br />
dtv - ISBN 978-3-423-13770-6<br />
► The everyday life in the metropolises and in the province, the life in the homeland and in the emigration,<br />
family ties, friendships and love relationships, deep–rooted traditions and dreams of<br />
a self-determined future - the stories of contemporary Chinese authors are so<br />
diverse and dynamic like the Middle Kingdom itself.<br />
The stories by Fan Wu, Qi Ge, Yiyun Li, Ma Jian, Wu Chenjun, Xiaolu Guo, Sheng Keyi, Ha Jin, Li Dawei, Luo Lingyuan, Li Er and Zhu Wen. Mo Yan, Alai, Ye Zhaoyan, Li Feng, Feng Jicai. Short stories from China. Bilingual German-Chinese<br />
From the Chinese by Karin Hasselblatt and Katrin Buchta<br />
Chinabooks - ISBN 978-3-905816-19-8<br />
<br />
Alexander Saechtig (eds.)<br />
Weimar Schiller-Presse - ISBN 978-3-8372-0337-0<br />
<br />
Helga Sönnichsen (eds.)<br />
Ostasien Verlag - ISBN 978-3-940527-16-5<br />
So writes the author of the in<br />
this volume gathered poetry translations in her introduction. The poem translations are joined by the particular Chinese originals, but they are also accompanied by carefully<br />
selected pictorial material from the time the texts come from.<br />
<br />
<br />
弗兰克·梅恩斯豪森/安妮·拉德玛彻 <br />
数字电视-国际标准书号 978-3-423-13770-6<br />
►在大都市和省内的日常生活，在家乡和移民后的生活，亲情，友谊和爱情，根深蒂固的传统和自主选择的未来的梦想-当代中国作家的故事就是这样多样而又充满活力，就像中国一样。范武、齐歌、李依云、马健、吴辰君、郭小璐、盛可颐、哈金、李大为、罗玲媛、李尔、朱文。莫言、阿来、叶兆言、李峰、冯骥才。中国短篇小说。汉德双语汉译：Karin Hasselblatt和Katrin Buchta<br />
Chinabooks-国际标准书号 978-3-905816-19-8<br />
<br />
Alexander Saechtig（编辑）<br />
魏玛席勒出版社-国际标准书号 978-3-8372-0337-0<br />
<br />
Helga Sönnichsen（编辑）<br />
Ostasien Verlag-国际标准书号978-3-940527-16-5<br />
所以这本书的作者在她的介绍中收集了诗歌翻译。诗歌翻译与特定的中文原著连接，创造文本的同时还精心挑选了辅助的图片资料。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:28, 2 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao yining<br />
<br />
<br />
弗兰克·梅恩斯豪森/安妮·拉德玛彻 <br />
数字电视-国际标准书号 978-3-423-13770-6<br />
►在大都市和省内的日常生活，在家乡和移民后的生活，亲情，友谊和爱情，根深蒂固的传统和自主选择的未来的梦想-当代中国作家的故事就是这样多样而又充满活力，就像中国一样。范武、齐歌、李依云、马健、吴辰君、郭小璐、盛可颐、哈金、李大为、罗玲媛、李尔、朱文。莫言、阿来、叶兆言、李峰、冯骥才。中国短篇小说。汉德双语汉译：卡琳·哈塞尔布拉特和卡特林·布赫塔<br />
中华图书城-国际标准书号 978-3-905816-19-8<br />
<br />
亚历山大·赛奇蒂格（编辑）<br />
魏玛席勒出版社-国际标准书号 978-3-8372-0337-0<br />
<br />
赫尔加·塞尼希森（编辑）<br />
Ostasien Verlag-国际标准书号978-3-940527-16-5<br />
这样写道，这本书的作者在她的引言中收集了诗歌翻译。这些诗歌的翻译是由特定的中文原著组成的，但它们文本中也伴随着精心挑选的图片材料。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 03:39, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
<br />
Hans Stumpfeldt (eds.)<br />
Ostasien Verlag - ISBN 978-3-940527-18-9<br />
► The Han period (208 BC - 220 AD) was an epoch in which fundamental historical and philosophical traditions were originated.<br />
It is less known that it was also the May of the Chinese poetry. This volume brings together a selection of poems that were written by members of the most diverse classes, and which still appeal in their beauty and meaningfulness to the present reader. The poems are presented with the particular original text and embedded in its historical, cultural and literary context.<br />
<br />
Hans Stumpfeldt（编辑）<br />
Ostasien Verlag-国际标准书号978-3-940527-18-9<br />
► 汉朝(公元前208年至公元220年)是基本历史和哲学传统形成的时期。<br />
鲜为人知的是，汉朝是中国诗歌的五月。这个时期汇集的诗歌，由最多样化的阶级成员书写，其优美和内涵仍旧吸引着现在的读者。这些诗都以独特的文本呈现并根植于当时的历史、文化和文学之中。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:21, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Richard Wilhelm (eds.)<br />
Marix - ISBN 978-3-86539-201-5<br />
► One hundred fairy tales from the Middle Kingdom that reveal us more about Chinese thinking and feeling than the most academic treatises. This probably most famous collection of Chinese folktales was written down by Richard Wilhelm in Tsingtau in a long patient translating work. It is a whole cosmos of fairytale poetry: fairy tales and legends about gods, stories of saints and sorcerers, of natural and animal spirits, also ghost stories, historical legends and finally literary refined fairy tales like that of the monkey Sun Wu Kung, which plays through the mythological motifs and is filled with smiling humor. Soon we will be enchanted by Moon Fairy and Queen of Heaven, soon we will get to know Confucius, Laotse and the eight immortals. We experienced fantastic things about the spirits of the yellow river, the sect of the white lotus, the Monk at the Yangtsekiang.<br />
<br />
Richard Wilhelm（编辑）<br />
Marix-国际标准书号978-3-86539-201-5<br />
► 中国的一百个童话故事比大多数学术论文更能向我们展示中国人的思想和情感。这本可能是中国最著名的中国民间故事集，由理查德·威廉在青岛历史很久翻译而成。这是整个宇宙的童话诗，包括童话和神的传说、圣人和巫师、自然和动物、鬼故事、历史传说和古典童话，比如孙悟空这个形象既充满了神话色彩又幽默诙谐。通过这些故事，我们迅速迷上嫦娥和女娲,迅速了解孔子、老子和八仙。对于河伯、白莲宗、法海的奇遇，我们感同身受。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:21, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
<br />
Children’s and young people’s books<br />
Cui Aner<br />
Ueberreuter - ISBN 978-3-8000-5503-6<br />
► Chi You, the spirit of evil, has invaded the Dragonland where the people live. Just<br />
one can save them: Shaodian, a chosen young sage. Together with a warrior, a<br />
historian and a magician, he begins to search for the Great Dragon, the keeper of the people.<br />
<br />
Chen Jianghong<br />
From the French by Tobias Scheffel<br />
► The small Chen grows well-guarded with two sisters at his parents and grandparents in a<br />
city in the north of China. When Mao proclaims the Cultural Revolution in 1966, life changes:<br />
people are arrested and books burned. The family has little to eat. At school<br />
the teachers swear their students on the principles of Mao. Also Chen becomes a small red guard and<br />
proudly wears the red armband. One day the father receives a letter, which tells him that he has to go in a reeducation camp near the Russian border. The family hears just seldom of<br />
him. It is only after Mao's death in 1976 that the father can return.<br />
<br />
Chen Jianghong<br />
Lian<br />
2. Edition, Moritz - ISBN 978-3-89565-184-7<br />
► Because there were just a few fish this year, Lo, the fisherman, is sad. One day he receives from<br />
an very old woman in gratitude for bringing her in a terrible thunderstorm to the other shore of the lake, some lotus seeds. They are very special seeds, because they come from a throat of a dragon. Lo puts them in the earth and overnight a whole lotus field blooms. From one flower comes one<br />
little girl out - Lian. She is also very special, because she has a wonderful talent: Everything she touches with her magic lotus is transformed into treasures. But this evokes promptly<br />
the greed of the daughter of the Prefect...<br />
<br />
儿童书籍和青少年读本Cui Aner Ueberreuter-ISBN 978-3-8000-5503-6►邪恶的精神智友入侵了人们居住的龙之地。只有一个人可以拯救他们：少店，一位年轻的圣人。他与一个战士，一个历史学家和一个魔术师一起开始寻找人民的守护者大龙。<br />
<br />
陈江洪来自法国的作家Tobias Scheffel►在中国北方一个城市，小陈有两个姐姐在父母和祖父母的保护下长得很好。毛泽东在1966年宣布文化大革命时，生活发生了变化：人们被捕，书籍被焚毁。这个家庭几乎没饭吃。在学校，老师们以毛泽东的原则向学生发誓。陈也成为一个小的红卫兵，并自豪地戴着红色袖标。父亲有一天收到一封信，告诉他必须去俄罗斯边境附近的一个教育营。家人很少听到他的声音。只有在毛于1976年去世后，父亲才能返回。<br />
<br />
Chen Jianghong Lian 2.版，莫里茨-ISBN 978-3-89565-184-7►因为今年只有几条鱼，所以渔夫罗（Lo）感到很难过。有一天，他收到一位老妇人的谢意，感谢她将一场可怕的雷暴把一些莲子带到湖的另一岸。它们是非常特殊的种子，因为它们来自龙的喉咙。罗把它们放在地上，一夜之间，整个莲花田都盛开了。一朵小花从一个花朵里出来-莲。她也很特别，因为她拥有出色的才华：她与魔莲花接触的一切都变成了宝藏。但这立刻引起了州长女儿的贪婪...--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 13:49, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
<br />
Chen Jianghong<br />
Translated by: Erika and Karl A. Klewer<br />
Beltz & Gelberg - ISBN 978-3-407-76075-3<br />
► The history of the painter Han Gan from the 8th century has Chen Jianghong inspired to this picture book. He lived in China and only painted horses. Like Han Gan also Chen painted his pictures on silk.<br />
Spoken by Barbara Nüsse<br />
Jumbo Neue Medien - ISBN 978-3-8337-2420-6<br />
<br />
陈江洪创作这本画册起初是因为受到了公元8世纪的画家韩干的启发。韩干住在中国，只画马。像韩干一样，陈江洪也在丝绸上作画。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 09:09, 2 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
历史上，于八世纪，有个画家叫韩干，受其启发，陈江洪创作了这本画册。韩干居住在中国，而且他只画马。而陈江洪也像他一样，在丝绸上作画。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 09:21, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Daiealu<br />
edition nove - ISBN 978-3-85251-619-6<br />
<br />
Kate Dargaw / Igor Oleynikov<br />
From the Chinese by Marc Hermann<br />
DIX Verlag, ISBN 978-3-941651-40-1<br />
► Regularly at the beginning of the year, the Nian monster awakens in the sea, rises ashore and strikes everything<br />
it catches with itself: man and beast. Therefore, the villagers bundle their belongings together and<br />
flee into the mountains as soon as they hear its rumbling. Grandmother and grandson do not accomplish to escape<br />
and hide in the back of the house, they hold doors and windows ight locked. A beggar comes in search of something edible and wonders about<br />
the abandoned village. Of course, grandmother and her grandson share with him. And then he even has an idea,<br />
how to banish the monster: forever!<br />
For the returning villagers this is a miracle. That is why today the Chinese still celebrate their<br />
New Year's festival as the beggar showed it.<br />
<br />
通常，在新年之初，年兽会在大海中觉醒，跃至岸上，攻击它能抓到的一切事物，包括人和兽。因此，一听到年兽的咆哮，村民们就收拾东西逃到山里。奶奶和孙子没有跟着逃跑，他们躲在屋子后面，把门窗关得紧紧的。一个乞丐过来村里讨吃食，对这里荒凉的景象感到纳闷儿。从奶奶和孙子那里得知原因之后，他想到了一个办法，可以让年兽永远消失。<br />
年兽不见了，对回村的居民来说，这简直是天大的好事。因此，时至今日，中国人仍会庆祝春节。 --[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 09:09, 2 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
通常，于年初，年兽会在海中觉醒，跃至岸上，逮着什么，攻击什么，人兽无一幸免。因此，村民们一听到年兽咆哮，就赶紧匆忙收拾，逃去山里。有位祖母和孙子没能成功逃走，只好躲在房屋后面，把门窗死死锁住。有位乞丐边讨食边流浪到了这个废弃的村庄。祖孙俩便给了食物给他。后来，他竟然想了个主意，能驱逐年兽，让它永远进不来！这对回村的居民来说，可真是奇迹出现。这就是为什么直到今天，中国人还是会像那位乞丐所展示的那样，来庆祝春节。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 09:43, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
<br />
Kate Dargaw / Igor Oleynikov<br />
From the Chinese by Marc Hermann<br />
DIX Verlag, ISBN 978-3-941651-41-8<br />
► The Chinese count the years after 12 animals. Just why mouse, ox, tiger, bunny, dragon,<br />
snake, horse, goat, monkey, rooster, dog and pig? Well, these are the big winners of the<br />
Imperial race. But it was not that easy to be one of the chosen ones! The race, that<br />
the Jade Emperor proclaims, will be a thrill for all participants. And because the mouse went flagrantly behind the cat’s back, today the two are enemies in all countries of the world!<br />
<br />
K.T. Hao / Giuliano Ferri<br />
From the Chinese by Marc Hermann<br />
DIX Verlag, ISBN 978-3-941651-42-5<br />
► Dubai can absolutely not fall asleep. What a luck the little elephant got a<br />
Magic book as a gift. Since then he has been sleeping well and has the sweetest dreams - at least until he is scared that this treasure could get lost. No stash seems <br />
secure enough to him now. He climbs higher and higher. But that is not the solution. And then it happens: one day<br />
his book is gone. But because it's a magic book ...<br />
<br />
<br />
刘嘉路（文）/伊戈尔·欧尼可夫（图） 马海默（中译德）出版社：DIX Verlag 国际标准书号 978-3-941651-41-8►中国人用十二生肖来计算年份。为什么刚好是鼠，牛，虎，兔，龙，蛇，马，羊，猴，鸡，狗和猪呢？其实，他们都是玉皇大帝举行的渡河大赛赢家。但是要成为十二名中的一员并不简单！玉皇大帝称，渡河比赛将让所有参赛者兴奋。而且因为老鼠悄无声息地跟在了猫的背后，至今这两种动物在全世界的任何国家都还是彼此的敌人。<br />
郝广才（文）/朱里安诺•费里（图） 马海默（中译德）出版社：DIX Verlag 国际标准书号： 978-3-941651-42-5 ►大象嘟宝怎么也睡不好，幸运的是，他获得了一本魔法书。自那之后嘟宝睡得又香又甜，还做着美梦。嘟宝把这本书当作宝贝，心里害怕着它会丢失。他觉得现在似乎没有一个隐秘处能够藏好这本魔法书，于是越爬越高，但这终究也不是个办法。接着，嘟宝担心的事情发生了，魔法书不见了，正巧是因为这是一本魔法书。<br />
--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 10:25, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
<br />
Marc Hermann<br />
DIX Verlag, ISBN 978-3-941651-72-2<br />
► Lilli would never have thought that a visit to the Chinese restaurant could be so exciting! The mysterious restaurant owner Mr. Wang and his strange fat cat Dr. Fu dedicate divulge a secret to her. Through a charmed mirror she enters a magical world, where dragons and other fabulous beasts are living.<br />
She becomes friends with a little dragon, and when her mother travels with her through China, the Dragon is always secretly by her side And so the adventure begins, because a gang of robbers. who steal dragons aim for Lilli’s cocky, poodle-sized dragon friend ...<br />
<br />
作者：马克•赫尔曼；出版社：DIX Verlag ISBN 978-3-941651-72-2<br />
莉莉（Lilli）怎么也没想到这次中国饭店之行会如此有趣！神秘的饭店老板王先生和他奇怪的肥猫，名叫福博士，向她透露了一个秘密。她穿过一面诱人的镜子，来到一个魔法世界，这里生活着龙还有一些传说中的野兽。她和一条小龙成为了朋友，她和妈妈在中国旅行时，这条小龙一直悄悄地陪着她。莉莉的这个小龙朋友，犬般大小，平时无拘无束，引起了一伙盗龙劫匪的注意。冒险自此展开……--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 15:14, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Max Kruse and Marlies Rieper-Bastian<br />
Ueberreuter - ISBN 978-3-219-11372-3<br />
► When Kathi's father reveals to the family that they will live for a while in China, the girl is<br />
clueless. However in the night, she receives a visit from the friendly Dragon Lung Kuan, who takes her on a<br />
journey to the far country. This is how Kathi gets to know great secrets and small differences ...<br />
<br />
作者：马克斯•克鲁斯＆玛丽斯•莱德<br />
凯西（Kathi）的爸爸告诉家人，他们将在中国住一段时间，对此凯西毫不知情。然而就在晚上，她的龙朋友宽龙过来看她，并带她去到一个遥远的国度。凯西得以了解一些巨大的秘密和微小的差异。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 15:14, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
爸爸跟家人说，他们将在中国待一段时间，此时的凯西还全然不知。到了晚上，“宽龙”来看她，这是一只友好的龙。它带凯西去了另一个遥远的国度，凯西因此知道了一些大秘密并察觉到了一些小变化。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:32, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
<br />
Maximilian Paulin<br />
Translated by: Susanne Wechdorn<br />
Tyrolia - ISBN 978-3-7022-2905-4<br />
► Telling strange people in strange countries something about God? Today thats still a great challenge. 150 years ago a boy from a small village between the mountains of South Tyrol <br />
felt this wish deep in his heart: Josef Freinademetz from Oies. After he became a priest, he joined the Steyler missionaries and went to China. Because the Europeans wanted<br />
to establish there their rule and become rich. For sure the Chinese had understandably no pleasure with that. Josef must discover a lot of disappointments. But he does not give up. And when he is loosing his last forces,<br />
he suddenly finds out that there is still someone on his side:<br />
Fuschu. A small and very real Chinese dragon! Whether that can help him to understand the Chinese?<br />
<br />
Marie Th. Schins<br />
Sauerländer - ISBN 978-3-7941-6150-8<br />
► When the 12-year-old Siong lands with a loud bang in the pitch-black cellar of a hotel somewhere in Hong Kong, he suspects that this journey through China will be quite exciting.<br />
In addition to his adventurous grandpa, his friends Lee and the (not always) lovely<br />
Litju accompany him . Together, they travel from the gigantic skyscraper city to Beijing,<br />
Shanghai, the Great Wall, Chengde and Hainan Island. Siong is stunned by this<br />
Versatile, difficult to access culture with its moving history.<br />
马克西米利安·波林，翻译者：苏珊娜·魏希顿·蒂罗里亚 - ISBN 978-3-7022-2905-4 和陌生国度的陌生人谈论上帝的事？在今天这仍然是一个很大的挑战。150年前，在南蒂罗尔群山之中的一个小村庄中，有一个小男孩，他心中深深地怀着这个愿望：约瑟夫·弗赖纳德梅茨，来自奥伊斯。在他成为牧师之后，加入了斯特尔传教士，之后前往中国。由于欧洲人想在中国建立自己的统治并且致富。中国人自然不会因此而感到开心。约瑟夫想必目睹了许多令人失望的事情，但他却仍未放弃。在他用尽自己最后的力量时，他突然发现还是有人站在他这一边的：福初，一只小巧真切的中国龙！到底福初能否帮助他理解中国人呢？<br />
玛丽·史金斯·萨兰德- ISBN 978-3-7941-6150-8 随着一声巨响，12岁的松来到了香港某处一家宾馆漆黑的地窖里。他猜想这趟中国行一定十分精彩。除了他充满冒险精神的爷爷，他的朋友李以及可爱的李菊也随他同行。他们一起，从大厦林立的香港前往北京，上海，登上长城，去到承德，海南岛。这些丰富的，难以接触到的文化，以及动人的历史故事让松感到深深的震撼。<br />
--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 14:50, 2 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
马克西米利安·波林 <br />
翻译：苏珊·韦登·特罗里亚<br />
-ISBN 978-3-7022-2905-4<br />
►告诉陌生国家的陌生人一些关于上帝的事情？今天，这仍然是一个巨大的挑战。150年前，在南蒂罗尔山脉之间的一个小村庄里，有一个男孩深深地怀揣着这个愿望：来自奥伊斯的约瑟夫·弗赖纳德梅茨。成为牧师后，他加入了斯特尔传教士，并前往了中国。因为欧洲人想在那里建立自己的统治并致富，中国人显然对此并不高兴。约瑟夫无可奈何地经历了许多让他失望的事情。但是他并没有放弃。当他精疲力尽的时刻，突然发现还有人和他并肩作战：福初，一条小巧真诚的中国龙！福初是否真的可以帮助他理解中国人呢？<br />
玛丽·史金斯·萨兰德<br />
-ISBN 978-3-7941-6150-8<br />
►伴随一声轰鸣，12岁的松进入了香港某酒店的一个漆黑地窖之中，他预想这次中国之旅一定会非常刺激。除了他爱冒险的爷爷之外，还有他的朋友李和（并非总是）可爱的李菊陪他一起。他们一起从高楼林立的香港前往北京，上海，去了长城，承德和海南岛。 松被这种缤纷多彩，难以捉摸的文化及其动人的历史震撼到了。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 16:10, 2 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
<br />
Yang Hongying [list place 7, children’s writer]<br />
Translated by: Ulrike Lotz.<br />
Egmont Franz Schneider - ISBN 978-3-505-12660-4<br />
► It is winter and the Jade Lake Park is not busy. Until two strange dogs appear suddenly and<br />
they behave strangely. The laughing cat and his friend, the Pekinese lady, want absolutely<br />
find out what is wrong with the two, and encounter a series of mysteries secrets ...<br />
<br />
Yang Hongying [list place 7, children’s writer]<br />
Translated by: Ulrike Lotz<br />
Egmont Franz Schneider - ISBN 978-3-505-12661-1<br />
► The cats in the park are angry. On the roof of the great white tower appeared suddenly a beautiful striped cat. It is strictly forbidden to climb there up for any other cat! An extraordinary meeting is convened immediately. As an old mouse gets wind of the crazy going-ons of the cats, she figures out a plan together with the other mice ..<br />
<br />
杨红樱【名单中第七位，儿童文学作家】<br />
译者：Ulrike Lotz<br />
Egmont Franz Schneider - ISBN 978-3-505-12660-4<br />
►正值冬日，翠湖公园人迹寥落，两只陌生的狗突然出现打破了这种平静，这两只狗行动怪异,笑猫和他的朋友--那只京巴狗,下定决心要查明这两只狗是怎么回事，因而遇到了一系列神秘的谜团...<br />
<br />
正值冬日，翠湖公园人迹寥落，两只陌生又行为怪异的狗突然出现打破了这种平静。笑猫和他的朋友--那只京巴狗,下定决心要查明这两只狗是怎么回事，因而遇到了一系列神秘的谜团...--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 09:06, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
杨红樱【名单中第七位，儿童文学作家】<br />
译者：Ulrike Lotz<br />
Egmont Franz Schneider - ISBN 978-3-505-12661-1<br />
► 大白塔的顶上突然来了一只漂亮的条纹猫，这让公园里的猫们很生气，其他猫爬塔顶是被坚决禁止的！这群猫立即召开了临时会议，而一只老老鼠在得知猫的疯狂行径后，便和其他老鼠一起想出了一个计划...--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:25, 2 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
杨红樱【名单中第七位，儿童文学作家】<br />
译者：Ulrike Lotz<br />
公园里有一座美丽的白塔。一天，一只漂亮的虎皮猫突然出现在塔顶。这惹怒了一群公园里的猫，他们都上不去的地方，决不允许别的猫爬上去！他们开会咒骂，愤怒地游行……这些疯狂地行为，受到了老老鼠的嘲弄，她和公园里的老鼠们一起想出了一个计划……--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 03:23, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
<br />
Nydia Yang<br />
From the Chinese by Marc Hermann<br />
DIX Verlag, ISBN 978-3-941651-43-2<br />
► Picture books not only show the world through a rose-colored glasses. Divorce and break-up of parents belong today to the<br />
everyday life of many children. How do we talk about it - as parents and grandparents, educators and teachers,<br />
relatives or friends?<br />
'The pale red balloon' loses the brightness of its color, depending on the mood of the<br />
child of divorce, because for the boy suddenly his ideal world is burst. And for a long time<br />
no one notices how he really feels, everything seems to be regulated and reorganized. Only when father and mother<br />
understand that they go separate ways like sun and moon, but will always stay together as parents for their child, his balloon begins to shine bright again.<br />
<br />
Katharina Bachmann<br />
Let's get out. About wanderlust and blowing in the distance<br />
Shaker - ISBN 978-3-86858-182-9<br />
<br />
妮迪亚·杨<br />
马海默；赫尔曼所译中文版本<br />
出版社： DIX Verlag, ISBN 978-3-941651-43-2 <br />
图画书不仅通过一个玫瑰红的杯子来展现世界。父母的离异与分局成为了许多孩子生活的一部分。我们要怎么看待它呢？作为父母和祖父母，教育家和教师，亲戚或者朋友？<br />
褪色的红色气球失去了它本来的艳丽，这取决于经历过离婚的孩童的情绪，因为对于一些男孩来讲，他们的理想世界就坍塌了。而且在很长的一段时间里，没有任何人注意到他的感受，所有事情看上去似乎有条不紊。直到父母意识到他们的分开就像太阳和月亮，而他们将永远伴随着孩子时，他的气球才会再次明亮起来。<br />
凯瑟琳纳·波特曼<br />
出去走走吧。去远方漫游。<br />
出版社： Shaker - ISBN 978-3-86858-182-9--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 09:46, 3 October 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
图画书不是只会用乐观的方式来展现世界。父母离异成为了许多孩子生活的一部分。我们该怎么看待这个问题呢？作为父母和祖父母，教育家和教师，亲戚或者朋友？<br />
淡红色气球失去了原来艳丽的颜色，这与孩子经历父母离异后的情绪紧密相连，因为对于一些男孩来讲，他们的理想世界坍塌了。在往后的很长一段时间里，没有人关心他的真实感受，一切都重新安排并受到约束。直到父母意识到尽管他们过上了各自的生活，但是作为父母，仍会一起陪伴着孩子，他的气球才会再次鲜艳起来。 --[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 09:23, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
<br />
Bauer, Manuel<br />
Limmat - ISBN 978-3-85791-573-4<br />
► On April 1, 1995, a father and his six-year-old daughter leave Lhasa and write another<br />
chapter in the sad story of the flight of the Tibetan people. The photographer Manuel Bauer has, despite<br />
obstacles and controls, participated on this life-threatening journey into freedom and documented it.<br />
<br />
Barbara Beuys<br />
Insel Paperback - ISBN 978-3-458-35118-4<br />
鲍尔·曼努埃尔·利马特-ISBN 978-3-85791-573-4►1995年4月1日，一位父亲和他六岁的女儿离开拉萨，在藏人逃亡的悲惨故事中又续写了一章。 尽管障碍重重，限制众多，摄影师曼努埃尔·鲍尔（Manuel Bauer）仍参与了这一危及生命的自由之旅并记录了下来。<br />
<br />
Barbara Beuys Insel平装本-ISBN 978-3-458-35118-4--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 09:01, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
鲍尔·曼努埃尔·利马特-ISBN 978-3-85791-573-4►1995年4月1日，一位父亲和他六岁的女儿离开了拉萨，续写了一章西藏人民逃亡的悲惨故事。尽管障碍重重，满是荆棘，摄影师曼努埃尔·鲍尔仍参与了这一危及生命的自由之旅并将其记录了下来。<br />
<br />
Barbara Beuys Insel平装本-ISBN 978-3-458-35118-4--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 13:39, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
<br />
Miriam Collée<br />
Aufbau - ISBN 978-3-378-01106-9<br />
► A small house by the Alster, a large garden with swing, the organic box in front of the door. A young family seems to be at the goal of their dreams. If there was not the job offer from China: Miriam, 35, Tobias,37, and Amélie, 3, move into a terrace house in Shanghai Downtown, as the only long nosea in an old-established Chinese neighborhood - in a city where you can buy everything, only no fresh air. Where 20 million people live, who like to go outside just in their pyjamas and walk backwards to relax. Where the nannies have names like Crispy, Toffie or Chanel and leave one in the lurch, because they have a western nose to operate. Simply funny and sometimes on the edge of a nervous breakdown, Miriam Collée reports from the family everyday life in the<br />
Middle Kingdom.<br />
<br />
阿尔斯特旁边的一幢小房子，一个带秋千的大花园，门前有个有木盒子。这似乎对于这个年轻家庭来说是一个理想的生活环境。如果没有来自中国的工作机会： 35 岁的 Miriam Tobias，37 岁的阿美莉和 3 岁的阿美莉搬进了上海市中心的一栋露台别墅，这是唯一一间位于古老的中国社区-在一个你可以买到所有城市里的东西，只有没有新鲜空气。那里住着 2000万 人，他们喜欢穿着睡衣出门向后走放松自我。名为像克里斯比，托菲或香奈儿的保姆，其中一个可就要陷入困境了，因为他们要忍受这里糟糕的气味，简单有趣但有时处在精神崩溃的边缘，这是来自Miriam collee 在中土王国对家庭日常生活的报道。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 02:53, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
<br />
Anagarika Govinda<br />
Paperback edition, Fischer - ISBN 978-3-596-18351-7<br />
► Accompanied by one of the holy men of the country, Lama Anagarika Govinda traveled for many years through<br />
a widely unexplored world that is just accessible under dangers. Its path leads through the tropical<br />
jungle, over icy heights, past marvelous blue lakes to areas that no stranger had visited before him - into the monasteriea of the rocks and hermitage of walled hermits, into religious communities,<br />
whose ancient rituals and mysteries he may attend, before temple pictures of unimaginable<br />
beauty.<br />
在该国一位圣者的陪同下，喇嘛阿那加里卡戈文达多年来一直冒险游历于未被探索过的广泛世界。他穿过热带丛林，翻越寒冷的高地，经过壮丽的蓝色湖泊，去到除了他没有前人到过的地区。他去到岩洞中的寺院和围墙中的隐士居，他进到宗教区域，在绝美的寺庙画像前参加其古老的仪式和探寻其秘密。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 14:13, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Emily Hahn<br />
Translated by: Dagmar Yu-Dembski<br />
Edition Ebersbach - ISBN 978-3-938740-89-7<br />
► When Emily Hahn came to Shanghai in 1935, she had already established her reputation as book author and journalist with her reports for the "New Yorker." She knows she will stay here as long as they let her. It is the magic of Shanghai with its cookshops, the hustle and bustle on the streets, the rickshaws<br />
and the dancing salons that seduces her. Often ironically and with fine humor, Emily Hahn lets us participate in<br />
the feeling of life in a city that is constantly changing and in which "there are still things that will<br />
never change."<br />
1935年，当艾米丽·哈恩来到上海时，她已经凭借为《纽约客》撰写的报道建立了自己作为作家和记者的声誉。她知道她会尽可能地留在这里。这就是上海的魅力，这里有小餐馆，熙熙攘攘的街道，黄包车还有吸引着她的舞厅。艾米丽·哈恩经常幽默地调侃道让我们感受在一个不断变化的城市中生活的感觉，且这个城市中“总有一些东西会永远不会改变。”--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 14:13, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
阿纳加里卡·戈文达平装版，菲舍尔- ISBN 978-3-596-18351-7 在该国一位神职人员的陪同下，喇嘛阿纳加里卡·戈文达游历多年，历经危机穿过一片广袤的处女地。他穿过热带丛林，越过雪山高原，途经壮美的蓝色湖泊来到无人之境。—他去探寻岩石山上的寺庙和围墙中的隐士居所，他进入宗教区域，在绝美的寺庙画像前参加古老的宗教仪式，探寻其久远的秘密。<br />
埃米莉·哈恩 译者：达格玛·尤登布斯基·伊迪圣·埃伯斯巴赫- ISBN 978-3-938740-89-7 1935年，当埃米莉·哈恩来到上海的时候，她已经凭借着自己在《纽约客》上的报道，建立了自己作为作家和记者的声誉。她知道只要他们允许，自己会一直待在这里。上海的小餐馆，熙熙攘攘的街头，以及黄包车和舞厅都是充满魔力的，无一不引诱着她。埃米莉·哈恩常常幽默地调侃，让我们体会一下在一个不停变化的城市中生活的感觉，然而这里却“仍有一些永远不变的事物”。<br />
--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 15:31, 2 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
<br />
Hermann Hesse<br />
Suhrkamp - ISBN 978-3-518-46106-8<br />
► This reader book brings together the most important and most beautiful tales, narratives and reflections<br />
with Chinese motifs by Hermann Hesse as well as his essayistic and literary-critical<br />
publications and shows him as a great connoisseur of Chinese culture, literature and philosophy.<br />
<br />
Elmar Holenstein<br />
Ammann - ISBN 978-3-250-30024-3<br />
► How different is China really? With concrete examples Elmar Holenstein works on the overcoming<br />
of europe-centered thinking. A serious culture historical comparison begins with the realization of the complexity of the<br />
own as any other culture. A Clash of Civilizations is always a Clash of Complex<br />
Civilizations. A consistent front course can not be expected. In the depths of foreign culture it can be found that there are parallels to the things that appear to us in our own as "modern". Own accomplishments lose apperently their exclusivity. The West proudly points to its three centuries old »secular age«. In East Asia, the separation of religion and morality has been a peaceful aquired naturalness for two and a half thousand years. On the other hand we discover at careful comparison in our own cultural developments, which we were accustomed to view as "typically Chinese" or "typically East Asian". Whoever believes that modalities and mentalities are culturally shaped must proof them to different<br />
Contexts.<br />
<br />
==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
<br />
Ursula Krechel<br />
3. Edition. Jung und Jung - ISBN 978-3-902497-44-4<br />
►Franziska Tausig is one of many, the Berlin book dealer Ludwig Lazarus is another, and<br />
at the end there were eighteen thousand Jews who had been using one of the last loopholes since 1938<br />
and thus survived in the far-off foreign Shanghai. They came without a visa and illusions, with one<br />
suitcase and ten Reichsmark in their pockets, lawyers, craftsmen, art historians, and when they wanted to get along in this overcrowded city and the moisty heavy climate, then were powers of invention <br />
and energy challenged. Not everyone was able to do this after everything what was behind and before them.<br />
Breathtakingly diverse and complex talks Ursula Krechel about it. From long-term research developed the material to an extensive narrative curve, which brings the reader into a world,<br />
which is closer to oneself than expected.<br />
<br />
Helmut Matt<br />
Hess - ISBN 978-3-87336-911-5<br />
<br />
Sonja Piontek<br />
Conbook Medien - ISBN 978-3-934918-41-2<br />
► Chen Luyao's grandmother still does not know that her turquoise couch does absolutely not fit to the rest of the furnishings<br />
and Sonja only learns after 17 months, that the hard-won driver’s license has been blocked<br />
and so she has been illegally driving through the People's Republic for a year and a half. Against to all<br />
experiences from the German Chinese restaurants, the guest is strictly not getting any rice served in Beijing …<br />
<br />
==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
<br />
Lisa See<br />
Der Seidenfächer<br />
Translated by: Elke Link<br />
Paperback edition, Blanvalet - ISBN 978-3-442-36757-3<br />
► China in the 19th century: Lily and Winter Rose grow up in a world in which girls are regarded as a burden<br />
and in which the tying of the feet should also tie their heart. At the age of seventeen both get married. Thanks to the secret writing Nushu, which is reserved for women only,<br />
the friends succeed to stay in touch. On special occasions, the two girls even write<br />
poems in Nushu on a silk fan, who is always moving between them. But no one can take their<br />
desire for love, happiness and freedom ...<br />
<br />
Vikram Seth<br />
From the English by Anette Grube<br />
Fischer - ISBN: 978-3-596-16473-8<br />
► In 1981 the Indian writer Vikram Seth traveled through the secluded marginal provinces of<br />
China: from the " heavenly lake" Tianchi in the north-west, he set off far from established routes to the<br />
South –as far afield as Tibet. He completed his survey of unexplored territories with his homeward journey to<br />
India via Kathmandu.<br />
<br />
十九世纪的中国：在莉莉和冬玫生活的时代，人们视女孩为负担，女孩们都裹着脚，同时也束缚她们的心。在十七世纪，她们俩都结婚了。多亏只有女性能读懂的秘密女书，她们能够保持联系。在特殊情况下，这两个女孩甚至把女书写在丝扇上，而丝扇经常在她们中间传来传去。但是没有人能够夺走她们对爱，快乐和自由的渴望。<br />
<br />
在1981年，印度作家维克拉姆·塞斯穿越了中国的十分偏僻的省份：他从西北的天池出发，不走去南方的固定路线-尽量远离西藏。他探索了了无人迹的地方，并最终经由加德满都回到家乡印度。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:25, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
<br />
Jonathan D. Spence<br />
From the English by Susanne Hornfeck<br />
Hanser - ISBN 978-3-446-23415-4<br />
► When Zhang Dai was born into a well-esteemed family in 1597, the Ming Dynasty had ruled in China for over 200 years. For the contemporaries it was unthinkable that this era, that had guided the Chinese empire to a prior unattained political and cultural prosperity, could ever end. However in 1644<br />
the Manchu of the Ming Dynasty put an end to it. Zhang Dai’s family sank into insignificance. He spent the second half of his long life in rural seclusion as a private scholar and<br />
became famous as a master of the philosophical essay and chronicler of a lost era.<br />
Jonathan Spence tells the life of this scholarly eccentric - and draws at the same time the vivid panorama of a central era of the Chinese past.<br />
<br />
Hugh Trevor-Roper<br />
Translated by: Andrea Ott<br />
Eichborn - ISBN 978-3-8218-4590-6<br />
► Jing Shan was a Manchu scholar from a noble-minded family, who was related with the Chinese empress dowager<br />
and was closely connected to all the important personalities of the Imperial Court.<br />
When he was murdered in the course of the Boxer Rebellion in 1900, it was Edmund Backhouse, who saved Shans<br />
scrolls from the flames of the looters - including a mysterious diary, that allegedly described the events at the imperial court during the Boxer Rebellion minutely. Nine years<br />
Backhouse kept his discovery a secret until he published large parts of it in China under the Empress Dowager. The book became a classic, it still determines our image of China - and<br />
is based on a grandiose counterfeiting of Backhouse.<br />
<br />
==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
<br />
Nury Vittachi<br />
From the English by Ursula Ballin<br />
Zhang Jie - ISBN 978-3-293-00408-5<br />
<br />
Doris Wiedemann<br />
Delius Klasing - ISBN 978-3-7688-2606-8<br />
► For six months the authoress traveles more than 17,000 kilometers through the most populous country in the world<br />
and experiences China beyond tourist sights and state-controlled reality. She<br />
reads maps and road signs like a memory game, attends the English lessons at a<br />
middle school, climbs countless stairs and survives some adventures with the motorbike. As well she gets to know<br />
the variety of culture and cuisine, Chinese humor and Chinese hospitality at first hand.<br />
<br />
Simon Winchester<br />
From the English by Michael Müller<br />
Knaus Verlag - 987-3-8135-0287-9<br />
► Who was John Needham? In China he is still a famous person,who shaped our image of China<br />
decisively shaped and revolutionized it completely. Till the middle of the 20th century the West looked despisingly for China, the country was regarded as hopelessly underdeveloped and backward.<br />
It was only through Needham's work that it was proofed that China was one of the oldest high cultures in the world.<br />
<br />
Li Yiyun:Die Sterblichen李翊云？书中文名？<br />
Lu Xun: Sch?nste Geschichten鲁迅 书中文名？？<br />
Mo Yan: Die Knoblauchrevolte莫言《天堂蒜苔之歌》？2002<br />
<br />
Publishing Houses of the booth „Books on China“<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 02:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
Series Sinica--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 02:24, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Vol. 26<br />
Martin Woesler:<br />
Chinese literature in German translation<br />
China as honoraray guest of the Frankfurt Book Fair 2009 – Symposium edition<br />
Bochum: European University Press<br />
ISBN 978-3-89966-293-1<br />
200 pp., 19.90 €<br />
<br />
China is the honorary guest of the Frankfurt Book Fair 2009. The public interest in this literature, which has so far been underrepresented in Germany, is great.<br />
However, there is not much known about the trends in the Chinese contemporary literature except for keywords like "youth literacy". This symposium edition shows which new publications will be realised for the book fair. Contributions are given by translators to portray the peculiarities of the translation of Chinese literature, as well as literary scholars who give an overview of the Chinese literature scene, by the Chinese author Gao Yi and by connoisseurs of literary business (book fair, publishers, agencies).<br />
One focus is the question, which Chinese literature also 'works' in German translation. The reader is sensitized to questions of the selection. The advantages and disadvantages of the Chinese governmental translation support are equally part of the contributions as commercial aspects, which influence the selection on the part of the German publishers. By the way, prejudices are to be dismantled, for example, that Chinese literature is incomprehensible because of its 'Confucianism', or that Chinese imitation literature is written in the style of the Harry Potter series.<br />
中国是2009年法兰克福书展的名誉嘉宾。迄今为止，在德国人们对中国文学的了解还很少，但是公众对此都很感兴趣。但是，除了诸如“青年素养”之类的关键词外还对中国当代文学的发展趋势知之甚少。 此专题讨论会版本显示了该书展将实现哪些新出版物。翻译人员为描绘中国文学翻译的特殊性做出了贡献，而中国作家高毅和文学界（包括书展，出版商，代理机构）的鉴赏家们则为概述中国文学界做出贡献）还有一个焦点是中国文学在德语翻译中也“起作用”。读者对选择的作品十分敏感。中国政府对翻译的支持的优缺点同样在商业方面有所影响，影响了德国出版商的选择。 另外大众应该消除偏见，例如，中国文学因其“儒教”而难以理解，或者中国模仿文学是以哈利·波特系列的风格写的，诸如此类。--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 02:24, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
<br />
The volume provides in extracts an well-founded overview of the Chinese contemporary literature with the bestselling authors Guo Jingming, Han Han and others, and about currents: the trend to the second book, vagabond literature, the author as a pop star (cult literature), Literature of the mega cities, Critical Surreality, Women’s Literature, Scandal Literature, the Nostalgia wave (Reinterpretation of Classics), Teenager Phenomenon, Magical Realism, Master stories and the Literature of the emotional suffering.<br />
<br />
该书摘录了中国畅销作家郭敬明、韩寒等人对中国当代文学的有理有据的概述，并介绍了当代文学的发展趋势：第二本书走向，流浪文学，作者作为流行歌星(邪教文学)，大城市文学，批判超现实主义，女性文学，丑闻文学，怀旧浪潮(经典重释)，青少年现象，魔幻现实主义，大师故事和文学的情感苦难。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 02:49, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
该书的摘录了中国最畅销的作家郭敬明，韩寒等人的中国当代文学以及时事的概论：第二本书的趋势，流浪文学，流行歌星（邪教文学），大城市文学，批判超现实主义，女性文学，丑闻文学，怀旧浪潮（对经典的重新诠释），青少年现象，魔幻现实主义，大师故事和情感苦难文学。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 04:19, 3 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
该册在摘录中以一种全面的视角介绍了中国当代文学以及畅销书作家郭敬明，韩寒等人：第二本书的情况，流浪文学，作者为明星的邪教文学，大城市文学，批判超现实主义文学，女性文学，丑闻文学，怀旧浪潮（经典重释），青少年观象，魔幻现实主义，大家故事以及苦情文。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 09:54, 3 October 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
<br />
该书在摘录中对中国当代文学以及畅销书作家郭敬明，韩寒等人进行了有理有据的论述，并介绍了当代文学的发展趋势：第二本书的走向，流浪文学，作者为明星的邪教文学，大城市文学，批判超现实主义文学，女性文学，丑闻文学，怀旧浪潮（经典重释），青少年现象，魔幻现实主义，大家故事以及苦难文学。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 07:51, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
Vol. 25<br />
Martin Woesler:<br />
Bochum: European University Press<br />
ISBN 978-3-89966-292-4<br />
200 pp., 19.90 €<br />
This volume considers the latest Chinese bestseller lists from early 2009.<br />
<br />
Vol. 24<br />
Wolfgang Schulz:<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2009<br />
ISBN 978-3-89966-340-2<br />
168 pp., 29.90 €<br />
<br />
The present work examines with phenomenological thought tools (Edmund Husserl) the five basic emotions (Wielant Machleidt) presented in the Chinese medicine classic Huang Di Nei Jing and their refraction in the fractal affective logic of Luc Ciompis. In both cultural objects - Huang Di Nei Jing and the affective logic of Luc Ciompis – yield striking coincidences and mutual clarifications between the chaostheoretical insights of the fractal relation of the "feelings" and the important thought concepts in the early Han period of "approaching by corresponding affiliation Gan Lei" and the "personified answering event Gan Ying (Obert) "or - according to J. Needham – the "sympathetic responses between similiar kinds of existence".<br />
<br />
Vol. 23<br />
Martin Woesler:<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2008<br />
ISBN 978-3-89966-289-4<br />
200 pp., 19.90 € / 20.50 € [A]<br />
<br />
第25册 马丁·韦斯勒：波鸿：欧洲大学出版社ISBN 978-3-89966-292-42000页，19.90欧元 这一册参考了从2009年起最新的中国畅销书排行榜。<br />
第24册 沃尔夫冈·舒尔茨：波鸿：欧洲大学出版社2009 ISBN 978-3-89966-340-2168页，29.90欧元<br />
本文运用现象学思维工具（Edmund hussell）考察了中医经典《黄帝内经》中的五种基本情绪（Wielant Machleidt）及其在Luc-Ciompis的分形情感逻辑中的折射。在《黄帝内经》和吕宗培的情感逻辑中，对“感情”的分形关系的超理论见解与汉初“同属Gan Lei”的重要思想观念，“拟人化的回答事件Gan Ying（Obert）”都有着惊人的契合，还有李约瑟的“相似存在之间的共情反应”。<br />
第23册马丁·沃斯勒：波鸿：欧洲大学出版社2008 ISBN 978-3-89966-289-42000页，19.90欧元/20.50欧元[A] --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 15:42, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
<br />
The Chinese literature of the present at the beginning of the 21st century appears hardly compatible with the German book market. Many stories of the mostly young, partly celebrated like pop stars authors from the Middle Kingdom, who drop their books partly in millions of editions, such as Jingming Guo, seem too bizarre. Nevertheless, trends can be discerned that reflect especially the extreme process of social upheaval in China: the female literature created by Ailing Zhang with the insiders view of the Shanghaie big city singles, for example, which has found a whole generation of successors. Or the scandal literature of Shuo Wang, who has long since become an establishment. The nostalgia with new interpretations of classics such as Confucius, Menzius, or the novel of the Three Kingdoms, for example by Dan Yu. Finally, the young, bizarre literature of an alienated city youth, who is in the end searching for the happiness of love between alcohol, drugs and party excesses. Surprising newcomer is the author Han Han, who is known for his critically acclaimed youth literature and who exerts a humorous social criticism in his new work, "Tage des Ruhms", about a dropout group in the style of Magical Realism. A colorful roundel, which tells from another world, no longer as exotic as before, but still strange and fascinating.<br />
21世纪初的中国文学似乎很难与德国图书市场兼容。许多报道，通常是一些年轻的、像明星一样出名的中国作家比如郭敬明发行数百万册书，这似乎太离奇了。然而，我们可以看到一些趋势，特别反映了中国社会动荡的极端过程：以张爱玲的女性文学为例，她的作品以上海这一大城市的单身者的视角作为局内人视角，见证了一代又一代的后继者。或是王朔的丑闻文学，他早已成为这一领域的权威人士。又如于丹对孔子、孟子的著作以及《三国》等经典名著的新诠释，复古而怀旧。最后，是一个被疏远的城市青年年轻而又离奇的文学作品，他最终在酒精、毒品和狂欢之间寻找爱情的幸福。这位出人意料的新人是作家韩寒，他以其广受好评的青春文学而闻名，他在其魔幻现实主义的新作《荣华富贵》Tage des Ruhms 中对辍学群体进行了幽默的社会批判。一个五彩缤纷的圆形，从另一个世界诉说，不再像以前那样奇特，但依然奇异迷人。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 12:13, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
Vol. 23<br />
Martin Woesler:<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2008<br />
ISBN 978-3-89966-289-4<br />
200 pp., 19.90 € / 20.50 € [A]<br />
<br />
The Chinese literature of the present at the beginning of the 21st century appears hardly compatible with the German book market. Many stories of the mostly young, partly celebrated like pop stars authors from the Middle Kingdom, who drop their books partly in millions of editions, such as Jingming Guo, seem too bizarre. Nevertheless, trends can be discerned that reflect especially the extreme process of social upheaval in China: the female literature created by Ailing Zhang with the insiders view of the Shanghaie big city singles, for example, which has found a whole generation of successors. Or the scandal literature of Shuo Wang, who has long since become an establishment. The nostalgia with new interpretations of classics such as Confucius, Menzius, or the novel of the Three Kingdoms, for example by Dan Yu. Finally, the young, bizarre literature of an alienated city youth, who is in the end searching for the happiness of love between alcohol, drugs and party excesses. Surprising newcomer is the author Han Han, who is known for his critically acclaimed youth literature and who exerts a humorous social criticism in his new work, "Tage des Ruhms", about a dropout group in the style of Magical Realism. A colorful roundel, which tells from another world, no longer as exotic as before, but still strange and fascinating.<br />
<br />
第二十三册 <br />
吴漠汀主编 <br />
波鸿：欧洲大学出版社，2008年<br />
ISBN 978-3-89966-289-4 <br />
200页 19.90 € / 20.50 € [A]<br />
21世纪初的中国文学几乎很难用德国图书市场思路来理解。现在的中国文学书中许多故事与多数年轻人有关，部分是由中国的知名作家所作，他们的作品往往要经过无数次修订编辑。其中的作者就有郭敬明。这些故事看上去有点怪异。然而，这种趋势还是依稀可见的，因为反映的是中国社会剧变的极端过程：比如，张爱玲用上海的大都市单身人内部视角创作的女性文学，就迎来了一代人的追随；还有大有建树的王朔丑闻文学；还有用思乡之情释读的经典著作，包括孔子的、孟子的，或者是于丹所著的三国小说。最终，年轻人——怪诞文学所描绘的城市孤立年轻族群，会在酗酒、吸毒和过度聚会中寻求爱情的快感。韩寒是新生作家，他的成就令人瞠目结舌，他以其广受好评的青年文学而闻名。他还在自己的作品《Tage des Ruhms》中以魔幻现实主义风格，幽默地对一个辍学群体进行了社会批判。他的写作还用了一种多彩的圆形图案、用了另一个世界的视角。这个另一个世界不如以前那样具有异域风情，但是仍旧奇异与迷人。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 04:30, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
<br />
Vol. 22<br />
Martin Woesler (ed.)<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2010<br />
ISBN 978-3-89966-280-1<br />
251 pp., bound, cover with special color gold, 39.00 €<br />
第二十二册 吴漠汀主编 波鸿：欧洲大学出版社，2010年， ISBN 978-3-89966-280-1，251页，金色精装封面，39.00 €<br />
<br />
This festschrift is approaching to the Chinese (law) culture from different angles. It also focuses on current topics such as human rights or relevant philosophers.<br />
该纪念文集从不同的角度走进中国（法律）文化，聚焦于当前的主题，如人权或相关的哲学家。<br />
<br />
The articles deal among other things with views of Confucius, Menzius and Li Zhi. Ommerborn introduces Li Zhi as an individualist, who pronounces against spiritual authorities and the universal validity of higher principles, contrary to the (neo-Confucian norms of his contemporaries.<br />
文章还涉及了孔子、孟子和李贽的观点，欧莫伯恩认为李贽是个人主义者，他反对精神权威和更高准则的普遍有效性，这与同时代的新儒家规范背道而驰。<br />
<br />
The contribution of Harald Holz deals with cross-cultural foundations, he ascribes the 'golden rule' ultimately to an underlying sense, in which he defines the concept of sense as a broad striving for the appropriation of the own possibilities in interaction with all the others that come in line. Hence results in a recognition of his self and of the other as well as an 'ought', whereby all the other aims of action result as personal reciprocal.<br />
哈拉尔·霍尔兹的书稿谈及跨文化的基本原理，他把“黄金规则”归因于一种潜意识，他将其定义为广泛利用与他人相处的可能性，因而达成对自我、他人和“义务”的认知，据此任何行动的目标都是实现个人互惠。<br />
<br />
While Weber-Schäfer draws up the thesis and explains why China does not have an equivalent counterpart to the European concept of justice, Woesler, takes the opposite view in his essay.<br />
虽然韦伯·费舍尔在论文中提出了这一论断，并解释了为什么中国没有与欧洲的正义概念对等的对应物，但吴漠汀在论文中阐述了相反的观点。<br />
<br />
Moccia argues that in the classical China tradition and customs were before the law, and the law of Confucius was little appreciated. He wanted to speak of legislation in China only since the nineteenth century and describes the condition of today's society as a transition to a law-based system.<br />
莫可西亚认为在中国古代，传统习俗先于法律，且孔子的法则很少受到重视，他只想谈谈十九世纪以来中国的立法，把当今的社会状况描述为向法治体系的过渡。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 14:12, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
莫可西亚认为，在中国古代，传统和习俗生于法律之前，且孔子的法则鲜为人知。 他只想谈论19世纪以来的中国立法，认为当今社会的状况为向法治体系的过渡。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 16:06, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
<br />
Paul deals with the political dimension of the Menzius reception, especially in terms of the human rights, which are more progressive in Menzius than in Plato and Aristotle. He demonstrates that Menzius was in Western history of reception mainly interpreted as universalistic.<br />
While many of the assembled contributions deal with the actual legislation in China, Sapio's contribution fills a gap in the area of the more difficult gray legal practice: On the basis of diplomatic sources and examples, it proves that the practice of "shuanggui" exists in China, in form of arrest without charge, used by the Communist Party against corrupt officials or members of the party.<br />
<br />
Weyrauch deals in his contribution with the decision-making practice for Chinese asylum applications for Germany. If you are a member of the religious movement "Falun Gong" or a minority, you have resisted against the one-party rule or censorship, or if you have become a victim of the one-child policy it will be decided depending on the degree of persecution.<br />
In China rituals compete with the right: the Chinese adopted Christianity, like before various other religious practices and mixed it with their own popular religious rites and customs. In the so-called "Chinese rites controversy", two mission camps battled each other, who supported this adaptation or rejected it. Von Collani evaluates in her contribution numerous documents, which are now accessible, of the approximately one hundred years of ritual strife.<br />
<br />
Another area which is not directly connected to the main theme of the law are political guidelines: In his contribution using the example of armaments policy, Aßmann examines an aspect of security policy, here the case of an American missile defense system for Japan and Taiwan. He discusses possible power shifts in the region and warns of a new arms race. Ostendorf draws attention to the shadows of the economic boom in China, the environmental pollution. He draws future scenarios on how this destruction can be managed.<br />
<br />
保罗（Paul）谈到孟子处世思想的政治意义，特别是在人权方面，孟子的思想比柏拉图和亚里斯多德的思想更为进步。他表示，孟子在西方处世历史中主要为普遍主义所解释。虽然许多研究的对象是是中国的实际立法，但萨皮奥(Sapio)的研究成果填补了法律实践灰色地带的空白，而这一研究是更为困难的领域。研究成果如下：基于外交资料和实例，表明“双归”存在于中国，它是中国共产党以未经起诉而逮捕的形式来查处腐败官员或腐败党员的手段。<br />
<br />
韦罗克（Weyrauch）致力于为中国人申请德国的政治庇护。根据迫害程度的大小，判断该人是否为宗教运动“法轮功”的成员或者少数民族，抵制过一党统治或一党审查制度；或者是否为计划生育的受害者。在中国，宗教仪式与权力相抗衡。中国人对待基督教的方式与对待过去各种宗教的方式类似，他们将基督教引进国内，并将其与本国的宗教仪式和习俗相结合。在所谓的“中国礼仪之争”当中，两方势力相互对抗，针对基督教华化表明了支持或反对的态度。冯·柯兰霓（Von Collani）在其众多的研究成果中探讨了该历经约一百年的宗教冲突，这些研究资料如今均可获取。<br />
<br />
除宗教外，另一个与法律主旋律并无直接联系的领域则是政治指导方针。在以军备政策为例的研究中，阿斯曼（Aßmann）研究安全政策的一个方面——美国针对日本和台湾的导弹防御系统，探讨地区可能发生的权力转移，并发出了新一轮军备竞赛出现的警告。奥斯坦多夫（Ostendorf）关注到中国经济繁荣所带来的环境污染问题，并提出解决该问题的未来方案。<br />
--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:26, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
<br />
Vol. 21<br />
Chen, Hui<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2010<br />
ISBN 978-3-89966-277-1<br />
253 pp., Paperback, 29.90 €<br />
<br />
The terminology translation is a special case of the translation. Despite many parallels to the general translation, there are some differences which cause problems which not only translators in terminology transfer have to cope with, but also the respective expert groups, throughout the terminology work:<br />
<br />
a) The main difference between the two sides is: the text has to be translated as a whole, which offers the technical context in which the individual terms and expressions are embedded, and thus can fuction indicatory for the translation, but existst at the terminology transmission not in the way like it can be found at the general translation. The topic in a terminology transfer is a single subject terminus or a particular set of terms. Therefore the translator first needs to acquire the appropriate expertise, which is then used as a "text" when translating the terms.<br />
<br />
b) The non-presence of a concrete client, which has to be considered as a rule, means that the translator and other experts have to take more responsibility with regard to the quality control.<br />
<br />
c) The involvement of different translators at one and the same terminological "text", which is rare and, if so, coordinated to a limited extent, as well as a time-delayed transmission of this "text" has a "terminology diversity" as a result, which acts often more confusing than as an useful effect. This means for the terminology work that an additional task, terminology collation, is to be mastered.<br />
It should also be noted that the partial incompatibility of two parallel terminologies makes the terminology transmission more difficult.<br />
<br />
第二十一卷 陈辉 波鸿：欧洲大学出版社.2010 国际书号978-3-89966-277-1 253页，29.90欧元<br />
<br />
术语翻译是翻译的特例。尽管与通用翻译有很多相似之处，但还是存在一些差异，这些差异会造成一些问题，而这些问题不仅是术语迁移中的翻译人员需要应对的，也是各专家组在整个术语工作中需要面对的：<br />
<br />
a)两者的主要区别是：文本必须整体翻译，这为单个术语和表达提供了技术语境，从而起到指示翻译的作用，但存在于术语的传递上，而不像一般的翻译那样存在。术语转移中的主题是单个主题术语或一组特定术语。因此，翻译人员首先需要获得适当的专业知识，然后在翻译术语时将其作为“文本”使用。<br />
<br />
b)不存在一个具体的客户，这是一条规则，这意味着译者和其他专家必须在质量控制方面承担更多的责任。<br />
<br />
c)不同的翻译者参与同一个术语“文本”的情况非常罕见，如果这样的话，将在有限的范围内进行协调，而且该“文本”的延时传输具有“术语多样性”结果，这往往比有用的效果更令人困惑。这意味着对于术语工作，还需要掌握另一项任务，即术语整理。<br />
还应注意，两个并行术语的部分不兼容使术语传输更加困难。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:31, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
<br />
Vol. 20<br />
Winfried Woesler, Lü Yuan:<br />
Bochum: European University Press. 2006<br />
ISBN 978-3-89966-228-3<br />
409 pp., 29.90 €<br />
<br />
Representative selection of 54 Chinese poets with a total of approx. 100 poems mostly from the 1970s and 1980s, selected by recognized Chinese poets of the older generation Lü Yuan. New edition of the 384-pages bi-lingual Reclam anthology, published in 1992, for the first time printed in Chinese writing and thus also readable for students of sinology. Presented is the earliest generation of poets, which are writing in modern language: Ai Qing, Feng Zhi, Xin Di, Su Jinsan and Fang Jing. The second generation, who made a name for themselves in the anti-Japanese resistance war, were Lu Li, Peng Yanjiao, from the poetry circle July Zou Difan and Lü Yuan, from the circle of Nine Leaves Zheng Min and Chen Jingrong. The third generation, that despite the functionalization of literature in the 1950s, persistently focused on poetry only for the sake of poetry, is represented by Shao Yanxiang, Li Ying, Gong Lu, Cai Qijiao and Liu Shahe. The fourth generation is the vanguard of the younger generation with Bei Dao, Shu Ting, Gu Cheng, Jiang He and Fu Tianlin, their initially singled voices have long become representative voices of the people. The fifth generation is represented by Yu Jian, Han Dong, Cao Jian, and Xu Demin. These student poets discover fabrics for their subject matter directly in the everyday life.<br />
<br />
第二十卷<br />
温•沃斯勒，绿原：<br />
波鸿：欧洲大学出版社.2006<br />
国际书号 978-3-89966-228-3<br />
409页，29.90欧元<br />
<br />
由公认的老一辈中国诗人绿原选择，具有代表性的54名诗人及其所写的共计约100首诗，其中大部分于二十世纪七十至八十年代完成。新版384页的双语《Reclam选集》于1992年出版，是第一次中文出版，因此汉学学生也可阅读。以下是最早一代用现代语言写作的诗人：艾青、冯至、辛迪、苏金伞和方敬。在抗日战争中声名鹊起的第二代诗人有：鲁藜、彭燕郊，七月诗派的邹荻帆及绿原，九叶诗派郑敏和陈敬容。二十世纪五十年代，第三代诗人不管文学在诗歌中的作用，坚持把重心放在诗歌本身上，其代表作家有：邵燕祥、李瑛、公刘？、蔡其矫及流沙河。第四代诗人是年轻一代诗人的先锋：北岛、顾城、江河、傅天琳，他们起初微小的声音早已成为了代表人民的声音。第五代代表诗人有：于坚、韩东、曹健及徐德民。这些学生诗人直接从每日生活中发掘他们诗歌内容的素材。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 02:40, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Zeng Xinyuan<br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
<br />
Vol. 19<br />
CD<br />
Based on the paper edition of the Akademie-Verlag Berlin 1985. Bochum: European University Press 2006<br />
1446 pp. DIN A4, with different counting<br />
License for use: 29.90 € (natural persons),<br />
49 € (institutions, per workplace), delivery on CD only directly from publisher to final customer<br />
ISBN 978-3-89966-207-8<br />
The dictionary is continually updated and extended (cost-effective updates are available every year).<br />
<br />
Approx. 100,000 entries, effective 2006. Restricted is also to look for German terms, so that the dictionary can be used bidirectionally in contrast to the paper edition.<br />
A syllabary has been added to the present digital form for a faster search for the desired syllable from which one can see where the syllable begins, as a page number, which can be entered directly into a search field any time. In addition, you can also open the page by scrolling.<br />
<br />
If the pronunciation of a Chinese character is not known, you must search in the character index as in the book form, and search the current character number next to the character you are looking for by scrolling the pages in the dictionary text to the top left or right. To speed up the search process, two syllabaries were added to, a tone syllabary (page I) and one for character numbers (page II). Edited by Gunnar Richter. Authors of the paper edition: Helga Beutel, Horst-Dieter Gasde, Anja Gleboff, Ilse Karl, Gunnar Richter, Christiane Schwarz, Gottfried Spies, Eberhard Treppt, Horst-Dieter Gasde (administration), edited by Horst-Dieter Gasde, Ilse Karl, Christiane Schwarz; Gunnar Richter, Gottfried Spies.<br />
<br />
<br />
卷 19<br />
光盘<br />
基于1985年柏林的Akademie-Verlag纸质版。波鸿：欧洲大学出版社，2006年<br />
1446页DIN A4，具有不同的计数<br />
使用许可：29.90€（自然人），<br />
49€（根据机构，每个工作场所），仅以CD形式直接从发行商交付给最终客户<br />
书号978-3-89966-207-8<br />
该词典会不断更新和扩展（每年都会提供具有成本效益的更新）。<br />
<br />
大约 100,000个条目，从2006年开始生效。此外，还必须查找德语术语，以便该词典与纸质版相比可以双向使用。<br />
音节已添加到当前的数字形式中，以便更快地搜索所需的音节，从中可以看到该音节从何处开始，作为页码，可以随时将其直接输入到搜索字段中。 此外，您还可以通过滚动打开页面。<br />
<br />
大约100,000个条目，从2006年开始生效。德语术语查找也包含在内，因此比起纸质版，该词典可用于双向查找。<br />
音节文字表已添加到当前的数字形式中，以便更快搜索所需音节，从中可以看到该音节从何处开始，作为页码，可以随时将其直接输入到搜索字段中。此外，您还可以通过滚屏打开页面。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 03:04, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Zeng Xinyuan<br />
<br />
如果不知道中文字符的发音，则必须像在书本上那样在字符索引中进行搜索，并通过滚动字典上的页面，在左上角或右上角的搜索框中搜索所需字符旁边的当前字符。 为了加快搜索过程，添加了两个音节，一个音调音节（第一页）和一个用于字符编号的音节（第二页）。 由Gunnar Richter编辑。 论文版本的作者：Helga Beutel，Horst-Dieter Gasde，Anja Gleboff，Ilse Karl，Gunnar Richter，Christiane Schwarz，Gottfried Spies，Eberhard Treppt，Horst-Dieter Gasde（管理），由Horst-Dieter Gasde, Ilse Karl, Christiane Schwarz; Gunnar Richter, Gottfried Spies编辑。 --[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:53, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
<br />
Vol. 18<br />
Thilo Diefenbach<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2005<br />
190 pp., <Ger., Chin.><br />
ISBN 978-3-89966-169-9 (3-89966-169-9), 19 €<br />
<br />
The Chinese authors Liu Jiming (born in 1963), Zhang Wei (born in 1956) and Liu Qingbang (born 1951), who have been valued in their homeland for years by the readership and literary criticism, are largely unknown to us; translations of their works into German have not yet been available.<br />
<br />
This book presents the three authors in detail, and then gives them the opportunity to speak for themselves in selected short stories and essays. Hence Thilo Diefenbach gives an insight into their narrative complete work and in a hitherto little-studied section of China's contemporary literature. Just in a time when the international perception of the country is limited to the observation of the events in the cities and the Chinese literature largely concentrates on the city life, Diefenbach would like to remind that the still strongly agrarian coined China has also a literature that focuses on the everyday life in the countryside.<br />
<br />
Thilo Diefenbach was promoted in 2003 at the University of Cologne with a dissertation on the subject contexts of violence in modern Chinese literature. From 2004 to 2005 he worked as a scholarship holder of the Fritz Thyssen Foundation on a research project whose results this book contains. Since February 2006, he has been conducting a study on the literature of the Northern Dynasties (386-581) as a scholarship holder of the DAAD at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences in Beijing.<br />
<br />
卷18 蒂洛·迪芬巴赫·波鸿：欧洲大学出版社2005年190页，<德国，中国> ISBN 978-3-89966-169-9（3-89966-169-9），19€<br />
<br />
中国作家刘继明（1963年生），张炜（1956年生）和刘庆邦（1951年生）在他们的国家一直被读者和文学批评家珍视，而我们对此一无所知，尚未将其作品翻译成德语。<br />
<br />
本书详细介绍了这三位作者，并且为他们提供了机会，让他们能在精选的短篇小说和散文中为自己发声。因此，蒂洛·迪芬巴赫对他们的完整叙事作品以及迄今为止中国当代文学中研究较少的部分进行了深入的剖析。在这个国际视野仅限于对城市事件的观察，中国文学也主要关注城市生活的时代，迪芬巴赫想要提醒大家，中国这个仍以农业为主的国家，也有专注于农村日常生活的文学。<br />
<br />
蒂洛·迪芬巴赫于2003年在科隆大学发表了一篇关于中国现代文学中的暴力主题语境的论文。2004年至2005年，他作为弗里茨·蒂森基金会的奖学金获得者参加了一个研究项目。这本书里就包含了这个项目的成果。自2006年2月起，他作为中国社会科学院达德奖学金获得者，一直从事北朝(386-581)文学研究。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 09:13, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
<br />
Vol. 17<br />
Cordula Hunold<br />
2006, Paperback, 145 pp., 1 audio CD 15 min.<br />
ISBN 978-3-86515-031-8 (3-86515-031-4)<br />
13,90 €<br />
<br />
Study in the field of contrasting phonology / phonetics of German and Chinese, which deals with similarities and differences in the segmental and suprasegmental range. It deals with the specific articulation and intonation problems of German Chinese learners and gives hints and practice suggestions for Chinese teachers, who want to improve and make their ChaF instruction more versatile, and those who are interested in the phonetics / phonology of the modern Chinese or even wanr to improve their pronunciation.<br />
<br />
Bd 16<br />
Stefan Messmann<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2005<br />
Paperback, 167 pp.<br />
ISBN 978-3-86515-038-7 (3-86515-038-1)<br />
19,90 €<br />
<br />
The foot binding probably began in the early tenth century, spreading from the north to the south over the next centuries, whereby it was less practiced in the south. It was forbidden several times over the history, recently in 1949, but still today in some places one can see old women with bandaged feet.<br />
<br />
There are different theories about their cause. Most of them try to explain foot binding with 1. status symbol, 2. the necessity to keep the women chaste, 3. ideal of beauty, 4. sexuality, 5. fetish, 6. fashion, 7. demarcation to other peoples and 8. combat of enemies. Of these explanations, the domination of the men seems most plausible.<br />
<br />
第一卷 17<br />
Cordula Hunold<br />
2006年，平装本，145页，1张音频CD15分钟。<br />
ISBN978-3-86515-031-8（3-86515-031-4）<br />
13,90 €<br />
<br />
德语和汉语对比音韵学/语音学领域的研究，该领域涉及音段和跨语段范围的异同。 它处理了德国汉语学习者的具体发音和语调问题，并为中国教师提供了提示和实践建议，他们希望改进并使他们的教学更加多才多艺。那些对现代汉语的语音/音韵学感兴趣的人甚至希望改善他们的发音。<br />
<br />
16<br />
斯特凡·梅斯曼<br />
波鸿：欧洲大学出版社，2005<br />
平装本，167页。<br />
ISBN978-3-86515-038-7（3-86515-038-1）<br />
19,90 €<br />
<br />
绑脚可能始于10世纪初，在接下来的几个世纪里，从北方向南方蔓延，在南方绑脚的做法较少。 绑脚在历史上被禁止了几次，最近在1949年，但今天仍然在一些地方，人们可以看到老年妇女带着绷带的脚。<br />
<br />
关于他们的事业有不同的理论。 他们中的大多数人试图用以下原因来解释绑脚的做法。1.地位象征 2.保持女人贞洁的必要性 3.美丽的理想 4.性 5.恋物癖 6.时尚 7.与其他民族界限 8.敌人的战斗。 在这些解释中，男人的统治似乎是最合理的。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 15:51, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
<br />
Vol. 15<br />
Hartmut Walravens<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2005<br />
Paperback, 271 pp.<br />
ISBN 978-3-86515-027-1 (3-86515-027-6)<br />
29,90 €<br />
<br />
The volume offers a wealth of bibliographic evidence, through which important materials can initially be developed, which are not contained in the existing specialist bibliographies. The foreign countries, one of the important "Cottaschen Journals", and the magazine for the literature of foreign countries provide numerous solid contributions about East Asia for the 19th century: travel reports, political and military representations, translations from Chinese and Japanese literature Unknown. The same applies to the short-lived magazines Spirit of the East and Ho Ping Pao, the latter a news sheet of the Chinese delegation in Berlin after the Second World War. Chinese medicine is particularly popular today, but the medical texts were collected only very little. A register opens up the medical treasures of the Paris National Library. The complete translations of the poetic works of the two Tang poets Tu Fu and Han Yü, published by the excellent specialist Erwin von Zach, were made accessible by new editions by the Harvard University. Index and register allow quick access to masterpieces of Chinese poetry.<br />
<br />
卷15 哈特穆特·瓦拉尔文斯 波鸿：欧洲大学出版社 2005年 简装本 ISBN 978-3-86515-027-1 (3-86515-027-6) 29,90 €<br />
<br />
该卷提供了丰富的书目证据，通过这些证据，可以初步总结出专业书目中暂缺的重要资料。《外国》是重要的“科塔什期刊”之一，也是外国文学杂志，为19世纪东亚作出了大量重要的贡献：旅行报道、政治和军事报道、鲜为人知的中日文学翻译。两本只存在一时的杂志《东方精神》和《和平报》也是如此，后者是二战后中国驻柏林代表团的新闻稿。中医学在今天特别受欢迎，但是医学文献的收集却很少。一本登记册打开了巴黎国家图书馆的医学宝藏。哈佛大学新增订了由杰出专家埃尔文·冯·扎克出版的两位唐代诗人杜甫和韩愈诗作的全译本。通过索引和注册，可以快速访问中国诗歌的杰作。--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:23, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
卷15 哈特穆特·瓦尔拉文斯 <br />
波鸿：欧洲大学出版社 2005年 简装本 271页 <br />
ISBN 978-3-86515-027-1 (3-86515-027-6) 29,90 €<br />
该卷提供了丰富的书目材料，这些材料可以初步显露出现有专业书目中缺少的重要资料。《外国》是重要的“科塔刊杂志”之一，也是外国文学杂志，它为19世纪的东亚提供了大量可靠的投稿：旅行报道、政治和军事报道、鲜为人知的中日文学翻译。两本只存在一时的杂志《东方精神》和《和平报》也包括在内，后者是二战后中国驻柏林代表团的新闻稿。尽管中医学在今天特别受欢迎，但是与之相关的医学文献却很少被收集。一本登记册打开了巴黎国家图书馆的医学宝藏。哈佛大学新增订了由著名专家埃尔文·冯·扎克出版的两位唐代诗人杜甫和韩愈诗作的全译本。通过索引和注册，便可快速通向中国诗歌杰作的入口。--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 09:04, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
<br />
Vol. 14 (3 books)<br />
Tsau Hsuä-tjin, Gau Ë<br />
<br />
Edited and with an introduction by Martin Woesler, with an afterword by Hartmut Walravens<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2006-2007, 3 volumes, ISBN 978-3-86515-010-3 (3-86515-010-1), € 59 per part, Vol. I Tsau Hsüä-tjin, translated by Rainer Schwarz 2006 978-3-86515-011-0 (3-86515-011-X), Vol. II Tsau Hsüä-tjin, supra. Rainer Schwarz, 2006 978-3-86515-012-7 (3-86515-012-8 ), Vol. III Tsau Hsüä-tjin, Gau Ë, trans. Martin Woesler 2007 978-3-86515-013-4 (3-86515-013-6)<br />
<br />
The most famous Chinese novel for the first time in complete German translation.<br />
<br />
To part 1<br />
The goddess Nüwa does not use the 36501. stone anymore for the repair of the sky roof. This feeds a flower with dew drops. Finally, the stone is reborn as the protagonist Djia Bau-yu to whom the dew must be repaid in form of tears. The novel tells about the growing-up of Bau-yüs with his cousins in the ‘Garden of the Great Perspective’ against the backdrop of the rise and fall of the administrator family Djia in the time of the last emperors of the Ming Dynasty. However the autobiographical background is the first emperor of the Manchurian Tjing Dynasty (1644-1911).<br />
Bau-yü spends carefree children's and youth days with his cousins.<br />
In the first part of the novel, a triangular relationship develops between the talented, androgynous Djia Bau-yu, the gritty and pragmatic Hsuä Bau-chai and the desperate for love intelligent but sickly Lin Dai-yi.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
<br />
To part 2<br />
Bau-yü, talented son of the influential large family Djia, grows up together with his cousins almost carefree in the paradise-like 'Garden of the Great Perspective'. In the second part of the novel he experiences the degeneration and the moral decay of his family, the political and financial descent. The ideal world of childhood threatens to break at the transition to adolescent.<br />
Signs of imminent disaster cast a pall on the love of the androgynous Djia Bau-yü to his devoted but sickly, still-suffering and resigned cousin Lin Dai-yi.<br />
Has their love a future in a time of arranged marriages and against the backdrop of the family's decline?<br />
<br />
To part 3<br />
Gradually, the twelve girls of the Garden of the Great Perspective marry and move away. Also Djia Bau-yü believes to marry his cousin Lin Dai-yü. But when the veil is aroused, it is Hsii Bau-tschai. Lin Dai-yü dies of grief at the same time.<br />
The garden orphans. The jade stone is lost. The family falls into disgrace with the Emperor, the titles are withdrawn. The property is being robbed and plundered. Some family members are arrested and exiled. The Duchess-mother dies. The decline of the extended family Djia seems to be sealed.<br />
<br />
Only after Djia Bau-yü understands his predestined destiny and decides to live as a Buddhist monk, the tide is turning: Djia Bau-yü passes the state examinations together with his cousin Djia Lan. Titles, reputation, and goods are restored. The Djia family is looking forward to a happy future with Djia Lan and Bau-yüs son Djia Guee.<br />
But where is Bau-yü?<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
<br />
Vol. 13<br />
Martin Woesler<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2003, x, 242 pp., ISBN 978-3-89966-004-3 (3-89966-004-8)<br />
14,90 €<br />
<br />
Documentation of an exemplary discussion of politics and literature in the People's Republic of China. From September 1991 to January 1992, this debate caught the attention of the Chinese public and also made international headlines. Throughout the period, the author has been able to follow the local discussions in Beijing.<br />
The dispute proceeds like a bad crime: The resignation of the Minister of Culture Wang Meng on September 4, 1989, is linked to the story of " Zäher Brei " from the time of the democratic movement. The narrative, a political grotesque, is then awarded by a liberal literature magazine. There is a storm of indignation among the orthodox Marxists, which vents it’s spleen in two press articles. Apparently one would like to tackle the liberal literature of the 1980s at all. The former Minister of Culture fears a new political hate campaign and - a novelty in the history of the People's Republic of China –strains a lawsuit against authors and backers. This is followed by a paper- warfare, which course is followed eagerly by the Chinese intellectuals.<br />
<br />
This dispute illustrates the tug-of-war between the reformers and reformist opponents among Chinese politicians and intellectuals in the consolidation phase after 4 June 1989. In their pleading, the debates are not confessing themselves without a wink as a supporter or opponent of the mash.<br />
<br />
This volume contains the most important documents of the 'slugfest' in German translation. According to the narrative (p. 4 ff.), the chronology (pp. 55 ff.) Provides a first overview of the debate, which is documented in the following 17 texts. The background is provided by a biography of Wang Meng (p. 161 ff.), explanations of the tense relationship between politics and literature (p. 184 ff.), and a commentary essay (p 204 ff.) References, an overview of the reception, further bibliography and a sign glossary form the appendix.<br />
<br />
卷13 吴漠汀 波鸿: 欧洲大学出版社 欧洲大学出版社 2003年, x, 242页.,ISBN 978-3-89966-004-3（3-89966-004-8）14,90€<br />
<br />
中华人民共和国政治和文学的典型文献。 1991年9月至1992年1日的这场辩论不仅引起中国民众注意，也成为了国际头条。在此期间，笔者一直关注北京当地讨论。此辩论犹如一场严重罪行：1989年9月4日，文化部长王蒙的辞职与民主运动时期的“分粥”故事脱不了干系。此事虽是政治怪诞，之后却在一自由文学杂志中得奖。正统的马克思主义者由此激怒，在两篇新闻中爆发。显然，他们想解放1980年代的自由文学。前文化部长担心爆发新的政治仇恨运动（中华人民共和国的历史上的新鲜事），会加剧对作家和支持者的反抗。其次是中国知识分子们积极参与的笔战。<br />
<br />
这场辩论说明，在1989年6月4日之后，由中国政客和知识分子组成的改革派与保守派之间的拉锯战处于巩固阶段。在他们的论战中，如果没有眨眼默认为辩论的支持者或反对者，辩论就无罪。<br />
<br />
该卷包含德语“ slugfest”中的最重要的文献。据记载（第4页及以下），按时间顺序（第55页及以下）提供了辩论的第一篇概述，该摘要记录在以下17篇文章中。本书的背景是王蒙的自传（第161页及以下），论政治与文学之间的紧张关系（第184页及以下）和评论文章（第204页及以下）。附录中有反响概况，参考书目和专业术语表。<br />
<br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
<br />
Bd 12<br />
Martin Woesler, Junhua Zhang eds.<br />
China's digital dream<br />
The impact of the Internet on Chinese society<br />
Bochum: European University Press ²2003, 332 pp.<br />
ISBN 978-3-86515-190-2 (3-86515-190-6)<br />
(1st ed. 2002: ISBN 978-3-934453-90-6 (3-934453-90-2), 274 pp.)<br />
39.00 €<br />
<br />
A dream is a vision undoubtedly, part of the vision has already become reality.<br />
Through the endeavours made by China´s political elite in the past two decades. But what exactly does that vision look like, what is the reality of China´s Internet and to what extent has this modern medium influenced and how will it continue to influence the life of people in china? In Order to find out answers to these questions, we aked scholars from China, Hong Kong, the USA, and Europe engaged in the study of Chinese internet and politics to offer<br />
their thoughts and to present the results of their research. This book is intended to be an arena of discourse between scholars approaching the study of China from different perspectives and hopefully will help readers to gain an insight into China´s modernization strategy and ist praxis.<br />
<br />
中国的数字梦想互联网对中国社会的影响 吴漠汀，张军华著 波鸿：欧洲大学出版社, 2003年第二版, 332 页. ISBN 978-3-86515-190-2 (3-86515-190-6) (1st ed. 2002: ISBN 978-3-934453-90-6 (3-934453-90-2), 274 pp.) 39.00 €<br />
<br />
毫无疑问，梦想就是一种愿景，经过二十年来中国政治精英的不断努力，一部分愿景已经成为了现实。但这种愿景究竟是什么样的？中国互联网的现实是什么？互联网这种现代媒介在多大程度上影响了这种愿景？以及互联网将如何持续影响中国人的生活？为了寻找这一系列问题的答案，我们邀请了一些来自于中国、中国香港、美国和欧洲的从事中国互联网和政策研究的学者，以提出他们的想法并介绍他们的研究成果。本书旨在成为学者间从不同角度探索中国问题的交流平台，希望本书能帮助读者了解中国现代化战略和实践。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:56, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
中国的数字梦想互联网对中国社会的影响 吴漠汀，张军华著 波鸿：欧洲大学出版社, 2003年第二版, 332 页. ISBN 978-3-86515-190-2 (3-86515-190-6) (第一版. 2002: ISBN 978-3-934453-90-6 (3-934453-90-2), 274 页) 39.00 €<br />
梦想无疑是一个愿景，经过过去二十年来中国政治精英的努力，愿景的一部分已经成为现实。 但是这种愿景到底是什么样的？中国互联网的现实是什么？这种现代媒介在多大程度上影响了它？它将如何继续影响中国人民的生活？为了找出这些问题的答案，我们邀请了一些来自中国，香港，美国和欧洲的从事中国互联网和政治研究的学者们，以提出他们的想法并介绍他们的研究结果。本书旨在作为从不同角度探讨中国问题的学者之间进行交流的场所，希望能帮助读者深入了解中国的现代化战略和实践。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 13:14, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
<br />
CONTENTS<br />
Part I Proactive and Reactive Stances towards the Internet —Internet in China and Southeast Asia<br />
1. The Internet and Civil Society in China and Southeast Asia. Sh.Kalathil, pp. 31-46<br />
2. Telecom Taxonomy: How are the One Party States of East Asia Controlling the Political Impact of the Internet? Nina Hachigian, pp. 47-80<br />
<br />
Part II Social and Economical Impacts<br />
3. Digital Divide and E-Learning – Chances and Problems in China’s Approach. Junhua Zhang, pp. 81-108<br />
4. The Reality and Potential of Online Trading in China. Haifeng Huang / Ren Ma / Lin Jian / John Liang, pp. 109-120<br />
5. Internet Use in China–A Comparative Analysis. Guo Liang/Bu Wei, pp. 121-144<br />
<br />
Part III Globalization and the Clash of Civilizations<br />
6. Accession to the WTO and the Development of China’s Digital Media. Xupei Sun, pp. 145-164<br />
7. The Internet Transforms China into an "Open Society". M. Woesler, pp. 165-187<br />
<br />
Part IV Nation-Building and Information Warfare<br />
8. Assessing China´s Efforts in Constructing an e-government. Peter Lovelock / John Ure, pp. 187-211<br />
9. Is the "wolf" coming? - An empirical study on cultural in-formation spread on Chinese websites. Peng Lan, 212-230<br />
10. Technology, Markets and Nation-Building in Chinese Cyberspace. Christopher R. Hughes, pp. 231-246.<br />
11. Between Rhetoric and Reality – A Critical Examination of the Theories and Praxis of Information Warfare in China in the Light of Post-Iraq War 2003. Junhua Zhang, pp. 247-270.<br />
<br />
Part V Governance and Information Policy<br />
12. Development of E-government in China – Present Status, Problems, and Future. Xinjiao Tan, pp. 271-294.<br />
13. Internet Censorship Focus: 'Human Rights not found' in the Chinese Web. Martin Woesler, pp. 295-325<br />
Index etc.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
<br />
CONTRIBUTORS<br />
Wei Bu, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Beijing, China<br />
Liang Guo, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Beijing, China<br />
Nina Hachigian, Director, RAND Center for Asia Pacific Policy, USA<br />
Kai Haifeng Huang, Vice President, Association of Chinese Finance Professionals, San Francisco, USA<br />
Christopher R. Hughes, Director, Asia Research Centre, Senior Lecturer, International Relations, London School of Economics, United Kingdom<br />
Lin Jian, Vice President, Shenzhen Prosperity Systems Co. Ltd., Shenzhen, China<br />
Shanthi Kalathil, Project on the Information Revolution and World Politics, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace in Washington, D.C., USA<br />
Lan Peng, Associate Professor, School of Journalism of Renmin University, Beijing, China<br />
John Liang, President, Global Vision Consulting Company in Santa Clara, USA<br />
Peter Lovelock, Deputy Director, Telecommunications Research Project, University of Hong Kong, China<br />
Ren Ma, Senior Consultant, Beijing Yingce Investment Consulting Company, Beijing, China<br />
Xupei Sun, Professor, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, China<br />
Xinjiao Tan, College of Foreign Languages, Renmin University of China, Beijing, China<br />
John Ure, Director, Telecommunications Research Project, University of Hong Kong, China<br />
Martin Woesler, Lecturer, EALC, Gutenberg University Mainz, Germersheim, Germany<br />
Junhua Zhang, Research Associate, Center for Chinese and East Asian Politics, Free University Berlin, Germany<br />
<br />
编著<br />
魏步 中国社会科学院<br />
梁果 中国社会科学院<br />
Nina Hachigian 美国兰德亚太政策中心主任<br />
Kai Haifeng Huang 美国旧金山中国金融专业协会副主席<br />
Christopher R. Hughes 亚洲研究中心主任、英国伦敦经济学院国际关系高级讲师<br />
林建 深圳兴胜合作有限公司副总裁<br />
Shanthi Kalathil 美国华盛顿卡内基国际和平基金会信息革命和世界政治项目<br />
蓝鹏 中国人民大学新闻学院副教授<br />
梁约翰 美国圣克拉拉环球视野咨询公司总裁<br />
Peter Lovelock 香港大学通信研究项目副主任<br />
马仁 北京英策投资咨询公司高级咨询师<br />
孙旭培 华中科技大学教授<br />
谭新娇 中国人民大学外国语学院<br />
John Ure 香港大学通信研究项目主任<br />
吴漠汀 德国美因茨古腾堡大学东亚研究方向讲师<br />
张军华 德国柏林自由大学中国和东亚政治中心研究员--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 08:08, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
<br />
Bd 10<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2003<br />
109 pp., ISBN 978-3-932329-08-1 (3-932329-08-2)<br />
9,95 €<br />
The present collection includes contributions to the theoretical involvement with language learning software and test reports, which are intended as decision aids for pupils and teachers.<br />
Introduction to the extended new edition. P. 2, observations on the learning of languages with the computer p. 3-7, background of evaluation patterns for electronic media p. 7, thinking impulses and classification of selected literature p. 8-11, The test criteria catalog of the State Institute for School and Continuing Education S (Biaozhun Hanyu jiaocheng) p. 25-33, Biaozhun Hanyu jiaocheng - Critical Experience Report (Cornelia Menzel) p. 34, Examination of two Chinese Learning Tutors (Katharina Kehrer), pp. 35-55, Chinese Assistant 2.10 pp. 56-57, Chinese Character Tutor p. 58-59, Interactive Chinese, Professional Version p. 60-64, Interactive Chinese, Version ABC p , Language Learning Chinese p. 66, Mao's Alphabet p. 67, Wenlin 1.0 p. 69-70, Wenlin 3.1 p. 71, Dewenlin (German version of Wenlin) p. 72-74, Further Chinese Learning Programs p -Learning Chinese p. 77, Web info for Chinese -Lehrer p. 81, German as a Foreign Language: Language Course German 1-2-3 pp. 84-85, Lina and Leo p. 86-90, Japanese: Krea Kanji p. 91-95, Spanish: Interactive Language Teacher Spanish (Anja Rossig , Pp. 96-99, English: Encarta (Andreas Schnieber) pp. 100-102, Interaktive Sprachentrainer English (Sebastian Schröer) pp. 103-106, French: tmx French (Sylwia Wyszynski) p. 109-110, The author p. 111, Bibliography p. 112, List of electronic media p. 114-115, List of illustrations p. 116-117, selection index p. 118.<br />
<br />
Bd 10<br />
波鸿：欧洲大学出版社2003年<br />
109页，ISBN 978-3-932329-08-1（3-932329-08-2）<br />
9,95€<br />
本系列藏品对语言学习软件和测试报告的理论参与做出了贡献，旨在为学生和教师提供决策帮助。<br />
扩展的新版本简介。 P2，关于用计算机学习语言的意见。P3-7，电子媒体评估模式的背景。P7，思考的冲动和选定文献的分类。P8-11，国家学校和继续教育学院考试标准目录（标准汉语教程）P25-33，标准汉语教程-批判经验报告（Cornelia Menzel） P34，两位汉语学习导师考试（Katharina Kehrer） P35-55，中文助手2.10 P56-57，汉字导师。 P58-59，互动中文，专业版。P60-64，交互式中文，ABC版本，中文语言学习。 P66，毛泽东的字母表。P67温林1.0 P69-70，温林第3.1 P71，德文林（德文版温林）。P72-74，进一步的汉语学习计划 -学习中文。P77，中文-Lehrer的网页信息。 P81，德语作为外语：德语课程1-2-3页，P84-85，Lina和Leo。 P86-90，日语：Krea Kanji。 91-95，西班牙语：互动语言老师，西班牙语（Anja Rossig，P96-99，英语：Encarta（安德里亚斯·施尼伯），P100-102页，Interaktive Sprachentrainer英语（塞巴斯蒂安·施罗尔）P103-106页，法语：tmx法语（Sylwia Wyszynski） P109-110页，作者。P111，参考书目。P112，电子媒体列表。P114-115，插图列表。P116-117页，选择索引。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 07:06, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
Vol. 9<br />
Martin Woesler<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2003<br />
181 pp., ISBN 978-3-932329-15-9 (3-932329-15-5)<br />
24,50 €<br />
<br />
This book is an understandable guide on how to use Chinese under Windows 95, 98, ME, 2000, XP without additional programs.<br />
A reference book on 100 errors, which have occurred in Chinese under Windows across Europe with understandable solutions.<br />
A documentation of the first beginnings of Chinese on the computer until the Unicode.<br />
A practical guide for Internet, e-mail and text processing with Chinese.<br />
<br />
Vol. 8<br />
[Chinese / German]<br />
Karl-Heinz Pohl (ed.)<br />
Bochum: European University Press ²2003<br />
215 pp., ISBN 978-3-934453-30-2 (3-934453-30-9)<br />
19.90 €<br />
<br />
To break his back for five bushels of rice a day, he was himself to pity and quit the public service. In the country he has moved, has cultivated fields and gardens and praised what he loved: chrysanthemums and pines, even children, country people, old people, drinking with friends, silence, seclusion. He understood how to praise as to lament, to think about the vicissitudes of life, and to play down his own hardships with a dash of self-irony: hardly anything tormented him, like the idea that the wine might go out.<br />
He lived 1500 years ago and his poems are as of today. The Chinese regard Tao Yuanming as the greatest poet between Han and Tang time; countless painters are inspired by him.<br />
<br />
<br />
Vol. 7<br />
Gregor Paul, Martin Woesler (eds.)<br />
Bochum: European University Press²2003<br />
Ii, 198 pp, ISBN 978-3-932329-13-5 (3-932329-13-9)<br />
15.34 €<br />
<br />
卷9<br />
吴漠汀<br />
波鸿：欧洲大学出版社 2003<br />
ISBN 978-3-932329-15-9 (3-932329-15-5)<br />
24.5欧<br />
本书是在没有附加程序的情况下，就如何在Windows 95、98，ME，2000，XP系统中如何使用中文而撰写的一份易于理解的指南。<br />
此参考书包含100个错误，这些错误均在欧洲范围内使用Windows中文系统时发生，此书还提供了易于理解的解决方案。<br />
此书记录了自计算机上出现的第一个中文到Unicode。<br />
此书为实用的中文互联网，电子邮件和文本处理指南。<br />
<br />
卷8<br />
【中国/德国】<br />
卡尔·海因茨·波尔（编辑）<br />
波鸿：欧洲大学出版社 2003<br />
ISBN 978-3-934453-30-2 (3-934453-30-9)<br />
19.90欧<br />
他过得怡然自得，辞去了公职，舍弃了每天挣五斗米的日子。 在乡村里，他耕种田野，修理花园，称赞自己所爱的一切：菊和松树，甚至是孩子，乡下人，老人，和朋友一起喝酒的时光，安静和与世隔绝的日子。他知道如何像悼念一样赞美，如何思考人生的沧桑，如何自嘲地淡化自己的艰辛：几乎无事会让他折磨他，就像酒也会没有一样。<br />
他活在1500年前，他的诗却延续到今天。 中国人将陶渊明视为汉唐时期最伟大的诗人，他曾启发了数位画家。<br />
<br />
卷7<br />
格雷戈尔·保罗，吴漠汀（编辑）<br />
波鸿：欧洲大学出版社 2003<br />
ISBN 978-3-932329-13-5 (3-932329-13-9)<br />
15.34 欧--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:46, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
<br />
Bd 6<br />
Martin Woesler, ed.<br />
The Modern Chinese Literary Essay - Defining the Chinese Self in the 20th Century - Conference Volume, Bochum: European University Press ²2003, 327 pp., ISBN 978-3-934453-15-9 (3-934453-15-5)<br />
35.79 €<br />
<br />
Contents<br />
<br />
Introduction<br />
The Freedom of Intellectual Exchange pp. 13-14<br />
Preface: The Flourishing of the Chinese Essay pp. 15-16<br />
<br />
Keynote: “Let us Assign the Essay its Proper Place in Chinese Literature” pp. 17-28<br />
Martin Woesler, University of Mainz, Germany<br />
<br />
The Emergence of the Modern Chinese Essay: Precursors and Influences of a Major Literary Form - The Aesthetic of Marginalism and the Impact of the West on the Chinese Essay pp. 29-42<br />
Martin Woesler, University of Mainz, Germany<br />
<br />
The Modern Essay and Urban Culture in The Republican Period<br />
Formation of Modern Subjectivity and Essay: Zhou Shoujuan’s “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” pp. 43-68<br />
Jianhua Chen, Harvard University, Cambridge, USA<br />
Eileen Chang and the Modern Essay pp. 69-100<br />
Nicole Huang, University of Wisconsin, Madison, USA<br />
<br />
Perspectives on Ideology in the Essay<br />
Zhu Ziqing, Frantz Fanon, and the Fierce White Children pp. 101-116<br />
Daniel A. Fried, Harvard University, Cambridge, USA<br />
Incongruous Lyricism: Liu Baiyu, Yang Shuo and sanwen in Chinese Socialist Culture pp. 117-134<br />
Charles A. Laughlin, Yale University, New Haven, USA<br />
<br />
<br />
蓝色光碟6 吴漠汀主编，当代中国文学散文-定义二十世纪中国自我主义-会议期刊,波鸿：欧洲大学出版社，327页，2003年ISBN 978-3-934453-15-9 (3-934453-15-5) 35.79 欧<br />
<br />
目录<br />
<br />
引言 <br />
知识交流的自由 13-14页<br />
<br />
前言 <br />
中国散文的兴盛 15-16页 <br />
<br />
主题：“让我们将散文在中国文学中置于恰当的位置”17-28页 吴漠汀,美因茨大学，德国<br />
<br />
当代中国散文的兴起：文学主要形式的前身及影响-边缘主义的美学和西方文化对中国散文的影响 29-42页 吴漠汀，美因茨大学，德国<br />
<br />
民国时期现代散文和城市文化 现代主体性和散文的形成：周瘦鹃 43-68页，哈佛大学，剑桥，美国 <br />
<br />
张爱玲与当代散文 69-100页 Nicole Huang, 威斯康星大学，麦迪逊市，美国<br />
<br />
散文中意识形态观点 朱自清，佛朗茨•法农，凶猛的白人孩子 101-116页 丹尼尔•A•佛莱德，哈佛大学，剑桥市，美国 <br />
<br />
不协调的抒情：刘白羽，杨硕 中国社会主义文化中的散文 117-134页 查尔斯• A•劳克林，耶鲁大学，纽黑文市，美国--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:55, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
<br />
The Author's Self in Essays of Place and in Qian Zhongshu's Criticism<br />
A Reading of Traditional Gestures in Modern Chinese Essays of Place pp. 135-148<br />
Alexandra R. Wagner, Yale University, New Haven, USA<br />
Qian Zhongshu's Essays pp. 149-176<br />
Hong Yu, University of Münster, Germany<br />
Cultural Polemics in Contemporary China<br />
From Historical Narrative to the World of Prose: The Essayistic Mode in Contemporary Chinese Literature pp. 177-192<br />
Ban Wang, State University of New York at Stony Brook, New York, USA<br />
Mulish Essays: the Genre of Zawen in Contemporary China pp. 193-214<br />
Mary Scoggin, Humboldt State University, Arcata, USA<br />
Nostalgia without Memory: Reading Zhang Wei's Essays pp. 215-230<br />
Jie Lu, University of the Pacific, Stockton, USA<br />
Deciphering the Populist Gadfly: Cultural Polemic around Zhang Chengzhi's “Religious Sublime” pp. 231-240<br />
Xinmin Liu, Wesleyan University, Middletown, USA <br />
Discussion of this chapter: The xiaopin wen between xianshi sanwen and zawen pp. 241-246<br />
King-Fai Tam, Trinity College, Hart.ford, USA<br />
<br />
Regional Perspectives: Taiwan and Hong Kong<br />
The Changing Character of the Essay Subgenres pp. 247-290<br />
Ming-Lee Cheng, Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan<br />
The Short Miscellaneous Essay with Hong Kong Characteristics pp. 291-310<br />
Wai Leung Wong, Chinese University of Hong Kong, China<br />
Overview of the Contemporary Essay<br />
Martin Woesler, University of Mainz, Germany<br />
The 20th Century Chinese Essay - Characteristics, Actors, and Trends pp. 311-328<br />
A Survey of the Genre and New Insights Into the Essayists Ba Jin, Zhou Zuoren, Zhu Ziqing pp. 329-340<br />
Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective pp. 341-360<br />
Contributors pp. 361-372<br />
Index pp. 373-<br />
在地方散文以及钱钟书评论中的作者自我<br />
<br />
中国现代地方散文的传统阅读姿态 135-148 亚历山德拉·R·瓦格纳，耶鲁大学，纽黑文市，美国<br />
<br />
钱钟书的散文 149-176 于洪，明斯特大学，德国<br />
<br />
当代中国文化论证法<br />
<br />
从历史叙述到世界散文：当代中国文学中的散文模型 177-192 王斑，纽约石溪国立大学，纽约，美国<br />
<br />
杂文：当代中国杂文类别 193-214 玛丽·斯科金，洪堡州立大学，阿克塔，美国<br />
<br />
没有记忆的怀念：张伟散文阅读 215-230 卢杰，太平洋大学，斯托克顿市，美国<br />
<br />
破译令人讨厌的民粹主义者：关于张承志“宗教崇高性”的文化抨击 231-240 刘新民，卫斯理大学，米德尔顿，美国<br />
<br />
本章讨论：介于现实散文和杂文之间的小品文 241-246 谭景辉，圣三一学院，哈特福特，美国<br />
<br />
区域视角：台湾和香港<br />
<br />
论文子流派变化的角色 247-290，陈明礼，台湾师范大学，台北，台湾<br />
<br />
具有香港特色的短篇杂文 291-310，黄伟亮，香港中文大学，中国<br />
<br />
当代散文概述 马丁·沃斯勒，美因茨大学，德国<br />
<br />
20世纪中国散文-特点，先驱者以及倾向 311-328<br />
<br />
从全新角度对散文家巴金，周作人，朱自清流派的调查 329-340<br />
<br />
现代中国文学和散文类别：一个全新视角 341-360<br />
<br />
贡献者 361-372<br />
<br />
索引 373-<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:47, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
<br />
vol. 5<br />
Martin Woesler, ed.<br />
The Chinese Essay in The 20th Century<br />
Bochum: European University Press ²2003<br />
496 (xlii, 205, 229) pp.<br />
ISBN 978-3-934453-14-2 (3-934453-14-7)<br />
<br />
<br />
Essay-writing is an acknowledged hallmark of Chinese writers and intellectuals, past and present. The personal essay, in particular, has been widely popular ever since the Ming Dynasty and was a major genre of modern Chinese literature. The more public essay-form <br />
called zawen (miscellaneous essay), the invention of which is attributed to Lu Xun, has been used by at least two generations of modern Chinese intellectuals as a powerful weapon of social and political criticism, often from a dissident angle. All of these are well known in China but seldom studied in the West.<br />
It is time, therefore, that we welcome the publication of a volume of 20th century Chinese essays carefully selected and edited by Martin Woesler. Dr. Woesler has been a most conscientious young scholar from Germany who embarked upon such an endeavor with a singular devotion, especially in view of the fact that his mother tongue is not English. His exemplary zeal must have been contagious, for he was able to gather a like-minded group of translators who all contributed their time and energy to this magnificent volume. As his official sponsor for a year's research visit at Harvard, I am honored to be asked to write this perfunctory preface, a small task I do with pleasure for both scholarly and personal reasons. (Though no expert in this genre I am currently practicing essay-writing myself by contributing to a weekly column in Chinese for a Hong Kong newspaper.)<br />
Readers of this volume can readily discover that a most welcome feature is its comprehensiveness: samples from both the modern and contemporary periods are represented. Although ample coverage is given to writers from the Mainland, the celebrated poet and essayist from Taiwan, Yu Kwang-chung, is also included. Needless to add, this selection is chosen from a much larger collection of essays from Woesler's massive research data bank stored in his personal computer. I am sure he will welcome scholars who wish to gain access. I am delighted that after many years of hard work his labor is finally bearing fruit, and I invite all interested readers to sample its variegated taste.<br />
Leo Ou-fan Lee, July 14, 1999<br />
<br />
第五卷<br />
马丁·维斯勒 著<br />
波鸿：欧洲大学出版社，2003年<br />
496（205，229）页<br />
ISBN 978-3-934453-14-2 (3-934453-14-7)<br />
€/US$ 25.00<br />
<br />
无论是过去还是现在，散文写作是中国作家和知识分子公认的标志。特别是个人散文，自明代以来就广泛流行，是中国现代文学的主要体裁之一。更公开的散文形式<br />
被称为扎文（杂文），是由鲁迅发明的，常被至少两代中国现代知识分子用作从不同政见的角度批判社会和政治的强大武器。这些中国都是众所周知的，但西方却很少有人研究。因此，我们应当欢迎马丁·维斯勒精心挑选和编辑的20世纪中国散文集的出版。维斯勒博士是一位勤勉认真的的德国青年学者，他以非常的献身精神从事这项工作，特别是考虑到他的母语不是英语。他的模范热情是一定具有感染力，因为他能够聚集一群志同道合的翻译家，他们都为这本伟大的著作贡献了时间和精力。作为他在哈佛大学进行为期一年研究访问的官方赞助商，我很荣幸地被要求写这个敷衍的序言，这是一项我出于学术和个人原因而愉快完成的小任务。（虽然我不是这方面的专家，但我目前正在练习写论文，为一家香港报纸的每周中文专栏撰稿。）这本书的读者很容易发现，它最受欢迎的特点是它的全面性：既有现代的例子，也有当代的例子。虽然大陆作家的作品得到了充分的报道，但台湾著名诗人和散文家余光中等人的作品也被包括在内。不用说，这篇文章是沃斯勒从存储在自己个人电脑中的大量研究数据库中挑选出来的。我相信他会欢迎那些希望进一步了解的学者。我很高兴，经过多年的努力，他的劳动终于结出了硕果，我邀请所有感兴趣的读者来品尝它丰富的味道。李欧范，1999年7月14日<br />
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 05:00, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
<br />
Bd 4<br />
Manuel Fries<br />
China and Cyberspace. <br />
The Development of the Chinese National Information Infrastructure<br />
Bochum: European University Press ²2003<br />
220 pp., ISBN 978-3-934453-13-5 (3-934453-13-9)<br />
25.00 €<br />
<br />
"As a China consultant and academic whose interest in China goes as far back as 1952, I was delighted to be asked to write an introduction to "China and Cyberspace", a detailed and very up-to-date report on the development of the Chinese national information infrastructure, succinctly presented in this book by Manuel Fries.<br />
I had the pleasure of first meeting Manuel Fries in Beijing, where he undertook research for this book. Mr. Fries, who speaks fluent Chinese, mingled with ease with Chinese bureaucrats and private entre-preneurs in order to obtain the information for this publication. No doubt, this skill comes from both his training and his extensive research experience. This ideal combination allowed him to compile the vital background information on China's current communications industry, which is at the centre of this book.<br />
Much of the detailed information contained in this volume is not readily available in any form and therefore fills a vital gap as a reference tool for anybody who seeks vital information about China in Cyberspace. The appended bibliography is also of vital use for this purpose.<br />
I am delighted to be able to recommend this publication to all readers who have an interest in contem-porary China and its rapid progress in information technology."<br />
Dr. Wolfgang Frick<br />
曼纽尔弗里斯中国和网络空间。中国国家信息基础设施的发展，波鸿:欧洲大学出版社，2003年，220页，ISBN 978-3-934453-13-5(3-934453-13-9) 25.00欧元<br />
“作为一名中国顾问和学者，我对中国的兴趣可以回溯到1952年。我很高兴被邀请撰写《中国与网络空间》的引言，这是一份关于中国国家信息基础设施发展的最新的详细报告，由曼纽尔•弗莱斯(Manuel Fries)在这本书中简明扼要地阐述了这一问题。我有幸在北京第一次见到了曼纽尔•弗里斯，他在那儿为这本书进行了研究。弗莱斯先生能说一口流利的中文，能自在地与中国官员和私营企业企业家打交道，来获取本刊物所需的信息。毫无疑问，这种能力来自于他的练习和丰富的研究经验。这种理想的结合使他能够编纂有关中国目前通信行业的重要背景信息，这也是本书的核心内容。本书中所包含的许多详细信息都无法以任何形式轻易获取，所以对那些在找寻关于中国网络空间方面的重要信息的人来说，这是一个重要的参考。为这个目的，所附的书目也很重要。我很高兴能够向所有对当代中国以及对其信息技术的快速进步感兴趣的读者推荐这本刊物。”<br />
沃尔夫冈•弗里克（Wolfgang Frick）博士--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:39, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
<br />
Vol. 3<br />
Martin Woesler (ed., transl.)<br />
<Chin., Ger.><br />
Bochum: European University Press ²2003<br />
300 pp., ISBN 978-3-932329-05-0 (3-932329-05-8)<br />
15,29 €<br />
<br />
Bilingual edition with the most famous Chinese essays of the 20th century.<br />
In 1917 the Chinese essay experienced under a strong Western influence its rebirth in baihua, the written common speech. The 1920s and 1930s saw a May of essay writing: in newspapers and magazines these short contributions were a modern medium of the enlightenment in China. Since 1927, the essay was increasingly politicized as a propaganda tool. The conflict between the free (Zhou Zuoren) and the politically committed essay (Lu Xun) was decided by the latter. In the 1990s, the essays of the republics, with the exception of the ideologically affirmative texts, are widely more received than those of the present.<br />
第三卷 马丁·吴勒森（中，徳） 波鸿：欧洲大学出版社2003年 300页，出版号 978-3-932329-05-0（3-932329-05-8）€15，29<br />
20世纪最著名的中国散文，双语版。<br />
1917年，最西方的强烈影响下，中国散文经历了白话文—书面普通话的复兴。20世纪20、30年代，中国经历一场散文写作的五月运动：这些在报纸和杂志上面刊登的短文章成了中国启蒙运动的现代化媒介。自1927年以来，散文越发成为政治宣传的工具。自由（周作人）与政治散文（鲁迅）之间的矛盾受到后者的牵制。20世纪90年代，除思想积极的文章之外，共和文章较比现在的更加广受欢迎。<br />
<br />
Vol. 2 (3 subvolumes)<br />
Martin Woesler<br />
Bochum: European University Press ²2003, xiii, 900 pp., 978-3-932329-04-3 (3-932329-04-X)<br />
€ 46.00<br />
<br />
The three volumes are divided into the period 1911-1949, 1949-2000 and bibliography. To subvolume 2:<br />
In the 1980s and 1990s, the Chinese essay experienced its second flowering phase after the Republic era. Anthologies, book series, periodicals and conferences are devoted to the essay. The fast-moving nature of society requires short, diverting texts. The individual consciousness is strengthened and the essay is the most immediate form of subjective expression. Also the interest in the discussion of socio-political issues increases. The young generation of the essayists, that are born after 1949, seems to write free from ideological influence for the first time. However, short-term political topics take up less space than in the 1920s and 1930s. The essay is consciously perceived as a genre again: In the 1980s the essay scholarship began in Taiwan, some years later in the People's Republic of China.<br />
卷二（附卷三） 马丁·吴勒森 波鸿：欧洲大学出版社，第八版，900页，978-3-932329-04-3（3-932329-04-X）€46，00<br />
<br />
三卷分成1911-1949，1949-2000和自传三个。致附卷二：<br />
20世纪80和90年代，中国散文经历了共和时期之后的第二次繁荣。文选、系列书、期刊和会议都归于散文。社会快速发展的性质需要的是短小多元的文章。由于个人意识得到加强，散文成了表达主观情绪最直接的形式。同样的，人们对探讨政治社会的兴趣变得越发浓厚。1949年过后出生的新一代散文家们，似乎第一次能够在不受到意识形态的干扰下自由写作。然而，短期的政治话题较比20世纪20、30年代占据的篇幅更小。散文再次被认为是一种体裁：20世纪80年代，散文奖学金在台湾兴起，之后又在新中国开始。--[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 10:33, 3 October 2020 (UTC)周诗卿<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
<br />
Vol. 1<br />
Gunnar Richter<br />
<br />
Bochum: European University Press,<br />
104 pp., ISBN 978-3-932329-02-9 (3-932329-02-3)<br />
13,90 €<br />
NEW: TRADITIONAL CHINESE VERSION ISBN 978-3-932329-45-6 (3-932329-45-7)<br />
<br />
This grammar of the Chinese is aimed at students of the Chinese language (beginner and advanced) and is designed as a summary for teaching purposes. It is based on the tried and widespread textbook 'Praktisches Chinesisch', but is enriched by examples from other sources. All examples are marked with Pinyin transcription. Different habits in the use of grammatical terms in German and Chinese are taken into account. This book is also intended as a reference book for grammatically interested sinologists.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yushu, Winfried Woesler, Horst Thomé (Hgg.)<br />
Bo¬chum: Multi¬Lin¬gua (from Vol. 4 Königshausen & Neumann), ISSN 1616-4016, yearly, Vol. 7 2006, Vol. 6 2005, Vol. 5 2004, Vol. 4 2003, Vol. 3 2002, Vol. 2 2001.8, Vol. 1 2000.8, 311 pages, ISBN 978-3-932329-12-8 (3-932329-12-0): 15,29 € (Vol. 1, 2) 49,50 € (from Vol. 3)<br />
<br />
GERMAN CHINA ASSOCIATION<br />
Bulletin of the German China Association<br />
since 1957, ISSN 1436-8048, 18 €<br />
<br />
卷1 贡纳·里希特 编著<br />
波鸿：欧洲大学出版社，104页， ISBN 978-3-932329-02-9 (3-932329-02-3) 13,90 € 传统中文的新译本： ISBN 978-3-932329-45-6 (3-932329-45-7)<br />
<br />
该汉语语法针对的是汉语学习者（初级和高级），目的是作为教学目的的总结。它基于久经考验以及广泛传播的教科书《实用汉语课本》，但其他来源的资料也丰富了<br />
该书。所有示例均标有拼音音标，并且考虑了德语和汉语中使用语法术语的不同习惯。该书还旨在成为对语法感兴趣的汉学家的参考书。<br />
<br />
张玉书，温·沃斯勒，霍尔斯特·托美（Hgg.）波鸿: MultiLingua核心期刊 (摘自 卷4 Königshausen & Neumann出版社), ISSN 1616-4016, 年刊, 卷7 2006, 卷 2005, <br />
卷5 2004, 卷4 2003, 卷 3 2002, 卷2 2001.8, 卷 1 2000.8, 311页, ISBN 978-3-932329-12-8 (3-932329-12-0): 15,29 € (卷 1, 2) 49,50 € (摘自卷3)<br />
德中协会，自1957年以来的德意志中国联合会公报， ISSN 1436-8048, 18 €--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 12:58, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
<br />
1/2007<br />
German China Association (eds.)<br />
From Chinese novels, the Chinese literature in the sign of the "boom": Liu Jiming, Zhang Wei, Liu Qingbang and their response to the big city literature, Teodorico Pedrini, an Italian court musician in the palace of the emperor Kangxis, the awarding of the Orient-und-Okzident Prize to Ieoh Ming Pei, Josefine Huppertz's studies on Chinese seafaring and the question to what is different in China and why<br />
Issue 50 2007<br />
1. ed. 30.06.2007, Paperback<br />
92 pp.<br />
ISBN 978-3-932329-54-8<br />
36,00 Eur [Ger]<br />
<br />
1/2006<br />
Issue 49 2006/1<br />
1. ed. 30.06.2006, Paperback<br />
118 pp.<br />
ISBN 978-3-932329-48-7 (3-932329-48-1)<br />
36,00 Eur [Ger]<br />
<br />
2/2005<br />
German China Association (eds.)<br />
Issue 48 2005/2<br />
1. ed. 23.12.2005, Paperback, 82 pp.<br />
ISBN 978-3-932329-46-3 (3-932329-46-5)<br />
18,00 Eur [Ger] / 18,60 Eur [At]<br />
<br />
1/2005<br />
German China Association (eds.)<br />
Year 48 2005/1<br />
1. ed. 1.7.2005, Paperback, 82 pp.<br />
ISBN 978-3-932329-44-9 (3-932329-44-9)<br />
18,00 Eur [Ger] / 18,60 Eur [At]<br />
<br />
2/2004<br />
German China Association (eds.)<br />
Bulletin of the German China Association <br />
Issue 47 2004/2<br />
1. ed. 23.12.2004<br />
Paperback<br />
100 pp, ISBN 978-3-932329-42-5 (3-932329-42-2)<br />
18,00 Eur [Ger] / 18,60 Eur [At]<br />
<br />
1/2004<br />
German China Association (eds.)<br />
Issue 47 2004/1<br />
1. ed. 30.06.2004<br />
Paperback<br />
98 pp.<br />
ISBN 978-3-932329-40-1 (3-932329-40-6)<br />
18,00 Eur[Ger] / 18,60 Eur[At] <br />
<br />
2/2003<br />
German China Association (eds.)<br />
Issue 46 2003/2<br />
Paperback, ed. 15.12.2003<br />
90 pp.<br />
ISBN 978-3-932329-39-5 (3-932329-39-2), 18,00 Eur [Ger] / 18,60 Eur [At]<br />
1/2003<br />
German China Association (eds.)<br />
<br />
Issue 46. 2003/1, 1. ed. 2003, Paperback<br />
80 pp., numerous black and white Picture(s)<br />
ISBN 978-3-932329-38-8 (3-932329-38-4), 18,00 Eur [Ger] / 18,60 Eur [At]<br />
<br />
Still available older issues: Vol 3 / 1998.12, 66 pp, 1999.5, 116 pp, 1999.12, 66 pp, 2000.5, 78 pp, 2001, 96 pp, 2001.12, 38 pp, 2002.7, 2002.12<br />
<br />
[English / German / Chinese]<br />
European University Press, ISBN 978-3-89966-012-8 (3-89966-012-9), about 80 pages, more than 100 color photos, 29,90 €<br />
<br />
2007年7月德意志中国协会（主编）。从中国小说中看，中国文学有繁荣的迹象：刘继铭，张炜，刘庆邦及其对大城市文学的回应，意大利法院音乐家德奥多里科·佩德里尼（Teodorico Pedrini）在康熙皇帝的宫殿中，向东方明培和何塞芬·霍珀兹（Josefine Huppertz）颁发了“东方与奥克斯坦特奖”，获奖的研究为中国航海、航海对中国带来的改变，以及为什么要发行第50期2007年第1版的问题。 2007年6月30日，平装本92页，ISBN 978-3-932329-54-8 欧元 [德国]<br />
1/2006第49版，2006年1 月第1版。 2006年6月30日，平装本118页，ISBN 978-3-932329-48-7（3-932329-48-1）36,00 欧元 [德国]<br />
1/2005德国中国协会（编辑）第48期2005年1月 第一版。 2005年1月7日，平装本，第82页，ISBN 978-3-932329-44-9（3-932329-44-9）18,00欧元[德国] / 18,60欧元[奥地利]<br />
2004年2月德中协会（eds。）德中协会公报第47期2004年2月 第一版。 2004年12月23日平装本100 页，ISBN 978-3-932329-42-5（3-932329-42-2）18,00欧元[德国] / 18,60欧元[奥地利]<br />
1/2004德中协会（编辑）第47期2004年1月 第一版。 2004年6月30日平装本98 页。ISBN 978-3-932329-40-1（3-932329-40-6）18,00 Eur [Ger] / 18,60 Eur [奥地利]<br />
2/2003德中协会（编辑）第46期2003年2月平装本版本。 2003年12月15日90页ISBN 978-3-932329-39-5（3-932329-39-2），18,00欧元[德国] / 18,60欧元[奥地利] <br />
1/2003德国中国协会（编辑。）第46期。2003年1月，第1版。 2003，平装书80 页。大量黑白照片。ISBN 978-3-932329-38-8（3-932329-38-4），18,00 欧元 [德国] / 18,60 欧元 [奥地利]<br />
仍可获取到的旧期刊：第3 卷/ 1998年12月，66 页，1999年5月，116 页，1999年12月，66 页，2000年5月，78 页，2001年，96 页，2001年12月，38 页，2002年7月，2002年12月<br />
[英语/德语/中文]欧洲大学出版社，ISBN 978-3-89966-012-8（3-89966-012-9），约80页，超过100张彩色照片，29,90欧元--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 07:18, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
Chinese-Western cultural comparison<br />
Series: Inter Culturas<br />
ISSN 1613-6195<br />
Published by Hans-Peter Schütt, Ute Gahlings, Guido Rappe<br />
<br />
Interculturas means "between the cultures" and refers not only to the cultural diversity within the European present and the past, but also to the plurality that transcends space and time, in which Europe itself is always one of many cultures. Accordingly, Inter Culturas is an interdisciplinary series for studies on Europe, its culture and its history of ideas, in which not only intracultural but also intercultural work will appear.<br />
<br />
The following priorities are envisaged:<br />
- History of European Philosophy and Literature<br />
- gender research and European feminism<br />
- Europe in cultural comparison<br />
<br />
《中西文化比较》<br />
丛书：跨文化<br />
ISSN 1613-6195<br />
作者：汉斯-彼得·舒特，乌特加林斯，吉多·拉普<br />
<br />
跨文化是指“文化之间”，不仅指欧洲现在和过去的文化多样性，还指超越空间和时间的多元性，在这种多元性中，欧洲本身始终是许多文化之一。因此，国际文化是一个跨学科的系列，研究欧洲，不仅要研究文化内文化和历史思想的，而且也需要跨文化的研究工作。<br />
<br />
以下为预设优先呈现内容：<br />
-欧洲哲学和文学史<br />
-性别研究和欧洲女权主义<br />
-欧洲的文化比较<br />
--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:24, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
中西文化比较<br />
系列:跨文化<br />
ISSN 1613 - 6195<br />
由Hans-Peter Schütt, Ute Gahlings, Guido Rappe出版<br />
<br />
跨文化是指“文化间的”，它不仅指欧洲现在和过去的文化多样性，也指超越空间和时间的多元性，而欧洲本身就是众多文化中的一种。因此，跨文化研究是一个跨学科的系列研究，研究欧洲的文化和思想史，其中不仅有文化内的作品，也会出现跨文化的作品。<br />
<br />
设想了下列优先事项:<br />
-欧洲哲学史和文学史<br />
-性别研究和欧洲女权主义<br />
-文化比较下的欧洲--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 12:47, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
<br />
Vol. I-IV Guido Rappe: ISBN 978-3-86515-001-1 (3-86515-001-2 ), 4 volumes, approx. 3500 pp., Berlin et.al .: European University Press 2003-2008, with the purchase of the total work 285 euro; 1. volume 1040 pp., ISBN 978-3-86515-002-8 (3-86515-002-0)<br />
59,00 €<br />
卷1-卷4.吉多·瑞普:ISBN 978-3-86515-001-1 (3-86515-001-2 ).4卷，约3500页，柏林等:欧洲大学出版社 2003-2008.全套书售价285欧元.卷1，约1040页，ISBN 978-3-86515-002-8 (3-86515-002-0)，售价59欧元.<br />
<br />
The four-volume " Interkulturelle Ethik " attempts to acquire transcultural commonalities, which can serve to improve the philosophical understanding between people, using the example of the ancient cultural comparison between Europe and China. From a modern philosophic perspective follwing intensive examination with both the classical texts of the moral theories and the practice of ethical techniques is intended to illustrate the strengths and weaknesses of the different directions in order to promote a mutual learning process. In this way, a conceptual foundation of moral-philosophical thought is aimed at, which is no longer based on the dominance of European thought, but exposes the view to an ethics of the equated, peaceful coexistence of human beings<br />
《跨文化伦理》总共四卷，该书通过举例对比古欧洲和古中国在文化方面的异同来探寻跨文化的共性，从而进一步增进不同民族之间哲学层面上的相互理解。在对讨论道德理论的经典篇章做了大量的研究之后，该书从现代哲学角度出发，阐明了不同文化的长处和短处，以期促进文化间的相互学习。这样以来，哲学——道德的理念基础就不再以欧洲理念至上，而是将目光投向了一种人类平等和和平共处的伦理理念。--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 12:39, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
<br />
Vol. I<br />
Guido Rappe<br />
xxv, 1002 pp., 2004<br />
ISBN 978-3-86515-002-8 (3-86515-002-0)<br />
59 €<br />
<br />
In today's era of the coalescence of cultures, the question of cross-cultural ethics is of crucial importance. In view of the ever-repeated assertion that these great differences between European and outer-European thinking stand in the way, a critical review of such theses is made and proved that these are usually unauthorized. By following certain dominant European perspectives from ancient times to modern era, the volume exposes the ethnocentric aspects of the tradition of postconventional approaches. On the other hand, there are intensified similarities in time and space that are not sufficiently taken into account by many modern cultural-relativistic approaches. The volume tries to initiate a new intercultural dialogue on ethics by breaking down prejudices on both sides.<br />
在当今文化交融的时代，跨文化伦理问题至关重要。人们接连不断地断言欧洲及欧洲以外的思想之间存在的巨大差异阻碍了跨文化伦理问题的研究，该书对这些论断进行了批判性的审查，并证明这些断言通常是未经证实的。通过遵循从古至今的一些欧洲主流观点，该书册揭示了后传统习俗方法的民族中心主义。 另一方面，时间和空间上的相似性加剧，许多现代文化相对论方法没有充分考虑到这一点。 该册试图通过打破双方的偏见，开始新的跨文化伦理对话。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 13:30, 3 October 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 07:30, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
<br />
Vol. II, Part I<br />
Ethical Anthropology I.<br />
The body as the foundation of ethics,<br />
ISBN 978-3-86515-003-5 (3-86515-003-9), 1. Tlbd. 2005 € 59<br />
2 Tlbd. Together 118 €<br />
<br />
In contrast to the dominant scientific concepts of human beings, which have especially gained a stronger public impact through recent research on brain physiology, but also in a critical delimitation towards mental metaphysical ideas, which have determined the ethical discussion of the European tradition for 2500 years, this volume deals with the elaboration of fundamentals of an anthropology that is based on ethical phenomena and the moral quality of man. These are understood as a specific way of human existence, whose roots reach deep into the life of the body. Between the neuronal fire on the one hand and the 'spirit' of the 'soul' or the 'consciousness' on the other side, a critical consideration is to be found in empirical phenomena, with the concept of the body, its vitality, its mnemonic potency and its ability to communicate an orientated terminological foundation, on which both the further personal ethics with the founded moral emotions on it as well as an intercultural comparing of ancient ethics concepts can build up.<br />
<br />
第二卷，第一部分<br />
道德人类学 一<br />
身体是伦理的基础<br />
国际标准书号 978-3-86515-003-5 (3-86515-003-9),<br />
<br />
本卷基于伦理现象和人的道德素质，对人类学的基础进行阐释。和占主导地位的科学概念相反，这次对大脑生理学展开的研究对公众产生了强烈的影响，同时对精神形而上学观念进行了严格划界，这决定了欧洲2500年以来对欧洲传统的道德讨论。这些一直以来都被视作人类存在的一种方式，其根深深扎根于生命中。一方面是神经元之火，另一方面的“灵魂的精神”或“意识”，在这中间，可以从经验中得到一个重要的发现，基于身体、生命力、记忆能力、交流有针对性的术语基础等概念，可以在已发现的道德情感上进一步建立个人伦理，以及对古代伦理进行跨文化比较。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 11:25, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
<br />
Vol. II, Part. 2<br />
ISBN 978-3-86515-003-5 (2) (ISBN-10 3865150039), 2 parts 2006 59 €<br />
2 parts together 118 €<br />
<br />
A modern ethics needs a conceptual foundation which adequately takes the emotional and intellectual aspects of man into consideration. This is offered in the present Ethical Anthropology with the term of the person, to which the understanding belongs the term of the personal identity, the freedom of will and responsibility as well as the attitude and the conscience. Its development requires a phenomenological-historical view on the understanding of feelings and thinking in European culture, which reveals those aspects which were largely pushed back by the dominant branch of metaphysics in its relevance to the moral foundation. From this perspective, personal ethics explores its basis in emotional experience, without an understanding of moral quality is impossible, and this is discussed with the example of the feeling of sympathy which is found in a moral sense. But moral feelings alone are not sufficient, but require critical support through reason and through an effort for self-cultivation. Only then can they form part of the balanced path to the success of life, which allows man to counter his moral potency in the fulfillment of his life.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
<br />
Vol. III<br />
ISBN 978-3-86515-004-2 (3-86515-004-7) 59 €<br />
<br />
The virtue ethics, which has been intensified discussed since the second half of the 20th century, is now a major alternative to the established formal approaches of the metaphysical European tradition of ethics. This is because it can look back on a long history which coincides with the beginning of written philosophy in Greek and Chinese antiquity. The knowledge of the high ethical level of these approaches has been pushed back into the background for a long time, due to the ideological attitudes which have taken place during European Christianization and the persistent misleading polemic. Another non-critical and problematic effect was the uncritical use of the term 'deontological', which had been torn out of the antique context and applied to concepts that were directed against virtuous approaches. The present volume aims to help to overcome these shortcomings and confusion. In doing so it elaborates an intercultural perspective that, based on the ancient Chinese virtue ethics, offers a detailed comparison with Greek approaches. The result of this detailed presentation and intensive philosophical penetration shows not only the cross - cultural anthropological relevance of virtuous ethics, but also the fact that the ancient theories of self - cultivation can also open up perspectives for today 's people who can provide valuable guidance in a time of progressive formalization on the way to a subject-centric self-perfection.<br />
<br />
卷三 ISBN 978-3-86515-004-2 (3-86515-004-7) 59 €<br />
<br />
自二十世纪下半叶以来，人们越发热切地讨论道德伦理学。时至今日，道德伦理学已成为一个替代形而上学式欧洲伦理学传统的主要既成方法。这归因于它可以回顾一段悠久的历史，这与始于希腊和中国古代有记载的哲学相一致。由于欧洲基督教化时期意识形态态度的出现和持续的误导性争论，在很长一段时间内，人们将这些方法的高伦理水平知识推回到背景中。另一个非关键且有疑问的影响是对”义务论”一词的随意使用。这一用语从古老的文本中剥离出来并且应用于直接反对道德流派的概念中。本卷旨在帮助克服这些缺点和困惑。基于中国古代道德伦理学，本文阐述不同文化观点，并呈现中国道德伦理学与希腊道德伦理学的具体不同。这种详尽的呈现和深入的哲学渗透的结果不仅表明了道德伦理学与跨文化人类学相关，而且表明古代的修身理论也可以为现代人开拓视野。人们可以在不断形式化的时代提供价值导向，走向以主体为中心的自我完善的道路。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:13, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
<br />
Vol. IV ISBN 978-3-86515-005-9 (3-86515-005-5) 59 €<br />
<br />
ORDERING<br />
Ruhr University, P.O. Box "Bochumer Universitätsverlag", Universitätsstr. 150, 44801 Bochum, Germany Tel. +49 (0) 234 701360, Fax 701230, email info@blaetterwald.net, Publisher's delivery for the European University Press and the Bochum University Press</div>Hu Huifanghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20200928_trans&diff=9891220200928 trans2020-10-04T16:28:18Z<p>Hu Huifang: /* Hu Huifang 胡慧芳 */</p>
<hr />
<div>Link to return to [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage].<br />
<br />
Dear students, this is the homework of Sep 28, due in October 2020.<br />
<br />
=Task=<br />
An English book on contemporary Chinese literature was submitted to the Chinese editor. He has not enough time and asks his students to help to translate it paragraph by paragraph into Chinese. So this time it is easier than last time, because the translation is into Chinese. He also asks the students to help improve the translation of at least one fellow student und asks them to sign their translations with the signature button (buttons on the top, third from right).<br />
<br />
Since it is a book on contemporary Chinese literature, some quotations from Chinese novels in English need to be identified in the original language (Chinese) instead of retranslate the translations into Chinese.<br />
<br />
==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
<br />
The Chinese contemporary literature at the beginning of the 21st century appears hardly compatible with the German book market. Many stories of the mostly young writers from the Middle Kingdom, who are often celebrated like pop stars, publish their books partly in millions of copies, such as Guo Jingming郭敬明, seem too bizarre. This cult literature is translatable, however loses its cult status.<br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, trends can be seen that reflect the extreme social upheaval process in China: Zhang Ailing 张爱玲 created women's literature with the inner view of the Shanghaier big city singles, for example, which has found a whole generation of successors. Or the vagabond literature (liumang wenxue 学 文学) of a Wang Shuo, which has become long since an establishment and whose current is attributable to the scandal literature.<br />
然而，趋势反映了中国社会的极端动荡过程。例如，张爱玲是从上海大城市单身人士的内心观点出发来创作女性文学的，这些人已经找到了整整一代的接班人。或者说王朔的流氓文学，它在该流派成立之前就早已存在，其潮流可归因于丑闻文学。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 05:07, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
然而，这些趋势反映了中国极其动荡的社会发展。例如，张爱玲通过了解上海那些大城市里的单身汉的内心想法来创作女性文学，这些人已经找到了整整一代的接班人。又比如王朔的流氓文学，它在该流派成立之前就一直存在，其如今的趋势也得益于丑闻文学。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 06:11, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
然而，种种趋势反映了中国社会跌宕起伏的发展。比如，张爱玲从上海大城市单身人士的内心出发创作女性文学，这一文学影响了整整一代人。又比如说王朔的流氓文学，早在该流派建立之前就已存在，而其得以发展得益于丑闻文学。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 11:22, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
然而，这些趋势反映出中国社会的大动乱：例如：张爱玲以一个上海大都市的单身人士的内心出发，创作了女性文学，这一文学已经影响了接下来的一整代人。又如王朔的流氓文学，成立至今已久，其现在的趋势可归因于丑闻文学。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 15:45, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
<br />
The wave of nostalgia with new interpretations of classics such as Confucius, Menzius, or the novel "Three Kingdoms," e.g. from the professor and television presenter Yu Dan.<br />
Finally, the young, realistic literature with autobiographical traits and fictive elements of an alienated urban youth, which ultimately seeks the happiness of love between alcohol, drugs and party excesses. This literature certainly belongs to youth literature, since the protagonists belong to the younger generation. The authors themselves remain ephimatic, as long as they have not made the leap into the establishment, as Mian Mian.<br />
<br />
自著名教授兼电视节目人于丹对孔孟经典、《三国志》进行新的诠释后，掀起了怀旧浪潮。最后，现实主义年轻文学具备了被疏远的城市青年的自传体特性和虚构元素，青年们最终在酒精、毒品、狂欢中追求爱的幸福。这些文学作品肯定属于青年文学范畴，因为主人公都是青年一代。作家们只要没能在文学界站住脚跟，就会像棉棉（当代中国作家）那样，一直保持谦逊。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 11:30, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
自著名教授兼电视人于丹对《孔子》《孟子》《三国志》等经典作品进行新的诠释后，掀起了一股怀旧浪潮。最后，年轻的现实主义文学具备了被疏远的城市青年的自传体特性和虚构元素，青年们最终在酒精、毒品及狂欢中追求爱的幸福。这些文学作品肯定属于青年文学的范畴，因为主人公都是青年一代。作者们只要没能在文学界站稳脚跟，就会像棉棉（当代中国作家）那样，一直保持谦逊。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 12:16, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
<br />
Surprising newcomer is the author Han Han, known for his critique of youth literature, who is bearing a humorous social criticism in his new work »Glory Days«, about a group of drop-outs in the style of Magical Realism, or almost a critical Surrealism.<br />
A colorful dance, which tells from another world, no longer as exotic as before, but still strange and fascinating.<br />
令人刮目相看的新人作家正是以青春批判文学而小有名气的韩寒。他的新作《辉煌的过往》以一种魔幻现实主义甚至说近乎超现实主义的方式，讲述了一群辍学的青年，自带一种幽默的社会批评主义。--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 14:40, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui <br />
一段讲述外来世界的绝世舞蹈，不再似以往带着异域风情，却仍旧奇幻无比。--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 14:40, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
<br />
Before the Frankfurt Book Fair 2009, this little booklet will give an orientation guide and a small, certainly very subjective overview of the Chinese literature, as it appears at the book fair.<br />
在2009年法兰克福图书展之前，这本小册子将会提供一个入门介绍，同时也会给予一个小小的，主观性十足的中国文学概述，这是毋庸置疑的，就像它在书展上展示的那样。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 08:39, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在举办2009法兰克福图书展之前，这本小册子将对展会进行一个初步介绍，并呈现给人们一个小小的、颇具主观性的中国文学概要，就像图书展会上展现的那样。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 12:51, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
在2009年法兰克福图书展之前，这本小册子会提供一个入门介绍，并呈现中国文学泛泛而十分主观的概况，就像其在书展上展示的那样。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:40, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
2009年法兰克福书展举办之前，这本小册子的出现其实跟书展一样，会给对中国文学感兴趣的人提供一个阅读指南，也会对中国文学进行一个简略的概括。--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 11:59, 3 October 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
在举办2009年法兰克福图书展之前，这本小册子正如在展会上呈现的那样，会就中国文学给人们一个指引，以及浅显但却非常主观的概括。--[[User:Gu Dongfang|Gu Dongfang]] ([[User talk:Gu dongfang|talk]]) 02:40, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
<br />
Who is also interested in the actual Chinese literature of the present day (because the book fair shows a section, which for various reasons is not at all representative of the Chinese contemporary literary literature) should be referred to the book "Chinese Cult Literature 2008/2009".<br />
<br />
Bochum/Munich/Beijing/Shanghai<br />
<br />
Summer 2008/ Summer 2009<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler<br />
<br />
对当代真正的中国文学感兴趣的人可以去参考《中国流行文学2008/2009版》这本书。（由于种种原因，本次图书展览会只展示了部分内容，并不能完全代表中国当代文学作品。）<br />
波鸿/慕尼黑/北京/上海<br />
2008年夏/2009年夏<br />
吴漠汀--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:40, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
By Chen Jiaxin--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 08:48, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
对于地道的中国当代文学感兴趣的人可以参考《中国流行文学》（2008版/2009版）这本书。（由于某些原因，此书中仅展示了部分中国当代文学代表作）<br />
波鸿/慕尼黑/北京/上海<br />
2008年夏/2009年夏<br />
吴漠汀（德）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 10:54, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
<br />
Chinese literature at the Frankfurt Book Fair<br />
<br />
China - the big department store<br />
<br />
With China's economic prosperity since 1978 came the leisure time. Unlike in Western countries, where this time has been filled with consumption, the new middle class of the Chinese use their leisure time in two ways:<br />
法兰克福图书展上的中国文学<br />
中国—一个大百货商场<br />
自1978年中国经济大繁荣后，人们开始有了自己的休闲时间。但与西方国家不同的是，中国的新兴中产阶级不会把休闲时间都花在消费购物上，而是花在这两个方面：--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 13:56, 3 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
法兰克福书展上的中国文学<br />
中国--大型百货商场<br />
1978年以来，随着中国经济的繁荣，人们拥有了休闲时间。但与此时的西方国家不同的是，中国的新兴中产阶级并没有把休闲时间花在消费购物上，而是花在以下两个方面：--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 14:43, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
中国文学在法兰克福书展<br />
<br />
中国—巨大的百货商场<br />
<br />
1978年中国迎来经济繁荣之后，人们终于有了闲暇时光。不像西方人总把闲暇用来消费，中国的新中产阶级用以下两种方式来度过闲时：--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 02:20, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
法兰克福书展上的中国文学<br />
<br />
中国-大型百货商场<br />
<br />
自1978年中国经济蓬勃发展后，人们拥有了闲暇时间。与闲暇时喜欢消费购物的西方人不同的是，中国的新兴中产阶级用这两种途径打发闲暇时间：--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 07:15, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
<br />
On the one hand, one has an irresistible ambition to catch up with the Western advance in time-lapse, to learn from the West and to overcome it, which is reflected in travel, learning English and foreign studies. Even at the party school management courses are taught.<br />
一方面，人们无法抑制自己想要赶上西方国家发展脚步、向其学习然后战胜他们的野心，这一点反应在旅行、英语学习以及外国研究上。甚至党校也开设管理课程 。--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 11:08, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
一方面，人有赶上西方先进技术、向他们学习并打败他们的雄心壮志，这些反应在旅游、英语学习以及外国研究上，甚至党校管理课程也在效仿。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 11:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
一方面，人们雄心勃勃，想渐渐赶上西方的发展步伐，想向西方学习并且战胜西方，这些都在旅行，英语学习和外国研究有所体现。甚至党校也开设管理课程。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:07, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
<br />
On the other hand, according to the zero point of the Cultural Revolution, ten years without school education in 1966-1976, the Chinese have a greed for knowledge - they devour Internet, newspapers, books and are willing to pay enormous fees for private schools.<br />
<br />
另一方面，以十年文革（即1966年-1976年这十年间学校教育停滞不前）为基准点，中国人渴求获得知识-他们如饥似渴地浏览网页、报纸和各类书籍，愿意花重金上私立学校。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 12:34, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
另一方面，经历文革十年（1966-1976）教育缺席的中国人求知若渴——他们如饥似渴地学习互联网，阅读报纸书籍，甚至愿意花一大笔钱去上私立学校。--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 13:14, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
另一方面，由于文化大革命（1966-1976）使得中国在这期间没有学校教育，受教育程度变得极低。但是中国人极度渴望从网络，报纸，书本获得知识，他们不惜花巨款去私立学校。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 04:16, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
另一方面，由于文化大革命（1966-1976）使得中国在这期间没有严格意义上的学校教育，这使得全体中国人民受教育程度变得极低。但是中国人极度渴望从网络，报纸，书本获得知识，甚至他们不惜为此花巨款去私立学校求学。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 04:49, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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另一方面，文革期间，1966—1976这十年期间，学校教育荒废，从零开始，所以中国人渴求知识-他们如饥似渴，从互联网，报纸，书本中获取知识，也乐于花重金读私立学校。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 08:26, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
另一方面，中国人渴望学习知识，就像十年文化大革命期间即1966-1976年无法上学的人们那样。他们竭尽全力在网络和报纸上学习新知识，甚至愿意为了去私立学校就读而掷重金。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 04:40, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
另一方面，十年文革（1966年至1976年）使得中国的教育停滞不前。中国人民渴望获取知识——他们不遗余力地探索互联网世界，翻阅报刊书籍，甚至不惜花重金前往私立学校接受教育，为的就是满足他们对知识的渴求。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 12:59, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
<br />
Both trends in leisure design coincide with a flood of translations into Chinese.<br />
两次时尚设计潮流都伴随着大量翻译作品涌入中国。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:35, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这两次轻奢设计潮流都恰好随着大量翻译作品进入中国。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 12:42, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这两次休闲理念的潮流都伴随大量翻译作品涌入中国--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:37, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这两次休闲设计的潮流都通过大量的翻译涌入中国。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 15:44, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
<br />
The situation in Western countries is quite different, the interest for China is rather an exotic and reflectes in esotericism and few works that are translated. These are then selected to serve or even enhance the foreign character of the Chinese image. One still believes in the West, as the pioneer of modernization it is the place where the action is happening.<br />
在西方国家，情况则大相径庭。他们对中国的兴趣是充满异域情调的，如中国本土宗教及为数不多的译本。然而这样的选择仅仅是为了迎合甚至加深西方对中国固有的形象。至今仍有人认为率先进入现代化的西方，也是唯一正在经历现代化的地方。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 01:41, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在西方国家，情况则大相径庭。他们对中国的兴趣是充满异域情调的，并反映在神秘主义和少数翻译作品中。然而这样的选择是为了迎合甚至加深西方对中国固有的形象。至今仍有人认为率先进入现代化的西方，也是唯一正在经历现代化的地方。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 03:14, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
<br />
在西方国家，情况则大相径庭。他们对中国的兴趣充满异域情调，这反映在神秘主义和为数不多的译本中。这些选择是为了迎合甚至是为了加深中国形象的异域特征。至今仍有人认为，作为现代化先驱的西方仍是唯一正在经历现代化的地方。--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 11:47, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
<br />
Newspapers are not yet as exciting as in Hong Kong and Japan because of the state information monopoly in China and so one reads in the subway no newspapers but books. China is just different. The books cost only 2 € to 3.50 € and sometimes reach millions of copies. And this, although the texts are long before on the Internet. Some authors have even found a publisher only after having a fanbase of their blog on the Internet.<br />
<br />
中国的情况恰好不同。由于中国对国家信息的垄断，报纸尚未像香港和日本那样流行。因此人们在地铁上阅读的不是报纸，而是书籍。这些书籍仅售2欧元至3.50欧元。书籍的发售量有时高达数百万册，尽管它们的文本内容在互联网上早已出现。有些作者甚至只有在互联网上拥有自己的博客粉丝团之后，才去寻找出版商。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 11:44, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
<br />
Cult literature<br />
<br />
The Chinese bestsellers of contemporary literature of 2009 appear to be hardly compatible with the German book market, in which China is honorary guest of the Frankfurt Book Fair. Many stories of the mostly young, often celebrated like pop stars writers from the Middle Kingdom appear to be too bizarre, with their books partly written in millions, like Guo Jingming (26 years, Shanghaier, Tears against the Stream C 2007, first place of the Chinese bestseller list 2007, circulation: 550,000). Without life experience, Ms. Lin Huafeng has to raise her daughter alone after the divorce. She has to prostitute herself and her mental conflict worsens daily. The author, the Shanghai student Guo Jingming is a cultureless enfant terrible, but loved by the youth. What bears his name is immediately sold out. In the meantime, he has given his name to works by colleagues, and his book series best sellers (C 2008-2009) is a collage of love tales, comics, photographs, styling tips, etc., wrapped in foil so that all the gimmicks do not Fall out. Here, the advertising of the proper lipstick is added to the story. This cult literature is a teen phenomenon, the authors of this youth literature are pop stars. It is translatable, but however it loses the cult status. The German publishers have not chosen the books which the Chinese read, but the German readers might find interesting. In this article, these books, which are only available at the Book Fair from October, are already being presented.<br />
<br />
邪教文学<br />
<br />
中国2009年有关现代文学的畅销作品似乎与德国的图书市场难以相容，而中国却是法兰克福书展的荣誉嘉宾。 中国作家大多是年轻人，他们经常像流行明星一样出名，他们的许多作品看起来都太过奇异，他们的书部分以百万计，比如郭敬明（26岁，上海人，2007年出版的作品《悲伤逆流成河》荣获中国2007年畅销书排行榜第一，发行量55万册）。离婚之后，没有生活经验的林华凤必须独自抚养女儿，她不得不靠卖淫过活，因此她的心理问题也日益加剧。作者郭敬明在上海求学，他文化不高，又年少不可一世，但是却深受年轻人喜爱。带有他名字的书马上就会售罄。与此同时，郭敬明以自己的名字命名了同事的作品，他2008年至2009年的系列畅销书是一副拼贴画，其中包括了爱情故事、漫画、照片以及造型技巧等，该作品由箔纸包裹，这样所有的噱头才不会掉出来。该画作里适当地添加了一些口红广告。这种邪教文学是一种青少年现象，这种青年文学的作者都是流行明星。这些作品是可以翻译的，但是却失去了值得让人崇拜的地位。德国出版商没有选择中国人读的书，但是德国读者却可能会感兴趣。在这篇文章中，这些只在10月份法兰克福书展有售的书已经在展出了。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 12:30, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
崇拜文学<br />
<br />
中国2009年的当代文学畅销作品似乎和德国图书市场难以相容，而在法兰克福书展上，中国却是一位荣誉嘉宾。中国作家大多是年轻人，他们像流行明星一样受人追捧，但是他们笔下的故事读起来似乎过于离奇，部分书籍的篇幅几乎以百万计算，如作家郭敬明（上海人，26岁，其代表作《悲伤逆流成河》于2007年出版，并登上当年中国畅销书排行榜的榜首，发行量高达55万册）。在其小说《悲伤逆流成河》中，没有生活经验的主人公林华凤，离婚之后必须独自赡养女儿。为此她不得不靠卖淫为生，其精神状态每况愈下。郭敬明于上海求学，大学未能毕业，其性情乖张，却深受年轻人喜爱。凡带有他名字的书立马告罄。此外，郭敬明也把自己的名字借给他的同事。他2008年至2009年畅销书系列是大杂烩，包括了爱情故事、漫画、照片以及造型技巧等。书籍由箔纸包裹，以确保噱头不会遗漏。书中适当地添加了一支口红广告。这种崇拜文学盛行于青少年中，而这些青年文学的作者都成为了流行明星。这些作品是可译的，但是不值得让人崇拜。德国出版商没有选择中国读者常读的书，而是德国读者可能感兴趣的。在本文中，已经列举了法兰克福书展只在10月份售出的书。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 03:20, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
<br />
Chinese world literature<br />
<br />
This is the famous wedding scene from the novel "Dream of the Red Chamber" (C 1759 G 2009) by Cao Xueqin (1715-1763?). This was the last novel of world rank written in China, and this is 250 years ago. The novel is available in all major languages, and in German only a shortened paraphrase has been written down to one third. This shortcoming is fixed by the book fair: the European University Press presents a three-volume bound edition of books with more than 200 historical illustrations and a more favorable paperback edition of 2350 pages at the book fair. It was only in the 1920s and 1930s that the literature in China in times of the republic was able to develop again, and Lu Xun's stories from this period are reissued from the publishing house Unionverlag to the book fair. Another classic, Qian Zhongshus (1910-1998) essay collection "Written on the Edge of Life" (C 2000), is translated but is still searching for a publisher. Masterful tales are certainly also Yu Huas (49) "Brothers" (C 2005).<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
<br />
Vagabond literature<br />
<br />
"Diwidi? Everything there: Hollywood, Japanese, Korean, Oscar-crowned classics ",<br />
The German reader as a tourist in Peking may have been approached like this by the flying merchants.<br />
<br />
流浪文学<br />
<br />
“去迪维迪吗？那里什么都有：有好莱坞的，日本的，韩国的，奥斯卡得奖的经典作品”。德国读者去北京旅游的话，可能已经有流动的批发商们像这一样跟他们接洽了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 08:58, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
流浪文学<br />
<br />
“去迪维迪吗？那里什么书都有：有美国好莱坞的，日本的，韩国的，还有拿过奥斯卡的经典作品。”德国的读者来北京旅游可能会碰上当地批发商这样上前推销。--Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
流浪文学<br />
<br />
“是去迪维迪吗？那里什么都有，包括那些好莱坞、日本、韩国、甚至是得了奥斯卡奖的经典作品”，四处流动的商人很可能已经跟在北京旅游的德国读者像这样搭过讪了。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 12:53, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
流浪文学<br />
<br />
“要DVD吗？啥片都有，好莱坞的，日本的，韩国的，得过奥斯卡的。”德国读者去北京旅游的话，可能已经有流动的批发商们这般跟他们接洽了。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 02:48, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
<br />
This scene comes from the story "Running Through Zhongguancun" (C 2008, G 2009). Here the German reader can slip for the first time into the role of the seller, who is embodied by the 25-year-old Huang. Xu Zechen (31, lives in Beijing) has drawn the milieu authentically, the characters with dry humor and yet refreshingly lively. He describes a life between hot pavement and basement hole, between the dream of making big money and bitter setbacks, the daily cat-and-mouse game with the police. He experiences the world of the crooks as shark pond and as a conspiratorial community, in which everyone gives someone the shirt off one’s back, lose their existence, but get up again, he experiences the arbitrariness and corruption of the police. Here, worlds collide: the army of unemployed agricultural workers, who become small-scale criminals, and the urban population. The world of youth, who loves the freedom of the street, and the elderly, who appreciate the security of the wealth. This is one of the most recent and most promising stories from China, which show us a completely different China than the perfectly enacted Olympia organizer.<br />
<br />
这个场景来自于《穿越中关村》中的故事。在这里，德国读者第一次进入买方身份，25岁的黄先生就是典型代表。作者徐则臣（31岁，现居北京）对本书背景环境描写真实，书中人物带有冷幽默，但精神抖擞、栩栩如生。作者描写了一个介于炙热人行路面和地下室洞之间，介于赚大钱的梦想和痛苦挫折之间的人生，该人生主人公的日常就是和警察玩“猫鼠游戏”。他生活在一个坏蛋横行的世界，跟生活在鲨鱼池塘或者阴谋密布的社区中没有什么区别。在这个世界里，每个人都会在别人背后捅刀子，这些人死去又重生。他还经历过警察的专横和腐败。在这里，世界冲突有：失业农工军队（变成了小规模罪犯）与城镇居民之间的矛盾；年轻人渴望街道自由，老年人希望财富得到保障。这是来自中国最近且最具希望的故事之一，这个故事给我们展现了一个完全不同于奥林匹克运动会完美组织国的中国。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 02:58, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
这个场景来自于《穿越中关村》中的故事。通过这本书德国读者第一次进入卖方身份，25岁的黄先生就是其中一位典型代表。作者徐则臣（31岁，现居北京）对本书背景环境描写真实生动，书中人物带有冷幽默，栩栩如生，令人耳目一新。作者描写了一个介于炙热人行路面和地下室洞之间，介于赚大钱的梦想和痛苦挫折之间的人生，该人生主人公的日常就是和警察玩“猫鼠游戏”。他生活在一个坏蛋横行的世界，跟生活在鲨鱼池塘或者阴谋密布的社区中没有什么区别。在这个世界里，每个人都会在别人背后捅刀子，这些人失去了一切，又挣扎着爬起来。他还经历过警察的专横和腐败。在这里，世界冲突有：失业农工军队（变成了小规模罪犯）与城镇居民之间的矛盾；年轻人热爱街道自由和老年人希望财富得到保障之间的矛盾。这是来自中国最近且最具希望的故事之一，这个故事给我们展现了一个完全不同于奥林匹克运动会完美组织国的中国。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 14:46, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
<br />
The novel "Die Taschendiebe" also fits into this realistic (C 2007, G 2009), Liu Zhenyuns (51), who was ranked No. 1 in the bestseller list in China in 2008, is a mix-up thriller about a interchanged bag, whose content can become dangerous for several important people. These types of stories appear several times at the book fair. In China, they are devoured by the young, urban audience. Wang Shuo (50) had created this kind of vagabond literatur, and his novel "Playing for Thrills" was sold 250,000 times in 2007, and stayed in place 6. One is getting deeper into storytelling with Jia Pingwa’s novel "Happy" (C 2007), which is about a farmer who sells his kidney to the city and finds a brittle happiness with a prostitute. It was sold in China 100,000 times. His even more famous novel "Ruined City" (C 1993) is also almost completely translated and is still looking for a publisher in Germany.<br />
<br />
刘震云（51岁）的小说《我叫刘跃进》（2007）也符合现实主义文学，并在2008年的中国畅销书排行榜中名列第一。这是一部关于拿错包的惊悚片，这个包牵涉到上流社会的几条人命。这些类型的故事在书展上出现过好几次，受到中国年轻观众的喜爱。王朔（50岁）创造了这种流浪文学。2007年，他的小说《玩的就是心跳》售出25万册，销售量保持在第6位。贾平凹的小说《高兴》（2007）更加深入人心，它讲述的是一个农民将自己的一颗肾卖给了城里人和一个妓女找到了脆弱的幸福。这本书在中国售出了100,000册。他更著名的小说《废都》（1993）也完全翻译成德语，并且仍在德国寻找出版商。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 12:16, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
刘震云（51岁）的小说《我叫刘跃进》（2007）也是现实主义文学，这本书名列2008年中国畅销书单首位，结合了惊险小说风格，讲述了一个拿错包，而这个包牵涉到上流社会的几条人命的故事。这些类型的小说在书展上出现过好几次，在中国广受都市的年轻人追捧。王朔（50岁）创作了这种流浪文学，他的小说《玩的就是心跳》在2007年售出25万册，销量排在第6位。贾平凹的小说《高兴》（2007）更加深入人心，它讲述了一个农民将自己的肾卖给了城里人和一个妓女在支离纷崩中找寻幸福。这本书在中国售出了100,000册。他小说《废都》（1993）更为著名，全篇译成了德语，且仍在德国寻找出版商。--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 14:27, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
<br />
Critical Surrealism <br />
<br />
This quotation comes from the story "Glory Days" (C 2007 G 2010) of another young author, Han Han (26). He describes the experiences of a Chinese dropout troop. Han Han enjoys a similar cult status as the same-aged Guo Jingming. He is equally famous as a critical blogger, sings his own pop songs (ghost town strategy), and drives car racings on the weekend. He also wrote his first stories as a pupil (Triple Door C 2000), became famous through a literature casting, writes humorously with a pointed pen, hardly anyone has got what was coming to one. In the 1990s, with his "critical student literature", he provoked a teenage fever, brought out a sociocritical humorous novel with "Glory Days", which sold itself in 2007 with others of his books about 200,000 times and thus ranked 13th Of the Chinese bestseller list. The author says he wanted to write in the style of "Magical Realism" for the first time, the novel is very angry humorous, sociocritical and grotesque in some places, it can be better described as Critical Surrealism. His latest book, "His Kingdom" (C 2009), ranked first place in the Chinese bestseller list in April 2009.<br />
<br />
批判超现实主义 <br />
<br />
这句话出自另一位青年作家韩寒（26岁）的故事《光辉岁月》（C 2007 G 2010）。他描述了一支中国退伍军人的经历。韩寒和同龄的郭敬明一样，享有盛名。他同样是著名的评论博主，有自己的流行歌曲（鬼城攻略），周末还会去赛车。他还在学生时代写下了自己的第一篇小说（2000年的《三重门C》），通过文学比赛成名，用尖锐的笔尖写出了幽默的作品，几乎没有人得到过一个人的青睐。上世纪90年代，他以 "批判性学生文学 "引发少年热，出版了《光辉岁月》这样一部一部社会批判性幽默小说，2007年与他的其他著作一起销售，销量约20万册，位列中国畅销书排行榜第13位。作者说，他第一次想用 "魔幻现实主义 "的风格来写，小说中充满了愤怒幽默，社会批判，怪诞奇谈，不如说是一种超现实注意更好些。最新著作《他的国度》（C 2009）2009年4月在中国畅销书排行榜上排名第一。--[[User:Gudongfang|Gudongfang]] ([[User talk:Gudongfang|talk]]) 04:08, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Gu Dongfang<br />
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批判超现实主义<br />
<br />
这句话出自另一位青年作家韩寒（26岁）的小说《光荣日》（C 2007 G 2010）。他描述了一群退出主流社会、大学毕业放弃分配的中国青年人的经历。韩寒和年纪相仿的郭敬明一样享誉盛名。他同样是一名著名的评论博主，有自己的流行音乐（空城计），周末还去开赛车。学生时代，他还写下了自己的第一篇小说（《三重门》C 2000），通过一次文学比赛一战成名。他笔触尖锐而不失幽默的写作使人们很难猜到下一步的情节发展。上个世纪九十年代，他的"批判性学生文学"在青少年中激发热潮，他又出版了一部带有社会讽刺色彩的幽默小说，即《光荣日》。2007年，《光荣日》与他的其他作品一起发售，销量约20万册，在中国畅销书排行榜上排名第13位。该作者说，他第一次以“魔幻现实主义”的风格写作，小说中一些地方充满愤怒幽默、社会批判以及荒谬怪诞，可以用批判超现实主义来形容。他的最新著作《他的国》（C 2009）在2009年4月的中国畅销书排行榜上位列第一。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 05:56, 4 October 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 06:22, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
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Underground literature<br />
<br />
... so writes Mian Mian (38 years old, lives in Shanghai, "La la la" HK 1997, G 2000, C 2009, "Your night my day" G 2004, C 2009). With her revealing description of her own life as a partygirl, she has shaped the Shanghai youth. Mian Mian has become a lifestyle. Ultimately she also seeks the happiness of love. She was the first to write about sex, drugs and alcohol, and was promptly banned in China. Therefore it is remarkable that the KiWi publishing house is brave enough to present her latest novel Panda Sex (C 2009, G 2009) at the book fair. Also in France her novel came out and was immediately praised by the daily newspaper "Le Monde". And even in China times change: her last four novels were finally released in February 2009 and were sold out immediately.<br />
<br />
地下文学<br />
<br />
...作家绵绵（38岁，现居北京，《啦啦啦》，香港 1997，G2000，C 2009，《你的黑夜，我的白天》 G2004，C2009）这样写道。绵绵用生动的语言描述了自己作为派对女王的经历，同时，她也塑造了一代上海青年的形象。绵绵已然活成了一种生活态度。然而，追根究底她也在追寻情爱的欢愉。她是中国第一位在作品中描写做爱，吸毒和酗酒，并被立即封杀的作家。因此，KiWi出版社敢于在书展中展出绵绵的最新小说《熊猫》(C 2009, G 2009) ，实在是一大壮举。无独有偶，《熊猫》在法国出版，且荣获日报《法国世界报》好评。即使是在中国，人们亦生出了时过境迁之感：2009年2月，绵绵的最新四部小说出版，并一售即空。<br />
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==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
<br />
Yearnings<br />
<br />
Literature of yearning has a great market in China. With this literature one can escape the materialistic everyday life in order to be carried away into an exotic but strangely familiar world. This literature of yearning is served by two sides in China: through the Tibet exoticism and the nostalgic wave. And Tibet is a topic that is well received abroad, therefore a safe investment for publishers, even though the stories from Tibet may still be too exotic and do not show the true Tibet. Also in China, Tibet is simply ‚in’. The presentation of the own Lama's shrine in the bedroom is the highlight of every house party. Even men wear carved cherry stone bracelets. The more superstition associated with these fetishes, the more chic.<br />
渴望风<br />
渴望文学在中国有着巨大市场。这类文学能带领人们逃离物质至上的现实生活进入到一个熟悉却又陌生的异域世界。在中国渴望文学由两类构成：西藏风情和怀旧浪潮。西藏这个主题在国外反响良好，因此对出版商来说是个安全的投资，即使这些西藏故事仍十分具有异域色彩并且未展示出真实的西藏。在中国，西藏风格也一样很流行。卧室中放置的喇嘛的神龛会成为每场别墅聚会的亮点。即使男人也会戴上用雕刻的樱桃核制成的手镯。这些物神与之相关的迷信越多，就越为流行。--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 11:28, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
渴望风<br />
<br />
渴望文学在中国有着巨大市场。借着这类文学，人们可以不用整天崇尚物质，而是进入一个陌生又熟悉的异域世界。在中国，渴望文学分为两类：西藏风情和怀旧浪潮。西藏是一个在国外反响良好的主题，即使这些讲述西藏的故事仍十分具有异域色彩，而且未展示出真实的西藏，但对出版商来说是个安全的投资。在中国，西藏风也很流行。卧室中放置的喇嘛神龛会成为每场别墅聚会的焦点。甚至男人也会戴上雕刻樱桃核制成的手镯。你越迷信这些奉若神明之物，就越时髦。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 12:17, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
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Tibet exoticism<br />
<br />
so the story "Distant Sources" (C 2005, Unionsverlag G 2009) by the Tibetan author Alai (50) begins. Yes, even Tibetan authors are among the winners of this year's book fair. They are particularly in demand by Swiss publishers. At the confederate Chinabooks several young Tibetans are represented: Alai, Jamyang, Taering Öser, Tenzin Tsundue (34). Is it surprising that Ma Jian (56), who left Beijing for the first time and went on journeys, promptly went on a pilgrim to Tibet? "Red Dust"(C 2003). 220,000 times, the "Tibet-Code" of the hermitic He Ma, which has not yet been published in German, has sold itself, followed by three sequels. Gao Yi, who lives in Düsseldorf, writes adventure stories as well with Tibet exoticism and fantastic elements: "The Tibetan Child", "The Oracle" and "The Roman Ring" (C 2004). At the same time, a flood of nonfiction books about Tibet appears in German-speaking countries, often with mysterious titles such as "The Secret Life of the Dalai Lamas. The Story of the God-kings of Tibet "(G 2007, PB 2009)," Fleeing through Ice and Snow "," The Way of the White Clouds"or " Escape from Tibet".<br />
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西藏风情<br />
<br />
西藏作家阿来的故事就此展开。没错，今年书展的赢家中也包括不少西藏作家。他们的作品在瑞士颇具市场。中国图书板块中的几位西藏作家分别有阿来、嘉木样、Taering Öser和Tenzin Tsundue。出去旅行之前，马健从未离开过北京，但这次旅行他却意外的选择去到西藏进行朝圣，从而写出《红尘》一书。何马的《西藏密码》虽尚未在德国出版，但其后的三个续作都已与出版社签约。住在杜塞尔多夫的高宜同样喜欢具有西藏风格的冒险题材，并写下了名为《藏族男孩》、《神谕》和《罗马指环》的故事。与此同时，在德国以及其他说德语的地区，有关西藏的非虚构类作品接连出版，它们常常有着神秘的标题，例如《达赖喇嘛的秘密生活》、《西藏神王秘史》、《冰雪逃亡》、《白云之路》和《逃出西藏》等。<br />
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--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 12:39, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
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Nostalgia<br />
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Through China flows a nostalgic wave, the overthrown Communist ideology has been replaced by the return to traditional values. In 1974 Confucius had been dismantled in a campaign, since 2007 Confucius institutes have been opened all over the world. Also on the bestseller lists this literature stands at the top. The professor Yu Dan (Beijing) interpreted Confucius in a television series. Her book "Confucius from the Heart" (C 2006, G 21.08.2009) with modern commentaries around the Confucius classics "Talks" landed in China with 503,000 sold copies in 2007. It makes Confucius in simple language, with lively pictures and Current examples from everyday life. Since the trend in China goes to the second book, i. That a second book of the same kind is being postponed to a successful book, she continued to comment on the philosopher Menzius. Does this commentary also work in Germany, where one hardly knows the original texts? At the book fair, the Confucius commentary is also available, the Droemer publishing house has taken the risk and presents the comment in German translation, but not as in the Chinese edition with original text in the appendix. This nostalgia literature in China also includes comments on the classic novel "Three Kingdoms" (C 2006) by Yi Zhongtian (62), which ended up in 2007 with 340,000 copies of the bestseller list, the historical novel about the last imperial dynasty. “The Qing Prime Minister” (C 2007) by Wang Yuewen (46) and "War Drums" (C 2006) by Dou Liang (55) about old Beijing, all of them had at least 200,000 sold copies in 2007.<br />
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怀旧风<br />
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中国正掀起一波怀旧浪潮。传统价值观的回归代替了已经推翻的共产主义意识形态。1974年，孔学在一场运动中逐渐推出历史舞台，但是从2007年开始，孔子学院已向全世界开放。同时孔学相关书籍也在畅销书的榜首。于丹教授（北京）把孔子翻拍成了电视剧。她的书《论语心得》（C 2006, G21.08.2009）带有孔学经典《论语》的现代评论2017年在大陆发售已超过503，000册。这本书使得孔学理论以一种简单的语言，生动的图片和日常生活的例子呈现出来。自从这孔学潮流在中国推出了第二本书，i. 相同类型的第二本书的成功销量是要晚一些。于丹继续在考究着哲学家孟子。是否这种评论会在德国起到相同的效应呢，毕竟德国对原著几乎都不了解？在书会上，可以见到孔学评论相关书的身影，德语出版社冒险展出了其德语版本，但是和中文版本不同的是在附录上没有原文。这种怀旧文学在中国还包括了易中天（62）的评论关于经典小说《三国志》（C 2006），一部描述最后一个帝王朝代的历史小说，其销量在2007畅销排行榜年达到了340，000册。 王跃文（46）的《秦始皇》和窦亮（55）描写老北京的《战鼓》（C 2006），一共销售了200，000册在2007年。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 03:32, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
怀旧风<br />
<br />
中国掀起了怀旧的浪潮，传统价值观的回归取代了已经推翻了的共产主义意识形态。1974年，孔子塑像在一场运动中被拆除，但是从2007年开始，孔子学院已向全世界开放。并且孔学相关书籍也占据了畅销书榜单的榜首。于丹教授（北京）在一系列电视节目中诠释了孔子。她的书《论语心得》（C 2006, G21.08.2009），一本围绕孔子经典对话的现代评论于2007年在大陆发售，销量为503，000册。这本书用生动的图片和当代日常生活的例子将孔子以一种简单的语言呈现出来。因为这本书的风靡，于丹教授在中国推出了同系列的第二本书。第二本书的畅销势头减弱，于是于丹继续评论了哲学家孟子。但是在人们对原著都不了解的德国，这种评论会有相同的影响吗？在书会上，同样可以见到孔学评论相关书籍——德勒默尔出版社冒险推出了其德语版本，但是和中文版本不同的是，在附录页没有附上原文。在中国，这种怀旧文学还包括了易中天（62岁）评经典小说《三国志》（C 2006），其销量截止2007年在畅销排行榜达到了340，000册，王跃文（46岁）的关于最后一个帝国王朝的历史小说《大清相国》（C 2007，）和窦亮的记述老北京的小说《战鼓》（C 2006），所有这些在2007年一共销售了至少200，000册。--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 10:04, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
<br />
Women's literature<br />
<br />
The literature of the mega cities looks different in Beijing and Shanghai: just as in Beijing, the vagabond literature of a Wang Shuo is at home, Shanghai also developed with Zhang Ailing (1920-1995) her own literature, in this case an autobiographical literature of women that describes the emotional life of Shanghai single women. Mian Mian is the latest appearance of this woman literature, although her female figures often seem to depend on their partners. However, Mian Mian is the only female writer that is taken seriously and translated for the book fair. In "Frauenboxen" by Bi Shumin (57) the female figures seem, as the title suggests, more self-consciously, therefore the book has been sold 180,000 times. Her feminine novel "Female Psychologist" (C 2007) was so successful that several volumes were published. On the bestseller list, she is closely followed by Annie Baobei (34), with 175,000 first-person narrations sold, under the title "Fat years, meager years" (C 2007), in which the young women see the world with their own eyes. With 160,000 copies follows the marriage counselor follows "Holding Hands " (C 2007) of Wang Hailing (55).<br />
<br />
大城市的文学作品，像北京和上海，是大不相同的：就比如说在北京有王朔的痞子文学；而在上海流行的是张爱玲的文学小说，这种文学属于女性自传文学，主要描述了上海单身女性的情感生活。棉棉是女性文学代表人物的新兴面孔，尽管她所塑造的女性角色看起来似乎非常依赖她们的伴侣。然而，她是唯一一个认真对待书展，并且为书展做翻译的女性作家。在毕淑敏的作品《女性》中，女性人物的形象正如标题一样似乎显得更有自我意识，因此这本书畅销18万次。毕淑敏的女性小说《女心理家》（C 2007)创作地非常成功，因此出版了很多册。在畅销书单列表中，紧随其后的是安妮宝贝，她的第一人称叙述小说热销175000本，其中有一本叫《素年锦时》，主要讲述了年轻的女性用她们自己的视角看待世界。王海鸰的《牵手》成为了婚姻顾问的参考指导书，160000本复印版下发至婚姻顾问。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 03:56, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
女性的文学<br />
像在北京和上海，大城市的文学是不同的：就像北京有王朔的流浪汉文学，而上海则是孕育出了张爱玲的女性自传文学，主要描述了上海单身女性的情感生活。棉棉是这类女性文学最早出现的女性角色，尽管她所代表的女性形象似乎常常依赖于自己的伴侣。然而，棉棉是唯一一位在书展上受到重视并被翻译的女性作家。正如书名所示，从毕淑敏57岁时的作品《女性》来看，女性形象似乎更具自我意识，因此这本书的销量达18万次。她的女性小说《女性心理学家》(2007年)成功地出版了好几卷；在畅销书排行榜上，紧随其后的是34岁的安妮·宝贝(Annie Baobei)的作品，名为《素年锦时》(2007年左右)。此书以第一人称叙述，热销17.5万本，在书中年轻女性站在自己的角度去看待世界。而55岁的王海鴒的《牵手》(2007年)成了结婚顾问的参考书，由此热销16万本。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 06:35, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
女性文学<br />
在北京和上海这种大城市，他们的文学是不同的: 就像在北京,代表的有王朔的地痞文学，上海则是出现了张爱玲式的(1920 - 1995)自传文学。此种女性自传文学描述了一种上海单身女性的情感生活。棉棉则是这类女性文学的最新兴典型形象，尽管她似乎常常依赖于自己的伴侣。然而，却是唯一会为书展做认真翻译的女性作家。毕淑敏的《女性》(57)中，正如书名所示，女性形象似乎更多了些自我意识觉醒，因此这本书被畅销18万本。她的女性小说《女心理学家》(2007)也非常成功，甚至出版了好几卷。在畅销书排行榜上，紧随其后的是34岁的安妮宝贝(Annie Baobei)，这本名为《素年锦时》(2007)的书，以第一人称叙述，热销17.5万册，书中主要讲述了年轻女性用自己的角度看世界的内容。王海鸰（55）的《牵手》（2007）复印本则成了婚姻顾问们“人手一本”的参考书，狂销了16万本。<br />
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:51, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
<br />
Literature of mental distress<br />
<br />
Finally, there is still the literature of mental distress, mastermind Mo Yan has pointed out abysses of human behavior in his "Sandalwood Death" (C 2001). The framework is the German colonial history in China, the railway construction and the revolt of the boxer. Mo Yan describes a fictitious story in which Guomindang General Yuan Shikai, with the last imperial headman, wants to conduct a cruel execution by torture against a man who rebelled after his family had previously been desecrated and killed by Germans. Contrasted with this, Mo Yan portrays the last opera singer of the Maoqiang local opera from the region around Gaomi. The language is pathetic, symbolic and emotionally charged. The description of the inner conflict of the physician, who is told to keep the victim alive until the German colonizers see him, is shattered. His only advice "Remove the sandalwood!" is not obeyed, since this is precisely the torture. In this book the search for a translator was more difficult than usual, thanks to Chinese government-funded support, it was finally realized at the publishing house Insel-Verlag. Equally doubtful is the wisdom, which may result from the influential book "Wolf Totem" (C 2004 G 2009) by Jiang Rong (63), since the author wants to explain the Chinese people's folklore:<br />
<br />
关注精神苦闷的文学作品<br />
<br />
最后，仍然有关注精神苦闷的文学作品，作家莫言在他的《檀香刑》（C 2001）中指出了人类种种恶行，如临深渊。这部小说主要讲述了中国受德国殖民统治时期，当时铁路建设情况和义和团的起义。《檀香刑》是一部虚构的小说，莫言刻画了国民党将领袁世凯和大清帝国最后一位皇帝与一位反抗者的矛盾，二人企图对反抗者酷刑相加，残酷处决，而此前反抗者的家人被德国人亵渎并杀害。在书中莫言还描绘了高密地方戏曲“茂腔”，和其最后一位传承歌者，这与骇人听闻的酷刑事件截然相反。小说的语言充满悲剧性、象征性，情感充沛。当医生接到通知，在德国殖民者发现受害人之前要确保他活着，这一段关于医生内心冲突的译文描写支离破碎。他唯一的建议是“删除檀香！”遭到拒绝，因为这正是酷刑所在。因此，要给这本书找一位合格的译者比往常都难，好在中国政府给予该项目资金支持，《檀香刑》最终由岛屿出版社出版。另一本享誉中外的书——《狼图腾》(C 2004 G 2009)，作者姜戎着力刻画流传在中国人口中的民间传说，因而翻译这本书的翻译是否妥当，同样让人疑虑。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:49, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
<br />
This also means hope for freedom and democracy. A good adventure novel, but the moral of the story, natural laws instead of civilization, in today's materialistic Chinese reality the wrong advice. The book is stagnating in the middle of the bestseller lists in China, but remains there until 2008. It was heavily advertised, Random House paid for the German edition 20,000 € in license rights after Goldblatt had laid for the English 100,000 USD - somehow the investion has to roll in and so it is called in the advertising texts "The most successful book since the Mao Bible" - this decision is left to the reader.<br />
--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 16:28, 4 October 2020 (UTC)==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
<br />
Discrepancy Chinese Literature - Book Fair<br />
<br />
All these currents will be represented at the Frankfurt Book Fair. Some of them are preparing to refute the withering verdict of the sinologist Wolfgang Kubin from 2006, who referred to the Chinese literature since 1949 as "garbage" and especially attacked writers like Mian Mian, making her one of the most controversial writers. Although she has long been forbidden in China, had no benefits from the Chinese government's promotion of translation, and does not belong to the carefully selected semioffical writers' delegation, besides the short story "Running Through Zhongguancun", narratives such as "Brothers", "Taschendiebe" and perhaps a classic like "Dream of the Red Chamber", will be Mian Mian's book "Panda Sex" one of the bestseller of the book fair. In the following editions we will introduce individual authors and currents and begin with her - Mian Mian.<br />
中国文学差异-书展<br />
所有这些潮流将在法兰克福书展上展出。 他们中的一些人准备反驳自2006年以来的汉学家沃尔夫冈·库宾的残酷判决，自1949年以来就将中国文学称为“垃圾”，特别是像绵绵这样的受攻击的作家，这使她成为最有争议的作家之一。 尽管她早已在中国被禁止，她没有从中国政府的翻译推广中获得任何好处，并且不属于经过精心挑选的半官方作家代表团，除了短篇小说《穿越中关村》，还有诸如《兄弟》之类的故事， 《棉铃儿》，也许是《红楼梦》之类的经典作品，将成为棉棉的书《熊猫性爱》的畅销书展之一。 在接下来的版本中，我们将介绍个人作者和最新动态，并从她开始-Mian Mian。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 16:28, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
<br />
Bestseller list of Chinese authors 2007<br />
<br />
Last update: 9.11.2007, researched and reviewed in note form<br />
<br />
In the question of what to understand by contemporary literature, one has to clarify various assumptions:<br />
<br />
2007年中国作家畅销书排行榜<br />
最后更新:2007年9月11日，以注释形式研究和审查<br />
在如何理解当代文学的问题上，人们必须阐明各种假设:--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 14:24, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
<br />
Is the complete literature taken into account, or are certain categories of literature excluded? In the current case, we restrict us to literary books (no nonfiction books, for which there are often separate bestseller lists). Thus every objectively well-sold book will be named. It is only in a second step, in the evaluation for the German book market, that children's literature is excluded.<br />
是将完整的文献考虑在内，还是将某些类别的文献排除在外?在目前的情况下，我们把考虑范围限于文学书籍(不包括非小说类书籍，因为它们通常有不同的畅销书排行榜)。因此，客观上，每一本很畅销的书都会被提及。在对德国图书市场的评估中，把儿童文学排除在外也只是第二步。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 10:53, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
是将完整的文献考虑在内，还是排除某些类别的文献？目前，我们仅考虑文学书籍(不考虑非小说类书籍，因为此类书籍畅销排行榜通常不同)。因此，客观上，每本畅销书都会被提及。在对德国图书市场的评估中，排除儿童文学也只是第二步。--[[User:Zhang Weihong|Zhang Weihong]] ([[User talk:Zhang Weihong|talk]]) 12:34, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Zhang Weihong<br />
是把所有的文学类别考虑在内，还是把某些特定的文学类别排除在外？目前，我们把考虑范围限于文学书籍（不包括非小说类书籍，它们通常有不同的畅销书榜单）。因此，客观上，每本畅销书都将被提及。在对德国的书籍市场的评估中，把儿童文学排除在外也仅仅是第二步。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 12:42, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
<br />
Are the books objectively presented by sales figures? Is this the only criterion for evaluating commercial success? This has the implication that high-minded literature usually ends up further down on the bestseller list as the dime novel. An exception in the West may be e.g. Harry Potter, who has besides his youthful target group, also at least in the English original literary claim.<br />
<br />
这些书单能够代表客观的销售数据吗？这是衡量商业成就的唯一标准吗？这暗指着，在最畅销的书单上，高尚文学经常比廉价文学排名要低很多。这其中可能有一个例外，那就是《哈利波特》，因为它不仅有其年轻的读者群体，也至少属于英语本土文学之列。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:14, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
销售数据能代表这些书籍吗？销售数据是衡量商业成功的唯一标准吗? 这暗示着：相较于廉价小说，高尚文学通常在畅销榜单上不见其名。西方文学中的一个例外可能是《哈利波特》。这本书除了有年轻的读者群体之外，至少也符合英语原著文学的主张。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 12:07, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
销量的高与低就能客观的代表书籍的好与差吗？难道销量是衡量商业成功的唯一标准吗？这意味着，高尚文学通常会像廉价小说一样在畅销书排行榜上排名靠后。西方文学的一个例外可能是《哈利·波特》，除了有年轻的读者群体之外，它还属于英文原著文学之一。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 14:48, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
<br />
It is striking that there is hardly any accordance between the list of bestsellers with the list of actually translated literature and also not with the list of government-sponsored translations. The most important reason is that the bestseller list in 2007 is the current literature, as it was read in China at the beginning of 2008. But for the book fair the publishers have commissioned much older books for translation. Only in a few titles is the translation market already as fast as e.g. in the translation of American novels into German, e.g. "Wolf Totem," "Confucius from the Heart," or Mian Mian's "Panda Sex."<br />
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
<br />
This bestseller list and the evaluations were presented at the technical lecture "Rotes Kornfeld" in the German Publishers and Booksellers Association for the Frankfurt book fair on the 29th April 2008, so that the publishers who had sent their lecturers and the other translators could consider the presented titles in the planning. Some of the titles were realized. Others may stay interesting for a later time.<br />
2008年4月29日，在德国出版商协会为法兰克福书展举行的“红高粱”科技讲座中，公布了畅销书单以及相关评价。已经举办讲座的出版商和翻译人员可以考虑计划中给出的标题，其中部分已被采用，另一部分还有待商榷。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 14:55, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2008年4月29日，德国出版商和书商协会在为法兰克福书展举办的“红高粱”专业性讲座中公布了畅销书单及相关评价，方便已经进行演讲的出版商和其他翻译人员可以考虑计划公布的标题。这些标题中，部分已经采用，另一部分还有待商榷。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:57, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
<br />
For the development of the number of translations from Chinese I refer to appropriate investigations. <br />
<br />
First of all, the full list, followed by the criteria after the list has been cleared with regard to the German book market.<br />
<br />
我参考了些许相关的调查，用来研究中文的译文数量发展。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 12:50, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
首先，一份完整的畅销书单后面是其评判的标准，而德国图书市场正是通过这一标准对各种书目进行清理排除，得出了最终的书单。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 12:50, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
<br />
Note: The book cover and photos of the authors were provided by the publishers for reproduction and are reproduced here for this scientific study. Copyrights and reproduction rights of the illustrations remain at the respective publishers or rights holders.<br />
注：书的封面和作者的照片由出版商提供，用于复制，并且在这里复制，用于本次科学研究。插图的版权和复制权保留在各自的出版商或版权持有者手中。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 12:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
注：由于要再版或者出于科研目进行再版，出版商会提供书的封皮和作者的照片。插图的版权和复制权保留在各自的出版商或版权持有者手中。--[[User:Monan|Monan]] ([[User talk:Monan|talk]]) 13:50, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
<br />
1st place: Guō Jìngmíng / Guo Jingming郭敬明(born 6.6.1983, lives in Shanghai), 550.000 sold copies, »Tears against the Stream«郭敬明Changjiang literature and art publishing house, 5/2007, 340 pp. Rating: 1.0. Without life experience, Ms. Lin Huafeng has to raise her daughter alone after the divorce. She has to prostitute herself and her mental conflict worsens daily.<br />
<br />
This novel could also become a bestseller within the framework of China literature in Germany.<br />
The Shanghai student Jingming Guo is something like a cultureless enfant terrible, grades worse than Han Han, but loved by the youth.<br />
<br />
His series "Bestseller"最小说is rated 4.0. The novels are collage-like and also composed of foreign languages. They are illustrated in color and presented with all sorts of tips and gimmicks (recipes, make-up, pictures) etc. Further details and translation, see next chapter.<br />
<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki><br />
<br />
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
<br />
2nd place: Yú Dān / Yu Dan于丹(born 28.6.1965, lives in Beijing), "Thoughts on the conversations of Confucius" "论语"心 得, 503.000 copies sold, Zhonghua Book Company, 11/06 157 pp. , Evaluation score: 1.7.<br />
第二位:于丹，(生于1965年6月28日，现居北京)，《于丹<论语>感悟》、《于丹<论语>心得》，销量503,000册，中华书局，11月6日发行，第157页，评分:1.7.--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 03:19, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
Yu Dan is the moderator of a TV discussion on Confucius. In this book she explains the two-thousand-years-old classic, which the Chinese memorize by referring to the present.<br />
于丹曾主持过一档关于孔子的电视评论栏目。在这本书里，她解读了一部写于两千多年前的经典名著，直至今天，这本著作<br />
仍被中国人提及。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 03:19, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
The translation presents a special challenge because the German reader lacks the background knowledge. Here, the publishing house found the solution to attach the original in an existing translation in the appendix.<br />
Translator: Johannes Fiederling (Munich), Publisher: Knaur.<br />
阅读这本著作对于德国人来说是一个特殊的挑战，因为他们缺乏与之相关的背景知识。出版社找到了一个解决办法，将一篇已有的翻译附加在原著的附录上。译者:约翰内斯·费德林(Johannes Fiederling)(慕尼黑），出版社:科努尔(Knaur)--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 03:19, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Yú Dān于丹»Yu Dan’s Notes on Zhuangzi« "《庄子》心得Zhonghua Book Company, Rating: 4.0.<br />
This is a typical second book. This should only be tackled when the first book becomes a success.<br />
《于丹<庄子>心得》，中华书局，评分:4.0.<br />
这本书是于丹第二本经典书籍。只有读懂第一本书后，才能读懂这本书。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 03:19, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
<br />
3rd place: Yì Zhōngtiān / Yi Zhongtian 天 中天 (born 8.2.1947, lives in): »Chronicles of the Three Kingdoms« Volume 1-2品三国（上下), 340.000 sold copies 2007, Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House , Vol. 1 7/06 248 pp., Vol. 2 3/07 274 p. Rating: 3.0.<br />
<br />
Explanations on the classical novel "Three Kingdoms", typical title of the nostalgic wave. Even less popular with the German public.<br />
<br />
4th place: Zhèng Yuānjié / Zheng Yuanjie郑渊洁 (born 15.6.1955): »Pipi Lu; Rock the Wolf "皮皮鲁总动员;大灰狼罗克, 285.000 sold copies. Rating: 4.0. Children's books.<br />
<br />
5. Ráo Xuěmàn / Rao Xueman 饶雪漫 (born 1972), "Sweet-sour" 甜酸 11/07, 235 pp., New World publishing house, 260.000 sold copies. Rating: 3.7.<br />
Love story for teenagers / sentimental kitsch.<br />
<br />
Sandglass Volume 1-3, 沙漏, 279 pp., Gegenwartswelt Publishing House, Rating: 3.7.<br />
Love story for teenagers / sentimental kitsch.<br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
<br />
6th place: Wáng Shuò / Wang Shuo: 王朔 (born 23.8.1958): "Playing for Thrills" 玩的就是心跳, 250.000 sold copies. Rating: 1.3.<br />
Already translated by Ulrich Kautz, Diogenes 5/1997.<br />
<br />
7th Place: Yáng Hóngyīng / Yang Hongying杨红樱(born 1962), "Children’s Stories about Love"爱的童话, 240.000 sold copies. Rating: 4.0. Children's books<br />
<br />
8th place: Cáo Wénxuān / Cao Wenxuan曹文轩 (born 1.1954) »Fantasy: King's Books - The Yellow Pagoda«大王书——黄琉璃, 225.000 sold copies. Rating: 4.0. Fantasy.<br />
<br />
9th place: Wáng Yuèwén / Wang Yuewen王跃文 (born 26.9.1962) »The Qing Prime Minister« 大清相国, 217.500 sold copies, 3/07, 493 pp.<br />
Rating: 3.7. Historical civil servant novel, difficult to transfer, only suitable for expert audience.<br />
<br />
10th place: Yú Qiūyǔ / Yu Qiuyu余秋雨 (born 23.8.1946): »A Life Borrowed « 借我一生, 215:000 sold copies. 8/04, 617 pp., Autorenverlag.<br />
Rating: 2.0. Autobiography of a famous Chinese writer.<br />
<br />
第六名：王朔（出生于1958年8月23日）：《玩的就是心跳》，售出25万册。评分：1.3。Ulrich Kautz译，1997年5月出版。<br />
第七名：杨红樱（出生于1962年），《爱的童话》，售出24万册。评分：4.0。儿童读物<br />
第八名：曹文轩（出生于1954年1月），《大王书——黄琉璃》售出22.5万册。评分：4.0。幻想。<br />
第九名：王跃文（出生于1962年9月26日），《大清相国》，售出21.75万册，2007年3月出版，共计493页。评分：3.7。历史悠久的公务小说，转换较难，只适合专家读者阅读。<br />
第十名：余秋雨（出生于1946年8月23日）：《借我一生》，售出21.5万册。2004年8月出版，共计617页，Autorenverlag。评分：2.0。中国著名作家的自传。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 14:21, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
<br />
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
<br />
11th place: Cài Jùn / Cai Jun蔡骏 (born 23.12.1978): »Destiny volume 1: The city in deep sleep«天机: 第一季: 沉睡之城, 202.500 sold copies. 9/07, 240 pp., Shaanxi Pedagogical College Publishing House陕西师范大学出版社4 volumes. Rating: 4.0. Historical adventure / fantasy novel after the pattern of "Lost".<br />
<br />
12th place: Dōu Liáng / Dou Liang都梁(born 6.1954): "War Drums in Beijing"狼烟北平, 200.000 sold copies, Changjiang Literature and Art Publisher, 4/06, 371 pp. [Second user: Folk Literature Publishing House].<br />
Rating: 2.0. War novel about the 1930s in Beijing. Also interesting for Germans.<br />
<br />
13th place: Hán Hán / Han Han韩寒(born 23.9.1982): "Glory Days" 光荣 日, 190.000 sold copies. 6/07, 186 pp., 21st Century Publishing House. <br />
Rating: 1.0. Seven graduates drop out, instead of working in a foreign company. They perform pioneering work in the village (house construction, primary school, vegetable growing). Social critical novel with wit.<br />
第11位：蔡骏(生于1978年12月23日）《天机：第一季：沉睡之城》，销量202,500册，9/07，240页，陕西师范大学出版社。全书共四季，评分：4.0.属于“迷失”题材后的历史冒险或玄幻小说。<br />
第12位：都梁（生于1954年6月）《狼烟北平》，销量20万册，长江文艺出版社。4/06,371页，[第二个出版社：民间文学出版社].评分：2.0. 一本关于1930年北京的战争小说，该书同样引起了德国人的兴趣。<br />
第13位：韩寒（生于1982年9月23日）《光荣日》，销量19万册，6/07，186页，21世纪出版社。评分：1.0.该书叙述了7位研究生退学后，没有在外国公司上班，而是在一个村庄里开拓创新（房屋建设、小学工作、蔬菜种植）的故事，是一本充满智慧的社会批评小说。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 14:07, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
<br />
14th place: Bì Shūmǐn / Bi Shumin毕淑敏 (born 1952): "Women's Boxes"女儿拳, 182.500 sold copies. 254 pp., Blindenschrift Publishing House.<br />
Rating: 2.0, women's narratives.<br />
<br />
Female Psychologist« 女心理师4/07 Chongqing Publishing Group, 253 pp., 2 vols. Rating: 2.0, women’s novel.<br />
<br />
15th place: Ānnī Bǎobèi / Annie Baobei安妮宝贝 (born 11.7.1974): »Fette Jahre, magere Jahre« 素年锦时, 175.000 sold copies, 9/07 264 pp., Authors Publishing House.<br />
<br />
Rating: 1.3. The female first-person narrator of these stories is in each case a young woman who sees the world with her own eyes.<br />
<br />
16th place: Wáng Hǎilíng / Wang Hailing王海鸰 (born 12.1953): »Holding Hands« 牵手, 160.000 sold copies. 7/07 346 pp. Authors Publishing House.<br />
Rating: 4.0. guidebook.<br />
<br />
17th place: Hǎi Yán / Hai Yan 海岩 (born 1954): »Five-Star Hotel« 五星大酒店, 157.500 sold copies. 8/07, 342 pp. Authors Publishing House.<br />
Rating: 2.0. Novel about a student from simple circumstances, who becomes the heir to a Korean financial group, and his girlfriend.<br />
<br />
第14位：毕淑敏（1952年生）《女儿拳》 售出182500本 254pp., 布兰登斯克瑞夫特（Blindenschrift）出版社 评分：2.0 女性记叙文 《女心理师》 4//07 重庆出版集团 253pp 2卷 评分：2.0 女性小说<br />
<br />
第15位：安妮宝贝（1974年11月7日生） 《素年锦时》 售出175000本 9/07 264pp., 作者出版社 评分1.3 她是第一位女性讲述者，无论任何境遇下都用自己的眼光看待整个世界的一位年轻女性<br />
<br />
第16位：王海鸥（1953年12月生） 《牵手》 售出160000本 7/07 346pp., 作者出版社 评分：4.0 指导书<br />
<br />
第17位：海岩（1954年生） 《五星大饭店》 售出157500本 8/07 342pp., 作者出版社 评分：2.0 小说讲述一位成为韩国大财团继承者的平民学生和他的女朋友的故事--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 11:53, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
<br />
18th Place: Yán Chóngnián / Yan Chongnian阎崇年(born 24.4.1934): »Beijing: The Treasures of an Ancient Capital«中国古都北京, 150.000 sold copies. 1/08, 302 pp., Democracy and Law Publishing House.<br />
Rating: 4.0. Specialized book.<br />
<br />
19th place: Tiānxià Bàchàng / Tianxia Bachang天下霸唱(born 1978): »A bizarre story of ghost blowing out the light« 鬼吹灯, 140.000 sold copies.<br />
Vol. 1 The Perfect Ancient City, Vol. 2 The Weasel Grave, Bd. X The Valley of Insects. Rating: 4.0. Magic series on Harry Potter wave.<br />
<br />
20th place: Lù Tiānmíng [Lu Tianming] 陆天明 (born 1943): »Provincial Secretary« 省委书记, 125.000 sold copies.<br />
Rating: 4.0. The very title is currently not enforceable on the German book market.<br />
<br />
21st place: Shí Zhōngshān [Shi Zhongshan] 石钟山(born 10.1964): »Underground, Overground«地下,地上115.000 sold copies. Rating: 4.0. Plagiarism?<br />
<br />
第18位：Yán Chóngnián / Yan Chongnian阎崇年(1934年4月24日生): 《中国古都北京》, 售出150.000 本. 1/08, 302 pp., 中国民主法制出版社.<br />
评分: 4.0. 专业书籍.<br />
<br />
第19位: Tiānxià Bàchàng / Tianxia Bachang天下霸唱(1978年生): 《鬼吹灯》, 售出140.000 本.<br />
卷一：精绝古城，卷二：黄皮子坟，卷三：云南虫谷. 评分: 4.0. 哈利波特魔法系列.<br />
<br />
第20位: Lù Tiānmíng [Lu Tianming] 陆天明 (1943年生): 《省委书记》, 售出125.000本.<br />
评分: 4.0. 该标题目前在德国图书市场上不可发行。<br />
<br />
第21位: Shí Zhōngshān [Shi Zhongshan] 石钟山(1964年10月生): «地下，地上》售出115.000 本. 评分: 4.0. 抄袭？--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 14:23, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
第18位：阎崇年(1934年4月24日生): 《中国古都北京》, 销量为15万册. 1/08, 302页, 中国民主法制出版社.<br />
评分: 4.0. 专业书籍.<br />
<br />
第19位:天下霸唱(1978年生): 《鬼吹灯》, 销量为14万册.<br />
卷一：精绝古城，卷二：黄皮子坟，卷三：云南虫谷. <br />
评分: 4.0. 哈利波特魔法系列.<br />
<br />
第20位:陆天明 (1943年生): 《省委书记》, 销量为12. 5万本.<br />
评分: 4.0. 该书名目前在德国图书市场上不可发行。<br />
<br />
第21位:石钟山(1964年10月生): 《地下，地上》 销量为11. 5万册. <br />
评分: 4.0. 抄袭？--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 02:21, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
<br />
22nd place: Dāngnián Míngyuè [Dangnian Mingyue] 当年明月 (born 1980): "Storys about Ming Dynasty (volume Yuanzhang Zhu, volume 2, 3, 4)« 明朝哪些事（朱元璋卷）, 2, 3, 4. 112.500 sold copies.<br />
Rating: 2.0. Historical novel about the Ming period (The 1st Emperor of the Ming Dynasty was transformed from beggar to emperor).<br />
<br />
23rd place: Liú Xīnwǔ [Liu Xinwu] 刘心武 (born 1942): »Liu Xinwu about …« 刘心武说, 100,000 sold copies.<br />
Rating: 4.0.<br />
Series with at least 3 volumes.<br />
<br />
24th place: Yáng Zhìjūn [Yang Zhijun] 杨志军 (born 1955): »The Tibetan ethnic group Zang'ao (Vol. 1, 2, 3)« 藏獒1, 2, 3. 90.000 sold copies.<br />
Rating: 4.0.<br />
Ethnological-historical representation<br />
<br />
第22位: 当年明月（生于1980年）：《明朝那些事（朱元璋卷）》，2，3，4. 售出112500本。<br />
评分：2.0. 一本关于明朝的历史小说（明朝的第一位皇帝最初是乞丐）。<br />
<br />
第23位：刘心武（生于1942年）：《刘心武说》，售出100000本。<br />
评分：4.0.<br />
这本书至少有三卷。<br />
<br />
第24位: 杨志军（生于1955年）：《藏獒》，1，2，3。售出90000本。<br />
评分：4.0.<br />
一本关于民族历史的书。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 11:37, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
<br />
25th place: Jiǎ Píngwā [Jia Pingwa] 贾平凹 (born 21.2.1952): »Happy« 高兴, published 9/07, 461 pp., Authors Publishing House.<br />
75.000 sold copies.<br />
<br />
Rating: 2.0.<br />
Novel about a farmer who sells his kidney to the city and finds a brittle happiness with a prostitute in the city.<br />
<br />
Not yet published in German by the same author:<br />
<br />
»Ruined City« 废都. 381 pp., 1993, Culture and Art Publishing House.<br />
Rating: 1.7.<br />
Novel with erotic elements about male men and female women, about the rotten urban life (exists to a half)<br />
<br />
第25位：贾平凹（wā）（1952年2月21日生）：《高兴》，2007年9月出版，461页，作家出版社。销量达75000册。评分：2.0<br />
小说讲述了一个农民将自己的肾卖到城市，并在城市里和一个妓女找到了脆弱的幸福。<br />
同一作者尚未出版德语版的作品：《废都》，381页，1993年，文化艺术出版社。评分：1.7<br />
小说中有关于男女的，关于腐朽的城市生活的情色元素（占了一半）--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 04:23, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
<br />
Selection procedures on the recommendations for publishers<br />
<br />
The basis for this was the bestseller list in 2007. The following exclusion criteria were applied afterwards:<br />
Already released: Wang Shuo (Playing for Thrills) - Diogenes<br />
Children's books: Zhèng Yuānjié (Pipi Lu; Rock the Wolf), Yáng Hóngyīng (Children's Books about Love)<br />
Suspicion for plagiarism: Shí Zhōngshān (Underground, Overground)<br />
Guidebook: Wang Hailing (New Age of Marriage)<br />
<br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
<br />
Specialized books: Yán Chóngnián (Beijing: The Treasures of an Ancient Capital), Yáng Zhìjūn (The Tibetan ethnical group Zang'ao)<br />
Sentimental Kitsch: Ráo Xuěmàn (Sweet-sour, Sandglass)<br />
Fantasy (Potter epigones): Cáo Wénxuān (Kings books: The yellow pagoda); Cài Jùn (Destiny volume 1: The City in deep Sleep, historical adventure / fantasy novel after the pattern of "Lost"); Tiānxià Bàchàng (A bizarre Story of Ghost blowing out the Light: Bd. 1 The Perfect Ancient Town, Vol. 2 The Weasel's Grave, Bd. X The Valley of Insects)<br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
<br />
Other socialization: Yì Zhōngtiān (comments on the "Three Kingdoms" volume 1-2); Wáng Yuèwén (The Qing Prime Minister = historic civil servant novel); Lù Tiānmíng (The secretary of the Provincial Party Committee - the title alone is not conceivable at the German book market); Liu Xīnwǔ (Liu Xinwu says: ... - The author is largely unknown in Germany, so one does not want to know anything about his multivolume sentiment about everybody and his dog - tradition such as Suixiang lu by Ba Jin.)<br />
<br />
其他社科书籍作者：易中天（《品三国》1-2卷）；王跃文（《大清相国》，一本关于举足轻重的官员的小说）；陆天明（《省委书记》——仅仅这个标题在德国图书市场来说就是不可想象的）；刘心武（《刘心武说》……该作者在德国广为人知，所以人们并不想知道他对与他有关的所有人和他的狗的写成多卷书的随感——这种随感的传统包括巴金的《随想录》）。--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:09, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
<br />
National hype: Guo Jingming (novel bestseller = Bestseller. The novels are collagen-like and also composed with foreign texts. They will be illustrated in color and presented with all kinds of tips (recipes, make-up), etc. Success can only be explained by enfant terrible Guo Jingming.) <br />
Tip: conclude general contract with Chinese publisher for an author (like Piper with Shan Sa)<br />
<br />
国内的炒作：郭敬明（新奇的畅销书也是畅销书。他的小说就像拼贴画一样，其中还有外文文本。书中有彩色插图，展示各种技巧(如食谱，化妆)，等等。年少成名，郭敬明是成功二字唯一的阐释者。小贴士:他与中国出版社签订的是一般合同(如派伯（Piper）出版社与山飒（Shan Sa）的合同一般)。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 13:46, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
国内炒作：郭敬明（小说畅销书也就是畅销书。他的小说就像拼图贴画一样，其中与外文文本相结合。书中有彩色插图，展示各种技巧(如食谱，化妆)，等等。年少成名，郭敬明是成功二字唯一的阐释者。小贴士:他与中国出版社签订的是一般合同(如派伯（Piper）出版社与山飒（Shan Sa）的合同一般)。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 02:58, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
国内炒作：郭敬明（畅销的小说也就是畅销书。郭敬明的小说是拼图版式并且常与外文文本相结合。书中有彩色插图，提供了各种各样的技巧（如食谱、化妆等）。郭敬明向我们诠释了“成功”这两个字。。小贴士：他与中国出版社签订的是一般合同（如派伯出版社和山萨的一同一般）。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 04:20, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
国内炒作：郭敬明（畅销小说也代表着畅销书作者。他的小说像胶原蛋白一样含量多，内容广，书中还结合了外文文本。书中有彩色插图，展示各种技巧(如食谱，化妆)，等等。年少成名，郭敬明是成功二字的不二诠释者。小贴士:他与中国出版社签订的是一般合同(如派伯（Piper）出版社与山飒（Shan Sa）的合同一般)。<br />
--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 22:27, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
<br />
Further recommendations for German publishers for publication<br />
<br />
At the translator meeting in Frankfurt, I had recommended two more works, which are not on the current bestseller lists, but which are absolutely necessary to translate and actually appeared at the book fair:<br />
<br />
On the one hand, the "secret bestseller", Mian Mian's Panda Sex, which was forbidden in China, appeared in Hong Kong and became a bestseller in China under the shop counter and on the Internet. It was only in February 2009 that a censored version could be published in China, which was sold out immediately after the release.<br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
<br />
1. Mián Mián棉棉 »Panda Sex« 熊猫. Prohibited in the People's Republic of China. Published in revised version 2/2009, 1st edition immediately out of print.<br />
German translation by Martin Woesler with Lihua Ji, Kiepenheuer & Witsch 2009.<br />
Published in Chinese: 12/04, 181 pp., Massenverlag Publishing House<br />
Rating: 1.3.<br />
Scandal book about a Shanghai love affair in free love, cf. La la la, Candy, Your night my day, cf .: Wei Hui: Shanghai Baby.<br />
<br />
For details, see one of the following chapters.<br />
棉棉《熊猫性爱》。此书在中华人民共和国禁止发行。修订版于2009年2月出版，第一版立即绝版。2009年德译版译者：Martin Woesler，纪丽华，Kiepenheuer & Witsch。中文版:12/04,181页，Massenverlag出版社评分:1.3。关于上海恋爱的丑闻书，《啦啦啦，坎迪，你的黑夜我的白天》，魏慧:上海宝贝。<br />
了解详细信息，请参阅以下章节之一。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 13:03, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
<br />
2. Cáo Xuěqín 曹雪芹 » Dream of the Red Chamber or The Story of the Stone« 红楼梦.<br />
This book appears in 2009 in a bound edition in three volumes and in a paperback edition in a volume.<br />
Approx. 1759, 2300 pp.<br />
Rating: 1.3.<br />
Everlasting bestseller in China, could become a longseller in Germany. Previously there was only a 70% shortened version by Franz Kuhn. The new version is uncut.<br />
曹雪芹的《红楼梦》这本书，于2009年出版了三卷的精装版以及一卷的平装版。<br />
大约有1759到2300页<br />
评分为1.3分。<br />
这本书在中国永远都是畅销书，在德国也应该会长期畅销。之前德国只有弗朗兹.库恩翻译的只包含原文70%的删减版，但最新版是无删减的版本。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 05:45, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2. Cáo Xuěqín 曹雪芹 » Dream of the Red Chamber or The Story of the Stone« 红楼梦.<br />
This book appears in 2009 in a bound edition in three volumes and in a paperback edition in a volume.<br />
Approx. 1759, 2300 pp.<br />
Rating: 1.3.<br />
Everlasting bestseller in China, could become a longseller in Germany. Previously there was only a 70% shortened version by Franz Kuhn. The new version is uncut.<br />
曹雪芹的《红楼梦》，于2009年出版了三卷的精装版以及一卷的平装版。<br />
大约有1759到2300页；<br />
评分:1.3；<br />
这本书在中国十分畅销，在德国应该会长期畅销。之前有弗朗兹.库恩翻译的删减版，只包含原文70%，但最新版是无删减的版本。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 06:29, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
<br />
3.Cáo Xuěqín 曹雪芹 » Dream of the Red Chamber or The Story of the Stone« 红楼梦.<br />
This book appears in 2009 in a bound edition in three volumes and in a paperback edition in a volume.<br />
Approx. 1759, 2300 pp.<br />
Rating: 1.3.<br />
Everlasting bestseller in China, could become a longseller in Germany. Previously there was only a 70% shortened version by Franz Kuhn. The new version is uncut.<br />
曹雪芹的《红楼梦》（又称《石头记》），这本书以三卷精装版和一卷平装版在2009年面世。<br />
大约有1759到2300页。<br />
评分：1.3。<br />
红楼梦在中国是经久不衰的畅销书，在德国应该亦然。在此之前，此书只有一个包含原文70％内容的删减版，由弗朗茨.库恩所译，而新版本是未删减的。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:01, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
<br />
On the situation of Chinese publications in Germany (selection list before the book fair)<br />
<br />
Here is a list of Chinese publications in German translation before the book fair.<br />
In 2008, only 11 literary works from Chinese to German were translated.<br />
<br />
An important translator is Ulrich Kautz, here some of the translated novels<br />
<br />
Unfortunately many translations do not come directly from Chinese, but rather from the indirection of English or French, as one of the more famous novels: Gio Waeckerlin Induni (Transl. f. Fr.) Dai Sijie: Balzac and the little Chinese Seamstress <Piper> 192007<br />
<br />
关于在德国中文出版物的情况（书展前的入选名单） <br />
这是书展前的德译中出版物清单。 <br />
2008年，仅有11部德译中的文学作品。<br />
其中一位重要的译者是乌尔里希·考茨（Ulrich Kautz），他曾翻译过一些小说。 但是，许多翻译并不是直接来自中文，而是来自英语或法语的间接翻译，因为这些译本似乎更出名：乔·瓦克林·英杜尼 戴思杰：巴尔扎克和小中国裁缝--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 09:56, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
关于德国的中文出版物情况（书展前的入选名单） 这是书展前的德语版中文出版物清单。 2008年，仅有11部中国文学作品翻译成德语， 其中，一位重要的译者是乌尔里希·考茨（Ulrich Kautz），这些是他翻译过的小说。 但是，许多翻译并不是直接从中文翻译过来的，有些是从英语或法语间接翻译过来的，比如一本著名的小说：乔·瓦克林·英杜尼 戴思杰：巴尔扎克和小中国裁缝--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 11:18, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
<br />
Recent Literary History: "Modern Chinese Literature in Translation - Historical Development and Current Trends"<br />
<br />
1. Development<br />
<br />
Chinese literature is traditionally received in Germany because of its exoticism (Diederich’s Yellow Series, etc.). In Germany operated especially the exotic translator - with a tremendous amount of translation work: Franz Kuhn.<br />
The last great Chinese literature was Dream Of The Red Chamber ca.1760<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
<br />
In the period of the Republic appeared (about 1911-1937) great novels such as Ba Jin: The Family (cf. Buddenbrooks), the end of the Republic saw the beginning of the functionalization of literature (anti - Japanese resistance, civil war parties Guomindang and the Communist Party), intellectuals contributed to the reform with essays, experimental literature was written (Lu Xun: Diary of a Madman and The True Story of Ah Q, which were as revolutionary as Kafka with minimally reduced fictional elements in realistic spelling) and essays (suibi of Zhou Zuoren and socio-critical My Miscellaneous Studies杂文 zawen from his brother Lu Xun).<br />
<br />
民国时期（约1911-1937年年间）涌现了许多优秀的作品，如巴金的《家》。民国后期出现了功能主义文学（即反日本侵略，反国共内战），文人学者们推动了文学变革，出现了实验性文学作品（如鲁迅的《狂人日记》和《阿Q正传》（这两部作品的划时代性，有如卡夫卡在写实作品中减少虚构书写的变革））和散文（如周作人的《随笔》和鲁迅的杂文集等）。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 02:02, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
<br />
In Communism, the functionalization of literature (tendency literature) and censorship (Ba Jin censored e.g. his novel The Family by himself) lowered the level, which was ultimately left to the cultural revolution, which wanted only a few model pieces to survive.<br />
在共产主义时期，文学功能化(走向文学)和审查制度(巴金审查了他自己写的小说——《家》)降低了，但是这些特征只持续到了文化大革命时期，文化大革命只想让极少几类文章保留下来。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 11:05, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在共产主义时期，文学的功能化（倾向文学）以及日渐放宽的审查制度最终延续到了文化大革命时期（巴金审查了他自己写的小说《家》）。而文化大革命只允许少部分模范作品保留下来。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:53, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
<br />
Today the exoticism begins to disappear for the first time because there is an approximation of the cultural background of the Chinese authors with the international authors, and because the functionalization has been replaced by commercialization (mass literature phenomenon Wang Shuo - but not pure fiction like Konsalik, but rather very socio-critical, language of the youth, unmasking the hollowness of slogans through use in the everyday language).<br />
<br />
<br />
现在异国情调首次出现消失的迹象，因为中国作家与国际上的作家的文化背景相近，并且由于功能化已被商业化所取代（大众文学现象 王硕-但不是像孔撒李这样的纯小说 ，但相当具有社会批判性的年轻人的语言，通过使用日常语言来揭露标语的空心性。）--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:34, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
<br />
Even within China, literature has become pure consumption, has lost its reputation, and loses itself towards other media consumption (Internet / film / DVD) audience.<br />
In the last decades, German publishers have published less Chinese literature, while other media genres, such as the Chinese cinema, have been particularly popular because of the exoticism of the images.<br />
<br />
Secondary literature: Martin Woesler: "50 Years of 'Impossible Literature' in the People's Republic of China: Unfreedom, the 'Attempt to End the Enlightenment' and the Lack of Quality ', in: Between Mao and Confucius, Bochum 1999, pp. 151-188.<br />
<br />
甚至在中国，文学也已经成为了纯粹的消费品，失去了其原有的名声，并且执着于向媒体消费观众方向(网络/电影/光盘)发展。在过去的几十年里，德国出版商出版的中国文学作品越来越少，而如中国电影这些其他的媒体流派则因其影像的异国风味大受欢迎。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 06:14, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
<br />
二次文献:马丁·沃斯勒:中华人民共和国的五十年的'不可能文学':无自由，试图结束启蒙运动和缺乏质量，毛泽东与孔子，波1999年，151-188页。<br />
<br />
Even within China, literature has become pure consumption, has lost its reputation, and loses itself towards other media consumption (Internet / film / DVD) audience.<br />
In the last decades, German publishers have published less Chinese literature, while other media genres, such as the Chinese cinema, have been particularly popular because of the exoticism of the images.<br />
<br />
Secondary literature: Martin Woesler: "50 Years of 'Impossible Literature' in the People's Republic of China: Unfreedom, the 'Attempt to End the Enlightenment' and the Lack of Quality ', in: Between Mao and Confucius, Bochum 1999, pp. 151-188.<br />
甚至在中国，文学已经成为了纯粹的消费品，失去了其原有的名声，并且迷失自我，转而向其他媒体消费(网络/电影/光盘)的观众倾斜。在过去的几十年里，德国出版商出版的中国文学作品越来越少，而其他的媒体类型，比如中国电影，则因其异域风情的形象大受欢迎。<br />
<br />
二次文献:马丁·沃斯勒:中华人民共和国的五十年'不可能文学':无自由，试图终结启蒙运动和缺乏质量，毛泽东与孔子，波鸿，1999年，151-188页。<br />
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 15:06, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
<br />
2. Present<br />
<br />
In the present, there is a counter-movement to mass literature, such as Shanghai's extreme individualists (Bei Bei, Wei Hui, Mian Mian)<br />
<br />
2.1 Another characteristic of contemporary literature is the mass: Helmut Martin estimated that about 800 novels appeared annually at the beginning of the nineties; after 1995 the number had increased to about 1000. In the 1980s, only 100 novels a year!<br />
<br />
2. 现在<br />
<br />
目前，社会上存在反对大众文学的运动，比如上海的某些极端个人主义者：北北、卫慧、棉棉。<br />
<br />
目前，有一场反大众文学运动，如（北北，卫慧，棉棉）等上海极端个人主义者都是该运动的拥护者。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 05:58, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.1 当代文学的另一个特点是大众化：马汉茂先生曾估算，90年代初每年出版大约800本小说；1995年之后，数量已增加到1000本。而在80年代的时候，每年只有100本！--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 03:42, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.现在<br />
<br />
目前，有一场反大众文学的运动，如上海的极端个人主义者(贝贝、卫慧、绵绵)<br />
<br />
2.1当代文学的另一个特点是大众化:赫尔穆特·马丁估计，在90年代初，每年大约有800部小说问世;1995年以后，这个数字增加到大约1000人。在20世纪80年代，每年只有100本小说!--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 04:13, 3 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
2.现况<br />
目前，存在反对大众文学的运动，如上海的极端个人主义者：贝贝，魏慧，绵绵<br />
<br />
2.1当代文学的另一个特征是大众性：赫尔穆特·马丁估计，在90年代初，每年约有800部小说问世。 1995年以后，这个数字增加到1000左右。而在1980年代，每年只有100部小说！--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 14:12, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
2. 现状<br />
目前，掀起了反大众文学的运动浪潮。例如，上海存在极端个人主义者（贝贝，卫辉，绵绵）。<br />
<br />
2.1 现代文学的另一个特点是数量众多。赫尔穆特·马丁估算，90年代初，每年大约出版800部小说；95年后，这个数字增至了1000左右。然而在80年代，一年只能出版约100本！--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:28, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
2.现状<br />
现如今，出现了一场反大众文学的运动，例如，上海的一些极端主义者（北北，卫慧，棉棉）就是其中的代表。<br />
2.1 当代文学的另一个特征就是大众化：赫尔穆特·马丁说：“九十年代初，每年大约有800部小说出版，1995年之后，这一数字达到1000，但在80年代，每年只出版100部。”--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 08:11, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
<br />
2.2 ,Young Literature’: It has only been defunctionalized since the 1980s, recognizes that it has started from a zero point, begins with the repressed coping with the past, dares the experiment as in the autobiographical urban literature.<br />
Wang Shuo (born 1958), Masters of Mischief, Zurich: Diogenes, 1997, Playing for Thrills, Zurich: Diogenes, 1995<br />
<br />
2.2、“青年文学”:从20世纪80年代开始才被去功能化，认识到它已经从一个原点、从压抑的应对过去开始，敢于像自传式都市文学那样进行实验。<br />
王朔(1958年出生)，《恶作剧大师》，苏黎世:第欧奇尼斯，1997年;《刺激》，苏黎世:第欧奇尼斯，1995年--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:54, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
2.2，“青年文学”：它1980年代以来才取消功能化的，也认识到此文学作品是从零开始的,始于对过去的压抑应对，敢于像自传城市文学中那样进行尝试。 王硕（生于1958年），《恶作剧大师》，苏黎世：第欧根尼，1997年，《玩刺激》，苏黎世：第欧根尼，1995年。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:42, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
<br />
Literature: Geremie Barmé: "Wang Shuo and ,Liumang’ (Hooligan) Culture," in: The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs (1992.2), pp. 23-64; Yusheng Yao: "The Elite-Class Background of Wang Shuo and His Hooligan Characters," in Modern China. An International Quarterly of History and Social Science (2004.4), pp. 431-469.<br />
Yu Hua余华(born 1960) Mastermind<br />
Mo Yan莫言(born 1956) Mastermind (figurative)<br />
Wang An-yi王安忆 (born 1954)<br />
Bei Dao北岛 (born 1949) poet<br />
<br />
文学：白杰明（Geremie Barmé）的《王朔与流氓文化》刊载于《澳大利亚中国事务杂志》（1992.2），第23-64页；姚玉生的《王朔及其流氓人物的精英阶层背景》刊载于国际历史与社会科学季刊《现代中国》（2004.4）第431-469页。余华（1960-）策划<br />
莫言（1956-）策划<br />
王安忆 (1954-) <br />
诗人北岛 ( 1949-) --[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 06:12, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
文学：白杰明（Geremie Barmé）的《王朔与流氓文化》刊载于《澳大利亚华人事务杂志》（1992.2），第23-64页；姚玉生（Yusheng Yao）的《王朔及其流氓人物的精英阶层背景》刊载于《国际历史与社会科学》季刊《现代中国》（2004.4）第431-469页。<br />
余华（1960-）策划<br />
莫言（1956-）形象策划<br />
王安忆 (1954-) <br />
诗人北岛 ( 1949-) --[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 13:18, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
<br />
1.Su Tong 苏童 (born 1963) <br />
<br />
Su Tong 苏童（生于1963年）--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 05:03, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.Wei Hui 衛慧 (born 1973): 上海寶貝Shanghai Baby, Munich: Ullstein, 2002; Marrying Buddha, Munich: Ullstein, 2005; 熊貓(not yet published in German: Pandasex)<br />
<br />
Mian棉棉(born 28.8.1970): La la la, Cologne: Kiepenheuer & Witsch, 2000; Your Night, my Day, Cologne: Kiepenheuer & Witsch, 2004; Candy糖, 2000.<br />
<br />
Wei Hui 衛慧（生于1973年）：《上海寶貝Shanghai Baby》,慕尼黑：乌尔斯坦，2020；《嫁给活佛》，慕尼黑：乌尔斯坦，2005；熊猫（还未在德国出版：熊猫之性）<br />
<br />
Mian Mian 棉棉 （生于1970年8月 28日）：《啦 啦 啦 》，科隆：Kiepenheuer & Witsch出版社，2020；《你的黑夜，我的白昼》，科隆：Kiepenheuer & Witsch出版社，2004；Candy糖，2020.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 05:03, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3.Literature:<br />
Jie Lu: "Cultural Invention and Cultural Intervention: Reading Chinese Urban Fiction of the Nineties", in: Modern Chinese Literature and Culture (2001.1), pp. 107-139.<br />
<br />
A comparison between Zhang Jie张洁(born 1937) and Mian Mian / Wei Hui: James Farrer: Opening up. Youth Sex Culture and Market Reform in Shanghai (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002).<br />
<br />
文学：<br />
杰露：“文化发明与文化干预：阅读中国九十年代城市小说” 刊载于：现代中国文学与文化（2001.1）107-139页<br />
<br />
张洁与棉棉/卫慧之比较：刘雅格：开放. 青年性文化与上海市场改革（芝加哥：芝加哥大学出版社，2020）.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 05:03, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
<br />
Thilo Diefenbach: "Chinese Literature under the Sign of the 'Upturn': Liu Jiming, Zhang Wei, Liu Qingbang<br />
And their Answer to the big City Literature, "in: Bulletin of the German China Association 2006 (in preparation) [rural China, critical against upturn]<br />
Thilo Diefenbach: Liu Jiming, Zhang Wei, Liu Qing-bang, Bochum 2006<br />
迪芬巴赫：“中国文学渐有好转迹象 ：刘继明，张伟和刘庆邦等对大城市文学的看法”刊载于2006年德中协会公报（筹备中）【中国农村，关键在好转】迪芬巴赫：刘继明，张伟，刘庆邦，波鸿（德国） 2006--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 07:50, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
迪芬巴赫：“中国文学有好转迹象 ：刘继明，张伟和刘庆邦等对大城市文学的看法”刊载于2006年德中协会公报（筹备中）【中国农村，关键在好转】迪芬巴赫：刘继明，张伟，刘庆邦，波鸿（德国） 2006--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 09:24, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 15:57, 4 October 2020 (UTC)==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
<br />
3. Specific problems on the Chinese-German translation process<br />
3.1 Translator = additional filter (further filter: place, possibly time, especially difficult, because great cultural difference)<br />
<br />
3.2 Since in Chinese with 413 phoneme combinations only a fraction of what is possible in German is available, phonetic expressions in Chinese sound strangely clumsy for German ears: "汪wāng" instead of the variations in German "Wau" and "Wuff", 喔喔喔wōwōwō" instead of ‘kikeriki’ "as in German and Czech, cf. “kokekoko” in Japanese, "cocorico" in French, "cook-a-doodle-doo" in English,"kuckeliku" in Swedish.<br />
3.中德互译中的几个问题<br />
3.1 议员=特殊的转换器（更高级的转换器：空间，或时间，由于巨大的文化差异而十分困难）<br />
3.2由于中文的413个音节组合仅有一小部分在德语里通用，中文发音对德国人也十分困难：中文的“汪”在德语里是“嗷呜”和“呜咈”；“喔喔喔”在德语和捷克语为“咯咯咯”，在日语里为“kokekoko”，法语里为“cocorico”，英文里为“cook-a-doodle-doo”，瑞典语里为“kuckeliku”。--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 15:57, 4 October 2020 (UTC)MaShuya<br />
<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
<br />
At the same time the Chinese is essentialy more rhythmically accentuated by the syllable and character structure and the lack of flexion, and because of the numerous homophonies and the tonal system invites to play with the notes. Especially in pre-modern poems, the original song melodies have been lost, and the tone sequences of the reconstructed spoken language at that time are hardly to render adequate with the non-tonal and less rhythmic possibilities in German, especially since rhymed poems in German nowadays seem very antiquated. However, since the effect is important, many translators fall back on the unbounded language. Volker Klöpsch has shown that bounded translations of prehistoric Chinese poems are still not inferior to their unbounded younger sibling translations in the translation quality, since the bounded translations require more effort.<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
<br />
As in the translation from English into German, the brevity of Chinese words presents a problem which can hardly be solved, especially in the case of lyrics. One can just make contractions or e.g. to make one from two stanzas.<br />
<br />
Metaphors in Chinese usually have different meanings than in German; in Chinese, symbols, signs, quotations, and allusions are used more frequently than in German to make associations to other poems, historical events or persons.<br />
就像英语一样，汉语句子相对简洁，因此将汉语翻译成德语十分困难，特别是翻译汉语诗歌时。英汉诗人可以使用缩写把本该是两个诗节的内容简略成一个。<br />
汉语诗歌隐喻表达的含义与德语不太一样，汉语诗歌所用的象征，引用或者典故，更倾向于关联其他诗歌，历史事件或者历史人物。--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 11:29, 3 October 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
同英语翻译成德语的问题一样，中文的简洁往往会使汉语翻译成德语十分的困难，这在翻译诗歌时尤为明显。诗人只需用缩写就可以把两个诗节的内容简写成一个。 一般来说，汉语诗歌中隐喻的用法和德国的不同。在汉语诗歌中，象征，引用以及典故都比德国诗歌使用的更加频繁，这是因为汉语诗歌更习惯于和其他诗歌，历史事件或历史人物相关联。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 02:04, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
正如将英文翻译成德文，汉语词汇的简洁使得汉译德十分困难，尤其是翻译汉语诗歌时。诗人可以使用缩写把原本两个诗节的内容简缩成一个诗节。<br />
通常，汉语诗歌中隐喻表达的含义与德语不同。汉语诗歌较德语诗歌更为频繁使用象征、引用或典故，以同其他诗歌、历史事件或人物产生关联。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 02:43, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
<br />
3.3 Trend: Globalization simplifies translating <br />
Kubin complained in 1991,<br />
"The average German translator of Chinese literature goes unprepared to work. He is neither trained as a translator, nor does he bring any experience with him. Even a most sympathetic criticism is usually closed, for the goal of having not translated it wrong seems to him the only and highest command, if attained. "<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
<br />
However at the beginning of the 21st century the cultural embedding of the translation appears to be more consciously perceived:<br />
Due to the overlapping of the experience horizon by traveling and global media experiences, e.g. tragedies such as the tsunami in Southeast Asia, or Hollywood films, which are also known in China, literature is nowadays more easily translatable.<br />
不过，在21世纪初，翻译中的文化嵌入似乎更多是有意识的：由于旅游和全球化媒体体验的带来的经验和视界重叠影响，使得文学如今更加容易被翻译介绍了，比如在中国同样广为人知的东南亚海啸悲剧或与之相关的好莱坞电影。----[[User:Monan|Monan]] ([[User talk:Monan|talk]]) 13:35, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
然而在21世纪初，人们似乎更容易地感知到翻译的文化植入现象：这是因为旅行和全球传媒界限的交叉。例如，在中国也能知道像东南亚海啸的悲剧，或者好莱坞的电影，现如今，文学的可译性更强了。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 11:21, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
然而在21世纪初，人们似乎更有意识地感知到翻译的文化植入现象：<br />
这是因为旅行和全球传媒界限的交叉,例如，在中国也能知道一些悲剧，如东南亚的海啸，或者好莱坞的电影，现如今，文学的可译性更强了。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:09, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
<br />
Some translators and perhaps even readers share the author's experiences, such as the events in June 1989 or alienation by the anonymisation of the urbanization, thus the cultural distance reduces.<br />
<br />
In particular, the backlog of Chinese intellectuals since 1917, which selected themselves national literature at first and translated what was just tangible, but then also the personal experience abroad of these intellectuals during their studies, which flowed into their works, made them to translators of a special kind of culture translators. The same may be true in the other direction for early translators like Franz Kuhn.<br />
一些译者甚至读者分享了作者的经历，比如1989年6月的政治风波，将城镇化匿名化的异化翻译，从而缩短了文化距离。<br />
尤其是自1917年以来，积压的中国知识分子首先选择翻译民族文学，翻译那些有形的东西，之后他们在国外进行研究的个人经历也流入了他们的作品，这使得他们成了一种特殊的文化翻译者。对于像弗兰兹·库恩这样的早期译者来说，反过来也可能是这样。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 02:17, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
一些译者甚至可能有读者分享了作者的经历，比如1989年6月的政治风波，将城镇化匿名化的异化翻译，从而缩短了文化距离。<br />
尤其是自1917年以来，因难觅出路而积压过剩的中国知识分子首先选择翻译民族文学，翻译那些有形的东西，之后他们在国外进行学习的个人经历也流入了他们的作品，这使得他们成了一种特殊的文化翻译者。对于像弗兰兹·库恩这样的早期译者来说，反过来也可能是这样。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:22, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
<br />
Edward Hall (Beyond culture) ordered in 1976 Chinese culture to be "high-context cultures" and the German to be "low-context cultures". While the history of humanity worldwide is characterized by an intensified coding (documentation, digitization, information exchange, translation, etc.), which has become an overcoding of modern industrial societies since modernization, industrialization and the introduction of dual bookkeeping, at the same time it can be observed that there is a trend that the high-context cultures develop into low-context cultures.<br />
<br />
It remains to be noted that the convergence of the horizons of experience and the lifeworlds of the authors, translators and foreign-cultural readers strengthens the intersubjective traceability of the translator's and reader's recipe process. For the translator, the effort for the embedding of non-textual context is thus reduced in the present time.<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
<br />
3.4 Translators<br />
Florian Reißinger (The Family), Wolfgang Kubin (re-poetry), Wolf Baus (Taiwanese Lit.), Volker Klöpsch (Tang Poems), Ulrich Kautz (Modern Figures such as Wang Meng, Wang Shuo, Lu Wenfu, Yu Hua): Dream of the Red Chamber (Rainer Schwarz, Martin Woesler).<br />
Studies of translating with a literature part at the universities in Germersheim and Bonn.<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
<br />
4. Literature recommendations<br />
<br />
4.1 Bilingual literature (especially for studying sinologists): hardly available, only the following are known:<br />
<br />
4.1.1 Lyric<br />
<br />
Reclam: Chinese Literature (out of print)<br />
Reclam: Chinese lyricism of the twentieth century (out of print, reissued in the European University Press as "Bogenlinien")<br />
Arbeiterverlag: Black Suns (representative selection of German lyric, out of print)<br />
In collections (anthologies, magazine "die horen") occasionally individual Chinese poems<br />
Pohl (eds.): Tao Yuanming<br />
<br />
4.文献推荐<br />
<br />
4.1 双语文献（特别针对于正在进行研究的汉学家）：稀缺，已知文献仅如下：<br />
<br />
4.1.1 抒情诗<br />
<br />
《雷克拉姆世界文库：中国文学》（已停印）<br />
<br />
《雷克拉姆世界文库：二十世纪的中国抒情诗派》（停印后由欧洲大学出版社再版，名为"Bogenlinien（线）"）<br />
<br />
《工人阶级：黑日》（德国抒情诗代表作，已停印）<br />
<br />
由个人创作的中国诗合集（收录于"die horen(牛角)"杂志）<br />
<br />
《波尔：陶渊明》<br />
--Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
<br />
Interesting new releases are commented in e.g. minima sinica, ORIENTations, booklets for East Asian literature, Bulletin of the German China Association, magazine of the German Oriental Association etc.<br />
4.1.2 Essays<br />
<br />
"The Dragon" (bilingual reissue to the book fair of "Selected Chinese Essays of the 20th Century in Translation")<br />
《袖珍汉学》杂志评论了一些新发表的有趣的文章。这本袖珍杂志是东亚文学的方向标、它反映了中德关系，隶属于德国东方协会。<br />
“龙”（20世纪中国翻译作品选读书展的双语再版作品）--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:50, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
《袖珍汉学》期刊评论了一些新发表的有趣的文章，这本期刊定位是：东亚文学的小册子，中德协会的小报，德国东方协会的杂志。4.1.2期<br />
《龙》（20世纪中国翻译作品选读书展的双语再版作品）--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 14:04, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
<br />
4.2 Monolingual translations: literary lists of universities<br />
4.2.1 University of Trier, reading list basic studies [Fats by me]<br />
4.2.1.1 Philosophy<br />
Kungfutse [Kong, Qiu]. Conversations [Lunyu]. Assigned and published from the Chinese by Richard Wilhelm. Munich: Diederichs, 1990.<br />
Laotse [Laozi]. Tao-te-king [Daodejing]. The Book of Sense and Life. Translation and with a commentary by Richard Wilhelm. Cologne: Diederichs, 1985.<br />
* Schwarz, Ernst (ed. and trans.). Thus spoke the sage. Chinese ideas from 3 thousand years ago. Berlin: Rütten + Löning, 1986.<br />
<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
<br />
4.2.1.2 Older literature<br />
Cao, Zhan [Cao Xueqin; Gao E]. The Story of the Stone [Hongloumeng]. A novel in 5 volumes. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Pr. // A Dream of red Mansions. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1978, 1980.<br />
* The Columbia anthology of traditional Chinese literature. Mair, Victor H. (ed.). New York et al .: Columbia University Press, 1994.<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
<br />
Debon, Günther (trans.). Ein weißes Kleid, ein grau Gebände.. Munich: Piper, 1957.<br />
Debon, Günther (ed.). Mein Haus liegt menschenfern doch nah den Dingen. 3000 Jahre chines. Poesie.. First edition, Munich: Diederichs, 1988.<br />
Klöpsch, Volker (trans.). Der seidene Faden: Gedichte der Tang. Aus dem Chines. übertr. und mit einem Nachw. vers. von Volker Klöpsch. First edition, Frankfurt a. M. (i.a.): Insel Publishing House, 1991.<br />
Köser, Heide (trans.). Das Liederbuch der Chinesen [Shijing]. Guofeng. In a new German edition by Heide Köser. Philologically edited by Armin Hetzer. 1. ed. Frankfurt a .M .: Insel Publishing House, 1990.<br />
京特·德博(Debon, Günther) (译.). 白色连衣裙, 灰色卷.. 慕尼黑: 派珀(Piper), 1957年.<br />
京特·德博(Debon, Günther) (编辑.). 我的房子离人很远, 但是很近. 中国3000年. 诗歌.. 第一版, 慕尼黑: Diederichs, 1988年.<br />
克洛普施·沃尔克(Volker Klöpsch) (译.). 丝线: 唐诗. 来自中国. 转自之后. 克洛普施·沃尔克(Volker Klöpsch). 第一版, 法兰克福(i.a.): Insel出版社, 1991年.<br />
海德·科瑟(Heide Köser) (译.). 中国歌集《诗经》. 国风. 在海德·科瑟(Heide Köser)撰写的新德语版中. 由阿明·赫泽(Armin Hetzer)编辑. 法兰克福出版公司第一版: Insel出版社, 1990年.--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 14:52, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
<br />
From the Chinese assigned by Franz Kuhn. Wiesbaden: Insel Publishing House, 1970. // The golden lotus. Transl. by Clement Egerton. London: Routledge & Paul, 1972. // The plum in the golden vase, or, Chin-p'ing-mei. Transl. By David Tod Roy. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1993, 2001.<br />
<br />
Luo, Guanzhong. Die drei Reiche [Sanguozhi-yanyi]. Roman aus dem alten China. From the Chinese. By Franz Kuhn. 1. ed. Frankfurt a. M.: Insel Publishing House, 1981. // Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Transl. by C.H. Brewitt-Taylor. Rutland i.a. .: Tuttle, 1980.<br />
<br />
Schwarz, Ernst (Transl. And ed.). Der Ruf der Phönixflöte. Klassische chinesische Prosa. 2 volumes of Berlin: Rütten & Loening.<br />
<br />
弗朗兹·库恩翻译。威斯巴登：岛屿出版社，1970年。//金瓶梅。 克莱门特·埃格顿翻译。伦敦：劳特利奇&宝罗出版社，1972年。//金瓶中的梅子，中文“金瓶梅”。戴维·托德·罗伊翻译。普林斯顿：普林斯顿大学出版社，1993年，2001年。<br />
<br />
罗贯中，三国演义 [三国志演义]。旧中国的故事，弗朗兹·库恩翻译自中文。1.编辑，法兰克福 M.：岛屿出版社，1981年。//三国演义。由查尔斯·亨利·布鲁威特·泰勒翻译。拉特兰岛：塔特尔出版社，1980年。<br />
<br />
施瓦茨，恩斯特（翻译和编辑）。凤凰笛的召唤。中国古典文化。柏林2卷：吕滕＆洛宁。 --[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 10:45, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
<br />
Shi, Naian; Luo Guanzhong. Die Räuber vom Liang-Schan-Moor [Shuihu-zhuan]. From the Chinese assigned by Franz Kuhn. Frankfurt a. M.: Insel Publishing House, 1964. // Water margin. Transl. by J.H. Jackson. Hong Kong: Commercial Pr., 1979. // Outlaws of the marsh. Transl. By Sidney Shapiro. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Pr., 1981.<br />
<br />
Wu, Cheng'en. Journey to the West [Xiyou-ji]. 3 vols. Transl. by W.J.F. Jenner. Beijing: Foreign Languages Pr. // Monkeys Pilgrimage. According to eng. Transl. by Arthur Waley assigned by Georgette Boner and Maria Nils. Munich: Hugendubel, 1980. // Monkey. - Reprint. Transl. By Arthur Waley. London, Unwin, 1979.<br />
<br />
Wu, Jingzi. The scholars [Rulin-waishi]. Transl. by Yang Hsien-yi. 3. ed. Peking: Foreign Languages Press, 1973. // The road to the white clouds. Stories from the scholar's forest. 2 vols. Munich: Beck, 1990.<br />
<br />
施耐庵;罗贯中.梁山泊的强盗[水浒传].译自弗朗兹·库恩和法兰克福 a.M. 指定的中文：英瑟尔出版社,1964.// 水泊. J.H. 杰克逊译,香港:商业出版社.,1979.//荡寇.西德尼·夏皮罗译.布卢明顿:印第安纳大学出版社.,1981.<br />
吴承恩.西行之旅[西游记].三卷本.W.J.F.詹纳译.北京:外语出版社,1973.//猴的朝圣.据乔治·博纳和玛丽亚·尼拉指定的亚瑟·韦利英译本.慕尼黑:于根杜贝尔,1980.//猴.—重印本.亚瑟·韦利.伦敦,昂温,1979.<br />
吴敬梓.学者们[儒林外史].杨宪益译.第三版.北京：外语出版社,1973//青云之路.学林故事.两卷本.慕尼黑:贝克,1990.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:14, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
施耐庵;罗贯中.梁山泊的强盗[水浒传].译自弗朗兹·库恩和法兰克福 a.M. 指定的中文原本：英瑟尔出版社,1964.// 水泊. J.H. 杰克逊译,香港:商业出版社.,1979.//荡寇.西德尼·夏皮罗译.布卢明顿:印第安纳大学出版社.,1981.<br />
吴承恩.西行之旅[西游记].三卷本.W.J.F.詹纳译.北京:外语出版社,1973.//猴的朝圣.据乔治·博纳和玛丽亚·尼拉指定的亚瑟·韦利英译本.慕尼黑:于根杜贝尔,1980.//猴.—重印本.亚瑟·韦利.伦敦,昂温,1979. <br />
吴敬梓.学者们[儒林外史].杨宪益译.第三版.北京：外语出版社,1973//青云之路.学林故事.两卷本.慕尼黑:贝克,1990.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:30, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
<br />
4.2.1.3 Modern Literature<br />
Ba, Jin. Kalte Nächte [Hanye]. Novel. From the Chinese by Sabine Peschel. First ed., Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1981.<br />
<br />
Ba, Jin. Die Familie [Jia]. From the Chinese. By Florian Reissinger. Berlin: Oberbaum Publishin House., 1980.<br />
<br />
* The Columbia anthology of modern Chinese literature. Lau, Joseph S.M .; Goldblatt, Howard (eds.). New York: Columbia University Press, 1995.<br />
<br />
Donath, Andreas (eds.). Die Drachenschnur. Geschichten aus dem chinesischen Alltag. Darmstadt i.a. .: Luchterhand, 1981.<br />
<br />
Fessen-Henjes, Irmtraud (eds.). 16 chinesische Erzähler. First ed.. Berlin: Publishing House Volk u. Welt, 1984.<br />
<br />
Gao, Xiaosheng. Geschichten von Chen Huansheng. Göttingen: Lamuv Publishing House, 1988.<br />
Hoffnung auf Frühling, 1919-1949. Frankfurt a. M.: Suhrkamp, 1980. (Modern Chinese Stories; 1)<br />
<br />
4.2.1.3 现代文学 巴金小说《寒夜》译自萨宾·佩舍尔，第一版：法兰克福 苏坎普出版社，1981年。<br />
巴金小说《家》译自弗洛里安·赖辛格。柏林：奥伯鲍姆出版社，1980年。<br />
《哥伦比亚中国现代文学选集》。刘绍铭著， 戈德布拉特·霍华德（编辑）。纽约：哥伦比亚大学出版社，1995年。<br />
多纳特，安德烈亚斯（编辑）。《风筝线》，中国人的日常生活故事。达姆施塔特行政区 ：坎德拉布拉，1981年。<br />
尹虹(编辑)。《16名中国解说员》第一版。柏林：沃尔克大学出版社，1984年。<br />
《高晓升 陈焕生的故事》。 哥廷根：拉穆夫出版社，1988年出版。《春天的希望，1919-1949》， 法兰克福 苏尔坎普出版社，1980年出版（中国现代故事; 1）<br />
--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 03:53, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
<br />
Hundert Blumen, 1949-1979. Frankfurt a. M.: Suhrkamp, 1980. (Modern Chinese Stories; 2)<br />
Jiang, Zilong. 1st ed. Beijing: Publishing House for Foreign Language Literature, 1989 (Phönix-Buchreihe)<br />
Kuo, Heng-yü (eds.). Munich: Minerva publication Saur, 1986.<br />
Lao She. Frankfurt a. M .: Suhrkamp, 1985.<br />
Lao, She. Rikscha-Kuli [Luotuo Xiangzi]. A novel. From the Chinese assigned by Florian Reissinger. First ed., Frankfurt a. M.: Insel Publishing House, 1987.<br />
Lu, Wenfu. Translation and afterword by Stefan Hase-Bergen. Bochum: Brockmeyer, 1992.<br />
Lu Xun. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press. Literature, 1976.<br />
Mao, Dun. Frankfurt, 1985.<br />
Martin, Helmut (eds.). First ed., Frankfurt a. M.: Suhrkamp, 1982.<br />
Mo, Yan. The republic of wine. Transl. from the Chinese by Howard Goldblatt. London: Hamish Hamilton, 2000.<br />
Mo, Yan. Novel. Ger. by Andreas Donath. Reinbek by Hamburg: Rowohlt, 1997.<br />
Mo, Yan. Novel. Ger. by Peter Weber-Schäfer. Reinbeck: Rowohlt, 1993.<br />
Qian, Zhongshu. From the Chinese assigned by Monika Motsch. First ed., Frankfurt a. M.: Insel, 1988.<br />
Wang, Meng. Edited by Helmut Martin. Cologne: Diederichs, 1985.<br />
Wang, Shuo. Zurich: Diogenes, 1997.<br />
Wang, Shuo. Zurich: Diogenes, 2001.<br />
Yu, Hua. Novel. From the Chinese by Ulrich Kautz. Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1998. [od25109]<br />
Zhang, Jie. From the Chinese by Michael Kahn-Ackermann. Munich i.a..: Hanser, 1987.<br />
Zhang, Xinxin; Sang, Edited by Helmut Martin. First edition, Cologne: Diederichs, 1986.<br />
<br />
4.2.1.4 Dramas<br />
Eberstein, Bernd (eds.). Frankfurt a. M .: Suhrkamp, 1980.<br />
Gao, Xingjian. Bochum: Brockmeyer, 1988.<br />
Lao, She. Edited by Uwe Kräuter. Frankfurt a. M.: Suhrkamp, 1980.<br />
<br />
4.2.1.5 Poetry<br />
Hsu, Kai-Yu (eds., transl.). Twentieth century Chinese poetry. An anthology. 1. print. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Pr., 1970.<br />
Kubin, Wolfgang (eds. and trans.). First edition, Frankfurt a. M.: Suhrkamp, 1985.<br />
<br />
<br />
5. Chinese bestsellers in China<br />
<br />
Authors: http://hi.baidu.com/%D1%A7%CF%B0%D3%C0%D4%B6%B2%BB%CD%ED/blog/item/661e76fad5b669ddb48f3190.html<br />
<br />
Translator workshops<br />
These workshops are mainly offered by foundations with literary support (Litprom, Robert Bosch Foundation). In the summer of 2008, a literary translator's workshop took place in <br />
<br />
洪德特 ·布卢门（1949-1979）.《现代中国故事》(2).富兰克福： 苏坎普出版社，1980<br />
蒋子龙. 《赤橙黄绿青蓝紫》（第一版）. 凤凰系列丛书. 北京：外国语言文学出版社，1989<br />
郭恒一. 《永恒之河》. 中国台湾短篇小说. Munich：Minerva 出版社，1986<br />
老舍. 富兰克福：苏坎普出版社，1985<br />
老舍. 骆驼祥子. 弗洛里安·雷辛格编译中国小说（第一版）. 富兰克福：insel出版社，1987<br />
陆文夫. 斯特凡·哈塞-卑尔根著《翻译与后言》. 波鸿：布罗克迈尔出版社，1992<br />
鲁迅. 北京：外国语言文学出版社，1976<br />
茅盾. 富兰克福，1985. <br />
马丁， 赫尔穆特（编辑）. 第一版. 富兰克福：苏坎普出版社，1982<br />
莫言. 《酒国》. 霍华德·戈德布拉特译. 伦敦：哈米什汉密尔顿出版社，2000<br />
莫言. 小说德语版安德里 亚斯译. 汉堡：罗洛尔特出版社，1997<br />
莫言. 小说德语版皮特 韦伯-施海费尔译. 莱茵贝克：罗洛尔特出版社，1993<br />
钱钟书. 莫妮卡·莫奇编译. 第一版. 富兰克福：英赛尔出版社，1988<br />
王蒙. 赫尔穆特·马丁遍译. 科隆：迪德里希斯出版社，1985<br />
王朔. 苏黎世：提奥奇尼斯出版社，1997<br />
王朔 . 苏黎世：提奥奇尼斯出版社，2001<br />
余华. 乌尔里希·考茨译. 斯图加特：维尔他科多出版社，1998<br />
张杰. 迈克尔·卡恩-阿克曼译. 慕尼黑：汉瑟出版社，1987<br />
张鑫鑫，桑. 赫尔穆特·马丁编译（第一版）. 科隆：迪德里希斯出版社，1986<br />
4.2.1.4 戏剧 艾伯斯坦，贝恩德（编辑）. 富兰克福：苏特坎普出版社，1980<br />
高行健. 波鸿：布洛克麦尔出版社，1980<br />
4.2.1.5 诗歌 许，于凯（编辑，转写）《二十世纪中国诗歌选集》1.打印. 伊萨卡. 纽约州：康奈尔大学出版社，1970<br />
库宾，奥尔夫冈（编辑，转写）第一版. 富兰克福：苏尔坎普出版社，1985年<br />
5.中国本土畅销书<br />
作者：http://hi.baidu.com/%D1%A7%CF%B0%D3%C0%D4%B6%B2%BB%CD%ED/blog/item/661e76fad5b669ddb48f3190.html<br />
翻译研讨会 这些研讨会主要由基金会在文学支持下提供（利特姆、罗伯特 博世基金会）。2008 年夏天，在帕莱廷·埃登科本举办了文学翻译研讨会。--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 09:56, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
<br />
Chinese books in German translation: authors who are promoted from China<br />
<br />
Selection list of some Chinese literature events 2007-2009 (before the book fair):<br />
- 29 April 2008: Translator's pitch "Rotes Kornfeld", German Publishers and Booksellers Association, Frankfurt<br />
- May 2008: "Recommendation List of Chinese Contemporary Literature" of the BIZ Peking<br />
- 7.-14.7.2008 "German-Chinese workshop for Literature translators ", Künstlerhaus Edenkoben<br />
- 22.4.2009 Lecture Ulrich Kautz Hamburg at the Confucius Institute: Chinese Contemporary Literature on the German Book Market - Opportunities and Problems<br />
- 22.4.2009 Lecture Prof. Dr. Wang Hongtu王宏图, Vice Director of the Confucius Institute Hamburg, "Contemporary Chinese Literature: From Westernization to Chineseness"<br />
- 27.6.2009 Symposium "Chinese Literature in German Translation - China Honorary Guest of the Frankfurt Book Fair 2009", cf.: Symposium Volume ", Bochum: European Universities Press 2010, ISBN 978-3-89966-293-1.<br />
- 12.-13.9.2009: Symposium in Frankfurt: First meeting of dissident writers and officials, leads to scandal and is a message in the television news, which also arouses interest in the book fair.<br />
<br />
Xu Zechen - Running Through Zhongguancun<br />
"Diwidi? Everything there: Hollywood, Japanese, Korean, Oscar-crowned classics ",<br />
The German reader as a tourist in Peking may have been approached like this by the flying merchants.<br />
"Suddenly, two policemen emerge and they run, passing the southern gate of the Beijing University [...]. Breathlessly asked the friend ‚Shall we not throw the bag away? If one gets us together with the stolen property, there is really anger!’- But the policemen are just too fat, they should have held their bellies to run fast."<br />
This scene comes from the story "Running Through Zhongguancun" (C 2008, G 2009). Here the German reader can slip into the role of the seller for the first time, who is embodied by the 25-year-old Huang. Xu Zechen, 31, lives in Beijing, has created the milieu authentically, the characters with dry humor and yet refreshingly lively. He describes a life between hot pavement and basement hole, between the dream of making big money and bitter setbacks, the daily cat and mouse game with the police. He experiences the world of the crooks as shark pond and as a conspiratorial community, in which everyone gives the shirt off one’s back, lose their existence, but get up again, he experiences the arbitrariness and corruption of policemen. Here, worlds collide: the army of unemployed agricultural workers, who become small-scale criminals, and the urban population. The world of youth, who loves the freedom of the street, and the elderly, who appreciate the security of the wealth. This literature is one of the most recent and most promising stories from China, which shows us a completely different China than the perfectly staged one that the Olympia organizer presents.<br />
中国书籍的德国译本：来自中国著名的作家<br />
节选中国2007年至2009年间的一些文学活动（在书展之前）：<br />
-2008年4月29日：译者的论点“罗斯特·科恩菲尔德（Rotes Kornfeld）”，德国出版商和书商协会，法兰克福（Frankfurt）<br />
-2008年5月：北京商业的“中国当代文学推荐书籍”<br />
-2009年7月1日到-14日：“文学翻译者进行德译中研讨会”，Kunstlerhaus Edenkoben<br />
-2009年4月22日：乌尔里奇·考茨（Ulrich Kautz）在德国汉堡孔子学院举行讲座，主题是：论德国书籍市场上的中国文学——机遇还是挑战<br />
-2009年4月22日：汉堡孔子学院副主任王宏图博士讲座主题：从西方化到中国化<br />
-2009年6月27日：专题讨论会“中国文学的德国翻译之路，2009年法兰克福书展的中国名誉贵宾”，专题讨论会，波鸿：欧洲大学出版社，2010年，ISBN 978-3-89966-293-1<br />
-2009年9月12日-13日：在法兰克福的专题研讨会：持不同意见的作家和官员的第一次会面，导致了丑闻，也是电视新闻的一则消息，也在书展上引起了轰动<br />
徐则臣——《穿越中关村》<br />
“一切都在这儿：好莱坞，日本人，韩国人，奥斯卡认证的经典作品”<br />
多亏了一些商人，来北京旅游的德国读者也许可以接触到这些。<br />
“突然，两位警察出现了，他们奔跑穿过了北京大学的南门，有气无力地对那个人说，我们能不把包丢开吗？如果我们拿到了脏物，你就死定了！”不过这两个警察太胖了，他们要勒紧裤腰带才能跑起来。”<br />
这个场景来自“穿越中关村”（C 2008，G 2009）。<br />
在这里，德语读者可以首次进入由25岁的黄先生展现的卖家角色。<br />
徐则辰，31岁，生活在北京。他创造了一种千篇一律的，充满幽默感的人物，而且还活灵活现。他描述了一种在炎热路面和地下室之间，在赚大钱和遭受苦难的梦想之间，在日常生活中与警察的猫鼠游戏的生活。他经历了一个像鲨鱼池般骗子遍地和一个阴谋社区的世界，在那里所有人都脱去了衬衫，失去了存在，但又重新站起来，他也见识了警察的任性和腐败。在这里，各种世界相互碰撞：成为小规模罪犯的失业农民工与城市人口之间；热爱街道自由的年轻人和赞许财富安全的长辈之间；这是来自中国的最新，最有前途的故事之一，为我们展现了一个与完全由奥林匹亚组织者呈现的故事完全不同的中国。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 13:41, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
<br />
Full Text Xu Zechen: "Running Through Zhongguancun"<br />
<br />
Quote:<br />
"Diwidi? Everything there: Hollywood, Japanese, Korean, Oscar-crowned classics "<br />
<br />
Quote<br />
"[...] Suddenly, two policemen emerge and they run, passing the southern gate of the Beijing University [...]. Breathlessly asked the friend ‚Shall we not throw the bag away? If one gets us together with the stolen property, there is really anger!’- But the policemen are just too fat, they should have held their bellies to run fast."<br />
<br />
Alai: Distant Springs<br />
"When I was little, the old nomad Gongbosijia told me about a hot spring in a distant place. This spring became the quintessence of my childhood's longing", so the story "Distant Springs" (C 2005, Unionsverlag G 2009) begins by the Tibetan Author Alai, 50. The novel is written from the perspective of a Tibetan boy who prefers to take care on horses on the Tibetan mountain pasture rather than talking to the villagers in the valley. After hearing of the hot and healing springs, he longs to find them, because he does not feel at home in the village. He discovers his passion for photography and, as a young man, now a district photographer, actually penetrates the sources. Instead of the described springs by the nomad, he finds there an abandoned concrete landscape - a sign of a failed touristic planning.<br />
<br />
Yes, even Tibetan authors are among the winners of this year's book fair: They are particularly in demand by Swiss publishers. At the confederate Chinabooks, several young Tibetans are represented: Jamyang, Taering Öser, Tenzin Tsundue and Alai, who comes from northern Sichuan, and who had after his poems and stories a great success with his latest novel "Red Poppies".<br />
<br />
Full text of Alai: Distant Springs<br />
http://book.kanunu.cn/html/2005/0828/979.html<br />
"When I was little, the old nomad Gongbosijia told me about a hot spring in a distant place. This spring became the quintessence of my childhood's longing."<br />
<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
<br />
Yu Dan: Confucius from the Heart<br />
Yu Dan embodies a new type of female professor: Young (44), boyish, witty and funny - and her specialty is the 2,500-year-old classic "Conversations" of Confucius who was as basic to China as Plato for the West. She fetched the old text from the dust of her study room at the Beijing Normal University and moved into the spotlight of the television headlights. For seven days she was to be seen in state television with her lectures. Her illustrative elucidation of the moral principles on the basis of everyday examples from the present was the subject of discussion in 2006, which was discussed at work. She uses anecdotes and colloquial language. The teachings of Confucius are timeless, like "Do not force anyone to do anything you would not want to do either." Her daughter would also learn a lot more while playing with bottle and lid than with expensive toys. "Not everything from Confucius has yet to tell us something today, I grew up with Confucius and was brought up in a classical way and that makes me believe in myself." The book "Confucius from the Heart" emerged the second place on the bestseller list in 2007 with 503.000 sold copies. Meanwhile, she has reached the million, other statistics, which the author has not been able to confirm, speak of more than ten million of pirated material. <br />
<br />
And since the trend in China goes towards the second book, thia means, that a successful book is followed by a second similar one, she produced another commentary to the philosopher Zhuangzi in 2007. Yu Dan is so successful because she is both a Confucius researcher and an employee in the arts and media institute.<br />
<br />
于丹：《论语心得》<br />
于丹展现了新一代女性研究者的风貌：年轻（44），孩子气但又充满智慧，性格有趣。她学习孔子，也就是古代中国那位可以媲美西方柏拉图的智者，并专门研究2500年前记录下来的孔子经典语录。从北京师范大学中布满灰尘的书房里取得语录老本，她将之带到了电视荧幕中的聚光灯下，并连续七天开展讲座。2006年，她以日常事件为例，对孔子推崇的道德观念进行解说，这成为了年度话题，甚至工作时也被讨论。她口语化的语言写书，谈及轶事。孔子的教诲是永不过时的， 比如说那句“己所不欲，勿施于人”。她的女儿在玩瓶子和瓶盖时比玩昂贵玩具懂得更多。“并非所有孔子的思想有待在当下给予我们一些教诲，我从小就学习孔子，是在传统文化教育下长大的，这样的教育经历让我相信自己。”《论语心得》这本书在2007年的畅销书榜中排第二，销售量达五百三千万。同时，她成为了百万富翁，另有数据说她坐拥千万以上的财产，但后者并未得到本人证实。<br />
<br />
自这本书掀起时代潮流起，不断有人对此模仿，于丹在2007年写了一部对另一位古代中国哲学家庄子的评论。于丹如此成功，因为她既是孔子的研究者，又是艺术和多媒体领域的宠儿。--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 11:26, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
于丹：《论语心得》<br />
于丹展现了新一代女性研究者的风貌：年轻（44岁），孩子气又充满智慧，诙谐风趣。她专研2500年前记录下来的孔子经典语录，这位智者在中国的地位可以等同于西方世界里柏拉图的地位。于丹从北京师范大学中布满灰尘的书房里取得语录老本，她将之带到了电视荧幕的聚光灯下，在国家电视台连续开展了七天的讲座。2006年，她以日常事件为例，在作品中对孔子推崇的道德观念进行阐述，这成为了年度话题。她以趣闻轶事和口语来写作。孔子的教诲是永不过时的， 比如说那句“己所不欲，勿施于人”。她的女儿在玩瓶子和瓶盖时比玩昂贵玩具懂得更多。“并非所有孔子的思想在当下仍具有教育意义，我从小就学习孔子，是在传统文化教育下长大的，这样的教育经历让我相信自己。”《论语心得》这本书在2007年的畅销书榜中排第二，销售量达五百三千万。同时，她成为了百万富翁，另有数据说她坐拥千万以上的财产，但后者并未得到本人证实。<br />
<br />
在中国，一本书的畅销往往会带来第二本书，这意味着，一本书籍成功后，往往会有一本类似的后续--于丹在2007年写了一部对另一位哲学家庄子的评论。于丹如此成功源于她既是孔子的研究者，又是电影学院的教职工。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 15:01, 2 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
<br />
She likes to open theatrically an arbitrary passage in the "Analects of Confucius" and provides an improvised interpretation, like a modern preacher. This has also given her some criticism from Confucius researchers who see the historical context and political implications neglected in favor of a soft-washed, harmonious Confucianism.<br />
<br />
Why is Confucius so successful in China today? Yu Dan with the return to the common uber-father, certainly gives a new orientation in a disillusioned, materialistic time, as she herself says. In 1974, Confucius had been dismantled in a campaign and waved aside as "conservative" and "overhauled" in the last decades. Now, especially middle class and retirees discover Confucius new. Confucius is a cult, there is a whole advertising industry with devotional objects and sculptures, his place of birth Qufu is a place of pilgrimage and tourist magnet, cultural institutions all over the world bear his name since 2007. In fact, the Chinese also share Confucian values with other Asian countries: humanity, piety / loyality and social responsibility, and care of the fittest for the weaker.<br />
<br />
Does this popular scientific commentary literature also work in Germany, where one hardly knows the original texts? Droemer Publishing House took this risk, which put the translator Johannes Fiederling, whose first major literary translation it is, in special problems. As a solution, the publisher has announced that the original "Analects of Confucius" will be printed in the back of the book as soon as it enters the bookstores on the 21st of August, 2009.<br />
<br />
她喜欢戏剧性地随意打开《论语》中的一段，并像现代传教士那样，做出即兴解释。这也招致了一些儒学研究者的批评，他们关注历史背景和政治影响，而忽视了赞同温和与和谐的儒家思想。<br />
为何孔子在当代中国如此成功?正如于丹自己所说，她带着共识回归先祖，这在一个幻灭的、物质主义的时代，无疑指引了一个新方向。1974年，孔学在一场运动遭受打击，在过去的几十年里，人们置之不理，并视之为“保守派”和“改革派”。如今，人们发展孔学焕然一新，尤其是中产阶级和退休人员。孔子是一种信仰，他有一条完整的广告业，包含祷告对象和雕塑。他的出生地曲阜是一个朝拜和旅游胜地自2007年以来，世界各地的文化机构都以他的名字。事实上，中国人也与其他亚洲国家分享儒家价值观:人性、孝道、社会责任、锄强扶弱。<br />
这种流行的科学评论文学在德国，这个人们几乎不懂原文的国家也适用吗?德勒默出版社冒了这个险，这让第一次翻译重要文学译文的译者约翰内斯·费德林(Johannes Fiederling)陷入了特殊的困境。为了解决这个问题，出版商宣布，《论语》将尽快于2009年8月21日在书店上架，并将在书的背面印刷。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 15:24, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
<br />
Indeed Yu Dan stayed young, she likes listening to pop music by Jay Chow and "Mother Nanquan" and is the head of the "I want fun" club at the art and media institute of the Beijing Normal University.<br />
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Yu Dan had certainly predecessors, for instance when modern writers such as Liu Xinwu or Wang Meng criticized the classic "Dream of the Red Chamber". But she has found a series of imitators that deal with classical subjects - a nostalgic wave is currently swashing through China. In place of the reconditioned Communist ideology, the return to traditional values has taken place. Also on the bestseller lists this literature stands at the top.<br />
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This nostalgia literature in China also includes comments on the classic novel "Three Kingdoms" (C 2006) by Yi Zhongtian (62), which ended up in 2007 with 340,000 copies on the third place of the bestseller list, the historical novel about the last imperial dynasty "The Qing Prime Minister" (C 2007) by Wang Yuewen (46) and "War Drums in Beijing" (C 2006) by Dou Liang (55) about old Beijing, all of them with at least 200,000 sold copies in 2007.<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
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Cao Xueqin: Dream of the Red Chamber<br />
The wedding is sealed, the veil is lifted - but not the beloved comes in sight, but a good friend. This is the key scene in China's most famous novel "Dream of the Red Chamber", which leads the eternal bestseller list and is for the first time completely in German available. He abducts the reader into a largely untouched, authentic China: the one of the last imperial dynasty 250 years ago. He describes the life at the imperial court like the one of the servants, it is at the same time a soap opera,a generation novel, a crime novel, a love story and a Buddhist parable.<br />
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The author writes so poignantly, because he describes his own life. In a paradise-like garden, he and his twelve cousins grow up carefree, with two developing a triangular relationship. But the large family falls apart, the cousins marry and leave the garden. The tide is turning only when the protagonist passes the examination of officials. In the novel, the Emperor is impressed and returns titles and countries, in real life the author receives a modest pension, writes to the novel until shortly before his death and dies as a hermit.<br />
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In China the novel has become immortal with numerous book editions, film adaptations and own research tradition. The upcoming re-filming was a casting event. Every Chinese knows the main characters of the novel and can name their favorites.<br />
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曹雪芹：《红楼梦》<br />
订了婚，掀起盖头---呈现在眼前的不是心爱的那个人，而是一位好朋友。这是中国颇具盛名的小说《红楼梦》的经典场景，这一幕使得这部畅销书经久不衰，也让这部小说第一次在德国全本出版。他使读者认识到一个地域辽阔、未经踏染、原汁原味的中国：250年前的最后一个封建王朝。他描写得宫廷生活，好像他就是其中的仆人。此外，这部小说还是一部肥皂剧、一本古代小说、一部犯罪小说、一个爱情故事和一个佛教寓言故事。<br />
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作者写得如此令人感伤，是因为他在描写自己的亲身经历。在天堂般的乐园里，他与十二个姐妹无忧无虑地长大，与其中两位发展了一段三角恋关系。然而随着姐妹们远嫁他乡，这个大家庭变得四分五裂。小说的高潮在主人公通过科举考试时展开。小说中，皇帝深受感动，赏赐了头衔和领地。而现实中作者隐居生活，领着微薄的抚恤金，一直到去世前不久还在写小说。<br />
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在中国，这本小说流传至今，出了许多版本，改编成多部电影，形成了自己的研究传统。即将翻拍的电影一直在挑选演员。每个中国人都了解小说里的主要人物，能说出他们的喜好。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 16:25, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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曹雪芹：《红楼梦》<br />
拜完堂，掀开盖头，却发现眼前之人不是自己心爱之人，而是一位好朋友，此乃中国颇负盛名的小说《红楼梦》的名场面，情节之跌宕让该经典名著经久畅销，也让这部小说第一次在德国全本出版。曹雪芹让读者看到了一个地域辽阔、未经踏染、原汁原味的中国，那是250年前最后一个封建王朝之一。他描写的宫廷生活惟妙惟肖，仿佛自己以仆人的身份感受过一样。该作品既是一部言情肥皂剧、一部清代小说、一部犯罪小说，也是一个爱情故事和一个佛教寓言故事。<br />
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作者笔下的文字是如此令人伤感，因为他描写了自己的亲生经历：在一个天堂般的乐园里，他与十二位表姐妹们一起长大，过着无忧无虑的生活，还与其中两位发展了一段三角恋的关系。但是后来随着这些姐妹们远嫁他乡，这个大家庭变得四分五裂。这一反转在主人公中举入仕后开始展开。小说中，皇帝为之动容，赐予了主人公头衔和领地。然而在现实生活中，作者远离尘世，领着微薄的抚恤金，直到去世前不久还在坚持写作。<br />
<br />
在中国，《红楼梦》历久弥新，经过无数版本的传承，电影的改编，还拥有了独特的研究领域。影视工作者们还一直为该作品即将再一次的搬上荧幕而挑选角色，因为每位中国人都对小说里的主要人物有所了解，并能说出自己在书中喜欢的角色。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 04:41, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
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Yu Hua - Brothers<br />
The Beijing Yu Hua was always smiling, always a joke on the lips, but also always a cigarette in the mouth. He has written the sketchy novel "Brothers", which will be available in German at the book fair.<br />
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Yu grew up in the country during the cultural revolution. Instead of school lessons, there were denunciation wall newspapers. In this he recognized the power of language and decided to write. He learned from idols like Kafka, Borges and García Márquez to incorporate the fictional into his short stories, but also sex and violence and so he quickly became famous. He wrote one decade at a historical novel, but abandoned it when he saw the extreme changes in China to capture these opposites with the novel "Brothers".<br />
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The father of the two brothers, who Yu describes, got killed by the masses in the cultural revolution. The two brothers could hardly develop more differently: The younger brother, Li Guangtou, had been successful with beauty contests for virgins and the sale of used Japanese suits. The older one, Song Gang, works in a public corporation and believes he has a crisis-proof job until he gets discharged. Now he is also trying to be an 'entrepreneur', he lets his breast enlarge surgically to sell peasant gel, which should supposedly enlarge the breast However, he fails and commits suicide.<br />
余华-《兄弟》<br />
余华先生是纯正的北京人，他总是以微笑示人，谈吐也十分幽默，嘴里常常叼着一只香烟。他已经完成了小说《兄弟》的手稿，其德语版即将在书展上出售。<br />
余华于文革时期在农村长大。当时学校里不上课，整天贴大字报搞批斗。从中他认识到了语言的力量，并决定写作。他从偶像卡夫卡，博尔赫斯和加西亚马尔克斯身上学到了将虚构，性和暴力融入自己的短篇小说中，因此他很快就成名了。他用十年写了一部历史小说，但当他亲眼目睹中国的极端变化后，他放弃了这部小说，转而创作小说《兄弟》来表现文革前后的巨大变革。<br />
据余华描述，这两兄弟的父亲在文革时被群众杀害，他俩的发展也完全不同：弟弟李光头在处女选美比赛和二手日本西装的销售上获得了成功。哥哥宋刚原来在一家上市公司工作，他认为自己的工作是“铁饭碗”，可后来还是被解雇了。现在他正努力成为一名“企业家”，为了卖丰胸膏，他还做过隆胸手术。然而他的创业最终还是失败了，之后他便自杀了。--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 12:39, 2 October 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 12:39, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
余华-《兄弟》<br />
生活在北京的余华脸上常挂着笑容，嘴里总讲着段子，也常含着一支烟。他已经完成小说《兄弟》大概内容，德语版将在书展上出售。<br />
余华在农村长大，当时正处于文革时期。学校不开课，整天贴大字报搞批斗。他从中认识到了语言的力量，并决定写作。从偶像卡夫卡、博尔赫斯和加西亚马尔克斯身上，他学会如何把虚构、性和暴力融入自己的短篇小说中，很快，他就因此成名了。他用十年写了一部历史小说，但当他亲眼目睹中国的剧烈变化后，他放弃了这部小说，转而创作小说《兄弟》来表现文革前后的巨大变革。<br />
据余华描述，这俩兄弟的父亲在文革期间被人们杀害。兄弟俩的发展完全不同。弟弟李光头举办了处美人大赛，买卖二手日本人西装，都获得了成功。哥哥宋刚原来在一家上市公司工作，他认为自己的工作是“铁饭碗”，可后来还是被解雇了。现在他正努力成为一名“企业家”，为了卖给农民丰胸膏，他还做了隆胸手术。然而他的创业还是以失败告终，之后他便自杀了。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 01:46, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
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Mo Yan: Sandalwood Death<br />
Mo Yan takes us with his Sandalwood Death (C 2001), which will be published at the book fair, to the German colonial history in China, with railway construction and the Boxer Rebellion,. Mo Yan describes a fictitious story in which Guomindang General Yuan Shikai, with the last imperial headman, wants to achieve a cruel execution by torture against a man who rebelled after his family had previously been desecrated and killed by Germans. Contrasted with this, Mo Yan portrays the last opera singer of the Maoqiang local opera from Gaomi. The language is pathetic, symbolic and emotionally charged. The description of the inner conflict of the physician, who has to keep the victim alive until the German colonizers see him, is shattered. His only advice "Remove the Sandalwood!" is not followed, since this is precisely the torture. Mo Yan is also represented at the book fair with the further masterpiece "Der Überdruss". In his afterword which is not reprinted he writes: "A great novel can not sacrifice its own dignity due to the fact that it wants to appeal to a sensuous, pseudoemotional age. It can not, in order to meet the wishes of some readers, save length, reduce the density of action, or lower the degree of difficulty. I want it clearly long, thick and heavy. Whoever wants to read it, read it, whoever does not, leave it alone! [...] Even if only a single reader remains to me! So what? I am not writing a different character. "<br />
莫言：《檀香刑》 <br />
莫言之作《檀香刑》即将在书展出版，小说讲述德国在中国的殖民历史，（德国人在山东）铁路建设以及义和团起义。莫言描述了一个虚构的故事，在这个故事中，国民党将军袁世凯和最后一个帝国首领，想要对一个在其家人被德国人侮辱和杀害后叛变的人实行酷刑。与此形成鲜明对比的是，莫言塑造了最后一位高密茂腔戏曲演唱者的形象。语言是可悲的、象征性的、以及充满感情的。医生内心冲突的描述—他必须挽救受害者的生命，直到德国殖民者看到他的那一刻—被粉碎了。他唯一的建议“去掉檀香木！”没有被采纳，因为这正是一种折磨。莫言还带着他的另一部代表作《生死疲劳》出席了书展。在未被转载的后记中，他写道：“长篇小说不能为了迎合这个煽情的时代而牺牲自己应有的尊严。长篇小说不能为了适应某些读者而缩短自己的长度、减小自己的密度、降低自己的难度。我就是要这么长，就是要这么密，就是要这么难，愿意看就看，不愿意看就不看。哪怕只剩下一个读者，我也要这样写。 ”--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 02:23, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
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Interview with Mo Yan<br />
On the occasion of a symposium in the run-up to the Frankfurt Book Fair, Martin Woesler interviewed Mo Yan on Saturday, September 12th, 2009, 9.30-9.50 am Mo Yan, who is in addition to Yu Hua one of the candidates for a Nobel Prize in Literature.<br />
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Question: You are a participant of the official Chinese authors delegation who visits Germany during the Frankfurt Book Fair and know Germany from previous visits. How do you perceive as a Chinese the German culture compared to other cultures you have met, like the American?<br />
Answer: Due to the rare and short visits I can not judge. But if you ask me about my impression, I have a different feeling in America than in Germany: In the United States, I have the impression that culture is less the essence of life than in Europe. I am lacking the thoughtfulness. On the other hand French culture appears closer to the Chinese, so I am much translated in French.<br />
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Question: You come from Gaomi, where the Germans had an inglorious past as colonial lords. This is the topic of your novel "Sandalwood Death". Have you forgiven the Germans?<br />
Answer: In the novel, I overdraw the Germans with their goose step as the epitome of the colonial lords, which is of course grotesque and purely symbolic. To the Germans I have no resentment. I really like to be in Germany, now I am here for the fourth time. I was particularly impressed by the harbor of Hamburg. You should not be surprised if the harbor of a Chinese city, which I describe in my next novels, is somehow familiar to you.<br />
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Question: What are your concrete plans for the book fair?<br />
Answer: After the symposium, I will be flying back and return from 11th to 31st October 2009 in order to participate at the book fair and to do a reading tour. I will also read in Munich, your colleague Martina Hasse knows the dates.<br />
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Question: What can we expect from Mo Yan in the future?<br />
Answer: I am writing a new novel, which will appear in November.<br />
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Note: A manifesto of the author is the afterword to the novel "Der Überdruss". This statement is published in the following book, translated by Martina Hasse: Chinesische Literatur in deutscher Übersetzung - China Ehrengast der Frankfurter Buchmesse 2009 / Symposiumsband, Bochum: European University Press 2010, ISBN 978-3-89966-293-1.<br />
2009年9月12日（星期六）上午9:30-9:50，在法兰克福国际书展研讨会上，马丁·维斯特采访了与余华同为诺贝尔文学奖候选人的莫言。<br />
问题：您是法兰克福国际书展访问德国的中国官方作家代表团成员，并对德国有所了解。作为中国人，与其它您接触过的文化相比，比如美国文化，您如何看待德国文化？<br />
回答：由于我很少去美国，且每次去的时间很短，所以我没法判断。但是如果您问的是印象的话，我在美国和在德国有不同的印象：在美国，我认为文化不如在欧洲重要，不过我是缺乏思考的。另一方面，法国文化更接近中国文化，所以我的很多作品被译为法语。<br />
问题：您来自高密，过去德国人在那里有过殖民统治历史。这就是您的小说《檀香刑》的主题。您原谅德国人了吗？<br />
回答：在小说中，我过度刻画了德国人的正步，把他们作为殖民贵族的缩影。这当然是怪诞和很具有象征性的。我对德国人没有怨恨，我很喜欢去德国，这已经是我第四次来这里了。汉堡的港口给我留下了深刻的印象。您应该不会惊讶在我下一步小说中描述的中国港口对于您来说是熟悉的。<br />
问题：您对书展有具体的计划吗？<br />
回答：研讨会结束后，我将回国。在10月11日至31日参加书展和阅读之旅。我也会去慕尼黑，您的同事玛蒂娜·哈斯知道日期。<br />
问题：我们对您的未来可以有些什么期待呢？<br />
回答：我正在写一部新小说，它将于11月份出版。<br />
注：作者的声明是小说《Der Überdruss》的后记。此声明发表在玛蒂娜·哈斯翻译的《中国文学》一书中。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 09:07, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
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From the "evil girl" to the "cult figure" of the Chinese contemporary literature - Mian Mian<br />
Mian Mian has influenced the young generation of the Shanghai women with her underground literature<br />
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See also my similar essay on Mian Mian in: "Chinese Literature in German Translation - China as the Honorary Guest of the Frankfurt Book Fair, Symposium Volume" 2010.<br />
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Photo: Yiqing Liu<br />
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Mian Mian stands on the terrace of the cult bistro "M on the Bund". She looks at the colorful lights of the "Bund": houses in colonial style line up to Shanghai's harbor line. A gentle gust of wind blows a strand of her face, she looks a little defiantly into the skyline: "Here we celebrated wild parties!" Of course, it did not cost anything at that time - she knows the owner of this cult bar and also from the other trendy bars here in the proximity - all foreigners.<br />
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The colorful skyline stands for a vibrant metropolis that is Mian Mian's life. Her books are a tribute to a city that has always been more modern than the other Chinese cities. And Mian Mian has breathed a soul into this city, the soul of youth, open-mindedness and culture of fun. In the socialist China she was a scandal, her literature was forbidden. And yet she was printed in Hong Kong, her texts appeared on the Internet and were sold under the shop counter. She was the insider tip of the underground literature.<br />
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A whole generation of young girls wanted to be like Mian Mian - celebrating wildly, trying out all the forbidden things: free love, alcohol, drugs. Where Mian Mian was, the underground culture was at home, a party was only hippy when she appeared. Sometimes she organized events and performed as a DJ. She has become much more than an avant-garde writer, she has become a cult, a lifestyle. Now the censorship has been lifted and her four novels appeared in February, the first edition of 200,000 copies already sold out in March.<br />
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Her latest novel, Panda Sex, is not really a novel, but a simple chronicle of her life. For this purpose the tireless partygoer took a few years ago a mini-recorder with her and recorded the sometimes irrelevant partly profound conversations of her friends. Time and again the talks deal about relationships and true love. To write down these recordings and compose a novel from it, fascinated her for more than five years, made her "addicted", as she says. The book did not let go of her. At that time, she could not write nothing else, she was "dependent on writing" "like a drug addict on the junk". In fact, she is once again experiencing her wild youth with this novel.<br />
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绵绵——从中国当代文学的“恶女形象”到“狂热形象”，绵绵以其地下文学影响了上海年轻一代女性。<br />
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另请参阅我于2010年在“德语翻译中的中国文学——中国作为法兰克福书展的名誉来宾，研讨会论文集”中发表的关于绵绵的类似文章。<br />
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摄影：刘益清<br />
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棉棉站在“米氏西餐厅”小酒馆的露台上。她看着“外滩”的灯红酒绿：殖民风格的房屋与上海的海港线齐齐相对。一阵轻风吹拂着她的脸庞，她稍带蔑然地望着天际线说：“就在这里，我们举办了狂野的派对！”当然，当时那场派对并没有花任何钱。因为她认识这家酒吧的主人，也熟悉临近一块其他新潮酒吧的主人，他们都是外国人。<br />
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多彩的天际线映照着这座充满生机的城市，就像绵绵的生活一样。她的著作向这座比其他中国城市都要现代化的城市致敬。绵绵为这座城市注入了灵魂——青春，豁达和娱乐文化的灵魂。在社会主义中国，她饱受诟病，她的文学被禁止。然而她的作品还是在香港印刷出版，她的文字出现在互联网上，也在商店柜台出售。她是地下文学的一瞥。<br />
<br />
年轻一代女孩都想像棉棉一样，狂野庆祝，尝试所有的禁忌之物：自由之爱，酒精，毒品。棉棉在哪里，地下文化就在哪里，只有她出现，派对才称得上嬉皮。有时她组织活动并作为DJ表演。她已不仅仅是一名前卫作家，还是一个狂热分子，代表着一种生活方式。现在，审查制度已经解除，她的四本小说在二月出版，第一版200,000册已经在三月售罄。<br />
<br />
她的最新小说《熊猫》（Panda Sex）并不是一本真正的小说，而是她一生的简单记录。为了写这本书，这位派对常客不辞疲惫，几年前就随身携带一台迷你录音机，记录了部分她与朋友之间的深刻对话，一次又一次的讨论人与人之间的关系和真爱。如她所说，从录音中提取文字并创作小说使她着迷了五年多，这让她“上瘾”。这本书没有放过她。那时，她别无选择，她“依赖写作”就像“吸毒者依赖毒品一样”。事实上，通过这部小说她再次经历了自己狂野的青春。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 22:09, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
<br />
Also the characters exist: the male bear features of Mian Mian's partner, herself slips into different female figures. And at the end of the novel she reveals another secret about déjà vus and change of roles about the novel itself.<br />
<br />
It was not until the reworking of the novel that Mian Mian left her wild life behind. Since two years the authoress has abjured the nicotine, the alcohol and the soft and hard drugs of her youth, became a vegetarian and Buddhist, but she is not "clean" yet, her new drug is writing. "My life has run through a transformation from dependence to the danger of self-destruction to self-realization and the readers can experience this journey in my literature."<br />
<br />
Her books are now available in China. "And I'm very happy about that," she says brightly. There is a bit of a malice about the censors who had never understood the novels anyway, and a bit of defiance, the feeling of finally getting a piece of the Chinese economic miracle, which was officially only two years kept back, but actually nine years, namely from April 2000 to February 2009, by revenue of the sold books. In fact, the 20,000 copies of Panda Sex, which arrived in China in February, were already out of print the same month. Also her other three books with 20,000 copies, summarized in Germany in the two books "La la la" and "Your Night, my Day" are sold out. Mian Mian is in her favorite underground bookstore Jifeng and calls with her mobile phone impatiently after the reprint. In the middle of this buzzing, hectic, commercial shopping life of this corner, the approximately 300 square meter bookstore near the "Maoming nanlu" in a subway station of line 2 is an oasis of calm. There are seating possibilities, the books are divided into groups, translations from English are selling by the pile.<br />
<br />
本书还有一些特点：即书中的男性角色有绵绵伴侣的影子，其它女性角色也有她自己的影子。在小说的结尾，她揭示了关于“女权主义”的另一个秘密以及小说本身的角色转变。<br />
<br />
直到小说的改写，绵绵才抛弃了自己的狂野生活。两年来，这名女作家戒了尼古丁，酒和她年轻时所沉迷的软硬毒品，成了一名素食主义者和佛教徒， 但她并不是完全“戒毒的”，写作是她的新毒药。“我的生活经历了从依赖到自我毁灭的危险再到自我实现的转变，读者可以从我的文学作品中感受到这一经历。”<br />
<br />
她的书现在在中国有售。“我对此感到非常高兴，”她开心地说道。这本书的出售，对于那些无论如何都不懂小说的审查员们，有一点恶意，甚至还有一点蔑视，感觉像是终于能从中国经济奇迹中分到一杯羹，尽管官方只保留了两年，但实际上是九年，即从2000年四月到2009年而月，以实际售出图书的收入计算。实际上，今年二月在中国出售的两万本《熊猫》已于同月绝版。另外，她其它三本书的两万册翻印，在德国收录为两本书的《啦啦啦》和《你的夜晚，我的一天》都卖完了。在她最喜欢的地下书店吉峰，绵绵在翻印后不耐烦地用手机打电话。在这个热闹、繁忙、商业购物的角落里，2号线地铁站“茂名南路”附近约300平方米大的书店是一片宁静的绿洲。书店提供座位，其中书分成了几类，以及英译版的书籍成堆出售。--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 09:21, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
<br />
The contrast between the never full partygoer of the 1990s and the writer today could hardly be bigger. In January 2009 she was in Paris and presented the French edition of Panda Sex. There it was celebrated by the young journalists. She flirted with them, especially with the one from "Le Monde," who wrote a fantastic critique of Panda Sex. With Panda Sex, she had created a living literary monument, a modern work of art.<br />
<br />
"Panda Sex" as a contemporary novel is highly controversial in-country and abroad, possibly the most controversial novel at all. Mian Mian is absolutely convinced of her novel: "Of course China was not ready for my novel when I wrote it, hence the censorship. The old books of mine are in the style of the 1990s. I've tried to write Panda Sex as one will write in the future. "<br />
<br />
Now Mian Mian wants a part from the Chinese economic miracle. What does she do when she comes into money? "A movie! That would be the greatest! "This is the only thing that can be made meaningful with a lot of money. In fact, the novel Panda Sex reads like a French black and white film. Dialogues, only interrupted by short stage instructions. The French film studio Anna Sanders wants to make the novel into a film, Mian Mian has agreed to direct it.<br />
<br />
Mian Mian leads me to the original settings of her novel. And not only the places exist, but also the stories happened as described. Today's Shanghai presents itself as a large construction site in preparation for the Expo 2010. And this Shanghai she has loved, lived, lived to the excess. But the places she leads me are no cheap nightclubs, no wicked bars, but trendy restaurants, elegant joints involving terraces with view in which the decadence of the century's turn is palpable. Even in the revolutionary nostalgic "YYs" for tourists, a bottle of champagne costs 965 yuan (over 100 euros).<br />
<br />
20世纪90年代的派对常客和今天的作家之间的对比再大不过了。2009年1月，在巴黎，棉棉发表了法文版《熊猫》。年轻一代记者们为她举行了庆祝。她和他们调情，特别是和《世界报》(Le Monde)那位——他写了一篇关于《熊猫》的精彩评论。通过《熊猫》，棉棉创造了一座鲜活的文学丰碑，一座现代艺术作品。<br />
作为当代小说，《熊猫》在国内外引起了极大的争议，可以说是最具争议性的小说了。棉棉对自己的小说深信不疑：“在我写小说的时候，中国还没有为我的小说做好准备，所以才会有审查制度。我的旧书是90年代的风格，但我是用未来的方式来写《熊猫》。”<br />
现在棉棉想从中国的经济奇迹中分一杯羹。有钱了，她会做什么？“一个电影！那就太好了！”这是唯一一件用钱能变得有意义的事情。事实上，小说《熊猫》读起来就像一部法国黑白电影——充满对话，只被简短的阶段说明打断。法国电影制片厂安娜·桑德斯想把这部小说拍成电影，而棉棉已经同意执导。<br />
棉棉把我带到了她小说的原始背景。不仅场景真实存在，故事也如描述那样发生。今天的上海是一个为2010年世博会做准备的大型建筑工地。而这个上海，她深爱着，在这生活着并过着奢华的生活。但她带我去的地方不是廉价的夜总会，也不是邪恶的酒吧，而是时髦的餐馆，优雅的酒吧，带有露台的露台（在这些露台上可以明显感受到本世纪的颓靡）。甚至在革命性的怀旧风格的“ YYs”中，一瓶香槟也要花费965元（超过100欧元）。<br />
<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 07:53, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
<br />
The "Jean George" at the center with its high ceilings, the dark wooden floors and walls, the mirrors, the somewhat musty velvet, stucco and reddish twilight seems to come from the Europe of the 1910s. Busy waiters in tails dart back and forth, the cocktails are priceless. But it is not Europe, it is Shanghai. And it is not the 1910s, but exactly a century later. In the 1990s, the trendy get-together was prosperous. The bar is still popular today, but it is ghostly empty. Here is a fin-de-siècle mood nearly tactile. The restaurant is owned by Jean George, a star cook who happened to be at his restaurant that evening but is mostly in New York. Here she has recorded the monologue about Bruce Lee by Andrew Bull, which appears in the novel in the first part, chapter five.<br />
<br />
Mian Mian is also surprised at how much the global economic crisis hit Shanghai. Even when she drives by taxi through the nocturnal, almost deserted Shanghai, she feels strange in her city, in the city where she has spent her entire life: "The breath of the financial crisis pushes people from the nightlife into the bedrooms." This empty Shanghai frightens her. But Shanghai will recover from the financial crisis faster than other cities.<br />
<br />
In the novel Pand Sex, she describes the 16 million metropolis by the Yellow Sea like this: "Do you know what is missing in Shanghai? The sea. [...] Shanghai is really a village." Incomparably, finally, the metaphorical description of the city: "Those souls penetrate the nightly Shanghai. The pallor and emptiness are invariable. Under the sound of water scooped with bamboo baskets and leaves that are kinked, mix the sounds of cheeky and honeyed steps. Those famous streets seem like concubines in the harem, who are always ready for the favor of their ruler. These streets are crossed by the foreign concession areas, the modern dance halls, which have given up the hope for better times, the theaters, the horse betting agencys and cafes. They pass tired heroes and a population in a nightmare. They wash up from the river. Shouts like from a lonely phoenix, light reflections like a jade teapot, a sight that goes into marrow. Women with delicate and fragile posture, a skin like frozen fat, faces like the full moon. The behavior of the men is similarly trained, their character is profound, they have received the baptism of literature and art, but do not want to play the hero. The streets cross the Waipo Bridge, come closer to each other at the Broadway Mansion, climb the stairs step by step, with smooth walk, the wobbling of the butt is charming but elegant and fulfills the expectations. Their misfortune is their destiny, they have never really believed in their destiny. Finally, with an expression that is utterly unbelievable, they appear in candlelight, they have always known to hide their feelings well. They never bring anything directly to light, they do not trust anyone. "<br />
<br />
“尚恩·乔治”( “Jean George” )餐厅位于上海市中心，店内高高的天花板，黑色的木制地板，四面的墙壁、镜子、有些许霉味的天鹅绒，粉饰灰泥以及微红的黄昏似乎都来自1910年代的欧洲。身着燕尾服的侍者来回奔忙，陈列的鸡尾酒价格不菲。但这里不是欧洲，而是上海。这里也不是上世纪初，而是一个世纪后。上世纪90年代，新潮的聚会风行。在今天，酒吧依旧很受欢迎，但却空无一人，死寂沉沉, 有种近乎真实的末世情调。这家餐厅的老板是尚恩·乔治，一位星级厨师，当晚他正好在餐厅，不过大部分时间他都呆在纽约。绵绵录制了安德鲁·布尔(Andrew Bull)关于李小龙(Bruce Lee)的独白，就在这部小说第一部分——第五章。<br />
<br />
棉棉同样也惊诧于全球经济危机对上海造成的巨大冲击。她乘坐租车，穿行在夜幕之下，几乎被遗弃的上海，这座生活了一辈子的城市竟让她感到陌生。“金融危机迫使人们放弃夜生活，窝居在家。”空寂无人的上海令她恐惧。但相较其它城市，上海将更快从危机中恢复过来。<br />
<br />
在《熊猫》这部小说中，棉棉这样描述黄海沿岸的一千六百多座大都市：“你知道上海少了什么吗？就是这片海……上海就是个村庄。”<br />
<br />
对这座城的一个终极且无可比拟的隐喻性描述为：“那些灵魂穿越晚夜上海。这座城依旧是一片苍白与空寂。竹篮舀水的声音，树叶绞缠的声音，夹杂着放肆和甜蜜的脚步声。”那些著名的街道像是后宫中的嫔妃，时刻准备着得到帝王的垂青。街道两边是外国特许区、现代舞厅（它们已经失去了对美好时代的向往）剧院、赌马场和咖啡馆。它们经过疲惫的英雄和梦魇中的人们，从河边一冲而上。喊声如孤凤，光影如玉壶——一番深入人心的景象。女人们姿态娇柔纤弱，肤如凝脂，面如圆月。男人们举止得体，性格深沉，他们接受过文学和艺术的洗礼，但拒绝逞威风。街道（“嫔妃们”）跨过外婆桥，在百老汇大厦交相靠近，沿梯而上，步履流畅，摇曳的翘臀既迷人又优雅，令人餍足。她们的不幸就是她们的命运，而她们从未真正相信过自己的命运。最后，以一种完全不可思议的方式：她们在烛光中现身，她们一直以来很擅长掩藏自己的情感，从不暴露自己的一点一滴，她们也不相信任何人。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:44, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
<br />
The German Sinologist Wolfgang Kubin, who was awarded with the Chinese State Prize and the Pamir International Poetry Prize, described her works as "garbage" in 2006. Of course, Mian Mian is not the new Lu Xun or the new Zhang Ailing.<br />
<br />
Mian Mian at the "M on the Bund" restaurant in March 2009 in front of the Shanghai night club: Panda Sex has been completed.<br />
Photo: Martin Woesler<br />
<br />
She also does not represent the mainstream, but was known at the age of 17 through her breach of taboo to write about her own life of sex, drugs, alcohol and rock'n roll. As a "bad girl" with a "talent to burn anger". She has been translated into more than 10 languages and is perhaps the "most promising young writer", as the International Herald Tribune wrote on 2/8/2001, "she touches the core of the experiences of her generation with her themes of sex, drugs and China's opening policy" . "Der Spiegel" described her as "China's most talented writer". The novel "Candy" was a bestseller under the shop counter and became a classic of youth literature. Herself appears in the novel Pandasex and expresses herself thus: "Great art is like the bright moon in the night sky. He enlightens the world, but he does not light himself. His glow is only borrowed by the hidden self-luminous sun. Art has helped many people to catch a glimpse at the meaning of life. Art has invisible, sacred origins and sacred goals. It makes people recognize their true nature and their place in the cosmos. It helps people to always recognize the meaning and value of their lives again and like for the first time, and the unlimited possibilities that it offers. But many modern art has lost this insight and is therefore a prisoner of its self-imposed limitation." Whether Mian Mian's literature belongs to the rubbish heap or to the hall of fame of World Literature can only one decide: the reader himself.<br />
<br />
Is the taboo-less party girl Mian Mian dead like Little Beetle in the novel or like her friend in real life, what brought her to writing? In the novel she shines at us out of her big beautiful eyes, a whole generation of Shanghai's beauties cites her night by night. However this fan base has also become a rivalry, as can be seen in the mask-like description of the 50 girls at the gamble in the first chapter of the first part. And what does the 38-year-old think about it, who has become a little bit chubby since she quit smoking? She bought herself a swim card and says, "The number of small Mian Mians has exploded! In Shanghai you can only survive if you are slim. I just have to do a little diet, then I can go back into the jet set life - because there is only one real Mian Mian! "<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
<br />
Mian Mian: Panda Sex – Alternative beginning of the novel<br />
<br />
1. Mián Mián棉棉 »Panda Sex« 熊猫. Prohibited in the People's Republic of China. Published in revised version 2/2009, 1st edition immediately out of print.<br />
German translation by Martin Woesler in cooperation with Lihua Ji, Kiepenheuer & Witsch 2009.<br />
Published in Chinese: 12/04, 181 pp., Massenverlag Publishing House<br />
Rating: 1.3.<br />
Scandal book about a Shanghai love affair in free love. (cf .: La la la, Candy, Your Night my Day, cf.: Wei Hui Shanghai Baby)<br />
<br />
The title is based on the rare pairing behavior of the panda bears, which is compared with the figure "older sister" by her younger sister. The novel is written as a drama, with brief stage directions, which draw a painting of the mood, and then the lively, colloquial/juvenile dialogues. The dialogues get very curious, but they remain entertaining.<br />
<br />
The extract of translation is based on an older Chinese edition of the novel, as it was on the Internet in 2008. Meanwhile the novel by Mian Mian has been significantly modified for the German reader and will be published in August 2009 by the Publishing House Kiepenheuer & Witsch.<br />
<br />
Critical links to the book fair<br />
http://www.de-cn.net/mag/bli/lit/deindex.htm: Many background articles on the Chinese literature and the Frankfurt Book Fair 2009.<br />
On this very informative website you will find independent information about the book fair. Even voices that criticize the book "Wolf Totem" find a place, which was hyped with a considerable amount of marketing effort by the publisher.<br />
<br />
German-Chinese culture network: http://www.de-cn.net/<br />
A wonderful institution, supported by the Goethe Institute (here the driving force Michael Kahn-Ackermann) and the Robert Bosch Foundation. Numerous recent Chinese contributions appear in excellent German translation (Julia Buddeberg, Andrea Schwedler), e.g. the interview with Liu Zhenyun in as a liberal known South Chinese weekly newspaper about the loneliness of the Chinese and its statement "One sentence weighs more than 1000 words"<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
<br />
Chinese books in German translation: Authors who are read in China<br />
中国书籍的德译版本：中国的博学作家<br />
<br />
http://litprom.de contains a database for Chinese literature in Germany<br />
http://litprom.de为德国的中国文学提供了数据库。<br />
<br />
On the website of the Buch-Informations-Zentrum (BIZ) (book-information center) Beijing http://www.peking.buchinformationszentrum.org/en/ is a database "deyu zhongwen ku" with 700 German titles in China<br />
在Buch-Informations-Zentrum（书籍信息中心）的网页上，Beijing http://www.peking.buchinformationszentrum.org/en/是一个叫做“德语中文库”的数据库，里面有700个用中文写成的德语称谓。<br />
<br />
<br />
On the website of Frankfurt Book Fair<br />
http://www.buchmesse.de/en/fbm/programm/ehrengast/2009/01145/index.html: the following books can be found (Effective: 4/30/2009, p.r.n. the information is updated and expanded in the meantime).<br />
在法兰克福书籍集市的网页上，http://www.buchmesse.de/en/fbm/programm/ehrengast/2009/01145/index.html:包括以下书籍（有效：4/30/2009, p.r.n. 相关信息都已更新且拓展）<br />
<br />
Listed authors are:<br />
例举的作者有：<br />
Annie Baobei 北京<br />
Jia Pingwa / ao 西安 西安 (born 2/21/1952, lives in Xi'an)<br />
Jiang Rong姜戎 北京 (born 4/1946)<br />
Liu Zhenyun北京 (born 5/1958)<br />
A Lai Alai阿来 成都 (born 1959, lives in Chengdu)<br />
Mo Yan莫言 (born 2/17/1955)<br />
Bi Feiyu毕飞宇 "平原" 江苏 (born 1/1964)<br />
Yu Hua余华 杭州 (born 4/3/1960)<br />
Yang Jiang杨绛 听说在北京 (born 17.7.1911)<br />
Yu Dan北京 (born 6/28/1965, lives in Beijing)<br />
<br />
Belletristic titles (end of April)<br />
Alai [阿来, Tibetan writer]<br />
Distant Springs<br />
From the Chinese by Marc Hermann<br />
Unionsverlag - ISBN 978-3-293-00405-4<br />
<br />
Bei Dao<br />
The Book of Defeat <br />
From the Chinese by Wolfgang Kubin<br />
Hanser - ISBN 978-3-446-23283-9<br />
<br />
► Survey and Review: Bei Dao's poems - formed as exile literature in the USA - <br />
mainly use paradox as stylistic device. This, he says, is the only way for him<br />
to discover the world in its inconsistency. By analyzing his life poetically the story has one´s say: the dispersed illusions of a poet, who has dreamed of another better world.<br />
调查与评论：北岛的诗歌-----在美国视为流放文学----主要借用悖论作为修辞手法。其本人表示，这是自己揭露世界的矛盾的唯一方式。我们分析北岛的诗意生活，发现他的故事有一个特点：一位满脑幻想的诗人，梦想着一个更好的世界。<br />
--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 01:27, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
Chinese books in German translation: Authors who are read in China<br />
中国书籍的德译版本：中国的博学作家<br />
<br />
http://litprom.de contains a database for Chinese literature in Germany<br />
http://litprom.de为德国的中国文学提供了数据库。<br />
<br />
On the website of the Buch-Informations-Zentrum (BIZ) (book-information center) Beijing http://www.peking.buchinformationszentrum.org/en/ is a database "deyu zhongwen ku" with 700 German titles in China<br />
在Buch-Informations-Zentrum（书籍信息中心）的网页上，Beijing http://www.peking.buchinformationszentrum.org/en/是一个叫做“德语中文库”的数据库，里面有700个用中文写成的德语称谓。<br />
<br />
<br />
On the website of Frankfurt Book Fair<br />
http://www.buchmesse.de/en/fbm/programm/ehrengast/2009/01145/index.html: the following books can be found (Effective: 4/30/2009, p.r.n. the information is updated and expanded in the meantime).<br />
在法兰克福书籍集市的网页上，http://www.buchmesse.de/en/fbm/programm/ehrengast/2009/01145/index.html:包括以下书籍（有效：4/30/2009, p.r.n. 相关信息都已更新且拓展）<br />
<br />
Listed authors are:<br />
例举的作者有：<br />
Annie Baobei 北京<br />
Jia Pingwa / ao 西安 西安 (born 2/21/1952, lives in Xi'an)<br />
Jiang Rong姜戎 北京 (born 4/1946)<br />
Liu Zhenyun北京 (born 5/1958)<br />
A Lai Alai阿来 成都 (born 1959, lives in Chengdu)<br />
Mo Yan莫言 (born 2/17/1955)<br />
Bi Feiyu毕飞宇 "平原" 江苏 (born 1/1964)<br />
Yu Hua余华 杭州 (born 4/3/1960)<br />
Yang Jiang杨绛 听说在北京 (born 17.7.1911)<br />
Yu Dan北京 (born 6/28/1965, lives in Beijing)<br />
<br />
Belletristic titles (end of April)<br />
Alai [阿来, Tibetan writer]<br />
Distant Springs<br />
From the Chinese by Marc Hermann<br />
Unionsverlag - ISBN 978-3-293-00405-4<br />
<br />
Bei Dao<br />
The Book of Defeat <br />
From the Chinese by Wolfgang Kubin<br />
Hanser - ISBN 978-3-446-23283-9<br />
<br />
► Survey and Review: Bei Dao's poems - formed as exile literature in the USA - <br />
mainly use paradox as stylistic device. This, he says, is the only way for him<br />
to discover the world in its inconsistency. By analyzing his life poetically the story has one´s say: the dispersed illusions of a poet, who has dreamed of another better world.<br />
调查与评论：北岛的诗歌-----在美国视为流放文学----主要借用悖论作为修辞手法。其本人表示，这是自己揭露世界的矛盾的唯一方式。我们分析北岛的诗意生活，发现他的故事有一个特点：一位满脑幻想的诗人，梦想着一个更好的世界。Chinese books in German translation: Authors who are read in China<br />
<br />
中国书籍的德译版本：中国的博学作家<br />
<br />
http://litprom.de contains a database for Chinese literature in Germany<br />
http://litprom.de为德国的中国文学提供了数据库。<br />
<br />
On the website of the Buch-Informations-Zentrum (BIZ) (book-information center) Beijing http://www.peking.buchinformationszentrum.org/en/ is a database "deyu zhongwen ku" with 700 German titles in China<br />
在Buch-Informations-Zentrum（书籍信息中心）的网页上，Beijing http://www.peking.buchinformationszentrum.org/en/是一个叫做“德语中文库”的数据库，里面有700个用中文写成的德语名称。<br />
<br />
<br />
On the website of Frankfurt Book Fair<br />
http://www.buchmesse.de/en/fbm/programm/ehrengast/2009/01145/index.html: the following books can be found (Effective: 4/30/2009, p.r.n. the information is updated and expanded in the meantime).<br />
在法兰克福书籍集市的网页上，http://www.buchmesse.de/en/fbm/programm/ehrengast/2009/01145/index.html:包括以下书籍（有效：4/30/2009, p.r.n. 相关信息都已更新且拓展）<br />
<br />
Listed authors are:<br />
例举的作者有：<br />
Annie Baobei 安妮宝贝 北京<br />
Jia Pingwa / ao 贾平凹 西安 (born 2/21/1952, lives in Xi'an)<br />
Jiang Rong 姜戎 北京 (born 4/1946)<br />
Liu Zhenyun刘震云 北京 (born 5/1958)<br />
A Lai Alai 阿来 成都 (born 1959, lives in Chengdu)<br />
Mo Yan 莫言 (born 2/17/1955)<br />
Bi Feiyu 毕飞宇 "平原" 江苏 (born 1/1964)<br />
Yu Hua 余华 杭州 (born 4/3/1960)<br />
Yang Jiang 杨绛 听说在北京 (born 17.7.1911)<br />
Yu Dan 于丹北京 (born 6/28/1965, lives in Beijing)<br />
<br />
Belletristic titles (end of April) 标题<br />
Alai [阿来, Tibetan writer藏族作家]<br />
Distant Springs 遥远的温泉<br />
From the Chinese by Marc Hermann 马海默译（中译德）<br />
Unionsverlag - ISBN 978-3-293-00405-4 联合出版社 国际图书标准号 978-3-293-00405-4<br />
<br />
Bei Dao 北岛<br />
The Book of Defeat 《失败之书》<br />
From the Chinese by Wolfgang Kubin 沃尔夫冈·顾彬译（中译德）<br />
Hanser - ISBN 978-3-446-23283-9 翰泽尔出版社<br />
<br />
► Survey and Review: Bei Dao's poems - formed as exile literature in the USA - <br />
mainly use paradox as stylistic device. This, he says, is the only way for him<br />
to discover the world in its inconsistency. By analyzing his life poetically the story has one´s say: the dispersed illusions of a poet, who has dreamed of another better world.<br />
调查与评论：北岛的诗歌-----在美国视为流放文学----主要借用悖论作为修辞手法。其本人表示，这是自己揭露世界的矛盾的唯一方式。从诗意化的角度去分析北岛的生活，你会发现他的故事传递着这样一个讯息：一位满脑幻想的诗人，梦想着另一个更好的世界。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 09:23, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
<br />
Feng Li<br />
Translated by: Ulrich Kautz<br />
East Asia Publishing House - ISBN 978-3-940527-14-1<br />
► The novel is ironically telling the story of a middle-aged man, unhappy<br />
married, impotenet, with sparse hair growth, who decides in the mid-nineties of the 20th century,<br />
as the head of a "Research Institute for Culture" in a Chinese provincial city,<br />
to achieve something at least once in a lifetime, which matches to his principles and desires at heart,<br />
but however enmeshes himslef in a farce, of which end he<br />
no,<br />
is not quite empty-handed,<br />
but, at least! found the woman of his life, an equally prim and unconventional also<br />
intelligent and lovable personality.<br />
<br />
Guo Xiaolu<br />
From the English by Anne Rademacher<br />
Knaus - ISBN 978-3-8135-0353-1<br />
► On a hot summer afternoon in the year 2012 the young countrywoman Kwok Yun sees a strange flying disk at the sky. Shortly thereafter she finds an injured stranger in the rice field to whom she administers first<br />
aid. On the same day, the stranger disappears again, instead two secrect-service agents appear:<br />
They want to get to the bottom of the strange UFO phenomenon. A<br />
inspection machinery overflows the inhabitants of the village. Everything and everyone is checked. On the peak of the hysteria arrives a check over $ 2,000, which was sent by the rescued foreigner from America. The money of the class enemy is finally disbalancing the life in the poor village. Three years after the sighting of the UFO the once idyllic peasant areas has become a booming economic region in where only money matters. A political parable about past, change and loss.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
<br />
Ha Jin<br />
From the American English by Susanne Hornfeck, Sonja Hauser<br />
Ullstein - ISBN 978-3-550-08723-3<br />
► The Chinese student Nan Wu and his wife Pingping decided in the summer of 1989, briefly<br />
after the events on the Tiananmen Square, to stay in the USA and to begin a new<br />
Life. It should only be a study stay, but with each year in the US rises<br />
the anger on the political conditions in the distant home. Finally they are allowed to take their<br />
six-year-old son Taotao to them, who quickly gets used to the new environment. However Nan <br />
dreams of being a great poet, and has a rough ride: he is plagued by guilt feelings towards<br />
his wife, whom he feels more solidary related to her than in love because can not forget his <br />
love of his youth Beina; also the responsibility to allow his family a <br />
secure livelihood. For over twelve years we accompany as the readers the everyday life of the family Wu, their<br />
daily struggle for homeland, love and happiness. Side by side they grow dear to our hearts because our<br />
own dreams are reflected in their dreams.<br />
<br />
Hong Ying<br />
From the Chinese by Claudia Kaiser<br />
Aufbau - ISBN 978-3-351-03269-2<br />
► In the year 1907 - the Qing dynasty still reigns in China - Cassia, a poor orphan girl<br />
from the country, is sold from her uncle to a famous brothel. Although she can not fulfill the ideal of beauty of the era, <br />
she becomes the mistress of Master Chang, the leader of the dreaded triad of Shanghai.<br />
After his assassination remain two ways for her: a life in humility and self-denial, or one<br />
full of pomp, power and passion. Hong Ying describes the rise and fall of a confident woman,<br />
who went down in history as a famous concubine and godmother of Shanghai.<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
<br />
Li Dawei<br />
From the American English by Anne Rademacher.<br />
With comic drawings by Sheng Tao<br />
Knaus - ISBN 978-3-8135-0336-4<br />
► 4th June 1989: The student riots culminate in the form of the massacre on the Tiananmen Square. The art student and comic artist Dawei, actually a non-political<br />
loner, who is opposed to every form of collectivism, loves the student leader Little Kim. As he is looking for her <br />
in the turmoil on the Tiananmen Square, he finds himself in the riot , and experiences the bloody downfall.<br />
He does not find Kim, but instead a rather distracted cat, which he takes <br />
Home. One evening the cat begins to speak. He has great plans and wants to be a comic star in<br />
the USA. And in fact he succeeds to do a trip to Hollywood. Dawei stays home, beats his way through life with different jobs and escapes again and again into his comic dream worlds. Finally he follows his cat, hoping to find again his great love Little Kim in America. But the<br />
"Golden West" holds a nasty surprise for him: Haohao is abducted, and suddenly <br />
Dawei finds himself as a protagonist of a superhero comic.<br />
<br />
Li Er<br />
From the Chinese by Thekla Chabbi<br />
Klett-Cotta - ISBN 978-3-608-93794-7<br />
<br />
Li Tai-bo<br />
Poems<br />
Translated by: Günther Debon<br />
Reclam - ISBN 978-3-15-018675-6<br />
<br />
Li Yiyun<br />
From the American English by Anette Gruber<br />
Hanser - ISBN 978-3-446-23421-5<br />
► The inhabitants of a small provincial city near Beijing set off for an important <br />
event - a young woman should be executed. Her crime: she, who was during the cultural revolution<br />
one of the most fanatical Red Guardists, has recant Communism. Her mother performs <br />
defiantly the traditional rituals for the dead, while Shan's father, a subtle intellectual, has long ago given up on <br />
his daughter, who brought so much misfortune to others. Both do not sense which<br />
far-reaching consequences this death will have. For example for Kai, the radio announcer, who <br />
is the voice of the party in public, but by now doubts about what she is doing. For the<br />
crippled Nini, who is held like a slave in a household of nothing but girls. For the<br />
little Tong, who is neglected by the parents and is only loved by his dog.<br />
The novel draws a microcosm, which offers a plastic image of China in the late 1970s.<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
<br />
Liao Yiwu<br />
From the Chinese by Hans Peter Hoffmann, Karin Betz and Brigitte Höhenriede<br />
Fischer - ISBN: 978-3-10-044812-5<br />
► A prostitute, a Buddhist abbot and the manager of a social institution<br />
Falun Gong supporter, a former Red Guard and a Feng Shui Master - she and many others<br />
Liao Yiwu, one of the most famous authors of China and himself a former political prisoner, asked them all with respect,<br />
empathy and humor about their lives and their hopes.<br />
These unique conversations let us discover a China that we can not see anywhere else<br />
- a China of the outcasts, homeless, beggars and street musicians, whose<br />
Dignity, wit, and humanity could not be charged by anyone. <br />
<br />
廖义武<br />
来自中国的汉斯·彼得·霍夫曼、卡琳·贝茨和布里吉特·霍亨利德<br />
Fischer-ISBN：978-3-10-044812-5<br />
►一个妓女、一名佛教住持和一名社会机构法轮功支持者、一名前红卫兵和一名风水大师——她和许多其他人。廖亦武——中国最著名的作家之一，他自己曾是一名政治犯，作家对他们的生活和希望表达了尊重、同情和幽默。 这些独特的对话让我们发现了一个在其他任何地方都看不到的中国——一个有着被遗弃的、无家可归的乞丐和街头音乐家的中国，这些人的尊严、智慧和人性不能被任何人指控。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 11:03, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Liu Heng<br />
From the Chinese by Ingrid Müller and Zhang Rui<br />
Hanser - ISBN 978-3-446-20534-5<br />
► The servant never forgot the moment when he first saw the bride of the young Mr. Cao:<br />
during pouring rain, she got out of her red litter, and though he had only seen her too big feet,<br />
he fell in love forever. The future spouse has different sexual inclinations, but the<br />
strange guest, whom he brought from abroad, is feeling the same as the servant. The<br />
French engineer should actually install a matchmaker factory in the Chinese province,<br />
but the young Mr. Cao experiments secretly with explosives instead of matches. The older<br />
people do not care about the welfare of the house - the father always tries the<br />
most odd remedies, the mother has retreated as a Buddhist hermit - and therefore<br />
the eldest son rules with an iron fist over the degenerate extended family. These hustle and bustle is observed by the young servant, who is also witnessing what is going on in the joints by the river,<br />
in the brothels and the tea houses.<br />
In the Middle Kingdom dominate famine and<br />
civil wars, the old order is breaking, and lords and servants are sucked into the whirlpool of these events.<br />
<br />
刘恒<br />
来自中国的英格丽·穆勒和张瑞<br />
Hanser-ISBN978-3-446-20534-5<br />
►仆人从来没有忘记他第一次见到年轻曹先生的新娘的那一刻：<br />
在倾盆大雨中，她从她的红色轿子中出来，尽管他只看到她过大的双脚，但他却永久地了坠入爱河。 曹先生未来的妻子有不同的性倾向，但他从国外带来的奇怪的客人，和仆人有着相同的感觉。这个<br />
法国工程师实际上应该在中国的省份里建立一个火柴工厂，但年轻的曹先生秘密地用炸药而不是火柴进行实验。 年长的人们不关心房子的安全——父亲总是尝试最奇怪的补救办法是，母亲作为一个佛教信徒已经隐退了——<br />
因此长子对衰落的大家族实施铁拳统治。 年轻的仆人看到了这些强制措施，他也目睹着河流交界处发生着什么，<br />
在妓院和茶馆里。<br />
在中间世界里，饥饿和内战占据了统治地位，旧的秩序正在瓦解，老爷和仆人被卷入这些事件的漩涡。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 11:03, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
<br />
Liu Zhenyuns (51), who was ranked No. 1 in China's bestseller list in 2008 - a mix-up thriller about a confused bag, whose content can become dangerous for some important people.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhenyun<br />
From the Chinese by Marc Hermann<br />
DIX Publishing House ISBN 978-3-941651-01-2<br />
► As Liu Yuejin’s , a good-natured and naive cook on a Beijing construction site, money bag is<br />
stolen, a world collapses for him. In it were cash and a promissory note for buying himself <br />
a small restaurant and making himself self-employed. The victim goes on a chase for<br />
his bag - a hunt that takes him deeper and deeper into the local underworld.<br />
Instead of his own, he gets to another stolen bag, which belongs to a formerly multi-million dollar now heavily <br />
indebted construction entrepreneur, and contains a memory stick with highly volatile material.<br />
In the following series of coincidences and implications, sneaky intrigues and chess moves,<br />
the allegedly simple cook Liu Yuejin proves to be an amazing sly dog and gets out of a tight spot.<br />
However he has caused a domino reaction of complexities<br />
from which – that will be clear in the end – he will not be able to free himself so quickly.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhenyun<br />
E-book<br />
From the Chinese by Marc Hermann<br />
DIX Verlag, ISBN 978-3-941651-03-6<br />
<br />
Lu Xun<br />
From the Chinese by Raoul Findeisen, Wolfgang Kubin, Florian Reissinger<br />
Unionsverlag - ISBN 978-3-293-00407-8<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
刘震云(51)，夺得了2008年中国畅销书排行榜的第一名的作者。此作是一部关于一个神奇的包的惊悚小说，其内容中含有对一些重要人物来说危险的东西。 -《来自中国的刘震云》作者: 马克•赫尔曼-迪克斯 ISBN 978-3-941651-01-2<br />
<br />
刘跃进，一个在北京建筑工地工作的善良而天真的厨师，他那被当作全部家产钱袋被偷了后，自己的整个世界似乎都塌了。被偷的钱包里有现金和他本来准备用来给自己买一家小餐馆，自己做老板而买的一张期票。之后，作为受害者的刘跃进，毅然踏上征程去找寻他丢失的包，然而没想到这场狩猎，却使他（误打误撞地）深入了当地更深的地下中去。他找到了不属于自己的另一个被偷的包，这个包属于一位曾经拥有数百万美元资产，现在却负债累累的建筑企业家，包中还有一个用高挥发性材料制成的记忆条。而接下来的一系列巧合和暗示，狡猾的阴谋和一个个局中，从来以单纯示人的厨师刘跃进却以像猎犬一样狡猾灵敏的智慧轻易摆脱了困境。然而，他已经引起了复杂的多米诺骨牌效应—这很清晰地显示出-他不可能这么快脱身。<br />
-《刘震云系列电子书》 作者：马克•赫尔曼-迪克斯 ISBN 978-3-941651-03-6<br />
-《鲁迅》作者:拉乌尔·芬代森、沃尔夫冈·库宾、弗洛里安·赖辛格Unionsverlag, ISBN 978-3-293-00407-8<br />
----<br />
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:01, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
刘震云（51岁）是2008年在中国畅销书排行榜上排名第一的作者。其作品是一部惊悚小说，讲的是一个神奇的包的故事，包里的一些东西会对主角造成危险。-《来自中国的刘震云》作者: 马克•赫尔曼-迪克斯 ISBN 978-3-941651-01-2<br />
<br />
刘跃进是一位善良天真的厨师，在北京某建筑工地上工作。他的钱袋被偷以后，整个世界似乎都崩塌了。钱袋里有一些现金和一张期票，他本来准备用那张期票买一家小餐馆，自己做生意。之后，作为受害者的刘跃进，毅然踏上征程去寻他丢失的钱袋。然而，意想不到的是，他误打误撞深入了当地更深的地下中去。刘跃进找到了另一个不属于自己的包，这个包是一位建筑企业家的，曾经拥有数百万美元资产，现在却负债累累；包中还有一个用高挥发性材料制成的记忆条。而在接下来的一系列巧合和暗示，狡猾的阴谋和一个个局中，从来以单纯示人的厨师刘跃进却如猎犬一般狡猾灵敏地轻易摆脱了困境。然而，他已经引起了复杂的多米诺骨牌效应—这很清晰地显示出-他不可能这么快脱身。<br />
<br />
--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 02:06, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
刘震云（51岁），在2008年中国最受欢迎的作家排行榜上名列第一，他的作品讲述了关于一个神秘包裹的惊悚故事，包裹里的东西对于某些重要人物而言充满了危机感。<br />
刘震云 马克•赫尔曼（中译德）迪克斯出版社：ISBN 978-3-941651-01-2<br />
刘跃进是北京某建筑工地上的一名厨师，他心地善良又为人老实。当装着他所有家当的钱袋被偷后，他感到仿佛整个世界都崩塌了。钱袋里有一些现金和一张期票。他本来打算用那张期票自己当老板开一家小餐馆。之后，作为受害者的他，毅然踏上了寻找他丢失的包的征程。然而没想到这场追逐却使他误打误撞地深入了当地的犯罪集团。他找到了另一个被偷的包。这个包的原主是一位曾经拥有数百万美元资产，现在却负债累累的建筑企业家。这个包里有一个用高挥发性材料制成的记忆条。于是在接下来的一系列巧合和暗示、狡猾的阴谋和陷阱中，向来心思单纯的厨师刘跃进不得不如猎犬一般狡猾灵敏地摆脱险境。然而，这很明显，他已经引起了复杂的多米诺骨牌效应，他也不可能轻易地脱离险境。<br />
<br />
刘震云 电子书 马克•赫尔曼（中译德）迪克斯出版社：ISBN 978-3-941651-03-6--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 02:57, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
<br />
Ma Jian <br />
From the English by Barbara Heller<br />
Schirmer Graf - ISBN 978-3-86555-063-7<br />
► When Ma Jian turned thirty, eight years after Mao's death, he decided to move on from the tight boundaries of Beijing.<br />
His country began to change and he wanted to get to know it. Nannan, his little<br />
daughter, was always with her mother; his girlfriend cheated on him; he felt supervised as an artist;<br />
his inspiration for writing or painting was at the end. He bought himself a train ticket to the furthest<br />
Western border of China and set out.<br />
Ma Jian's journey, by train and by hitchhiker, took three years and beaconed him to the lonely high valleys of<br />
Tibet, the iconic sites of Buddhism, the beautiful salt deserts and villages<br />
where the time stood still between the Middle Ages and communism.<br />
马健 芭芭拉·海勒（英译德）希尔默·格拉夫出版社：ISBN 978-3-86555-063-7<br />
在毛主席逝世后的第八年，马健已年满三十，他决定走出北京这紧绷的边界线继续前行。他开始改变国籍，想要了解国家的意义。他的小女儿楠楠一直跟着他的前妻，他的女朋友也背叛了他。他感受到了作为艺术家的压抑，随之而来，他对写作和绘画的热爱也消失殆尽。于是他坐火车出发去了中国最遥远的西部边界。在长达三年的旅途里，无论是乘火车还是搭便车，马健途经了西藏偏僻的高谷、佛教的标志性景点、美丽的盐湖和村庄，那些仿佛停留在中世纪和共产主义时代之间的地方。<br />
Mo Yan<br />
Translated by: Martina Hasse<br />
Horlemann - ISBN 978-3-89502-272-2<br />
► The novel begins on the 1 January 1950 in hell. Shortly before the traditional order of the rural China has been abolished by Mao Tsetung’s agrarian reform.<br />
For two years Prince Yama, the ruler of the underworld, has conquered the landowner Ximen Nao with every possible torment<br />
to force him to accept the charges, which lead to his<br />
execution by the small farmers. But Ximen Nao persistently asserts his innocence.<br />
Finally Yama gives in reluctantly and allows Ximen to return to the earth to his former possessions in the <br />
impoverished Shandong. But when he arrives there, he finds out to his disappointment<br />
that he was not reborn as a man, but as a donkey. With the eyes of the beast he traces the fate of his former family, his friends, rivals and enemies.<br />
Further reincarnations cause him to become a bull, a pig, a dog and a monkey and<br />
finally to a boy with a big head, who has an astounding memory and a talent for<br />
languages. From the rough and extraordinarily entertaining perspective of each character,<br />
this novel tells the last 50 years of the stormy history of China.<br />
莫言 玛蒂娜·哈斯（中译德）霍勒曼出版社：ISBN 978-3-89502-272-2<br />
这部小说讲述了中国农村从1950年1月1日开始的苦难经历，故事开始于毛泽东提出土地改革以废除传统中国农村土地制度前不久。两年来，阎王爷用尽一切可行的酷刑来迫使地主西门闹接受农民们希望他被处决的那些指控。但西门闹坚持认为自己是清白的。最终，阎王爷勉强地答应了，允许西门闹回到了那个并不富裕的山东，回到了他曾经的地盘。可是当他到达那儿时，他感到很失望，他这并不是重生，而是投胎成了一头驴。西门闹以动物之眼目睹了他的家族、朋友、对手和敌人们的命运。接着，西门闹又转世投胎成为了牛、猪、狗和猴子。最后，他终于转生为一个拥有惊人的记忆力和语言才能的大头男孩。这部小说透过粗略的和极富娱乐性的角色视角讲述了中国近五十年来的苦难历史。<br />
Mo Yan<br />
From the Chinese by Karin Betz<br />
Island ISBN 978-3-458-17446<br />
莫言 卡琳·贝兹（中译德）冰岛出版社：ISBN 978-3-458-17446<br />
Mo Yan<br />
From the Chinese by Andreas Donath<br />
Unionsverlag<br />
莫言 安德烈亚斯·多纳特（中译德）联合会出版社--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 02:06, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
<br />
Pu Yi<br />
From the Chinese by Richard Schirach and Mulan Lehner<br />
Paperback edition, dtv - ISBN 978-3-423-21168-0<br />
► Pu Yis exciting autobiography, source material for Bertolucci’s excellent film that won nine Oscars <br />
"The Last Emperor" gives absurd and also fascinating insights into the world of the Forbidden City that has sunk with him<br />
and leads from the confusion of the Chinese Civil War to the prisons of the Peoples’s Republic <br />
where Pu Yineun was given a longstanding reeducation, which made the former ruler of millions to a convinced follower of Mao and the "New Person"<br />
<br />
Qiu Xiaolong<br />
From the English by Susanne Hornfeck<br />
Zsolnay - ISBN 978-3-551-05461-4<br />
► On a traffic island in the middle of Shanghai, the corpse of a woman is found at dawn. She<br />
is wearing a tight red silk dress, a "qipao", as it was frowned upon during the cultural revolution, and for <br />
now comes back into fashion Shortly afterwards one discovers a second and soon afterwards a third<br />
female corpse. Chief Inspector Chen, who is the only one who knows how to get the psychological profile of a serial killer,<br />
deals with a real estate scandal and finally wants to crown his literature studies with an academic degree. In the meantime, his young colleague strikes out as<br />
a decoy on a dangerous mission ...<br />
<br />
Qiu Xiaolong<br />
Translated by: Susanne Hornfeck<br />
Paperback edition, dtv - ISBN 978-3-423-21128-4<br />
►Chief Inspector Chen has long dreamed of a trip to America. And now the<br />
romancing policeman is commissioned to accompany a writer delegation to the USA. But the onetime opportunity<br />
is more than unfavorable for Chen. For he has received an order which actually requires his full<br />
commitment in Shanghai: After the death of a policeman in a brothel, the supreme party administration obliges him to finally put atop to the activities of the "red rats" - corrupt officials and bribes selling<br />
neocapitalists. However, as early as the first investigations, Chen has to realise that he will have to deal with powerful<br />
party leaders who are not sticking at nothing...<br />
<br />
摘自理查德席拉赫和木兰莱纳中文平装版书籍中有关溥仪的记载。dtv - ISBN 978-3-423-21168-0 ► 情节激动的溥仪的自传是贝托鲁奇拍摄的优秀电影《末代皇帝》的文献参考来源，这部电影获得了九项奥斯卡大奖，他对紫禁城的世界给予了荒谬而迷人的见解。溥仪在中国内乱、战争不断期间，经历了从在紫禁城里的生活一直到新中国成立被送入人民共和国的监狱里接受改造的生活，他被赋予了长期的再教育，使他这位曾经统治过许多人的统治者面目一新，成为了毛泽东思想的忠实追随者和人民共和国的新生公民。<br />
<br />
裘小龙摘自苏珊娜•霍恩菲克•兹索尔内英文版书籍的记载。 - ISBN 978-3-551-05461-4►黎明时分在上海市中心的一个交通要道上，发现了一具女尸。这具女尸穿着一件紧身的红色丝绸长裙，一件“旗袍”，这种样式在文化大革命期间曾遭到人们的冷遇，现在又流行起来了，不久之后，人们发现了第二具女尸，过了不久又发现了第三具女尸。陈警长是唯一一个擅长如何模拟连环杀手心理特征的人，他处理过一桩房地产丑闻案件，最后他希望自己的文学研究能够获得一个学位。而与此同时，他的年轻同事在一次危险的任务中充当了诱饵……<br />
<br />
裘小龙所翻译的苏珊娜•霍恩菲克平装版书籍的记载。 dtv - ISBN 978-3-423-21128-4►陈警长一直梦想着去美国旅行。现在，这位充满浪漫风度的警察被派去美国参加一个作家代表团大会，但是时机对陈警长来说非常不好。因为他收到了一份命令，上级需要他在上海着手解决一件案子。继一名警察在妓院执行任务时牺牲后，党的最高行政当局责成他查获捣毁一个靠腐败官员和贿赂新兴资本家起家的“红老鼠”活动集团。然而，早在第一次调查时，陈警长就应该意识到，他将不得不对付那些拥有一切、权势滔天的利益集团首脑们……--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 04:39, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
<br />
Jiang Rong<br />
<br />
From the Chinese by Karin Hasselblatt<br />
Goldmann - ISBN 978-3-442-31108-8<br />
► During the cultural revolution in the 1960s the Chinese student Chen Zhen is sent to the interior <br />
Mongolia. There he shall learn about the life of nomadic cattle breeders. Immediately he is<br />
completely captivated by this completely unknown and archaic world. On the side of<br />
Bilgees, his old Mongolian teacher, he defies snowstorms and torriding heat, and gets<br />
insight into the ancient myths and traditions of the Mongolian people. Especially Chen Zhen becomes acquainted with the wolves, whose wisdom and courage the have always fascinated Mongols – and soon connects him a deep love to a wolf-boy, which he is breeding. But then disaster announces itself, because when the Chinese sense the economic potential of the Mongolian steppe, greed for profit<br />
and blind faith in progress are threatening to destroy the centuries-long balance between man and nature …<br />
<br />
姜戎<br />
《中国人》作者：卡琳·哈塞尔布拉特<br />
出版社：Goldmann -ISBN 978-3-442-31108-8<br />
20世纪60年代，文化大革命时期，中国学生陈真被送到了蒙古。他将在那儿了解游牧民族的生活。他一来就完全被这个完全未知、古老的世界迷住了。在跟随蒙古老师比尔盖斯学习时，他无惧风雪酷暑，深入了解了蒙古族远古的神话和传统。最特别的是，他认识了狼群。陈真的智慧和勇敢一直让蒙古人钦佩不已-不久后，他十分疼爱一个狼孩，这个狼孩由他养育。但是一场灾难不期而至，因为当中国人察觉到蒙古大草原人的经济潜力后，对于利益的贪婪和对于进步的盲目追求威胁着打破人与自然间几百年的平衡...--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 02:04, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Tei Chiew-Siah<br />
From the English by Claudia Feldmann<br />
Droemer - ISBN 978-3-426-19823-0<br />
► China 1875: The small pavilion at the pond is the favorite place of the young Mingzhi. Finally he has a safehold, where he can prepare himself for the examination of Mandarin. By becoming an officicial he will fulfill the dream of his grandfather and give the family power and honor But strangers bring unrest into the country - and the eyes of a young woman confusion in Mingzhi's heart.<br />
<br />
德智秀<br />
《英语》作者：克劳迪娅·费尔德曼<br />
出版社：Droemer -ISBN 978-3-426-19823-0<br />
中国1875：小明志最喜欢的地方就是池塘边的小亭子。他终于有了一个安全的秘密基地，他可以在那儿准备普通话考试。要是成为了一名官员，他就能实现他祖父的梦想，给家庭带来权利和荣誉，但是陌生人却给这个国家带来了动荡-还给明志的心捎来了一双年轻女人困惑的眼眸。<br />
<br />
Emily Wu / Larry Engelmann<br />
<br />
Paperback Edition, Droemer - ISBN 978-3-426-78179-1<br />
► Emily Wu is still a child when Mao's cultural revolution throws her world into turmoil. As a daughter of a professor<br />
she must experience something unimaginable: Her family and she herself are again and again exposed to<br />
repressions and humiliations. Harassment, torture and rape are the order of the day. But with much courage and inventiveness, Emily succeeds in breasting her destiny<br />
and to win the daily struggle for survival. In the end she has matured in the years of terror – and finds a first love ...<br />
<br />
吴慧卿/拉里·恩格曼<br />
<br />
装帧：平装版，出版社：德勒默尔-ISBN 978-3-426-78179-1<br />
当毛泽东的文化革命把吴慧卿的世界推入深渊时，她还是一个小孩。作为一个教授的女儿，她一定经历一些难以想象的事情：她的家庭和她自己，一次又一次遭受打压、羞辱。骚扰、折磨和强奸是常事。但是凭借着极大的勇气和创造力，艾米丽为了生存成功地战胜了自己的命运和那些每日的艰难困苦。最终，她在恐怖的岁月里变得成熟-而且收获了自己的初恋. . .<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
<br />
Ouyang Xiu<br />
From the Chinese by Anne Guder-Meng<br />
Ostasien Verlag - ISBN 978-3-940527-24-0<br />
► Ouyang Xiu (1007-1072), a court official, who exceled as a historian, poet and essayist at the same time, belonged to the leading figures of the Song time (960-1279). In his Guitian lu,<br />
literally "notes after returning to the fields", he teases in a total of 116 anecdotes<br />
about current mischief at the imperial court and about the quirks of his colleagues at court. As a<br />
typical work of the genre "brushes" (biji) is here primarily an<br />
entertainment literature for the educated upper class given. But the attentive reader feels behind the subtle<br />
mockery the voice of the strict Confucian, who sets high standards on himself and on others and who sees the reason for the dysfunctions of his time especially in the misconduct of people in high<br />
positions. This book contains beside a first complete translation of the Guitian Lu into a Western language also the original, an introduction as well as numerous helpful comments for the text understanding..<br />
<br />
欧阳修<br />
安妮-古德曼的中文<br />
东亚出版社-ISBN 978-3-940527-24-0<br />
►欧阳修（1007-1072），法院官员，同时也是历史学件、诗人和散文家，是宋朝时期（960-1279）的先驱。在他的《归田录》里，字面意思就是“回到某处后再记录”，他记录了116件关于当时朝廷中的是非曲直以及其他同僚官员的怪癖轶事。<br />
作为笔记体的经典之作，《归田录》是给上层知识阶级的消闲读本。但是细心的读者却感到其微妙的背后来自严格的儒家嘲笑的声音，儒家为自身和其他学派、以及了解当朝衰败原因的人尤其是有较高地位却行为不正的人树立了高标准。<br />
这本书包含除了《归田录》第一版完整的西方语言译本之外，原本、简介以及大量帮助理解文本的有用评价...--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 16:27, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu Lu<br />
From the Chinese by Anna Stecher and Zhang Weiyi<br />
Edition Raetia - ISBN 978-88-7283-305-6<br />
► "And I am dumb, can not tell the weather winds / How the time of stars ticks the sky."<br />
These lines of the poet Dylan Thomas are preceded in the novel by the Chinese author Xu Lu.<br />
It is precisely this poetic ticking of time – in Chinese Dida, similar to the onomatopoeicTicktack - that forms<br />
the background melody of this novel. Xu Lu tells the story of Weila, Di Xia, Yu Qian and Huo<br />
Yining, four young people, their experiences and dreams. The novel is characterized by<br />
overlapping Language Levels: Xu Lu tries to break through the tight cage of the Chinese language with a for<br />
the so-called "after-80s generation" (ba ling hou) typical mix of everyday language, literary language<br />
and youthful street slang. Thus language and content unite into a portrait of a generation that is loooking for identity - in a country in turmoil.<br />
<br />
徐路<br />
安娜·斯蒂彻和张维义的中文 <br />
雷掣出版社- ISBN 978-88-7283-305-6<br />
► “我无以名状天气和风/ 亦或天上星星滴答烁耀的时间。“<br />
中国作家徐路将诗人迪伦托马斯的这行诗句写进其小说的前序里。<br />
ticking of time在中文里准确地说是“时间的嘀嗒”，嘀嗒和ticktack一样，是拟声词——这奠定了整篇小说的背景基调。<br />
徐路将说了四位年轻人维拉、迪夏、于倩和霍伊宁的故事、经历和梦想。这部小说的特点是语言水平重叠：徐路想要挣脱所谓80后中文紧凑特点的束缚，融合当下时兴的文学语言和年轻的街头流行语。<br />
因此语言和内容的融合是在国家处于动荡时期时，想要证明自己的年轻一代的真实写照。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 16:27, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
<br />
Xu Zechen<br />
From the Chinese by Marc Hermann<br />
Berlin Taschenbuch Verlag - ISBN 978-3-8333-0599-3<br />
► Dunhuang is in his mid-twenties. Driven by the dream of making big money in the capital<br />
he travels to Beijing. He joins a gang of document counterfeiters and works with his friend Baoding<br />
as a recruiter and deliverer on the street. The business is going well until they begin to be careless<br />
and the police arrests them. Three months later, Dunhuang comes free and goes once again to the bad. He gets to know the somewhat older Xiaorong, they sell DVD bootlegs, they<br />
have sex, then Xiaorong reconciles with her ex-boyfriend, and Dunhuang must battle his way alone.<br />
He sells porn and meets the pretty Qibao, they become a couple. But Qibao keeps an abundant eccentric life and is arrested ...<br />
<br />
Yan Lianke<br />
From the Chinese by Ulrich Kautz<br />
Taschenbuchausgabe, List, ISBN 978-35-4860-909-6<br />
► A brave soldier and the sex-hungry wife of a divisional commander reverve Maos China<br />
uncompromisingly their love and spark the most beautiful, crazy and wild counterrevolution<br />
of the People's Republic. Yan Lianke's novel became an easy prey for the censorship in China and got an international cult novel on the internet.<br />
<br />
Yang Jiang<br />
From the Chinese by Monika Motsch<br />
Schirmer Count<br />
► Yang Jian is the widow of the famous writer and scholar Qian Zhongshu (1910-<br />
1998). In her novel she portrays her life with Qian Zhongshu and the daughter of the two - up to<br />
her tragic death. But first, she describes the life of the three in a thrilling and humorous way:<br />
wedding, studying in Oxford and Paris, birth of the daughter, returning to China which ia occupied by Japan;<br />
then the founding of the PRC, Qian Zhongshu's work in the English translation committee of the works by<br />
Mao Zedongs, political campaigns and cultural revolution; Finally rehabilitation and seniority. Yang Jian<br />
not only illustrates impressively the development of the three main characters, but also the<br />
upheavals of the Chinese society into the 21st century.<br />
<br />
徐则臣，马克•赫尔曼译，柏林手抄报出版社-国际标准书号：978-3-8333-0599-3<br />
► 敦煌二十多岁。在赚大钱梦想的驱使下他来到了北京。他加入了一个伪造证件的团伙，和他的朋友保定负责街道招聘和配送工作。生意一直很好，直到他们粗心大意， 被警察逮捕。三个月后，敦煌被释放了，又一次堕落了。他认识了年纪有点大的小袖。他们售卖盗版DVD，并发生了关系。后来小袖和前男友复合，敦煌不得不一个人孤军奋战。他出售色情作品，遇见了善良的七宝，并成为了恋人。但是七宝生活十分怪异，也被捕了...<br />
<br />
阎连科，乌尔里希•考兹译，手册版-国际标准书号：978-35-4860-909-6<br />
► 一位勇敢的战士和一位性欲强的师长的妻子向往毛泽东时期的中国，对其产生了深沉的爱，激起了最美丽、疯狂的反革命情感。阎连科的小说很容易成为中国审查制度的牺牲品，变成国际邪教网络小说。<br />
<br />
杨绛，莫妮卡•莫奇译，希尔默伯爵<br />
► 杨绛是著名作家兼学者钱钟书（1910-1998）的妻子。她在小说中描绘了生前与钱钟书和女儿的生活。但首先，她用激动人心和幽默的方式描述了这三个人的生活：举行婚礼，在牛津和巴黎的学习，生女儿，回到被日本占领的中国，然后成立中华人民共和国，毛泽东在英文翻译委员会翻译钱钟书的作品，政治运动和文化大革命； 最后恢复名誉和衰老。 杨绛不仅描绘了三个令人印象深刻的主要人物的人生，而且见证了21世纪中国社会的剧变。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:14, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
徐则臣，马克•赫尔曼译，柏林手抄报出版社-国际标准书号：978-3-8333-0599-3<br />
► 敦煌二十多岁。为了赚大钱他来到了首都北京。他加入了一个伪造证件的团伙，和他的朋友保定一起在街上招人还有送货。生意一直很好，直到他们不小心被警察抓获。三个月后，敦煌被释放了，但他又一次堕落了。他认识了年纪有点大的小袖。他们售卖盗版DVD，并发生了关系。后来小袖和前男友复合，敦煌又变成了一个人。他继续出售色情作品，之后遇见了善良的七宝，并和她成为了恋人。但是七宝生活十分怪异，随后被捕。<br />
<br />
阎连科，乌尔里希•考兹译，手册版-国际标准书号：978-35-4860-909-6<br />
► 一位勇敢的战士和一位性欲很强的师长夫人向往毛泽东时期的中国，对其产生了深沉的爱，激起了最美丽、疯狂的反革命情感。阎连科的小说很容易成为中国审查制度的牺牲品，变成国际邪教网络小说。<br />
<br />
杨绛，莫妮卡•莫奇译，希尔默伯爵<br />
► 杨绛是著名作家兼学者钱钟书（1910-1998）的妻子。她在小说中描绘了生前与钱钟书和女儿的生活。但首先，她用激动人心和幽默的方式描述了这三个人的生活：举行婚礼，在牛津和巴黎的学习，生女儿，回到被日本占领的中国，然后成立中华人民共和国，毛泽东在英文翻译委员会翻译钱钟书的作品，政治运动和文化大革命； 最后恢复名誉和衰老。 杨绛不仅描绘了三个令人印象深刻的主要人物的人生，而且见证了21世纪中国社会的剧变。--[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 10:55, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
<br />
Yang Lian<br />
From the Chinese by Wolfgang Kubin and Karin Betz.<br />
Suhrkamp - ISBN 978-3-518-42121<br />
<br />
Yang Xianhui<br />
From the Chinese by Katrin Buchta.<br />
edition suhrkamp - ISBN 978-3-518-12591<br />
<br />
Yu Hua<br />
From the Chinese by Ulrich Kautz<br />
Fischer - ISBN 978-3-10-095803-7<br />
► Two brothers - two lives. Li is a clever businessman. He sells garbage and worn out<br />
suits from Japan. Li scoops up millions. Brother Song is prudent, an aesthete and eternal<br />
misadventurer. A bit too good for the modern China – the wild capitalism. But he also wants to share in the<br />
economic miracle. So he enlarges his breast surgically to sel a gel to the countrywomen which makes the breasts fuller. Brüder is the tragicomic story of Li and Song, who survive the horrors of the cultural revolution and try their luck in the new China.<br />
<br />
Zhang Jie<br />
From the Chinese by Eva Müller<br />
Unionsverlag<br />
<br />
杨莲，沃尔夫冈·库宾和卡琳·贝茨译（中译德），苏尔坎普出版社 -国际标准书号： 978-3-518-42121<br />
<br />
杨显惠，卡特林·布克塔译（中译德），苏尔坎普出版社 -国际标准书号： 978-3-518-12591<br />
<br />
余华，高力希译-国际标准书号：978-3-10-095803-7 ►《兄弟》-两种不同人生。李光头是一个聪明的商人，他倒卖日本来的废物和旧西服，并因此赚的腰缠万贯。而宋岗谨慎细微，是一个唯美主义者，也是一个永远的不幸者。这一角色对于现代中国-疯狂的资本主义来说，太过于美好。但是他也想在这一场经济奇迹中分一杯羹，于是他自己做了丰胸手术去卖丰乳霜。《兄弟》描述了李光头和宋岗两兄弟的悲惨故事，他们一边在文化大革命的恐怖之中谋求生存，一边在新中国碰碰运气。<br />
<br />
张杰，梅薏华译（中译德），联合出版社--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 03:54, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
杨莲，沃尔夫冈·库宾和卡琳·贝茨译（中译德）<br />
苏尔坎普出版社 -ISBN 978-3-518-42121<br />
<br />
杨显惠，卡特林·布克塔译（中译德）<br />
苏尔坎普出版社 -ISBN 978-3-518-12591<br />
<br />
余华，高力希译-ISBN 978-3-10-095803-7 <br />
►《兄弟》-两种人生。李光头是一个精明的商人，他废品和日本旧西服，并因此赚的腰缠万贯。而宋岗谨慎细微，是一个唯美主义者，也是一个永远的不幸者。他的理想对于现代中国-疯狂的资本主义来说，显得太过于美好，有些格格不入。但是他也想在这一场经济奇迹中分一杯羹，于是他自己做了丰胸手术去卖丰乳霜。《兄弟》描述了李光头和宋岗两兄弟的悲惨故事，他们在文化大革命的恐怖之中生存下来，在新中国做生意碰运气。<br />
<br />
<br />
张杰，梅薏华译（中译德）<br />
联合出版社<br />
--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:53, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
<br />
Zhu Wen<br />
From the Chinese by Frank Meinshausen<br />
A1-Verlag, ISBN 978-3-940666-07-9<br />
► Six stories about the modern China: laconic, with wit and sarcasm, Zhu Wen draws<br />
the image of a Chinese society that is caught between communism and capitalism<br />
in which all values and securities begin to totter.<br />
A boat trip on the Yangzi, which is ill-starred from the beginning. Meanwhile the first-person narrator feels without his assistance imperiled in Kafkaesque manner to the arbitrariness of new people; a factory worker who accidentally gets caught in the clutches of a mafiaous family, which accuses him that he bumped with a bicycle into their grandfather; a young man, who is compelled by the family of a friend to keep night watch at the sickbed of the freshly operated father.<br />
Unexpectedly he is exposed to the whims of the father and to the apparatus of a ramshackled, profit-oriented hospital; or the first-person narrator in the title story, a luckless writer in a Chinese<br />
provincial town, who gets a visit from his father and wants to make him a few nice days, in fact<br />
with the things that are most important for him in his own life: money and sex.<br />
<br />
朱文<br />
富兰克 麦恩绍泽译（德译中） A1出版社 国际标准图书号978-3-940666-07-9<br />
关于当代中国的六个故事：朱文以简洁机智和讽刺的的手法描绘了一个中国社会形象,这个社会既存在资本主义又存在社会主义，所有的价值观和信任观都开始崩塌。扬子江上的航行,开头是悲惨的。与此同时，没有他的协助主人公在卡夫卡式的随意性上是做得不好的，一位工人无意间被黑手党家庭抓住，指责他骑自行车撞倒了他们的祖父。一位年轻人被朋友的家人逼着为刚刚做完手术的父亲守夜，他无意中发现父亲的任性、一个摇摇欲坠的家庭和唯利是图的医院。题名的主人公的故事:一个悲惨的中国省城作家，他的父亲来看望他，并希望同他度过一些愉快的日子，但事实上是与他生命中最重要的钱与性过日子。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 08:37, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
朱文 ,富兰克·梅恩绍森译，A1出版社-国际标准图书号：978-3-940666-07-9<br />
►当代中国的六个故事：朱文用简洁、讽刺的手法描述了一个中国社会形象。这里资本主义和社会主义并存，所有的价值观和信任观都开始崩塌。长江之游是悲剧的开始。与此同时，没有他的帮助第一人称叙述者很难描绘对新人的蛮横刁难；一位工人无意间被黑手党抓住，并被指控骑自行车撞倒了他们的祖父；一位年轻人被朋友的家人逼着为刚刚做完手术的父亲守夜。他无意中发现了父亲奇怪的想法和一家唯利是图的医院。标题所讲故事中的第一人称叙述者是来自一个中国省城的悲剧作家。他的父亲来看望他，想和他过几天好日子。但是对于作家来说生活中最重要的是钱和性欲。<br />
--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 12:03, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
<br />
Zhu Xiao-Mei<br />
From the French of Anna Kamp<br />
Kunstmann - ISBN 978-3-88897-557-8<br />
► Beijing 1966: The musical genius kid Zhu Xiao-Mei is a great career as a Concert pianist predicted. But while Xiao-Mei is studying at the Conservatory,<br />
the Cultural revolution is starting. The cosmopolitan and culture loving Zhu family is suddenly considered as "bourgeois"<br />
which means in Mao's new China decadent, dangerous, counterrevolutionary. The young girl witnesses bewilderedly how notes get burned, her teachers get publicly humiliated, even executed. No student<br />
Can escape the force for denunciation and permanent self-criticism.<br />
Like all her classmates and relatives, Xiao-Mei is sent to a labor camp, spends five<br />
years of unimaginable hardship in a no-man’s-land on the edge of Mongolia. After years without music<br />
she discovers an old accordion in the camp, hesitantly hits a few keys. A melody is rising<br />
and with it the hope for another life.<br />
Now nothing can stop her: she puchases a piano, exercises like a possessed, flees from the camp<br />
to Beijing, finally arrives abroad after Isaac Stern's Chinatournee. Ten years takes her<br />
adventurous odyssey via Hong Kong, Los Angeles and Boston until she finally becomes in Paris an<br />
internationally acclaimed pianist and Bach interpreter.<br />
<br />
Anthologies<br />
Olga Barrio Jiménez / Eva Schestag (Eds.)<br />
A collection of Chinese classics. Volume I - IV<br />
Translated from the Chinese by Manfred Porkert<br />
Fischer<br />
► The Chinese literature is one of the oldest and richest literatures of the world. In four volumes and with numerous retranslations the collection of Chinese classics provides in its form a unprecedented panorama of the classical Chinese literature, poetry and novels in German.<br />
<br />
朱晓玫<br />
来自法国的坎普<br />
艺术家 国际标准书号978-3-8897-57-57-8<br />
► 北京 1966： 正如一位钢琴音乐家所预言，朱晓玫是一个音乐神童。但是当晓玫在音乐学院学习的时候，文化大革命开始了。胸怀世界，热爱文化的朱家突然被视为“资产阶级”，这在毛泽东当政的新中国被认为是腐朽的，危险的，反革命的。这个年轻的女孩困惑的目睹了自己的笔记本被烧毁，她的老师们被公开羞辱，甚至被处决。任何学生都逃不脱谴责和无尽的自我批评。和她所有同学和亲戚一样，晓玫被送到了劳教所，在蒙古边缘的无人地带度过了五年难以想象的艰苦生活。多年没有接触过音乐，后来她在劳教所里发现了一把旧手风琴。她犹豫地按了几个键，空气中升起了一段旋律，随之升起的是对往生的希望。现在，没有什么能够阻止她：她一逮到钢琴就像着了魔似的练习。她从劳教所逃到北京，最终又跟随艾萨克斯特恩的《唐人街》来到国外。她的冒险经历长达十年，途经香港，洛杉矶和波士顿，最终在巴黎成为国际知名钢琴家巴赫的翻译。<br />
<br />
选集<br />
奥尔加·巴里奥·希门内斯/伊娃·施塔格（编辑）<br />
《中国古典名著集》。第一卷至第四卷<br />
曼弗雷德·波克特·菲舍尔译自中文<br />
►中国文学是世界上最古老、最丰富的文学之一。《中国古典名著集》共分四卷，经多次重译，以前所未有的方式用德语展示了中国古典文学、诗歌和小说的全貌。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 09:11, 2 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
<br />
Benjamin et al.<br />
Tokyopop - ISBN 978-3-86719-738-0<br />
► 10 Chinese comic artists have got together to convey their<br />
sight of Beijing in word and image in a joint book. The approaches to the subject are very different, graphically extraordinarily diverse and always very personal.<br />
<br />
Alice Grünfelder (Eds.)<br />
Unionsverlag - ISBN 978-3-293-00406-1<br />
► Texts by Tibetan writers of the younger generation: Alai, Jamyang, Taering Oser,<br />
Tenzin Tsundue et al.<br />
<br />
Volker Klöpsch (eds.)<br />
insel taschenbuch - ISBN 978-3-458-35117-7<br />
► A butterfly in the bamboo holt, a rain of fragrant peach blossoms, shimmering jade in the moonlight<br />
- in images full of grace and poetry, the great Chinese masters extol the beloved. The<br />
present selection gathers the most beautiful poems from three thousand years. They are partially<br />
presented in German translation for the first time.<br />
Classical Chinese tales and stories<br />
Insel<br />
<br />
Liu Hsiang<br />
4 volumes<br />
From the Chinese by Hans Stumpfeldt<br />
Ostasien Verlag ISBN 978-3-940527-20, 978-3-940527-20-2, 978-3-940527-21-9, 978-3-940527-22-6<br />
► The Shuo-yüan is an early work of the Chinese narrative literature, which is here for the first time in a<br />
Translation into a Western language. It contains more than six hundred stories that are assembled after ethical-moral<br />
criteria by the librarian and archivist Liu Hsiang (79-8 BC). The stories are taken from a large number of earlier works. Many of them dropped out early from the written tardition To each of the twenty chapters an introduction will be attached.<br />
<br />
本杰明等，Tokyopop（日本著名出版社）-国际标准书号 978-3-86719-738-0<br />
► 10个中国漫画家联合创作、汇聚成书，用文字和图画来描绘他们眼中的北京。这种形式是不同寻常、千姿百态而又极具个人色彩的。<br />
<br />
爱丽丝 戈伦斐德（编辑），联合出版社-国际标准书号 978-3-293-00406-1<br />
► 来自年轻一代西藏作家的文字：阿莱，嘉央诺布， 达林奥泽，丹增尊珠等等<br />
<br />
福尔克尔 克勒普夫科（编辑），因泽儿出版社-国际标准书号-978-3-458-35117-7<br />
►竹林中的一只蝴蝶，桃花落英缤纷，香气四泄，月光下闪闪发亮的翡翠<br />
-中国大师们用充满诗意和优雅气质的意象歌颂挚爱。现有诗歌选集收录了三千年来中国古代最优美的诗歌。其中部分首次出现德语译本。<br />
经典中国传说故事<br />
因泽尔<br />
<br />
刘向<br />
4卷<br />
司徒汉选自中文<br />
东亚出版社 国际标准书号-978-3-940527-20, 978-3-940527-20-2, 978-3-940527-21-9, 978-3-940527-22-6<br />
《说苑》是中国叙述文学的一部早期作品，在此首次译作西方语言。该书包含了600多个道德准则故事，由图书、档案管理家刘向收录编辑而成。许多故事早已经偏离了书面传统，其中每二十章都附有介绍。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 03:57, 3 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
<br />
Li Jingze / Jing Bartz (eds.)<br />
From the Chinese by Hanne Chen, Johannes Fiederling, Karin Hasselblatt, Marc Hermann, Ulrich<br />
Kautz, Irmy Schweiger<br />
DIX Verlag, ISBN 978-3-941651-00-5<br />
► China is on the road, in turmoil and departure. Common certainties are shaken, conventions<br />
dissolve themselves. The present stories capture this dynamism that can hardly be hold in place. The ten<br />
Authors live in China and are also the inhabitants of a globalized world. This dynamic makes<br />
the stories so thrilling and accessible to Western readers.<br />
Broadly being spared from the trauma of the Mao period, the young authors keep pace with the times:<br />
unagitated, entertaining, and ironic, without a wagging finger and without false nostalgia, but<br />
even without the transfiguration of the gold-rush mood, that we, in the West, so gladly associate with today's China. In their very individual way they hold up a mirror to China.<br />
<br />
Li Jingze / Jing Bartz (eds.)<br />
E-book.<br />
DIX Verlag - ISBN 978-3-941651-02-9<br />
<br />
Christian Lux / Hans-Joachim Simm (eds.)<br />
Inael ISBN 978-3-458-17418-9<br />
► The Insel-Almanach for the year 2009 gives with exemplarily texts an overview on the Chinese literature in the past and present. In addition to that there are images, that convey an impression on <br />
Chinese art and calligraphy.<br />
李静泽/静巴茨编<br />
《来自中国》作者:陈汉，约翰内斯·费德尔林，卡琳·哈塞尔伯拉特，马克·赫尔曼，乌尔里希·考茨克，伊尔米·施威格 <br />
出版社名, ISBN 978-3-941651-00-5<br />
►中国正在前进，处于动荡和背离之中。共同的确定性被动摇了，传统自我消解了。现在的故事捕捉到了这种几乎无法保持的活力。这十位作者生活在中国，也是全球化世界的居民。这种动态使得故事对西方读者来说如此扣人心弦和平易近人。<br />
这些年轻的作者基本上没有受到毛泽东时代的创伤，他们与时代同步:平静、有趣、讽刺，没有摇手指，也没有虚假的怀旧，但是即使没有“淘金热”情绪的改变，我们西方人也乐于将其与当今的中国联系在一起。他们以自己独特的方式为中国树立了一面镜子。<br />
李静泽/静巴茨编<br />
电子书。<br />
出版社名 - ISBN 978-3-941651-02-9<br />
克里斯蒂安·卢克斯 / 汉斯-约阿希姆·西姆（eds）<br />
国际标准书号978-3-458-17418-9<br />
《2009年中国年鉴》以典型的文本概述了过去和现在的中国文学。除此之外，还有一些图像，它们传达了对中国艺术和书法的印象。<br />
--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 03:23, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
<br />
Frank Meinshausen / Anne Rademacher (eds.)<br />
dtv - ISBN 978-3-423-13770-6<br />
► The everyday life in the metropolises and in the province, the life in the homeland and in the emigration,<br />
family ties, friendships and love relationships, deep–rooted traditions and dreams of<br />
a self-determined future - the stories of contemporary Chinese authors are so<br />
diverse and dynamic like the Middle Kingdom itself.<br />
The stories by Fan Wu, Qi Ge, Yiyun Li, Ma Jian, Wu Chenjun, Xiaolu Guo, Sheng Keyi, Ha Jin, Li Dawei, Luo Lingyuan, Li Er and Zhu Wen. Mo Yan, Alai, Ye Zhaoyan, Li Feng, Feng Jicai. Short stories from China. Bilingual German-Chinese<br />
From the Chinese by Karin Hasselblatt and Katrin Buchta<br />
Chinabooks - ISBN 978-3-905816-19-8<br />
<br />
Alexander Saechtig (eds.)<br />
Weimar Schiller-Presse - ISBN 978-3-8372-0337-0<br />
<br />
Helga Sönnichsen (eds.)<br />
Ostasien Verlag - ISBN 978-3-940527-16-5<br />
So writes the author of the in<br />
this volume gathered poetry translations in her introduction. The poem translations are joined by the particular Chinese originals, but they are also accompanied by carefully<br />
selected pictorial material from the time the texts come from.<br />
<br />
<br />
弗兰克·梅恩斯豪森/安妮·拉德玛彻 <br />
数字电视-国际标准书号 978-3-423-13770-6<br />
►在大都市和省内的日常生活，在家乡和移民后的生活，亲情，友谊和爱情，根深蒂固的传统和自主选择的未来的梦想-当代中国作家的故事就是这样多样而又充满活力，就像中国一样。范武、齐歌、李依云、马健、吴辰君、郭小璐、盛可颐、哈金、李大为、罗玲媛、李尔、朱文。莫言、阿来、叶兆言、李峰、冯骥才。中国短篇小说。汉德双语汉译：Karin Hasselblatt和Katrin Buchta<br />
Chinabooks-国际标准书号 978-3-905816-19-8<br />
<br />
Alexander Saechtig（编辑）<br />
魏玛席勒出版社-国际标准书号 978-3-8372-0337-0<br />
<br />
Helga Sönnichsen（编辑）<br />
Ostasien Verlag-国际标准书号978-3-940527-16-5<br />
所以这本书的作者在她的介绍中收集了诗歌翻译。诗歌翻译与特定的中文原著连接，创造文本的同时还精心挑选了辅助的图片资料。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:28, 2 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao yining<br />
<br />
<br />
弗兰克·梅恩斯豪森/安妮·拉德玛彻 <br />
数字电视-国际标准书号 978-3-423-13770-6<br />
►在大都市和省内的日常生活，在家乡和移民后的生活，亲情，友谊和爱情，根深蒂固的传统和自主选择的未来的梦想-当代中国作家的故事就是这样多样而又充满活力，就像中国一样。范武、齐歌、李依云、马健、吴辰君、郭小璐、盛可颐、哈金、李大为、罗玲媛、李尔、朱文。莫言、阿来、叶兆言、李峰、冯骥才。中国短篇小说。汉德双语汉译：卡琳·哈塞尔布拉特和卡特林·布赫塔<br />
中华图书城-国际标准书号 978-3-905816-19-8<br />
<br />
亚历山大·赛奇蒂格（编辑）<br />
魏玛席勒出版社-国际标准书号 978-3-8372-0337-0<br />
<br />
赫尔加·塞尼希森（编辑）<br />
Ostasien Verlag-国际标准书号978-3-940527-16-5<br />
这样写道，这本书的作者在她的引言中收集了诗歌翻译。这些诗歌的翻译是由特定的中文原著组成的，但它们文本中也伴随着精心挑选的图片材料。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 03:39, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
<br />
Hans Stumpfeldt (eds.)<br />
Ostasien Verlag - ISBN 978-3-940527-18-9<br />
► The Han period (208 BC - 220 AD) was an epoch in which fundamental historical and philosophical traditions were originated.<br />
It is less known that it was also the May of the Chinese poetry. This volume brings together a selection of poems that were written by members of the most diverse classes, and which still appeal in their beauty and meaningfulness to the present reader. The poems are presented with the particular original text and embedded in its historical, cultural and literary context.<br />
<br />
Hans Stumpfeldt（编辑）<br />
Ostasien Verlag-国际标准书号978-3-940527-18-9<br />
► 汉朝(公元前208年至公元220年)是基本历史和哲学传统形成的时期。<br />
鲜为人知的是，汉朝是中国诗歌的五月。这个时期汇集的诗歌，由最多样化的阶级成员书写，其优美和内涵仍旧吸引着现在的读者。这些诗都以独特的文本呈现并根植于当时的历史、文化和文学之中。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:21, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Richard Wilhelm (eds.)<br />
Marix - ISBN 978-3-86539-201-5<br />
► One hundred fairy tales from the Middle Kingdom that reveal us more about Chinese thinking and feeling than the most academic treatises. This probably most famous collection of Chinese folktales was written down by Richard Wilhelm in Tsingtau in a long patient translating work. It is a whole cosmos of fairytale poetry: fairy tales and legends about gods, stories of saints and sorcerers, of natural and animal spirits, also ghost stories, historical legends and finally literary refined fairy tales like that of the monkey Sun Wu Kung, which plays through the mythological motifs and is filled with smiling humor. Soon we will be enchanted by Moon Fairy and Queen of Heaven, soon we will get to know Confucius, Laotse and the eight immortals. We experienced fantastic things about the spirits of the yellow river, the sect of the white lotus, the Monk at the Yangtsekiang.<br />
<br />
Richard Wilhelm（编辑）<br />
Marix-国际标准书号978-3-86539-201-5<br />
► 中国的一百个童话故事比大多数学术论文更能向我们展示中国人的思想和情感。这本可能是中国最著名的中国民间故事集，由理查德·威廉在青岛历史很久翻译而成。这是整个宇宙的童话诗，包括童话和神的传说、圣人和巫师、自然和动物、鬼故事、历史传说和古典童话，比如孙悟空这个形象既充满了神话色彩又幽默诙谐。通过这些故事，我们迅速迷上嫦娥和女娲,迅速了解孔子、老子和八仙。对于河伯、白莲宗、法海的奇遇，我们感同身受。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:21, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
<br />
Children’s and young people’s books<br />
Cui Aner<br />
Ueberreuter - ISBN 978-3-8000-5503-6<br />
► Chi You, the spirit of evil, has invaded the Dragonland where the people live. Just<br />
one can save them: Shaodian, a chosen young sage. Together with a warrior, a<br />
historian and a magician, he begins to search for the Great Dragon, the keeper of the people.<br />
<br />
Chen Jianghong<br />
From the French by Tobias Scheffel<br />
► The small Chen grows well-guarded with two sisters at his parents and grandparents in a<br />
city in the north of China. When Mao proclaims the Cultural Revolution in 1966, life changes:<br />
people are arrested and books burned. The family has little to eat. At school<br />
the teachers swear their students on the principles of Mao. Also Chen becomes a small red guard and<br />
proudly wears the red armband. One day the father receives a letter, which tells him that he has to go in a reeducation camp near the Russian border. The family hears just seldom of<br />
him. It is only after Mao's death in 1976 that the father can return.<br />
<br />
Chen Jianghong<br />
Lian<br />
2. Edition, Moritz - ISBN 978-3-89565-184-7<br />
► Because there were just a few fish this year, Lo, the fisherman, is sad. One day he receives from<br />
an very old woman in gratitude for bringing her in a terrible thunderstorm to the other shore of the lake, some lotus seeds. They are very special seeds, because they come from a throat of a dragon. Lo puts them in the earth and overnight a whole lotus field blooms. From one flower comes one<br />
little girl out - Lian. She is also very special, because she has a wonderful talent: Everything she touches with her magic lotus is transformed into treasures. But this evokes promptly<br />
the greed of the daughter of the Prefect...<br />
<br />
儿童书籍和青少年读本Cui Aner Ueberreuter-ISBN 978-3-8000-5503-6►邪恶的精神智友入侵了人们居住的龙之地。只有一个人可以拯救他们：少店，一位年轻的圣人。他与一个战士，一个历史学家和一个魔术师一起开始寻找人民的守护者大龙。<br />
<br />
陈江洪来自法国的作家Tobias Scheffel►在中国北方一个城市，小陈有两个姐姐在父母和祖父母的保护下长得很好。毛泽东在1966年宣布文化大革命时，生活发生了变化：人们被捕，书籍被焚毁。这个家庭几乎没饭吃。在学校，老师们以毛泽东的原则向学生发誓。陈也成为一个小的红卫兵，并自豪地戴着红色袖标。父亲有一天收到一封信，告诉他必须去俄罗斯边境附近的一个教育营。家人很少听到他的声音。只有在毛于1976年去世后，父亲才能返回。<br />
<br />
Chen Jianghong Lian 2.版，莫里茨-ISBN 978-3-89565-184-7►因为今年只有几条鱼，所以渔夫罗（Lo）感到很难过。有一天，他收到一位老妇人的谢意，感谢她将一场可怕的雷暴把一些莲子带到湖的另一岸。它们是非常特殊的种子，因为它们来自龙的喉咙。罗把它们放在地上，一夜之间，整个莲花田都盛开了。一朵小花从一个花朵里出来-莲。她也很特别，因为她拥有出色的才华：她与魔莲花接触的一切都变成了宝藏。但这立刻引起了州长女儿的贪婪...--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 13:49, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
<br />
Chen Jianghong<br />
Translated by: Erika and Karl A. Klewer<br />
Beltz & Gelberg - ISBN 978-3-407-76075-3<br />
► The history of the painter Han Gan from the 8th century has Chen Jianghong inspired to this picture book. He lived in China and only painted horses. Like Han Gan also Chen painted his pictures on silk.<br />
Spoken by Barbara Nüsse<br />
Jumbo Neue Medien - ISBN 978-3-8337-2420-6<br />
<br />
陈江洪创作这本画册起初是因为受到了公元8世纪的画家韩干的启发。韩干住在中国，只画马。像韩干一样，陈江洪也在丝绸上作画。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 09:09, 2 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
历史上，于八世纪，有个画家叫韩干，受其启发，陈江洪创作了这本画册。韩干居住在中国，而且他只画马。而陈江洪也像他一样，在丝绸上作画。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 09:21, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Daiealu<br />
edition nove - ISBN 978-3-85251-619-6<br />
<br />
Kate Dargaw / Igor Oleynikov<br />
From the Chinese by Marc Hermann<br />
DIX Verlag, ISBN 978-3-941651-40-1<br />
► Regularly at the beginning of the year, the Nian monster awakens in the sea, rises ashore and strikes everything<br />
it catches with itself: man and beast. Therefore, the villagers bundle their belongings together and<br />
flee into the mountains as soon as they hear its rumbling. Grandmother and grandson do not accomplish to escape<br />
and hide in the back of the house, they hold doors and windows ight locked. A beggar comes in search of something edible and wonders about<br />
the abandoned village. Of course, grandmother and her grandson share with him. And then he even has an idea,<br />
how to banish the monster: forever!<br />
For the returning villagers this is a miracle. That is why today the Chinese still celebrate their<br />
New Year's festival as the beggar showed it.<br />
<br />
通常，在新年之初，年兽会在大海中觉醒，跃至岸上，攻击它能抓到的一切事物，包括人和兽。因此，一听到年兽的咆哮，村民们就收拾东西逃到山里。奶奶和孙子没有跟着逃跑，他们躲在屋子后面，把门窗关得紧紧的。一个乞丐过来村里讨吃食，对这里荒凉的景象感到纳闷儿。从奶奶和孙子那里得知原因之后，他想到了一个办法，可以让年兽永远消失。<br />
年兽不见了，对回村的居民来说，这简直是天大的好事。因此，时至今日，中国人仍会庆祝春节。 --[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 09:09, 2 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
通常，于年初，年兽会在海中觉醒，跃至岸上，逮着什么，攻击什么，人兽无一幸免。因此，村民们一听到年兽咆哮，就赶紧匆忙收拾，逃去山里。有位祖母和孙子没能成功逃走，只好躲在房屋后面，把门窗死死锁住。有位乞丐边讨食边流浪到了这个废弃的村庄。祖孙俩便给了食物给他。后来，他竟然想了个主意，能驱逐年兽，让它永远进不来！这对回村的居民来说，可真是奇迹出现。这就是为什么直到今天，中国人还是会像那位乞丐所展示的那样，来庆祝春节。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 09:43, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
<br />
Kate Dargaw / Igor Oleynikov<br />
From the Chinese by Marc Hermann<br />
DIX Verlag, ISBN 978-3-941651-41-8<br />
► The Chinese count the years after 12 animals. Just why mouse, ox, tiger, bunny, dragon,<br />
snake, horse, goat, monkey, rooster, dog and pig? Well, these are the big winners of the<br />
Imperial race. But it was not that easy to be one of the chosen ones! The race, that<br />
the Jade Emperor proclaims, will be a thrill for all participants. And because the mouse went flagrantly behind the cat’s back, today the two are enemies in all countries of the world!<br />
<br />
K.T. Hao / Giuliano Ferri<br />
From the Chinese by Marc Hermann<br />
DIX Verlag, ISBN 978-3-941651-42-5<br />
► Dubai can absolutely not fall asleep. What a luck the little elephant got a<br />
Magic book as a gift. Since then he has been sleeping well and has the sweetest dreams - at least until he is scared that this treasure could get lost. No stash seems <br />
secure enough to him now. He climbs higher and higher. But that is not the solution. And then it happens: one day<br />
his book is gone. But because it's a magic book ...<br />
<br />
<br />
刘嘉路（文）/伊戈尔·欧尼可夫（图） 马海默（中译德）出版社：DIX Verlag 国际标准书号 978-3-941651-41-8►中国人用十二生肖来计算年份。为什么刚好是鼠，牛，虎，兔，龙，蛇，马，羊，猴，鸡，狗和猪呢？其实，他们都是玉皇大帝举行的渡河大赛赢家。但是要成为十二名中的一员并不简单！玉皇大帝称，渡河比赛将让所有参赛者兴奋。而且因为老鼠悄无声息地跟在了猫的背后，至今这两种动物在全世界的任何国家都还是彼此的敌人。<br />
郝广才（文）/朱里安诺•费里（图） 马海默（中译德）出版社：DIX Verlag 国际标准书号： 978-3-941651-42-5 ►大象嘟宝怎么也睡不好，幸运的是，他获得了一本魔法书。自那之后嘟宝睡得又香又甜，还做着美梦。嘟宝把这本书当作宝贝，心里害怕着它会丢失。他觉得现在似乎没有一个隐秘处能够藏好这本魔法书，于是越爬越高，但这终究也不是个办法。接着，嘟宝担心的事情发生了，魔法书不见了，正巧是因为这是一本魔法书。<br />
--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 10:25, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
<br />
Marc Hermann<br />
DIX Verlag, ISBN 978-3-941651-72-2<br />
► Lilli would never have thought that a visit to the Chinese restaurant could be so exciting! The mysterious restaurant owner Mr. Wang and his strange fat cat Dr. Fu dedicate divulge a secret to her. Through a charmed mirror she enters a magical world, where dragons and other fabulous beasts are living.<br />
She becomes friends with a little dragon, and when her mother travels with her through China, the Dragon is always secretly by her side And so the adventure begins, because a gang of robbers. who steal dragons aim for Lilli’s cocky, poodle-sized dragon friend ...<br />
<br />
作者：马克•赫尔曼；出版社：DIX Verlag ISBN 978-3-941651-72-2<br />
莉莉（Lilli）怎么也没想到这次中国饭店之行会如此有趣！神秘的饭店老板王先生和他奇怪的肥猫，名叫福博士，向她透露了一个秘密。她穿过一面诱人的镜子，来到一个魔法世界，这里生活着龙还有一些传说中的野兽。她和一条小龙成为了朋友，她和妈妈在中国旅行时，这条小龙一直悄悄地陪着她。莉莉的这个小龙朋友，犬般大小，平时无拘无束，引起了一伙盗龙劫匪的注意。冒险自此展开……--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 15:14, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Max Kruse and Marlies Rieper-Bastian<br />
Ueberreuter - ISBN 978-3-219-11372-3<br />
► When Kathi's father reveals to the family that they will live for a while in China, the girl is<br />
clueless. However in the night, she receives a visit from the friendly Dragon Lung Kuan, who takes her on a<br />
journey to the far country. This is how Kathi gets to know great secrets and small differences ...<br />
<br />
作者：马克斯•克鲁斯＆玛丽斯•莱德<br />
凯西（Kathi）的爸爸告诉家人，他们将在中国住一段时间，对此凯西毫不知情。然而就在晚上，她的龙朋友宽龙过来看她，并带她去到一个遥远的国度。凯西得以了解一些巨大的秘密和微小的差异。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 15:14, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
爸爸跟家人说，他们将在中国待一段时间，此时的凯西还全然不知。到了晚上，“宽龙”来看她，这是一只友好的龙。它带凯西去了另一个遥远的国度，凯西因此知道了一些大秘密并察觉到了一些小变化。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:32, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
<br />
Maximilian Paulin<br />
Translated by: Susanne Wechdorn<br />
Tyrolia - ISBN 978-3-7022-2905-4<br />
► Telling strange people in strange countries something about God? Today thats still a great challenge. 150 years ago a boy from a small village between the mountains of South Tyrol <br />
felt this wish deep in his heart: Josef Freinademetz from Oies. After he became a priest, he joined the Steyler missionaries and went to China. Because the Europeans wanted<br />
to establish there their rule and become rich. For sure the Chinese had understandably no pleasure with that. Josef must discover a lot of disappointments. But he does not give up. And when he is loosing his last forces,<br />
he suddenly finds out that there is still someone on his side:<br />
Fuschu. A small and very real Chinese dragon! Whether that can help him to understand the Chinese?<br />
<br />
Marie Th. Schins<br />
Sauerländer - ISBN 978-3-7941-6150-8<br />
► When the 12-year-old Siong lands with a loud bang in the pitch-black cellar of a hotel somewhere in Hong Kong, he suspects that this journey through China will be quite exciting.<br />
In addition to his adventurous grandpa, his friends Lee and the (not always) lovely<br />
Litju accompany him . Together, they travel from the gigantic skyscraper city to Beijing,<br />
Shanghai, the Great Wall, Chengde and Hainan Island. Siong is stunned by this<br />
Versatile, difficult to access culture with its moving history.<br />
马克西米利安·波林，翻译者：苏珊娜·魏希顿·蒂罗里亚 - ISBN 978-3-7022-2905-4 和陌生国度的陌生人谈论上帝的事？在今天这仍然是一个很大的挑战。150年前，在南蒂罗尔群山之中的一个小村庄中，有一个小男孩，他心中深深地怀着这个愿望：约瑟夫·弗赖纳德梅茨，来自奥伊斯。在他成为牧师之后，加入了斯特尔传教士，之后前往中国。由于欧洲人想在中国建立自己的统治并且致富。中国人自然不会因此而感到开心。约瑟夫想必目睹了许多令人失望的事情，但他却仍未放弃。在他用尽自己最后的力量时，他突然发现还是有人站在他这一边的：福初，一只小巧真切的中国龙！到底福初能否帮助他理解中国人呢？<br />
玛丽·史金斯·萨兰德- ISBN 978-3-7941-6150-8 随着一声巨响，12岁的松来到了香港某处一家宾馆漆黑的地窖里。他猜想这趟中国行一定十分精彩。除了他充满冒险精神的爷爷，他的朋友李以及可爱的李菊也随他同行。他们一起，从大厦林立的香港前往北京，上海，登上长城，去到承德，海南岛。这些丰富的，难以接触到的文化，以及动人的历史故事让松感到深深的震撼。<br />
--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 14:50, 2 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
马克西米利安·波林 <br />
翻译：苏珊·韦登·特罗里亚<br />
-ISBN 978-3-7022-2905-4<br />
►告诉陌生国家的陌生人一些关于上帝的事情？今天，这仍然是一个巨大的挑战。150年前，在南蒂罗尔山脉之间的一个小村庄里，有一个男孩深深地怀揣着这个愿望：来自奥伊斯的约瑟夫·弗赖纳德梅茨。成为牧师后，他加入了斯特尔传教士，并前往了中国。因为欧洲人想在那里建立自己的统治并致富，中国人显然对此并不高兴。约瑟夫无可奈何地经历了许多让他失望的事情。但是他并没有放弃。当他精疲力尽的时刻，突然发现还有人和他并肩作战：福初，一条小巧真诚的中国龙！福初是否真的可以帮助他理解中国人呢？<br />
玛丽·史金斯·萨兰德<br />
-ISBN 978-3-7941-6150-8<br />
►伴随一声轰鸣，12岁的松进入了香港某酒店的一个漆黑地窖之中，他预想这次中国之旅一定会非常刺激。除了他爱冒险的爷爷之外，还有他的朋友李和（并非总是）可爱的李菊陪他一起。他们一起从高楼林立的香港前往北京，上海，去了长城，承德和海南岛。 松被这种缤纷多彩，难以捉摸的文化及其动人的历史震撼到了。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 16:10, 2 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
<br />
Yang Hongying [list place 7, children’s writer]<br />
Translated by: Ulrike Lotz.<br />
Egmont Franz Schneider - ISBN 978-3-505-12660-4<br />
► It is winter and the Jade Lake Park is not busy. Until two strange dogs appear suddenly and<br />
they behave strangely. The laughing cat and his friend, the Pekinese lady, want absolutely<br />
find out what is wrong with the two, and encounter a series of mysteries secrets ...<br />
<br />
Yang Hongying [list place 7, children’s writer]<br />
Translated by: Ulrike Lotz<br />
Egmont Franz Schneider - ISBN 978-3-505-12661-1<br />
► The cats in the park are angry. On the roof of the great white tower appeared suddenly a beautiful striped cat. It is strictly forbidden to climb there up for any other cat! An extraordinary meeting is convened immediately. As an old mouse gets wind of the crazy going-ons of the cats, she figures out a plan together with the other mice ..<br />
<br />
杨红樱【名单中第七位，儿童文学作家】<br />
译者：Ulrike Lotz<br />
Egmont Franz Schneider - ISBN 978-3-505-12660-4<br />
►正值冬日，翠湖公园人迹寥落，两只陌生的狗突然出现打破了这种平静，这两只狗行动怪异,笑猫和他的朋友--那只京巴狗,下定决心要查明这两只狗是怎么回事，因而遇到了一系列神秘的谜团...<br />
<br />
正值冬日，翠湖公园人迹寥落，两只陌生又行为怪异的狗突然出现打破了这种平静。笑猫和他的朋友--那只京巴狗,下定决心要查明这两只狗是怎么回事，因而遇到了一系列神秘的谜团...--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 09:06, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
杨红樱【名单中第七位，儿童文学作家】<br />
译者：Ulrike Lotz<br />
Egmont Franz Schneider - ISBN 978-3-505-12661-1<br />
► 大白塔的顶上突然来了一只漂亮的条纹猫，这让公园里的猫们很生气，其他猫爬塔顶是被坚决禁止的！这群猫立即召开了临时会议，而一只老老鼠在得知猫的疯狂行径后，便和其他老鼠一起想出了一个计划...--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:25, 2 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
杨红樱【名单中第七位，儿童文学作家】<br />
译者：Ulrike Lotz<br />
公园里有一座美丽的白塔。一天，一只漂亮的虎皮猫突然出现在塔顶。这惹怒了一群公园里的猫，他们都上不去的地方，决不允许别的猫爬上去！他们开会咒骂，愤怒地游行……这些疯狂地行为，受到了老老鼠的嘲弄，她和公园里的老鼠们一起想出了一个计划……--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 03:23, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
<br />
Nydia Yang<br />
From the Chinese by Marc Hermann<br />
DIX Verlag, ISBN 978-3-941651-43-2<br />
► Picture books not only show the world through a rose-colored glasses. Divorce and break-up of parents belong today to the<br />
everyday life of many children. How do we talk about it - as parents and grandparents, educators and teachers,<br />
relatives or friends?<br />
'The pale red balloon' loses the brightness of its color, depending on the mood of the<br />
child of divorce, because for the boy suddenly his ideal world is burst. And for a long time<br />
no one notices how he really feels, everything seems to be regulated and reorganized. Only when father and mother<br />
understand that they go separate ways like sun and moon, but will always stay together as parents for their child, his balloon begins to shine bright again.<br />
<br />
Katharina Bachmann<br />
Let's get out. About wanderlust and blowing in the distance<br />
Shaker - ISBN 978-3-86858-182-9<br />
<br />
妮迪亚·杨<br />
马海默；赫尔曼所译中文版本<br />
出版社： DIX Verlag, ISBN 978-3-941651-43-2 <br />
图画书不仅通过一个玫瑰红的杯子来展现世界。父母的离异与分局成为了许多孩子生活的一部分。我们要怎么看待它呢？作为父母和祖父母，教育家和教师，亲戚或者朋友？<br />
褪色的红色气球失去了它本来的艳丽，这取决于经历过离婚的孩童的情绪，因为对于一些男孩来讲，他们的理想世界就坍塌了。而且在很长的一段时间里，没有任何人注意到他的感受，所有事情看上去似乎有条不紊。直到父母意识到他们的分开就像太阳和月亮，而他们将永远伴随着孩子时，他的气球才会再次明亮起来。<br />
凯瑟琳纳·波特曼<br />
出去走走吧。去远方漫游。<br />
出版社： Shaker - ISBN 978-3-86858-182-9--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 09:46, 3 October 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
图画书不是只会用乐观的方式来展现世界。父母离异成为了许多孩子生活的一部分。我们该怎么看待这个问题呢？作为父母和祖父母，教育家和教师，亲戚或者朋友？<br />
淡红色气球失去了原来艳丽的颜色，这与孩子经历父母离异后的情绪紧密相连，因为对于一些男孩来讲，他们的理想世界坍塌了。在往后的很长一段时间里，没有人关心他的真实感受，一切都重新安排并受到约束。直到父母意识到尽管他们过上了各自的生活，但是作为父母，仍会一起陪伴着孩子，他的气球才会再次鲜艳起来。 --[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 09:23, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
<br />
Bauer, Manuel<br />
Limmat - ISBN 978-3-85791-573-4<br />
► On April 1, 1995, a father and his six-year-old daughter leave Lhasa and write another<br />
chapter in the sad story of the flight of the Tibetan people. The photographer Manuel Bauer has, despite<br />
obstacles and controls, participated on this life-threatening journey into freedom and documented it.<br />
<br />
Barbara Beuys<br />
Insel Paperback - ISBN 978-3-458-35118-4<br />
鲍尔·曼努埃尔·利马特-ISBN 978-3-85791-573-4►1995年4月1日，一位父亲和他六岁的女儿离开拉萨，在藏人逃亡的悲惨故事中又续写了一章。 尽管障碍重重，限制众多，摄影师曼努埃尔·鲍尔（Manuel Bauer）仍参与了这一危及生命的自由之旅并记录了下来。<br />
<br />
Barbara Beuys Insel平装本-ISBN 978-3-458-35118-4--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 09:01, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
鲍尔·曼努埃尔·利马特-ISBN 978-3-85791-573-4►1995年4月1日，一位父亲和他六岁的女儿离开了拉萨，续写了一章西藏人民逃亡的悲惨故事。尽管障碍重重，满是荆棘，摄影师曼努埃尔·鲍尔仍参与了这一危及生命的自由之旅并将其记录了下来。<br />
<br />
Barbara Beuys Insel平装本-ISBN 978-3-458-35118-4--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 13:39, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
<br />
Miriam Collée<br />
Aufbau - ISBN 978-3-378-01106-9<br />
► A small house by the Alster, a large garden with swing, the organic box in front of the door. A young family seems to be at the goal of their dreams. If there was not the job offer from China: Miriam, 35, Tobias,37, and Amélie, 3, move into a terrace house in Shanghai Downtown, as the only long nosea in an old-established Chinese neighborhood - in a city where you can buy everything, only no fresh air. Where 20 million people live, who like to go outside just in their pyjamas and walk backwards to relax. Where the nannies have names like Crispy, Toffie or Chanel and leave one in the lurch, because they have a western nose to operate. Simply funny and sometimes on the edge of a nervous breakdown, Miriam Collée reports from the family everyday life in the<br />
Middle Kingdom.<br />
<br />
阿尔斯特旁边的一幢小房子，一个带秋千的大花园，门前有个有木盒子。这似乎对于这个年轻家庭来说是一个理想的生活环境。如果没有来自中国的工作机会： 35 岁的 Miriam Tobias，37 岁的阿美莉和 3 岁的阿美莉搬进了上海市中心的一栋露台别墅，这是唯一一间位于古老的中国社区-在一个你可以买到所有城市里的东西，只有没有新鲜空气。那里住着 2000万 人，他们喜欢穿着睡衣出门向后走放松自我。名为像克里斯比，托菲或香奈儿的保姆，其中一个可就要陷入困境了，因为他们要忍受这里糟糕的气味，简单有趣但有时处在精神崩溃的边缘，这是来自Miriam collee 在中土王国对家庭日常生活的报道。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 02:53, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
<br />
Anagarika Govinda<br />
Paperback edition, Fischer - ISBN 978-3-596-18351-7<br />
► Accompanied by one of the holy men of the country, Lama Anagarika Govinda traveled for many years through<br />
a widely unexplored world that is just accessible under dangers. Its path leads through the tropical<br />
jungle, over icy heights, past marvelous blue lakes to areas that no stranger had visited before him - into the monasteriea of the rocks and hermitage of walled hermits, into religious communities,<br />
whose ancient rituals and mysteries he may attend, before temple pictures of unimaginable<br />
beauty.<br />
在该国一位圣者的陪同下，喇嘛阿那加里卡戈文达多年来一直冒险游历于未被探索过的广泛世界。他穿过热带丛林，翻越寒冷的高地，经过壮丽的蓝色湖泊，去到除了他没有前人到过的地区。他去到岩洞中的寺院和围墙中的隐士居，他进到宗教区域，在绝美的寺庙画像前参加其古老的仪式和探寻其秘密。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 14:13, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Emily Hahn<br />
Translated by: Dagmar Yu-Dembski<br />
Edition Ebersbach - ISBN 978-3-938740-89-7<br />
► When Emily Hahn came to Shanghai in 1935, she had already established her reputation as book author and journalist with her reports for the "New Yorker." She knows she will stay here as long as they let her. It is the magic of Shanghai with its cookshops, the hustle and bustle on the streets, the rickshaws<br />
and the dancing salons that seduces her. Often ironically and with fine humor, Emily Hahn lets us participate in<br />
the feeling of life in a city that is constantly changing and in which "there are still things that will<br />
never change."<br />
1935年，当艾米丽·哈恩来到上海时，她已经凭借为《纽约客》撰写的报道建立了自己作为作家和记者的声誉。她知道她会尽可能地留在这里。这就是上海的魅力，这里有小餐馆，熙熙攘攘的街道，黄包车还有吸引着她的舞厅。艾米丽·哈恩经常幽默地调侃道让我们感受在一个不断变化的城市中生活的感觉，且这个城市中“总有一些东西会永远不会改变。”--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 14:13, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
阿纳加里卡·戈文达平装版，菲舍尔- ISBN 978-3-596-18351-7 在该国一位神职人员的陪同下，喇嘛阿纳加里卡·戈文达游历多年，历经危机穿过一片广袤的处女地。他穿过热带丛林，越过雪山高原，途经壮美的蓝色湖泊来到无人之境。—他去探寻岩石山上的寺庙和围墙中的隐士居所，他进入宗教区域，在绝美的寺庙画像前参加古老的宗教仪式，探寻其久远的秘密。<br />
埃米莉·哈恩 译者：达格玛·尤登布斯基·伊迪圣·埃伯斯巴赫- ISBN 978-3-938740-89-7 1935年，当埃米莉·哈恩来到上海的时候，她已经凭借着自己在《纽约客》上的报道，建立了自己作为作家和记者的声誉。她知道只要他们允许，自己会一直待在这里。上海的小餐馆，熙熙攘攘的街头，以及黄包车和舞厅都是充满魔力的，无一不引诱着她。埃米莉·哈恩常常幽默地调侃，让我们体会一下在一个不停变化的城市中生活的感觉，然而这里却“仍有一些永远不变的事物”。<br />
--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 15:31, 2 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
<br />
Hermann Hesse<br />
Suhrkamp - ISBN 978-3-518-46106-8<br />
► This reader book brings together the most important and most beautiful tales, narratives and reflections<br />
with Chinese motifs by Hermann Hesse as well as his essayistic and literary-critical<br />
publications and shows him as a great connoisseur of Chinese culture, literature and philosophy.<br />
<br />
Elmar Holenstein<br />
Ammann - ISBN 978-3-250-30024-3<br />
► How different is China really? With concrete examples Elmar Holenstein works on the overcoming<br />
of europe-centered thinking. A serious culture historical comparison begins with the realization of the complexity of the<br />
own as any other culture. A Clash of Civilizations is always a Clash of Complex<br />
Civilizations. A consistent front course can not be expected. In the depths of foreign culture it can be found that there are parallels to the things that appear to us in our own as "modern". Own accomplishments lose apperently their exclusivity. The West proudly points to its three centuries old »secular age«. In East Asia, the separation of religion and morality has been a peaceful aquired naturalness for two and a half thousand years. On the other hand we discover at careful comparison in our own cultural developments, which we were accustomed to view as "typically Chinese" or "typically East Asian". Whoever believes that modalities and mentalities are culturally shaped must proof them to different<br />
Contexts.<br />
<br />
==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
<br />
Ursula Krechel<br />
3. Edition. Jung und Jung - ISBN 978-3-902497-44-4<br />
►Franziska Tausig is one of many, the Berlin book dealer Ludwig Lazarus is another, and<br />
at the end there were eighteen thousand Jews who had been using one of the last loopholes since 1938<br />
and thus survived in the far-off foreign Shanghai. They came without a visa and illusions, with one<br />
suitcase and ten Reichsmark in their pockets, lawyers, craftsmen, art historians, and when they wanted to get along in this overcrowded city and the moisty heavy climate, then were powers of invention <br />
and energy challenged. Not everyone was able to do this after everything what was behind and before them.<br />
Breathtakingly diverse and complex talks Ursula Krechel about it. From long-term research developed the material to an extensive narrative curve, which brings the reader into a world,<br />
which is closer to oneself than expected.<br />
<br />
Helmut Matt<br />
Hess - ISBN 978-3-87336-911-5<br />
<br />
Sonja Piontek<br />
Conbook Medien - ISBN 978-3-934918-41-2<br />
► Chen Luyao's grandmother still does not know that her turquoise couch does absolutely not fit to the rest of the furnishings<br />
and Sonja only learns after 17 months, that the hard-won driver’s license has been blocked<br />
and so she has been illegally driving through the People's Republic for a year and a half. Against to all<br />
experiences from the German Chinese restaurants, the guest is strictly not getting any rice served in Beijing …<br />
<br />
==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
<br />
Lisa See<br />
Der Seidenfächer<br />
Translated by: Elke Link<br />
Paperback edition, Blanvalet - ISBN 978-3-442-36757-3<br />
► China in the 19th century: Lily and Winter Rose grow up in a world in which girls are regarded as a burden<br />
and in which the tying of the feet should also tie their heart. At the age of seventeen both get married. Thanks to the secret writing Nushu, which is reserved for women only,<br />
the friends succeed to stay in touch. On special occasions, the two girls even write<br />
poems in Nushu on a silk fan, who is always moving between them. But no one can take their<br />
desire for love, happiness and freedom ...<br />
<br />
Vikram Seth<br />
From the English by Anette Grube<br />
Fischer - ISBN: 978-3-596-16473-8<br />
► In 1981 the Indian writer Vikram Seth traveled through the secluded marginal provinces of<br />
China: from the " heavenly lake" Tianchi in the north-west, he set off far from established routes to the<br />
South –as far afield as Tibet. He completed his survey of unexplored territories with his homeward journey to<br />
India via Kathmandu.<br />
<br />
十九世纪的中国：在莉莉和冬玫生活的时代，人们视女孩为负担，女孩们都裹着脚，同时也束缚她们的心。在十七世纪，她们俩都结婚了。多亏只有女性能读懂的秘密女书，她们能够保持联系。在特殊情况下，这两个女孩甚至把女书写在丝扇上，而丝扇经常在她们中间传来传去。但是没有人能够夺走她们对爱，快乐和自由的渴望。<br />
<br />
在1981年，印度作家维克拉姆·塞斯穿越了中国的十分偏僻的省份：他从西北的天池出发，不走去南方的固定路线-尽量远离西藏。他探索了了无人迹的地方，并最终经由加德满都回到家乡印度。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:25, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
<br />
Jonathan D. Spence<br />
From the English by Susanne Hornfeck<br />
Hanser - ISBN 978-3-446-23415-4<br />
► When Zhang Dai was born into a well-esteemed family in 1597, the Ming Dynasty had ruled in China for over 200 years. For the contemporaries it was unthinkable that this era, that had guided the Chinese empire to a prior unattained political and cultural prosperity, could ever end. However in 1644<br />
the Manchu of the Ming Dynasty put an end to it. Zhang Dai’s family sank into insignificance. He spent the second half of his long life in rural seclusion as a private scholar and<br />
became famous as a master of the philosophical essay and chronicler of a lost era.<br />
Jonathan Spence tells the life of this scholarly eccentric - and draws at the same time the vivid panorama of a central era of the Chinese past.<br />
<br />
Hugh Trevor-Roper<br />
Translated by: Andrea Ott<br />
Eichborn - ISBN 978-3-8218-4590-6<br />
► Jing Shan was a Manchu scholar from a noble-minded family, who was related with the Chinese empress dowager<br />
and was closely connected to all the important personalities of the Imperial Court.<br />
When he was murdered in the course of the Boxer Rebellion in 1900, it was Edmund Backhouse, who saved Shans<br />
scrolls from the flames of the looters - including a mysterious diary, that allegedly described the events at the imperial court during the Boxer Rebellion minutely. Nine years<br />
Backhouse kept his discovery a secret until he published large parts of it in China under the Empress Dowager. The book became a classic, it still determines our image of China - and<br />
is based on a grandiose counterfeiting of Backhouse.<br />
<br />
==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
<br />
Nury Vittachi<br />
From the English by Ursula Ballin<br />
Zhang Jie - ISBN 978-3-293-00408-5<br />
<br />
Doris Wiedemann<br />
Delius Klasing - ISBN 978-3-7688-2606-8<br />
► For six months the authoress traveles more than 17,000 kilometers through the most populous country in the world<br />
and experiences China beyond tourist sights and state-controlled reality. She<br />
reads maps and road signs like a memory game, attends the English lessons at a<br />
middle school, climbs countless stairs and survives some adventures with the motorbike. As well she gets to know<br />
the variety of culture and cuisine, Chinese humor and Chinese hospitality at first hand.<br />
<br />
Simon Winchester<br />
From the English by Michael Müller<br />
Knaus Verlag - 987-3-8135-0287-9<br />
► Who was John Needham? In China he is still a famous person,who shaped our image of China<br />
decisively shaped and revolutionized it completely. Till the middle of the 20th century the West looked despisingly for China, the country was regarded as hopelessly underdeveloped and backward.<br />
It was only through Needham's work that it was proofed that China was one of the oldest high cultures in the world.<br />
<br />
Li Yiyun:Die Sterblichen李翊云？书中文名？<br />
Lu Xun: Sch?nste Geschichten鲁迅 书中文名？？<br />
Mo Yan: Die Knoblauchrevolte莫言《天堂蒜苔之歌》？2002<br />
<br />
Publishing Houses of the booth „Books on China“<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 02:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
Series Sinica--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 02:24, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Vol. 26<br />
Martin Woesler:<br />
Chinese literature in German translation<br />
China as honoraray guest of the Frankfurt Book Fair 2009 – Symposium edition<br />
Bochum: European University Press<br />
ISBN 978-3-89966-293-1<br />
200 pp., 19.90 €<br />
<br />
China is the honorary guest of the Frankfurt Book Fair 2009. The public interest in this literature, which has so far been underrepresented in Germany, is great.<br />
However, there is not much known about the trends in the Chinese contemporary literature except for keywords like "youth literacy". This symposium edition shows which new publications will be realised for the book fair. Contributions are given by translators to portray the peculiarities of the translation of Chinese literature, as well as literary scholars who give an overview of the Chinese literature scene, by the Chinese author Gao Yi and by connoisseurs of literary business (book fair, publishers, agencies).<br />
One focus is the question, which Chinese literature also 'works' in German translation. The reader is sensitized to questions of the selection. The advantages and disadvantages of the Chinese governmental translation support are equally part of the contributions as commercial aspects, which influence the selection on the part of the German publishers. By the way, prejudices are to be dismantled, for example, that Chinese literature is incomprehensible because of its 'Confucianism', or that Chinese imitation literature is written in the style of the Harry Potter series.<br />
中国是2009年法兰克福书展的名誉嘉宾。迄今为止，在德国人们对中国文学的了解还很少，但是公众对此都很感兴趣。但是，除了诸如“青年素养”之类的关键词外还对中国当代文学的发展趋势知之甚少。 此专题讨论会版本显示了该书展将实现哪些新出版物。翻译人员为描绘中国文学翻译的特殊性做出了贡献，而中国作家高毅和文学界（包括书展，出版商，代理机构）的鉴赏家们则为概述中国文学界做出贡献）还有一个焦点是中国文学在德语翻译中也“起作用”。读者对选择的作品十分敏感。中国政府对翻译的支持的优缺点同样在商业方面有所影响，影响了德国出版商的选择。 另外大众应该消除偏见，例如，中国文学因其“儒教”而难以理解，或者中国模仿文学是以哈利·波特系列的风格写的，诸如此类。--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 02:24, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
<br />
The volume provides in extracts an well-founded overview of the Chinese contemporary literature with the bestselling authors Guo Jingming, Han Han and others, and about currents: the trend to the second book, vagabond literature, the author as a pop star (cult literature), Literature of the mega cities, Critical Surreality, Women’s Literature, Scandal Literature, the Nostalgia wave (Reinterpretation of Classics), Teenager Phenomenon, Magical Realism, Master stories and the Literature of the emotional suffering.<br />
<br />
该书摘录了中国畅销作家郭敬明、韩寒等人对中国当代文学的有理有据的概述，并介绍了当代文学的发展趋势：第二本书走向，流浪文学，作者作为流行歌星(邪教文学)，大城市文学，批判超现实主义，女性文学，丑闻文学，怀旧浪潮(经典重释)，青少年现象，魔幻现实主义，大师故事和文学的情感苦难。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 02:49, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
该书的摘录了中国最畅销的作家郭敬明，韩寒等人的中国当代文学以及时事的概论：第二本书的趋势，流浪文学，流行歌星（邪教文学），大城市文学，批判超现实主义，女性文学，丑闻文学，怀旧浪潮（对经典的重新诠释），青少年现象，魔幻现实主义，大师故事和情感苦难文学。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 04:19, 3 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
该册在摘录中以一种全面的视角介绍了中国当代文学以及畅销书作家郭敬明，韩寒等人：第二本书的情况，流浪文学，作者为明星的邪教文学，大城市文学，批判超现实主义文学，女性文学，丑闻文学，怀旧浪潮（经典重释），青少年观象，魔幻现实主义，大家故事以及苦情文。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 09:54, 3 October 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
<br />
该书在摘录中对中国当代文学以及畅销书作家郭敬明，韩寒等人进行了有理有据的论述，并介绍了当代文学的发展趋势：第二本书的走向，流浪文学，作者为明星的邪教文学，大城市文学，批判超现实主义文学，女性文学，丑闻文学，怀旧浪潮（经典重释），青少年现象，魔幻现实主义，大家故事以及苦难文学。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 07:51, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
Vol. 25<br />
Martin Woesler:<br />
Bochum: European University Press<br />
ISBN 978-3-89966-292-4<br />
200 pp., 19.90 €<br />
This volume considers the latest Chinese bestseller lists from early 2009.<br />
<br />
Vol. 24<br />
Wolfgang Schulz:<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2009<br />
ISBN 978-3-89966-340-2<br />
168 pp., 29.90 €<br />
<br />
The present work examines with phenomenological thought tools (Edmund Husserl) the five basic emotions (Wielant Machleidt) presented in the Chinese medicine classic Huang Di Nei Jing and their refraction in the fractal affective logic of Luc Ciompis. In both cultural objects - Huang Di Nei Jing and the affective logic of Luc Ciompis – yield striking coincidences and mutual clarifications between the chaostheoretical insights of the fractal relation of the "feelings" and the important thought concepts in the early Han period of "approaching by corresponding affiliation Gan Lei" and the "personified answering event Gan Ying (Obert) "or - according to J. Needham – the "sympathetic responses between similiar kinds of existence".<br />
<br />
Vol. 23<br />
Martin Woesler:<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2008<br />
ISBN 978-3-89966-289-4<br />
200 pp., 19.90 € / 20.50 € [A]<br />
<br />
第25册 马丁·韦斯勒：波鸿：欧洲大学出版社ISBN 978-3-89966-292-42000页，19.90欧元 这一册参考了从2009年起最新的中国畅销书排行榜。<br />
第24册 沃尔夫冈·舒尔茨：波鸿：欧洲大学出版社2009 ISBN 978-3-89966-340-2168页，29.90欧元<br />
本文运用现象学思维工具（Edmund hussell）考察了中医经典《黄帝内经》中的五种基本情绪（Wielant Machleidt）及其在Luc-Ciompis的分形情感逻辑中的折射。在《黄帝内经》和吕宗培的情感逻辑中，对“感情”的分形关系的超理论见解与汉初“同属Gan Lei”的重要思想观念，“拟人化的回答事件Gan Ying（Obert）”都有着惊人的契合，还有李约瑟的“相似存在之间的共情反应”。<br />
第23册马丁·沃斯勒：波鸿：欧洲大学出版社2008 ISBN 978-3-89966-289-42000页，19.90欧元/20.50欧元[A] --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 15:42, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
<br />
The Chinese literature of the present at the beginning of the 21st century appears hardly compatible with the German book market. Many stories of the mostly young, partly celebrated like pop stars authors from the Middle Kingdom, who drop their books partly in millions of editions, such as Jingming Guo, seem too bizarre. Nevertheless, trends can be discerned that reflect especially the extreme process of social upheaval in China: the female literature created by Ailing Zhang with the insiders view of the Shanghaie big city singles, for example, which has found a whole generation of successors. Or the scandal literature of Shuo Wang, who has long since become an establishment. The nostalgia with new interpretations of classics such as Confucius, Menzius, or the novel of the Three Kingdoms, for example by Dan Yu. Finally, the young, bizarre literature of an alienated city youth, who is in the end searching for the happiness of love between alcohol, drugs and party excesses. Surprising newcomer is the author Han Han, who is known for his critically acclaimed youth literature and who exerts a humorous social criticism in his new work, "Tage des Ruhms", about a dropout group in the style of Magical Realism. A colorful roundel, which tells from another world, no longer as exotic as before, but still strange and fascinating.<br />
21世纪初的中国文学似乎很难与德国图书市场兼容。许多报道，通常是一些年轻的、像明星一样出名的中国作家比如郭敬明发行数百万册书，这似乎太离奇了。然而，我们可以看到一些趋势，特别反映了中国社会动荡的极端过程：以张爱玲的女性文学为例，她的作品以上海这一大城市的单身者的视角作为局内人视角，见证了一代又一代的后继者。或是王朔的丑闻文学，他早已成为这一领域的权威人士。又如于丹对孔子、孟子的著作以及《三国》等经典名著的新诠释，复古而怀旧。最后，是一个被疏远的城市青年年轻而又离奇的文学作品，他最终在酒精、毒品和狂欢之间寻找爱情的幸福。这位出人意料的新人是作家韩寒，他以其广受好评的青春文学而闻名，他在其魔幻现实主义的新作《荣华富贵》Tage des Ruhms 中对辍学群体进行了幽默的社会批判。一个五彩缤纷的圆形，从另一个世界诉说，不再像以前那样奇特，但依然奇异迷人。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 12:13, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
Vol. 23<br />
Martin Woesler:<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2008<br />
ISBN 978-3-89966-289-4<br />
200 pp., 19.90 € / 20.50 € [A]<br />
<br />
The Chinese literature of the present at the beginning of the 21st century appears hardly compatible with the German book market. Many stories of the mostly young, partly celebrated like pop stars authors from the Middle Kingdom, who drop their books partly in millions of editions, such as Jingming Guo, seem too bizarre. Nevertheless, trends can be discerned that reflect especially the extreme process of social upheaval in China: the female literature created by Ailing Zhang with the insiders view of the Shanghaie big city singles, for example, which has found a whole generation of successors. Or the scandal literature of Shuo Wang, who has long since become an establishment. The nostalgia with new interpretations of classics such as Confucius, Menzius, or the novel of the Three Kingdoms, for example by Dan Yu. Finally, the young, bizarre literature of an alienated city youth, who is in the end searching for the happiness of love between alcohol, drugs and party excesses. Surprising newcomer is the author Han Han, who is known for his critically acclaimed youth literature and who exerts a humorous social criticism in his new work, "Tage des Ruhms", about a dropout group in the style of Magical Realism. A colorful roundel, which tells from another world, no longer as exotic as before, but still strange and fascinating.<br />
<br />
第二十三册 <br />
吴漠汀主编 <br />
波鸿：欧洲大学出版社，2008年<br />
ISBN 978-3-89966-289-4 <br />
200页 19.90 € / 20.50 € [A]<br />
21世纪初的中国文学几乎很难用德国图书市场思路来理解。现在的中国文学书中许多故事与多数年轻人有关，部分是由中国的知名作家所作，他们的作品往往要经过无数次修订编辑。其中的作者就有郭敬明。这些故事看上去有点怪异。然而，这种趋势还是依稀可见的，因为反映的是中国社会剧变的极端过程：比如，张爱玲用上海的大都市单身人内部视角创作的女性文学，就迎来了一代人的追随；还有大有建树的王朔丑闻文学；还有用思乡之情释读的经典著作，包括孔子的、孟子的，或者是于丹所著的三国小说。最终，年轻人——怪诞文学所描绘的城市孤立年轻族群，会在酗酒、吸毒和过度聚会中寻求爱情的快感。韩寒是新生作家，他的成就令人瞠目结舌，他以其广受好评的青年文学而闻名。他还在自己的作品《Tage des Ruhms》中以魔幻现实主义风格，幽默地对一个辍学群体进行了社会批判。他的写作还用了一种多彩的圆形图案、用了另一个世界的视角。这个另一个世界不如以前那样具有异域风情，但是仍旧奇异与迷人。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 04:30, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
<br />
Vol. 22<br />
Martin Woesler (ed.)<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2010<br />
ISBN 978-3-89966-280-1<br />
251 pp., bound, cover with special color gold, 39.00 €<br />
第二十二册 吴漠汀主编 波鸿：欧洲大学出版社，2010年， ISBN 978-3-89966-280-1，251页，金色精装封面，39.00 €<br />
<br />
This festschrift is approaching to the Chinese (law) culture from different angles. It also focuses on current topics such as human rights or relevant philosophers.<br />
该纪念文集从不同的角度走进中国（法律）文化，聚焦于当前的主题，如人权或相关的哲学家。<br />
<br />
The articles deal among other things with views of Confucius, Menzius and Li Zhi. Ommerborn introduces Li Zhi as an individualist, who pronounces against spiritual authorities and the universal validity of higher principles, contrary to the (neo-Confucian norms of his contemporaries.<br />
文章还涉及了孔子、孟子和李贽的观点，欧莫伯恩认为李贽是个人主义者，他反对精神权威和更高准则的普遍有效性，这与同时代的新儒家规范背道而驰。<br />
<br />
The contribution of Harald Holz deals with cross-cultural foundations, he ascribes the 'golden rule' ultimately to an underlying sense, in which he defines the concept of sense as a broad striving for the appropriation of the own possibilities in interaction with all the others that come in line. Hence results in a recognition of his self and of the other as well as an 'ought', whereby all the other aims of action result as personal reciprocal.<br />
哈拉尔·霍尔兹的书稿谈及跨文化的基本原理，他把“黄金规则”归因于一种潜意识，他将其定义为广泛利用与他人相处的可能性，因而达成对自我、他人和“义务”的认知，据此任何行动的目标都是实现个人互惠。<br />
<br />
While Weber-Schäfer draws up the thesis and explains why China does not have an equivalent counterpart to the European concept of justice, Woesler, takes the opposite view in his essay.<br />
虽然韦伯·费舍尔在论文中提出了这一论断，并解释了为什么中国没有与欧洲的正义概念对等的对应物，但吴漠汀在论文中阐述了相反的观点。<br />
<br />
Moccia argues that in the classical China tradition and customs were before the law, and the law of Confucius was little appreciated. He wanted to speak of legislation in China only since the nineteenth century and describes the condition of today's society as a transition to a law-based system.<br />
莫可西亚认为在中国古代，传统习俗先于法律，且孔子的法则很少受到重视，他只想谈谈十九世纪以来中国的立法，把当今的社会状况描述为向法治体系的过渡。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 14:12, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
莫可西亚认为，在中国古代，传统和习俗生于法律之前，且孔子的法则鲜为人知。 他只想谈论19世纪以来的中国立法，认为当今社会的状况为向法治体系的过渡。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 16:06, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
<br />
Paul deals with the political dimension of the Menzius reception, especially in terms of the human rights, which are more progressive in Menzius than in Plato and Aristotle. He demonstrates that Menzius was in Western history of reception mainly interpreted as universalistic.<br />
While many of the assembled contributions deal with the actual legislation in China, Sapio's contribution fills a gap in the area of the more difficult gray legal practice: On the basis of diplomatic sources and examples, it proves that the practice of "shuanggui" exists in China, in form of arrest without charge, used by the Communist Party against corrupt officials or members of the party.<br />
<br />
Weyrauch deals in his contribution with the decision-making practice for Chinese asylum applications for Germany. If you are a member of the religious movement "Falun Gong" or a minority, you have resisted against the one-party rule or censorship, or if you have become a victim of the one-child policy it will be decided depending on the degree of persecution.<br />
In China rituals compete with the right: the Chinese adopted Christianity, like before various other religious practices and mixed it with their own popular religious rites and customs. In the so-called "Chinese rites controversy", two mission camps battled each other, who supported this adaptation or rejected it. Von Collani evaluates in her contribution numerous documents, which are now accessible, of the approximately one hundred years of ritual strife.<br />
<br />
Another area which is not directly connected to the main theme of the law are political guidelines: In his contribution using the example of armaments policy, Aßmann examines an aspect of security policy, here the case of an American missile defense system for Japan and Taiwan. He discusses possible power shifts in the region and warns of a new arms race. Ostendorf draws attention to the shadows of the economic boom in China, the environmental pollution. He draws future scenarios on how this destruction can be managed.<br />
<br />
保罗（Paul）谈到孟子处世思想的政治意义，特别是在人权方面，孟子的思想比柏拉图和亚里斯多德的思想更为进步。他表示，孟子在西方处世历史中主要为普遍主义所解释。虽然许多研究的对象是是中国的实际立法，但萨皮奥(Sapio)的研究成果填补了法律实践灰色地带的空白，而这一研究是更为困难的领域。研究成果如下：基于外交资料和实例，表明“双归”存在于中国，它是中国共产党以未经起诉而逮捕的形式来查处腐败官员或腐败党员的手段。<br />
<br />
韦罗克（Weyrauch）致力于为中国人申请德国的政治庇护。根据迫害程度的大小，判断该人是否为宗教运动“法轮功”的成员或者少数民族，抵制过一党统治或一党审查制度；或者是否为计划生育的受害者。在中国，宗教仪式与权力相抗衡。中国人对待基督教的方式与对待过去各种宗教的方式类似，他们将基督教引进国内，并将其与本国的宗教仪式和习俗相结合。在所谓的“中国礼仪之争”当中，两方势力相互对抗，针对基督教华化表明了支持或反对的态度。冯·柯兰霓（Von Collani）在其众多的研究成果中探讨了该历经约一百年的宗教冲突，这些研究资料如今均可获取。<br />
<br />
除宗教外，另一个与法律主旋律并无直接联系的领域则是政治指导方针。在以军备政策为例的研究中，阿斯曼（Aßmann）研究安全政策的一个方面——美国针对日本和台湾的导弹防御系统，探讨地区可能发生的权力转移，并发出了新一轮军备竞赛出现的警告。奥斯坦多夫（Ostendorf）关注到中国经济繁荣所带来的环境污染问题，并提出解决该问题的未来方案。<br />
--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:26, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
<br />
Vol. 21<br />
Chen, Hui<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2010<br />
ISBN 978-3-89966-277-1<br />
253 pp., Paperback, 29.90 €<br />
<br />
The terminology translation is a special case of the translation. Despite many parallels to the general translation, there are some differences which cause problems which not only translators in terminology transfer have to cope with, but also the respective expert groups, throughout the terminology work:<br />
<br />
a) The main difference between the two sides is: the text has to be translated as a whole, which offers the technical context in which the individual terms and expressions are embedded, and thus can fuction indicatory for the translation, but existst at the terminology transmission not in the way like it can be found at the general translation. The topic in a terminology transfer is a single subject terminus or a particular set of terms. Therefore the translator first needs to acquire the appropriate expertise, which is then used as a "text" when translating the terms.<br />
<br />
b) The non-presence of a concrete client, which has to be considered as a rule, means that the translator and other experts have to take more responsibility with regard to the quality control.<br />
<br />
c) The involvement of different translators at one and the same terminological "text", which is rare and, if so, coordinated to a limited extent, as well as a time-delayed transmission of this "text" has a "terminology diversity" as a result, which acts often more confusing than as an useful effect. This means for the terminology work that an additional task, terminology collation, is to be mastered.<br />
It should also be noted that the partial incompatibility of two parallel terminologies makes the terminology transmission more difficult.<br />
<br />
第二十一卷 陈辉 波鸿：欧洲大学出版社.2010 国际书号978-3-89966-277-1 253页，29.90欧元<br />
<br />
术语翻译是翻译的特例。尽管与通用翻译有很多相似之处，但还是存在一些差异，这些差异会造成一些问题，而这些问题不仅是术语迁移中的翻译人员需要应对的，也是各专家组在整个术语工作中需要面对的：<br />
<br />
a)两者的主要区别是：文本必须整体翻译，这为单个术语和表达提供了技术语境，从而起到指示翻译的作用，但存在于术语的传递上，而不像一般的翻译那样存在。术语转移中的主题是单个主题术语或一组特定术语。因此，翻译人员首先需要获得适当的专业知识，然后在翻译术语时将其作为“文本”使用。<br />
<br />
b)不存在一个具体的客户，这是一条规则，这意味着译者和其他专家必须在质量控制方面承担更多的责任。<br />
<br />
c)不同的翻译者参与同一个术语“文本”的情况非常罕见，如果这样的话，将在有限的范围内进行协调，而且该“文本”的延时传输具有“术语多样性”结果，这往往比有用的效果更令人困惑。这意味着对于术语工作，还需要掌握另一项任务，即术语整理。<br />
还应注意，两个并行术语的部分不兼容使术语传输更加困难。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:31, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
<br />
Vol. 20<br />
Winfried Woesler, Lü Yuan:<br />
Bochum: European University Press. 2006<br />
ISBN 978-3-89966-228-3<br />
409 pp., 29.90 €<br />
<br />
Representative selection of 54 Chinese poets with a total of approx. 100 poems mostly from the 1970s and 1980s, selected by recognized Chinese poets of the older generation Lü Yuan. New edition of the 384-pages bi-lingual Reclam anthology, published in 1992, for the first time printed in Chinese writing and thus also readable for students of sinology. Presented is the earliest generation of poets, which are writing in modern language: Ai Qing, Feng Zhi, Xin Di, Su Jinsan and Fang Jing. The second generation, who made a name for themselves in the anti-Japanese resistance war, were Lu Li, Peng Yanjiao, from the poetry circle July Zou Difan and Lü Yuan, from the circle of Nine Leaves Zheng Min and Chen Jingrong. The third generation, that despite the functionalization of literature in the 1950s, persistently focused on poetry only for the sake of poetry, is represented by Shao Yanxiang, Li Ying, Gong Lu, Cai Qijiao and Liu Shahe. The fourth generation is the vanguard of the younger generation with Bei Dao, Shu Ting, Gu Cheng, Jiang He and Fu Tianlin, their initially singled voices have long become representative voices of the people. The fifth generation is represented by Yu Jian, Han Dong, Cao Jian, and Xu Demin. These student poets discover fabrics for their subject matter directly in the everyday life.<br />
<br />
第二十卷<br />
温•沃斯勒，绿原：<br />
波鸿：欧洲大学出版社.2006<br />
国际书号 978-3-89966-228-3<br />
409页，29.90欧元<br />
<br />
由公认的老一辈中国诗人绿原选择，具有代表性的54名诗人及其所写的共计约100首诗，其中大部分于二十世纪七十至八十年代完成。新版384页的双语《Reclam选集》于1992年出版，是第一次中文出版，因此汉学学生也可阅读。以下是最早一代用现代语言写作的诗人：艾青、冯至、辛迪、苏金伞和方敬。在抗日战争中声名鹊起的第二代诗人有：鲁藜、彭燕郊，七月诗派的邹荻帆及绿原，九叶诗派郑敏和陈敬容。二十世纪五十年代，第三代诗人不管文学在诗歌中的作用，坚持把重心放在诗歌本身上，其代表作家有：邵燕祥、李瑛、公刘？、蔡其矫及流沙河。第四代诗人是年轻一代诗人的先锋：北岛、顾城、江河、傅天琳，他们起初微小的声音早已成为了代表人民的声音。第五代代表诗人有：于坚、韩东、曹健及徐德民。这些学生诗人直接从每日生活中发掘他们诗歌内容的素材。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 02:40, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Zeng Xinyuan<br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
<br />
Vol. 19<br />
CD<br />
Based on the paper edition of the Akademie-Verlag Berlin 1985. Bochum: European University Press 2006<br />
1446 pp. DIN A4, with different counting<br />
License for use: 29.90 € (natural persons),<br />
49 € (institutions, per workplace), delivery on CD only directly from publisher to final customer<br />
ISBN 978-3-89966-207-8<br />
The dictionary is continually updated and extended (cost-effective updates are available every year).<br />
<br />
Approx. 100,000 entries, effective 2006. Restricted is also to look for German terms, so that the dictionary can be used bidirectionally in contrast to the paper edition.<br />
A syllabary has been added to the present digital form for a faster search for the desired syllable from which one can see where the syllable begins, as a page number, which can be entered directly into a search field any time. In addition, you can also open the page by scrolling.<br />
<br />
If the pronunciation of a Chinese character is not known, you must search in the character index as in the book form, and search the current character number next to the character you are looking for by scrolling the pages in the dictionary text to the top left or right. To speed up the search process, two syllabaries were added to, a tone syllabary (page I) and one for character numbers (page II). Edited by Gunnar Richter. Authors of the paper edition: Helga Beutel, Horst-Dieter Gasde, Anja Gleboff, Ilse Karl, Gunnar Richter, Christiane Schwarz, Gottfried Spies, Eberhard Treppt, Horst-Dieter Gasde (administration), edited by Horst-Dieter Gasde, Ilse Karl, Christiane Schwarz; Gunnar Richter, Gottfried Spies.<br />
<br />
<br />
卷 19<br />
光盘<br />
基于1985年柏林的Akademie-Verlag纸质版。波鸿：欧洲大学出版社，2006年<br />
1446页DIN A4，具有不同的计数<br />
使用许可：29.90€（自然人），<br />
49€（根据机构，每个工作场所），仅以CD形式直接从发行商交付给最终客户<br />
书号978-3-89966-207-8<br />
该词典会不断更新和扩展（每年都会提供具有成本效益的更新）。<br />
<br />
大约 100,000个条目，从2006年开始生效。此外，还必须查找德语术语，以便该词典与纸质版相比可以双向使用。<br />
音节已添加到当前的数字形式中，以便更快地搜索所需的音节，从中可以看到该音节从何处开始，作为页码，可以随时将其直接输入到搜索字段中。 此外，您还可以通过滚动打开页面。<br />
<br />
大约100,000个条目，从2006年开始生效。德语术语查找也包含在内，因此比起纸质版，该词典可用于双向查找。<br />
音节文字表已添加到当前的数字形式中，以便更快搜索所需音节，从中可以看到该音节从何处开始，作为页码，可以随时将其直接输入到搜索字段中。此外，您还可以通过滚屏打开页面。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 03:04, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Zeng Xinyuan<br />
<br />
如果不知道中文字符的发音，则必须像在书本上那样在字符索引中进行搜索，并通过滚动字典上的页面，在左上角或右上角的搜索框中搜索所需字符旁边的当前字符。 为了加快搜索过程，添加了两个音节，一个音调音节（第一页）和一个用于字符编号的音节（第二页）。 由Gunnar Richter编辑。 论文版本的作者：Helga Beutel，Horst-Dieter Gasde，Anja Gleboff，Ilse Karl，Gunnar Richter，Christiane Schwarz，Gottfried Spies，Eberhard Treppt，Horst-Dieter Gasde（管理），由Horst-Dieter Gasde, Ilse Karl, Christiane Schwarz; Gunnar Richter, Gottfried Spies编辑。 --[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:53, 2 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
<br />
Vol. 18<br />
Thilo Diefenbach<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2005<br />
190 pp., <Ger., Chin.><br />
ISBN 978-3-89966-169-9 (3-89966-169-9), 19 €<br />
<br />
The Chinese authors Liu Jiming (born in 1963), Zhang Wei (born in 1956) and Liu Qingbang (born 1951), who have been valued in their homeland for years by the readership and literary criticism, are largely unknown to us; translations of their works into German have not yet been available.<br />
<br />
This book presents the three authors in detail, and then gives them the opportunity to speak for themselves in selected short stories and essays. Hence Thilo Diefenbach gives an insight into their narrative complete work and in a hitherto little-studied section of China's contemporary literature. Just in a time when the international perception of the country is limited to the observation of the events in the cities and the Chinese literature largely concentrates on the city life, Diefenbach would like to remind that the still strongly agrarian coined China has also a literature that focuses on the everyday life in the countryside.<br />
<br />
Thilo Diefenbach was promoted in 2003 at the University of Cologne with a dissertation on the subject contexts of violence in modern Chinese literature. From 2004 to 2005 he worked as a scholarship holder of the Fritz Thyssen Foundation on a research project whose results this book contains. Since February 2006, he has been conducting a study on the literature of the Northern Dynasties (386-581) as a scholarship holder of the DAAD at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences in Beijing.<br />
<br />
卷18 蒂洛·迪芬巴赫·波鸿：欧洲大学出版社2005年190页，<德国，中国> ISBN 978-3-89966-169-9（3-89966-169-9），19€<br />
<br />
中国作家刘继明（1963年生），张炜（1956年生）和刘庆邦（1951年生）在他们的国家一直被读者和文学批评家珍视，而我们对此一无所知，尚未将其作品翻译成德语。<br />
<br />
本书详细介绍了这三位作者，并且为他们提供了机会，让他们能在精选的短篇小说和散文中为自己发声。因此，蒂洛·迪芬巴赫对他们的完整叙事作品以及迄今为止中国当代文学中研究较少的部分进行了深入的剖析。在这个国际视野仅限于对城市事件的观察，中国文学也主要关注城市生活的时代，迪芬巴赫想要提醒大家，中国这个仍以农业为主的国家，也有专注于农村日常生活的文学。<br />
<br />
蒂洛·迪芬巴赫于2003年在科隆大学发表了一篇关于中国现代文学中的暴力主题语境的论文。2004年至2005年，他作为弗里茨·蒂森基金会的奖学金获得者参加了一个研究项目。这本书里就包含了这个项目的成果。自2006年2月起，他作为中国社会科学院达德奖学金获得者，一直从事北朝(386-581)文学研究。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 09:13, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
<br />
Vol. 17<br />
Cordula Hunold<br />
2006, Paperback, 145 pp., 1 audio CD 15 min.<br />
ISBN 978-3-86515-031-8 (3-86515-031-4)<br />
13,90 €<br />
<br />
Study in the field of contrasting phonology / phonetics of German and Chinese, which deals with similarities and differences in the segmental and suprasegmental range. It deals with the specific articulation and intonation problems of German Chinese learners and gives hints and practice suggestions for Chinese teachers, who want to improve and make their ChaF instruction more versatile, and those who are interested in the phonetics / phonology of the modern Chinese or even wanr to improve their pronunciation.<br />
<br />
Bd 16<br />
Stefan Messmann<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2005<br />
Paperback, 167 pp.<br />
ISBN 978-3-86515-038-7 (3-86515-038-1)<br />
19,90 €<br />
<br />
The foot binding probably began in the early tenth century, spreading from the north to the south over the next centuries, whereby it was less practiced in the south. It was forbidden several times over the history, recently in 1949, but still today in some places one can see old women with bandaged feet.<br />
<br />
There are different theories about their cause. Most of them try to explain foot binding with 1. status symbol, 2. the necessity to keep the women chaste, 3. ideal of beauty, 4. sexuality, 5. fetish, 6. fashion, 7. demarcation to other peoples and 8. combat of enemies. Of these explanations, the domination of the men seems most plausible.<br />
<br />
第一卷 17<br />
Cordula Hunold<br />
2006年，平装本，145页，1张音频CD15分钟。<br />
ISBN978-3-86515-031-8（3-86515-031-4）<br />
13,90 €<br />
<br />
德语和汉语对比音韵学/语音学领域的研究，该领域涉及音段和跨语段范围的异同。 它处理了德国汉语学习者的具体发音和语调问题，并为中国教师提供了提示和实践建议，他们希望改进并使他们的教学更加多才多艺。那些对现代汉语的语音/音韵学感兴趣的人甚至希望改善他们的发音。<br />
<br />
16<br />
斯特凡·梅斯曼<br />
波鸿：欧洲大学出版社，2005<br />
平装本，167页。<br />
ISBN978-3-86515-038-7（3-86515-038-1）<br />
19,90 €<br />
<br />
绑脚可能始于10世纪初，在接下来的几个世纪里，从北方向南方蔓延，在南方绑脚的做法较少。 绑脚在历史上被禁止了几次，最近在1949年，但今天仍然在一些地方，人们可以看到老年妇女带着绷带的脚。<br />
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关于他们的事业有不同的理论。 他们中的大多数人试图用以下原因来解释绑脚的做法。1.地位象征 2.保持女人贞洁的必要性 3.美丽的理想 4.性 5.恋物癖 6.时尚 7.与其他民族界限 8.敌人的战斗。 在这些解释中，男人的统治似乎是最合理的。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 15:51, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
<br />
Vol. 15<br />
Hartmut Walravens<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2005<br />
Paperback, 271 pp.<br />
ISBN 978-3-86515-027-1 (3-86515-027-6)<br />
29,90 €<br />
<br />
The volume offers a wealth of bibliographic evidence, through which important materials can initially be developed, which are not contained in the existing specialist bibliographies. The foreign countries, one of the important "Cottaschen Journals", and the magazine for the literature of foreign countries provide numerous solid contributions about East Asia for the 19th century: travel reports, political and military representations, translations from Chinese and Japanese literature Unknown. The same applies to the short-lived magazines Spirit of the East and Ho Ping Pao, the latter a news sheet of the Chinese delegation in Berlin after the Second World War. Chinese medicine is particularly popular today, but the medical texts were collected only very little. A register opens up the medical treasures of the Paris National Library. The complete translations of the poetic works of the two Tang poets Tu Fu and Han Yü, published by the excellent specialist Erwin von Zach, were made accessible by new editions by the Harvard University. Index and register allow quick access to masterpieces of Chinese poetry.<br />
<br />
卷15 哈特穆特·瓦拉尔文斯 波鸿：欧洲大学出版社 2005年 简装本 ISBN 978-3-86515-027-1 (3-86515-027-6) 29,90 €<br />
<br />
该卷提供了丰富的书目证据，通过这些证据，可以初步总结出专业书目中暂缺的重要资料。《外国》是重要的“科塔什期刊”之一，也是外国文学杂志，为19世纪东亚作出了大量重要的贡献：旅行报道、政治和军事报道、鲜为人知的中日文学翻译。两本只存在一时的杂志《东方精神》和《和平报》也是如此，后者是二战后中国驻柏林代表团的新闻稿。中医学在今天特别受欢迎，但是医学文献的收集却很少。一本登记册打开了巴黎国家图书馆的医学宝藏。哈佛大学新增订了由杰出专家埃尔文·冯·扎克出版的两位唐代诗人杜甫和韩愈诗作的全译本。通过索引和注册，可以快速访问中国诗歌的杰作。--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:23, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
卷15 哈特穆特·瓦尔拉文斯 <br />
波鸿：欧洲大学出版社 2005年 简装本 271页 <br />
ISBN 978-3-86515-027-1 (3-86515-027-6) 29,90 €<br />
该卷提供了丰富的书目材料，这些材料可以初步显露出现有专业书目中缺少的重要资料。《外国》是重要的“科塔刊杂志”之一，也是外国文学杂志，它为19世纪的东亚提供了大量可靠的投稿：旅行报道、政治和军事报道、鲜为人知的中日文学翻译。两本只存在一时的杂志《东方精神》和《和平报》也包括在内，后者是二战后中国驻柏林代表团的新闻稿。尽管中医学在今天特别受欢迎，但是与之相关的医学文献却很少被收集。一本登记册打开了巴黎国家图书馆的医学宝藏。哈佛大学新增订了由著名专家埃尔文·冯·扎克出版的两位唐代诗人杜甫和韩愈诗作的全译本。通过索引和注册，便可快速通向中国诗歌杰作的入口。--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 09:04, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
<br />
Vol. 14 (3 books)<br />
Tsau Hsuä-tjin, Gau Ë<br />
<br />
Edited and with an introduction by Martin Woesler, with an afterword by Hartmut Walravens<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2006-2007, 3 volumes, ISBN 978-3-86515-010-3 (3-86515-010-1), € 59 per part, Vol. I Tsau Hsüä-tjin, translated by Rainer Schwarz 2006 978-3-86515-011-0 (3-86515-011-X), Vol. II Tsau Hsüä-tjin, supra. Rainer Schwarz, 2006 978-3-86515-012-7 (3-86515-012-8 ), Vol. III Tsau Hsüä-tjin, Gau Ë, trans. Martin Woesler 2007 978-3-86515-013-4 (3-86515-013-6)<br />
<br />
The most famous Chinese novel for the first time in complete German translation.<br />
<br />
To part 1<br />
The goddess Nüwa does not use the 36501. stone anymore for the repair of the sky roof. This feeds a flower with dew drops. Finally, the stone is reborn as the protagonist Djia Bau-yu to whom the dew must be repaid in form of tears. The novel tells about the growing-up of Bau-yüs with his cousins in the ‘Garden of the Great Perspective’ against the backdrop of the rise and fall of the administrator family Djia in the time of the last emperors of the Ming Dynasty. However the autobiographical background is the first emperor of the Manchurian Tjing Dynasty (1644-1911).<br />
Bau-yü spends carefree children's and youth days with his cousins.<br />
In the first part of the novel, a triangular relationship develops between the talented, androgynous Djia Bau-yu, the gritty and pragmatic Hsuä Bau-chai and the desperate for love intelligent but sickly Lin Dai-yi.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
<br />
To part 2<br />
Bau-yü, talented son of the influential large family Djia, grows up together with his cousins almost carefree in the paradise-like 'Garden of the Great Perspective'. In the second part of the novel he experiences the degeneration and the moral decay of his family, the political and financial descent. The ideal world of childhood threatens to break at the transition to adolescent.<br />
Signs of imminent disaster cast a pall on the love of the androgynous Djia Bau-yü to his devoted but sickly, still-suffering and resigned cousin Lin Dai-yi.<br />
Has their love a future in a time of arranged marriages and against the backdrop of the family's decline?<br />
<br />
To part 3<br />
Gradually, the twelve girls of the Garden of the Great Perspective marry and move away. Also Djia Bau-yü believes to marry his cousin Lin Dai-yü. But when the veil is aroused, it is Hsii Bau-tschai. Lin Dai-yü dies of grief at the same time.<br />
The garden orphans. The jade stone is lost. The family falls into disgrace with the Emperor, the titles are withdrawn. The property is being robbed and plundered. Some family members are arrested and exiled. The Duchess-mother dies. The decline of the extended family Djia seems to be sealed.<br />
<br />
Only after Djia Bau-yü understands his predestined destiny and decides to live as a Buddhist monk, the tide is turning: Djia Bau-yü passes the state examinations together with his cousin Djia Lan. Titles, reputation, and goods are restored. The Djia family is looking forward to a happy future with Djia Lan and Bau-yüs son Djia Guee.<br />
But where is Bau-yü?<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
<br />
Vol. 13<br />
Martin Woesler<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2003, x, 242 pp., ISBN 978-3-89966-004-3 (3-89966-004-8)<br />
14,90 €<br />
<br />
Documentation of an exemplary discussion of politics and literature in the People's Republic of China. From September 1991 to January 1992, this debate caught the attention of the Chinese public and also made international headlines. Throughout the period, the author has been able to follow the local discussions in Beijing.<br />
The dispute proceeds like a bad crime: The resignation of the Minister of Culture Wang Meng on September 4, 1989, is linked to the story of " Zäher Brei " from the time of the democratic movement. The narrative, a political grotesque, is then awarded by a liberal literature magazine. There is a storm of indignation among the orthodox Marxists, which vents it’s spleen in two press articles. Apparently one would like to tackle the liberal literature of the 1980s at all. The former Minister of Culture fears a new political hate campaign and - a novelty in the history of the People's Republic of China –strains a lawsuit against authors and backers. This is followed by a paper- warfare, which course is followed eagerly by the Chinese intellectuals.<br />
<br />
This dispute illustrates the tug-of-war between the reformers and reformist opponents among Chinese politicians and intellectuals in the consolidation phase after 4 June 1989. In their pleading, the debates are not confessing themselves without a wink as a supporter or opponent of the mash.<br />
<br />
This volume contains the most important documents of the 'slugfest' in German translation. According to the narrative (p. 4 ff.), the chronology (pp. 55 ff.) Provides a first overview of the debate, which is documented in the following 17 texts. The background is provided by a biography of Wang Meng (p. 161 ff.), explanations of the tense relationship between politics and literature (p. 184 ff.), and a commentary essay (p 204 ff.) References, an overview of the reception, further bibliography and a sign glossary form the appendix.<br />
<br />
卷13 吴漠汀 波鸿: 欧洲大学出版社 欧洲大学出版社 2003年, x, 242页.,ISBN 978-3-89966-004-3（3-89966-004-8）14,90€<br />
<br />
中华人民共和国政治和文学的典型文献。 1991年9月至1992年1日的这场辩论不仅引起中国民众注意，也成为了国际头条。在此期间，笔者一直关注北京当地讨论。此辩论犹如一场严重罪行：1989年9月4日，文化部长王蒙的辞职与民主运动时期的“分粥”故事脱不了干系。此事虽是政治怪诞，之后却在一自由文学杂志中得奖。正统的马克思主义者由此激怒，在两篇新闻中爆发。显然，他们想解放1980年代的自由文学。前文化部长担心爆发新的政治仇恨运动（中华人民共和国的历史上的新鲜事），会加剧对作家和支持者的反抗。其次是中国知识分子们积极参与的笔战。<br />
<br />
这场辩论说明，在1989年6月4日之后，由中国政客和知识分子组成的改革派与保守派之间的拉锯战处于巩固阶段。在他们的论战中，如果没有眨眼默认为辩论的支持者或反对者，辩论就无罪。<br />
<br />
该卷包含德语“ slugfest”中的最重要的文献。据记载（第4页及以下），按时间顺序（第55页及以下）提供了辩论的第一篇概述，该摘要记录在以下17篇文章中。本书的背景是王蒙的自传（第161页及以下），论政治与文学之间的紧张关系（第184页及以下）和评论文章（第204页及以下）。附录中有反响概况，参考书目和专业术语表。<br />
<br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
<br />
Bd 12<br />
Martin Woesler, Junhua Zhang eds.<br />
China's digital dream<br />
The impact of the Internet on Chinese society<br />
Bochum: European University Press ²2003, 332 pp.<br />
ISBN 978-3-86515-190-2 (3-86515-190-6)<br />
(1st ed. 2002: ISBN 978-3-934453-90-6 (3-934453-90-2), 274 pp.)<br />
39.00 €<br />
<br />
A dream is a vision undoubtedly, part of the vision has already become reality.<br />
Through the endeavours made by China´s political elite in the past two decades. But what exactly does that vision look like, what is the reality of China´s Internet and to what extent has this modern medium influenced and how will it continue to influence the life of people in china? In Order to find out answers to these questions, we aked scholars from China, Hong Kong, the USA, and Europe engaged in the study of Chinese internet and politics to offer<br />
their thoughts and to present the results of their research. This book is intended to be an arena of discourse between scholars approaching the study of China from different perspectives and hopefully will help readers to gain an insight into China´s modernization strategy and ist praxis.<br />
<br />
中国的数字梦想互联网对中国社会的影响 吴漠汀，张军华著 波鸿：欧洲大学出版社, 2003年第二版, 332 页. ISBN 978-3-86515-190-2 (3-86515-190-6) (1st ed. 2002: ISBN 978-3-934453-90-6 (3-934453-90-2), 274 pp.) 39.00 €<br />
<br />
毫无疑问，梦想就是一种愿景，经过二十年来中国政治精英的不断努力，一部分愿景已经成为了现实。但这种愿景究竟是什么样的？中国互联网的现实是什么？互联网这种现代媒介在多大程度上影响了这种愿景？以及互联网将如何持续影响中国人的生活？为了寻找这一系列问题的答案，我们邀请了一些来自于中国、中国香港、美国和欧洲的从事中国互联网和政策研究的学者，以提出他们的想法并介绍他们的研究成果。本书旨在成为学者间从不同角度探索中国问题的交流平台，希望本书能帮助读者了解中国现代化战略和实践。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:56, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
中国的数字梦想互联网对中国社会的影响 吴漠汀，张军华著 波鸿：欧洲大学出版社, 2003年第二版, 332 页. ISBN 978-3-86515-190-2 (3-86515-190-6) (第一版. 2002: ISBN 978-3-934453-90-6 (3-934453-90-2), 274 页) 39.00 €<br />
梦想无疑是一个愿景，经过过去二十年来中国政治精英的努力，愿景的一部分已经成为现实。 但是这种愿景到底是什么样的？中国互联网的现实是什么？这种现代媒介在多大程度上影响了它？它将如何继续影响中国人民的生活？为了找出这些问题的答案，我们邀请了一些来自中国，香港，美国和欧洲的从事中国互联网和政治研究的学者们，以提出他们的想法并介绍他们的研究结果。本书旨在作为从不同角度探讨中国问题的学者之间进行交流的场所，希望能帮助读者深入了解中国的现代化战略和实践。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 13:14, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
<br />
CONTENTS<br />
Part I Proactive and Reactive Stances towards the Internet —Internet in China and Southeast Asia<br />
1. The Internet and Civil Society in China and Southeast Asia. Sh.Kalathil, pp. 31-46<br />
2. Telecom Taxonomy: How are the One Party States of East Asia Controlling the Political Impact of the Internet? Nina Hachigian, pp. 47-80<br />
<br />
Part II Social and Economical Impacts<br />
3. Digital Divide and E-Learning – Chances and Problems in China’s Approach. Junhua Zhang, pp. 81-108<br />
4. The Reality and Potential of Online Trading in China. Haifeng Huang / Ren Ma / Lin Jian / John Liang, pp. 109-120<br />
5. Internet Use in China–A Comparative Analysis. Guo Liang/Bu Wei, pp. 121-144<br />
<br />
Part III Globalization and the Clash of Civilizations<br />
6. Accession to the WTO and the Development of China’s Digital Media. Xupei Sun, pp. 145-164<br />
7. The Internet Transforms China into an "Open Society". M. Woesler, pp. 165-187<br />
<br />
Part IV Nation-Building and Information Warfare<br />
8. Assessing China´s Efforts in Constructing an e-government. Peter Lovelock / John Ure, pp. 187-211<br />
9. Is the "wolf" coming? - An empirical study on cultural in-formation spread on Chinese websites. Peng Lan, 212-230<br />
10. Technology, Markets and Nation-Building in Chinese Cyberspace. Christopher R. Hughes, pp. 231-246.<br />
11. Between Rhetoric and Reality – A Critical Examination of the Theories and Praxis of Information Warfare in China in the Light of Post-Iraq War 2003. Junhua Zhang, pp. 247-270.<br />
<br />
Part V Governance and Information Policy<br />
12. Development of E-government in China – Present Status, Problems, and Future. Xinjiao Tan, pp. 271-294.<br />
13. Internet Censorship Focus: 'Human Rights not found' in the Chinese Web. Martin Woesler, pp. 295-325<br />
Index etc.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
<br />
CONTRIBUTORS<br />
Wei Bu, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Beijing, China<br />
Liang Guo, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Beijing, China<br />
Nina Hachigian, Director, RAND Center for Asia Pacific Policy, USA<br />
Kai Haifeng Huang, Vice President, Association of Chinese Finance Professionals, San Francisco, USA<br />
Christopher R. Hughes, Director, Asia Research Centre, Senior Lecturer, International Relations, London School of Economics, United Kingdom<br />
Lin Jian, Vice President, Shenzhen Prosperity Systems Co. Ltd., Shenzhen, China<br />
Shanthi Kalathil, Project on the Information Revolution and World Politics, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace in Washington, D.C., USA<br />
Lan Peng, Associate Professor, School of Journalism of Renmin University, Beijing, China<br />
John Liang, President, Global Vision Consulting Company in Santa Clara, USA<br />
Peter Lovelock, Deputy Director, Telecommunications Research Project, University of Hong Kong, China<br />
Ren Ma, Senior Consultant, Beijing Yingce Investment Consulting Company, Beijing, China<br />
Xupei Sun, Professor, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, China<br />
Xinjiao Tan, College of Foreign Languages, Renmin University of China, Beijing, China<br />
John Ure, Director, Telecommunications Research Project, University of Hong Kong, China<br />
Martin Woesler, Lecturer, EALC, Gutenberg University Mainz, Germersheim, Germany<br />
Junhua Zhang, Research Associate, Center for Chinese and East Asian Politics, Free University Berlin, Germany<br />
<br />
编著<br />
魏步 中国社会科学院<br />
梁果 中国社会科学院<br />
Nina Hachigian 美国兰德亚太政策中心主任<br />
Kai Haifeng Huang 美国旧金山中国金融专业协会副主席<br />
Christopher R. Hughes 亚洲研究中心主任、英国伦敦经济学院国际关系高级讲师<br />
林建 深圳兴胜合作有限公司副总裁<br />
Shanthi Kalathil 美国华盛顿卡内基国际和平基金会信息革命和世界政治项目<br />
蓝鹏 中国人民大学新闻学院副教授<br />
梁约翰 美国圣克拉拉环球视野咨询公司总裁<br />
Peter Lovelock 香港大学通信研究项目副主任<br />
马仁 北京英策投资咨询公司高级咨询师<br />
孙旭培 华中科技大学教授<br />
谭新娇 中国人民大学外国语学院<br />
John Ure 香港大学通信研究项目主任<br />
吴漠汀 德国美因茨古腾堡大学东亚研究方向讲师<br />
张军华 德国柏林自由大学中国和东亚政治中心研究员--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 08:08, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
<br />
Bd 10<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2003<br />
109 pp., ISBN 978-3-932329-08-1 (3-932329-08-2)<br />
9,95 €<br />
The present collection includes contributions to the theoretical involvement with language learning software and test reports, which are intended as decision aids for pupils and teachers.<br />
Introduction to the extended new edition. P. 2, observations on the learning of languages with the computer p. 3-7, background of evaluation patterns for electronic media p. 7, thinking impulses and classification of selected literature p. 8-11, The test criteria catalog of the State Institute for School and Continuing Education S (Biaozhun Hanyu jiaocheng) p. 25-33, Biaozhun Hanyu jiaocheng - Critical Experience Report (Cornelia Menzel) p. 34, Examination of two Chinese Learning Tutors (Katharina Kehrer), pp. 35-55, Chinese Assistant 2.10 pp. 56-57, Chinese Character Tutor p. 58-59, Interactive Chinese, Professional Version p. 60-64, Interactive Chinese, Version ABC p , Language Learning Chinese p. 66, Mao's Alphabet p. 67, Wenlin 1.0 p. 69-70, Wenlin 3.1 p. 71, Dewenlin (German version of Wenlin) p. 72-74, Further Chinese Learning Programs p -Learning Chinese p. 77, Web info for Chinese -Lehrer p. 81, German as a Foreign Language: Language Course German 1-2-3 pp. 84-85, Lina and Leo p. 86-90, Japanese: Krea Kanji p. 91-95, Spanish: Interactive Language Teacher Spanish (Anja Rossig , Pp. 96-99, English: Encarta (Andreas Schnieber) pp. 100-102, Interaktive Sprachentrainer English (Sebastian Schröer) pp. 103-106, French: tmx French (Sylwia Wyszynski) p. 109-110, The author p. 111, Bibliography p. 112, List of electronic media p. 114-115, List of illustrations p. 116-117, selection index p. 118.<br />
<br />
Bd 10<br />
波鸿：欧洲大学出版社2003年<br />
109页，ISBN 978-3-932329-08-1（3-932329-08-2）<br />
9,95€<br />
本系列藏品对语言学习软件和测试报告的理论参与做出了贡献，旨在为学生和教师提供决策帮助。<br />
扩展的新版本简介。 P2，关于用计算机学习语言的意见。P3-7，电子媒体评估模式的背景。P7，思考的冲动和选定文献的分类。P8-11，国家学校和继续教育学院考试标准目录（标准汉语教程）P25-33，标准汉语教程-批判经验报告（Cornelia Menzel） P34，两位汉语学习导师考试（Katharina Kehrer） P35-55，中文助手2.10 P56-57，汉字导师。 P58-59，互动中文，专业版。P60-64，交互式中文，ABC版本，中文语言学习。 P66，毛泽东的字母表。P67温林1.0 P69-70，温林第3.1 P71，德文林（德文版温林）。P72-74，进一步的汉语学习计划 -学习中文。P77，中文-Lehrer的网页信息。 P81，德语作为外语：德语课程1-2-3页，P84-85，Lina和Leo。 P86-90，日语：Krea Kanji。 91-95，西班牙语：互动语言老师，西班牙语（Anja Rossig，P96-99，英语：Encarta（安德里亚斯·施尼伯），P100-102页，Interaktive Sprachentrainer英语（塞巴斯蒂安·施罗尔）P103-106页，法语：tmx法语（Sylwia Wyszynski） P109-110页，作者。P111，参考书目。P112，电子媒体列表。P114-115，插图列表。P116-117页，选择索引。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 07:06, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
Vol. 9<br />
Martin Woesler<br />
Bochum: European University Press 2003<br />
181 pp., ISBN 978-3-932329-15-9 (3-932329-15-5)<br />
24,50 €<br />
<br />
This book is an understandable guide on how to use Chinese under Windows 95, 98, ME, 2000, XP without additional programs.<br />
A reference book on 100 errors, which have occurred in Chinese under Windows across Europe with understandable solutions.<br />
A documentation of the first beginnings of Chinese on the computer until the Unicode.<br />
A practical guide for Internet, e-mail and text processing with Chinese.<br />
<br />
Vol. 8<br />
[Chinese / German]<br />
Karl-Heinz Pohl (ed.)<br />
Bochum: European University Press ²2003<br />
215 pp., ISBN 978-3-934453-30-2 (3-934453-30-9)<br />
19.90 €<br />
<br />
To break his back for five bushels of rice a day, he was himself to pity and quit the public service. In the country he has moved, has cultivated fields and gardens and praised what he loved: chrysanthemums and pines, even children, country people, old people, drinking with friends, silence, seclusion. He understood how to praise as to lament, to think about the vicissitudes of life, and to play down his own hardships with a dash of self-irony: hardly anything tormented him, like the idea that the wine might go out.<br />
He lived 1500 years ago and his poems are as of today. The Chinese regard Tao Yuanming as the greatest poet between Han and Tang time; countless painters are inspired by him.<br />
<br />
<br />
Vol. 7<br />
Gregor Paul, Martin Woesler (eds.)<br />
Bochum: European University Press²2003<br />
Ii, 198 pp, ISBN 978-3-932329-13-5 (3-932329-13-9)<br />
15.34 €<br />
<br />
卷9<br />
吴漠汀<br />
波鸿：欧洲大学出版社 2003<br />
ISBN 978-3-932329-15-9 (3-932329-15-5)<br />
24.5欧<br />
本书是在没有附加程序的情况下，就如何在Windows 95、98，ME，2000，XP系统中如何使用中文而撰写的一份易于理解的指南。<br />
此参考书包含100个错误，这些错误均在欧洲范围内使用Windows中文系统时发生，此书还提供了易于理解的解决方案。<br />
此书记录了自计算机上出现的第一个中文到Unicode。<br />
此书为实用的中文互联网，电子邮件和文本处理指南。<br />
<br />
卷8<br />
【中国/德国】<br />
卡尔·海因茨·波尔（编辑）<br />
波鸿：欧洲大学出版社 2003<br />
ISBN 978-3-934453-30-2 (3-934453-30-9)<br />
19.90欧<br />
他过得怡然自得，辞去了公职，舍弃了每天挣五斗米的日子。 在乡村里，他耕种田野，修理花园，称赞自己所爱的一切：菊和松树，甚至是孩子，乡下人，老人，和朋友一起喝酒的时光，安静和与世隔绝的日子。他知道如何像悼念一样赞美，如何思考人生的沧桑，如何自嘲地淡化自己的艰辛：几乎无事会让他折磨他，就像酒也会没有一样。<br />
他活在1500年前，他的诗却延续到今天。 中国人将陶渊明视为汉唐时期最伟大的诗人，他曾启发了数位画家。<br />
<br />
卷7<br />
格雷戈尔·保罗，吴漠汀（编辑）<br />
波鸿：欧洲大学出版社 2003<br />
ISBN 978-3-932329-13-5 (3-932329-13-9)<br />
15.34 欧--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:46, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
<br />
Bd 6<br />
Martin Woesler, ed.<br />
The Modern Chinese Literary Essay - Defining the Chinese Self in the 20th Century - Conference Volume, Bochum: European University Press ²2003, 327 pp., ISBN 978-3-934453-15-9 (3-934453-15-5)<br />
35.79 €<br />
<br />
Contents<br />
<br />
Introduction<br />
The Freedom of Intellectual Exchange pp. 13-14<br />
Preface: The Flourishing of the Chinese Essay pp. 15-16<br />
<br />
Keynote: “Let us Assign the Essay its Proper Place in Chinese Literature” pp. 17-28<br />
Martin Woesler, University of Mainz, Germany<br />
<br />
The Emergence of the Modern Chinese Essay: Precursors and Influences of a Major Literary Form - The Aesthetic of Marginalism and the Impact of the West on the Chinese Essay pp. 29-42<br />
Martin Woesler, University of Mainz, Germany<br />
<br />
The Modern Essay and Urban Culture in The Republican Period<br />
Formation of Modern Subjectivity and Essay: Zhou Shoujuan’s “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” pp. 43-68<br />
Jianhua Chen, Harvard University, Cambridge, USA<br />
Eileen Chang and the Modern Essay pp. 69-100<br />
Nicole Huang, University of Wisconsin, Madison, USA<br />
<br />
Perspectives on Ideology in the Essay<br />
Zhu Ziqing, Frantz Fanon, and the Fierce White Children pp. 101-116<br />
Daniel A. Fried, Harvard University, Cambridge, USA<br />
Incongruous Lyricism: Liu Baiyu, Yang Shuo and sanwen in Chinese Socialist Culture pp. 117-134<br />
Charles A. Laughlin, Yale University, New Haven, USA<br />
<br />
<br />
蓝色光碟6 吴漠汀主编，当代中国文学散文-定义二十世纪中国自我主义-会议期刊,波鸿：欧洲大学出版社，327页，2003年ISBN 978-3-934453-15-9 (3-934453-15-5) 35.79 欧<br />
<br />
目录<br />
<br />
引言 <br />
知识交流的自由 13-14页<br />
<br />
前言 <br />
中国散文的兴盛 15-16页 <br />
<br />
主题：“让我们将散文在中国文学中置于恰当的位置”17-28页 吴漠汀,美因茨大学，德国<br />
<br />
当代中国散文的兴起：文学主要形式的前身及影响-边缘主义的美学和西方文化对中国散文的影响 29-42页 吴漠汀，美因茨大学，德国<br />
<br />
民国时期现代散文和城市文化 现代主体性和散文的形成：周瘦鹃 43-68页，哈佛大学，剑桥，美国 <br />
<br />
张爱玲与当代散文 69-100页 Nicole Huang, 威斯康星大学，麦迪逊市，美国<br />
<br />
散文中意识形态观点 朱自清，佛朗茨•法农，凶猛的白人孩子 101-116页 丹尼尔•A•佛莱德，哈佛大学，剑桥市，美国 <br />
<br />
不协调的抒情：刘白羽，杨硕 中国社会主义文化中的散文 117-134页 查尔斯• A•劳克林，耶鲁大学，纽黑文市，美国--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:55, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
<br />
The Author's Self in Essays of Place and in Qian Zhongshu's Criticism<br />
A Reading of Traditional Gestures in Modern Chinese Essays of Place pp. 135-148<br />
Alexandra R. Wagner, Yale University, New Haven, USA<br />
Qian Zhongshu's Essays pp. 149-176<br />
Hong Yu, University of Münster, Germany<br />
Cultural Polemics in Contemporary China<br />
From Historical Narrative to the World of Prose: The Essayistic Mode in Contemporary Chinese Literature pp. 177-192<br />
Ban Wang, State University of New York at Stony Brook, New York, USA<br />
Mulish Essays: the Genre of Zawen in Contemporary China pp. 193-214<br />
Mary Scoggin, Humboldt State University, Arcata, USA<br />
Nostalgia without Memory: Reading Zhang Wei's Essays pp. 215-230<br />
Jie Lu, University of the Pacific, Stockton, USA<br />
Deciphering the Populist Gadfly: Cultural Polemic around Zhang Chengzhi's “Religious Sublime” pp. 231-240<br />
Xinmin Liu, Wesleyan University, Middletown, USA <br />
Discussion of this chapter: The xiaopin wen between xianshi sanwen and zawen pp. 241-246<br />
King-Fai Tam, Trinity College, Hart.ford, USA<br />
<br />
Regional Perspectives: Taiwan and Hong Kong<br />
The Changing Character of the Essay Subgenres pp. 247-290<br />
Ming-Lee Cheng, Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan<br />
The Short Miscellaneous Essay with Hong Kong Characteristics pp. 291-310<br />
Wai Leung Wong, Chinese University of Hong Kong, China<br />
Overview of the Contemporary Essay<br />
Martin Woesler, University of Mainz, Germany<br />
The 20th Century Chinese Essay - Characteristics, Actors, and Trends pp. 311-328<br />
A Survey of the Genre and New Insights Into the Essayists Ba Jin, Zhou Zuoren, Zhu Ziqing pp. 329-340<br />
Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective pp. 341-360<br />
Contributors pp. 361-372<br />
Index pp. 373-<br />
在地方散文以及钱钟书评论中的作者自我<br />
<br />
中国现代地方散文的传统阅读姿态 135-148 亚历山德拉·R·瓦格纳，耶鲁大学，纽黑文市，美国<br />
<br />
钱钟书的散文 149-176 于洪，明斯特大学，德国<br />
<br />
当代中国文化论证法<br />
<br />
从历史叙述到世界散文：当代中国文学中的散文模型 177-192 王斑，纽约石溪国立大学，纽约，美国<br />
<br />
杂文：当代中国杂文类别 193-214 玛丽·斯科金，洪堡州立大学，阿克塔，美国<br />
<br />
没有记忆的怀念：张伟散文阅读 215-230 卢杰，太平洋大学，斯托克顿市，美国<br />
<br />
破译令人讨厌的民粹主义者：关于张承志“宗教崇高性”的文化抨击 231-240 刘新民，卫斯理大学，米德尔顿，美国<br />
<br />
本章讨论：介于现实散文和杂文之间的小品文 241-246 谭景辉，圣三一学院，哈特福特，美国<br />
<br />
区域视角：台湾和香港<br />
<br />
论文子流派变化的角色 247-290，陈明礼，台湾师范大学，台北，台湾<br />
<br />
具有香港特色的短篇杂文 291-310，黄伟亮，香港中文大学，中国<br />
<br />
当代散文概述 马丁·沃斯勒，美因茨大学，德国<br />
<br />
20世纪中国散文-特点，先驱者以及倾向 311-328<br />
<br />
从全新角度对散文家巴金，周作人，朱自清流派的调查 329-340<br />
<br />
现代中国文学和散文类别：一个全新视角 341-360<br />
<br />
贡献者 361-372<br />
<br />
索引 373-<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:47, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
<br />
vol. 5<br />
Martin Woesler, ed.<br />
The Chinese Essay in The 20th Century<br />
Bochum: European University Press ²2003<br />
496 (xlii, 205, 229) pp.<br />
ISBN 978-3-934453-14-2 (3-934453-14-7)<br />
<br />
<br />
Essay-writing is an acknowledged hallmark of Chinese writers and intellectuals, past and present. The personal essay, in particular, has been widely popular ever since the Ming Dynasty and was a major genre of modern Chinese literature. The more public essay-form <br />
called zawen (miscellaneous essay), the invention of which is attributed to Lu Xun, has been used by at least two generations of modern Chinese intellectuals as a powerful weapon of social and political criticism, often from a dissident angle. All of these are well known in China but seldom studied in the West.<br />
It is time, therefore, that we welcome the publication of a volume of 20th century Chinese essays carefully selected and edited by Martin Woesler. Dr. Woesler has been a most conscientious young scholar from Germany who embarked upon such an endeavor with a singular devotion, especially in view of the fact that his mother tongue is not English. His exemplary zeal must have been contagious, for he was able to gather a like-minded group of translators who all contributed their time and energy to this magnificent volume. As his official sponsor for a year's research visit at Harvard, I am honored to be asked to write this perfunctory preface, a small task I do with pleasure for both scholarly and personal reasons. (Though no expert in this genre I am currently practicing essay-writing myself by contributing to a weekly column in Chinese for a Hong Kong newspaper.)<br />
Readers of this volume can readily discover that a most welcome feature is its comprehensiveness: samples from both the modern and contemporary periods are represented. Although ample coverage is given to writers from the Mainland, the celebrated poet and essayist from Taiwan, Yu Kwang-chung, is also included. Needless to add, this selection is chosen from a much larger collection of essays from Woesler's massive research data bank stored in his personal computer. I am sure he will welcome scholars who wish to gain access. I am delighted that after many years of hard work his labor is finally bearing fruit, and I invite all interested readers to sample its variegated taste.<br />
Leo Ou-fan Lee, July 14, 1999<br />
<br />
第五卷<br />
马丁·维斯勒 著<br />
波鸿：欧洲大学出版社，2003年<br />
496（205，229）页<br />
ISBN 978-3-934453-14-2 (3-934453-14-7)<br />
€/US$ 25.00<br />
<br />
无论是过去还是现在，散文写作是中国作家和知识分子公认的标志。特别是个人散文，自明代以来就广泛流行，是中国现代文学的主要体裁之一。更公开的散文形式<br />
被称为扎文（杂文），是由鲁迅发明的，常被至少两代中国现代知识分子用作从不同政见的角度批判社会和政治的强大武器。这些中国都是众所周知的，但西方却很少有人研究。因此，我们应当欢迎马丁·维斯勒精心挑选和编辑的20世纪中国散文集的出版。维斯勒博士是一位勤勉认真的的德国青年学者，他以非常的献身精神从事这项工作，特别是考虑到他的母语不是英语。他的模范热情是一定具有感染力，因为他能够聚集一群志同道合的翻译家，他们都为这本伟大的著作贡献了时间和精力。作为他在哈佛大学进行为期一年研究访问的官方赞助商，我很荣幸地被要求写这个敷衍的序言，这是一项我出于学术和个人原因而愉快完成的小任务。（虽然我不是这方面的专家，但我目前正在练习写论文，为一家香港报纸的每周中文专栏撰稿。）这本书的读者很容易发现，它最受欢迎的特点是它的全面性：既有现代的例子，也有当代的例子。虽然大陆作家的作品得到了充分的报道，但台湾著名诗人和散文家余光中等人的作品也被包括在内。不用说，这篇文章是沃斯勒从存储在自己个人电脑中的大量研究数据库中挑选出来的。我相信他会欢迎那些希望进一步了解的学者。我很高兴，经过多年的努力，他的劳动终于结出了硕果，我邀请所有感兴趣的读者来品尝它丰富的味道。李欧范，1999年7月14日<br />
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 05:00, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
<br />
Bd 4<br />
Manuel Fries<br />
China and Cyberspace. <br />
The Development of the Chinese National Information Infrastructure<br />
Bochum: European University Press ²2003<br />
220 pp., ISBN 978-3-934453-13-5 (3-934453-13-9)<br />
25.00 €<br />
<br />
"As a China consultant and academic whose interest in China goes as far back as 1952, I was delighted to be asked to write an introduction to "China and Cyberspace", a detailed and very up-to-date report on the development of the Chinese national information infrastructure, succinctly presented in this book by Manuel Fries.<br />
I had the pleasure of first meeting Manuel Fries in Beijing, where he undertook research for this book. Mr. Fries, who speaks fluent Chinese, mingled with ease with Chinese bureaucrats and private entre-preneurs in order to obtain the information for this publication. No doubt, this skill comes from both his training and his extensive research experience. This ideal combination allowed him to compile the vital background information on China's current communications industry, which is at the centre of this book.<br />
Much of the detailed information contained in this volume is not readily available in any form and therefore fills a vital gap as a reference tool for anybody who seeks vital information about China in Cyberspace. The appended bibliography is also of vital use for this purpose.<br />
I am delighted to be able to recommend this publication to all readers who have an interest in contem-porary China and its rapid progress in information technology."<br />
Dr. Wolfgang Frick<br />
曼纽尔弗里斯中国和网络空间。中国国家信息基础设施的发展，波鸿:欧洲大学出版社，2003年，220页，ISBN 978-3-934453-13-5(3-934453-13-9) 25.00欧元<br />
“作为一名中国顾问和学者，我对中国的兴趣可以回溯到1952年。我很高兴被邀请撰写《中国与网络空间》的引言，这是一份关于中国国家信息基础设施发展的最新的详细报告，由曼纽尔•弗莱斯(Manuel Fries)在这本书中简明扼要地阐述了这一问题。我有幸在北京第一次见到了曼纽尔•弗里斯，他在那儿为这本书进行了研究。弗莱斯先生能说一口流利的中文，能自在地与中国官员和私营企业企业家打交道，来获取本刊物所需的信息。毫无疑问，这种能力来自于他的练习和丰富的研究经验。这种理想的结合使他能够编纂有关中国目前通信行业的重要背景信息，这也是本书的核心内容。本书中所包含的许多详细信息都无法以任何形式轻易获取，所以对那些在找寻关于中国网络空间方面的重要信息的人来说，这是一个重要的参考。为这个目的，所附的书目也很重要。我很高兴能够向所有对当代中国以及对其信息技术的快速进步感兴趣的读者推荐这本刊物。”<br />
沃尔夫冈•弗里克（Wolfgang Frick）博士--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:39, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
<br />
Vol. 3<br />
Martin Woesler (ed., transl.)<br />
<Chin., Ger.><br />
Bochum: European University Press ²2003<br />
300 pp., ISBN 978-3-932329-05-0 (3-932329-05-8)<br />
15,29 €<br />
<br />
Bilingual edition with the most famous Chinese essays of the 20th century.<br />
In 1917 the Chinese essay experienced under a strong Western influence its rebirth in baihua, the written common speech. The 1920s and 1930s saw a May of essay writing: in newspapers and magazines these short contributions were a modern medium of the enlightenment in China. Since 1927, the essay was increasingly politicized as a propaganda tool. The conflict between the free (Zhou Zuoren) and the politically committed essay (Lu Xun) was decided by the latter. In the 1990s, the essays of the republics, with the exception of the ideologically affirmative texts, are widely more received than those of the present.<br />
第三卷 马丁·吴勒森（中，徳） 波鸿：欧洲大学出版社2003年 300页，出版号 978-3-932329-05-0（3-932329-05-8）€15，29<br />
20世纪最著名的中国散文，双语版。<br />
1917年，最西方的强烈影响下，中国散文经历了白话文—书面普通话的复兴。20世纪20、30年代，中国经历一场散文写作的五月运动：这些在报纸和杂志上面刊登的短文章成了中国启蒙运动的现代化媒介。自1927年以来，散文越发成为政治宣传的工具。自由（周作人）与政治散文（鲁迅）之间的矛盾受到后者的牵制。20世纪90年代，除思想积极的文章之外，共和文章较比现在的更加广受欢迎。<br />
<br />
Vol. 2 (3 subvolumes)<br />
Martin Woesler<br />
Bochum: European University Press ²2003, xiii, 900 pp., 978-3-932329-04-3 (3-932329-04-X)<br />
€ 46.00<br />
<br />
The three volumes are divided into the period 1911-1949, 1949-2000 and bibliography. To subvolume 2:<br />
In the 1980s and 1990s, the Chinese essay experienced its second flowering phase after the Republic era. Anthologies, book series, periodicals and conferences are devoted to the essay. The fast-moving nature of society requires short, diverting texts. The individual consciousness is strengthened and the essay is the most immediate form of subjective expression. Also the interest in the discussion of socio-political issues increases. The young generation of the essayists, that are born after 1949, seems to write free from ideological influence for the first time. However, short-term political topics take up less space than in the 1920s and 1930s. The essay is consciously perceived as a genre again: In the 1980s the essay scholarship began in Taiwan, some years later in the People's Republic of China.<br />
卷二（附卷三） 马丁·吴勒森 波鸿：欧洲大学出版社，第八版，900页，978-3-932329-04-3（3-932329-04-X）€46，00<br />
<br />
三卷分成1911-1949，1949-2000和自传三个。致附卷二：<br />
20世纪80和90年代，中国散文经历了共和时期之后的第二次繁荣。文选、系列书、期刊和会议都归于散文。社会快速发展的性质需要的是短小多元的文章。由于个人意识得到加强，散文成了表达主观情绪最直接的形式。同样的，人们对探讨政治社会的兴趣变得越发浓厚。1949年过后出生的新一代散文家们，似乎第一次能够在不受到意识形态的干扰下自由写作。然而，短期的政治话题较比20世纪20、30年代占据的篇幅更小。散文再次被认为是一种体裁：20世纪80年代，散文奖学金在台湾兴起，之后又在新中国开始。--[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 10:33, 3 October 2020 (UTC)周诗卿<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
<br />
Vol. 1<br />
Gunnar Richter<br />
<br />
Bochum: European University Press,<br />
104 pp., ISBN 978-3-932329-02-9 (3-932329-02-3)<br />
13,90 €<br />
NEW: TRADITIONAL CHINESE VERSION ISBN 978-3-932329-45-6 (3-932329-45-7)<br />
<br />
This grammar of the Chinese is aimed at students of the Chinese language (beginner and advanced) and is designed as a summary for teaching purposes. It is based on the tried and widespread textbook 'Praktisches Chinesisch', but is enriched by examples from other sources. All examples are marked with Pinyin transcription. Different habits in the use of grammatical terms in German and Chinese are taken into account. This book is also intended as a reference book for grammatically interested sinologists.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yushu, Winfried Woesler, Horst Thomé (Hgg.)<br />
Bo¬chum: Multi¬Lin¬gua (from Vol. 4 Königshausen & Neumann), ISSN 1616-4016, yearly, Vol. 7 2006, Vol. 6 2005, Vol. 5 2004, Vol. 4 2003, Vol. 3 2002, Vol. 2 2001.8, Vol. 1 2000.8, 311 pages, ISBN 978-3-932329-12-8 (3-932329-12-0): 15,29 € (Vol. 1, 2) 49,50 € (from Vol. 3)<br />
<br />
GERMAN CHINA ASSOCIATION<br />
Bulletin of the German China Association<br />
since 1957, ISSN 1436-8048, 18 €<br />
<br />
卷1 贡纳·里希特 编著<br />
波鸿：欧洲大学出版社，104页， ISBN 978-3-932329-02-9 (3-932329-02-3) 13,90 € 传统中文的新译本： ISBN 978-3-932329-45-6 (3-932329-45-7)<br />
<br />
该汉语语法针对的是汉语学习者（初级和高级），目的是作为教学目的的总结。它基于久经考验以及广泛传播的教科书《实用汉语课本》，但其他来源的资料也丰富了<br />
该书。所有示例均标有拼音音标，并且考虑了德语和汉语中使用语法术语的不同习惯。该书还旨在成为对语法感兴趣的汉学家的参考书。<br />
<br />
张玉书，温·沃斯勒，霍尔斯特·托美（Hgg.）波鸿: MultiLingua核心期刊 (摘自 卷4 Königshausen & Neumann出版社), ISSN 1616-4016, 年刊, 卷7 2006, 卷 2005, <br />
卷5 2004, 卷4 2003, 卷 3 2002, 卷2 2001.8, 卷 1 2000.8, 311页, ISBN 978-3-932329-12-8 (3-932329-12-0): 15,29 € (卷 1, 2) 49,50 € (摘自卷3)<br />
德中协会，自1957年以来的德意志中国联合会公报， ISSN 1436-8048, 18 €--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 12:58, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
<br />
1/2007<br />
German China Association (eds.)<br />
From Chinese novels, the Chinese literature in the sign of the "boom": Liu Jiming, Zhang Wei, Liu Qingbang and their response to the big city literature, Teodorico Pedrini, an Italian court musician in the palace of the emperor Kangxis, the awarding of the Orient-und-Okzident Prize to Ieoh Ming Pei, Josefine Huppertz's studies on Chinese seafaring and the question to what is different in China and why<br />
Issue 50 2007<br />
1. ed. 30.06.2007, Paperback<br />
92 pp.<br />
ISBN 978-3-932329-54-8<br />
36,00 Eur [Ger]<br />
<br />
1/2006<br />
Issue 49 2006/1<br />
1. ed. 30.06.2006, Paperback<br />
118 pp.<br />
ISBN 978-3-932329-48-7 (3-932329-48-1)<br />
36,00 Eur [Ger]<br />
<br />
2/2005<br />
German China Association (eds.)<br />
Issue 48 2005/2<br />
1. ed. 23.12.2005, Paperback, 82 pp.<br />
ISBN 978-3-932329-46-3 (3-932329-46-5)<br />
18,00 Eur [Ger] / 18,60 Eur [At]<br />
<br />
1/2005<br />
German China Association (eds.)<br />
Year 48 2005/1<br />
1. ed. 1.7.2005, Paperback, 82 pp.<br />
ISBN 978-3-932329-44-9 (3-932329-44-9)<br />
18,00 Eur [Ger] / 18,60 Eur [At]<br />
<br />
2/2004<br />
German China Association (eds.)<br />
Bulletin of the German China Association <br />
Issue 47 2004/2<br />
1. ed. 23.12.2004<br />
Paperback<br />
100 pp, ISBN 978-3-932329-42-5 (3-932329-42-2)<br />
18,00 Eur [Ger] / 18,60 Eur [At]<br />
<br />
1/2004<br />
German China Association (eds.)<br />
Issue 47 2004/1<br />
1. ed. 30.06.2004<br />
Paperback<br />
98 pp.<br />
ISBN 978-3-932329-40-1 (3-932329-40-6)<br />
18,00 Eur[Ger] / 18,60 Eur[At] <br />
<br />
2/2003<br />
German China Association (eds.)<br />
Issue 46 2003/2<br />
Paperback, ed. 15.12.2003<br />
90 pp.<br />
ISBN 978-3-932329-39-5 (3-932329-39-2), 18,00 Eur [Ger] / 18,60 Eur [At]<br />
1/2003<br />
German China Association (eds.)<br />
<br />
Issue 46. 2003/1, 1. ed. 2003, Paperback<br />
80 pp., numerous black and white Picture(s)<br />
ISBN 978-3-932329-38-8 (3-932329-38-4), 18,00 Eur [Ger] / 18,60 Eur [At]<br />
<br />
Still available older issues: Vol 3 / 1998.12, 66 pp, 1999.5, 116 pp, 1999.12, 66 pp, 2000.5, 78 pp, 2001, 96 pp, 2001.12, 38 pp, 2002.7, 2002.12<br />
<br />
[English / German / Chinese]<br />
European University Press, ISBN 978-3-89966-012-8 (3-89966-012-9), about 80 pages, more than 100 color photos, 29,90 €<br />
<br />
2007年7月德意志中国协会（主编）。从中国小说中看，中国文学有繁荣的迹象：刘继铭，张炜，刘庆邦及其对大城市文学的回应，意大利法院音乐家德奥多里科·佩德里尼（Teodorico Pedrini）在康熙皇帝的宫殿中，向东方明培和何塞芬·霍珀兹（Josefine Huppertz）颁发了“东方与奥克斯坦特奖”，获奖的研究为中国航海、航海对中国带来的改变，以及为什么要发行第50期2007年第1版的问题。 2007年6月30日，平装本92页，ISBN 978-3-932329-54-8 欧元 [德国]<br />
1/2006第49版，2006年1 月第1版。 2006年6月30日，平装本118页，ISBN 978-3-932329-48-7（3-932329-48-1）36,00 欧元 [德国]<br />
1/2005德国中国协会（编辑）第48期2005年1月 第一版。 2005年1月7日，平装本，第82页，ISBN 978-3-932329-44-9（3-932329-44-9）18,00欧元[德国] / 18,60欧元[奥地利]<br />
2004年2月德中协会（eds。）德中协会公报第47期2004年2月 第一版。 2004年12月23日平装本100 页，ISBN 978-3-932329-42-5（3-932329-42-2）18,00欧元[德国] / 18,60欧元[奥地利]<br />
1/2004德中协会（编辑）第47期2004年1月 第一版。 2004年6月30日平装本98 页。ISBN 978-3-932329-40-1（3-932329-40-6）18,00 Eur [Ger] / 18,60 Eur [奥地利]<br />
2/2003德中协会（编辑）第46期2003年2月平装本版本。 2003年12月15日90页ISBN 978-3-932329-39-5（3-932329-39-2），18,00欧元[德国] / 18,60欧元[奥地利] <br />
1/2003德国中国协会（编辑。）第46期。2003年1月，第1版。 2003，平装书80 页。大量黑白照片。ISBN 978-3-932329-38-8（3-932329-38-4），18,00 欧元 [德国] / 18,60 欧元 [奥地利]<br />
仍可获取到的旧期刊：第3 卷/ 1998年12月，66 页，1999年5月，116 页，1999年12月，66 页，2000年5月，78 页，2001年，96 页，2001年12月，38 页，2002年7月，2002年12月<br />
[英语/德语/中文]欧洲大学出版社，ISBN 978-3-89966-012-8（3-89966-012-9），约80页，超过100张彩色照片，29,90欧元--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 07:18, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
Chinese-Western cultural comparison<br />
Series: Inter Culturas<br />
ISSN 1613-6195<br />
Published by Hans-Peter Schütt, Ute Gahlings, Guido Rappe<br />
<br />
Interculturas means "between the cultures" and refers not only to the cultural diversity within the European present and the past, but also to the plurality that transcends space and time, in which Europe itself is always one of many cultures. Accordingly, Inter Culturas is an interdisciplinary series for studies on Europe, its culture and its history of ideas, in which not only intracultural but also intercultural work will appear.<br />
<br />
The following priorities are envisaged:<br />
- History of European Philosophy and Literature<br />
- gender research and European feminism<br />
- Europe in cultural comparison<br />
<br />
《中西文化比较》<br />
丛书：跨文化<br />
ISSN 1613-6195<br />
作者：汉斯-彼得·舒特，乌特加林斯，吉多·拉普<br />
<br />
跨文化是指“文化之间”，不仅指欧洲现在和过去的文化多样性，还指超越空间和时间的多元性，在这种多元性中，欧洲本身始终是许多文化之一。因此，国际文化是一个跨学科的系列，研究欧洲，不仅要研究文化内文化和历史思想的，而且也需要跨文化的研究工作。<br />
<br />
以下为预设优先呈现内容：<br />
-欧洲哲学和文学史<br />
-性别研究和欧洲女权主义<br />
-欧洲的文化比较<br />
--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:24, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
中西文化比较<br />
系列:跨文化<br />
ISSN 1613 - 6195<br />
由Hans-Peter Schütt, Ute Gahlings, Guido Rappe出版<br />
<br />
跨文化是指“文化间的”，它不仅指欧洲现在和过去的文化多样性，也指超越空间和时间的多元性，而欧洲本身就是众多文化中的一种。因此，跨文化研究是一个跨学科的系列研究，研究欧洲的文化和思想史，其中不仅有文化内的作品，也会出现跨文化的作品。<br />
<br />
设想了下列优先事项:<br />
-欧洲哲学史和文学史<br />
-性别研究和欧洲女权主义<br />
-文化比较下的欧洲--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 12:47, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
<br />
Vol. I-IV Guido Rappe: ISBN 978-3-86515-001-1 (3-86515-001-2 ), 4 volumes, approx. 3500 pp., Berlin et.al .: European University Press 2003-2008, with the purchase of the total work 285 euro; 1. volume 1040 pp., ISBN 978-3-86515-002-8 (3-86515-002-0)<br />
59,00 €<br />
卷1-卷4.吉多·瑞普:ISBN 978-3-86515-001-1 (3-86515-001-2 ).4卷，约3500页，柏林等:欧洲大学出版社 2003-2008.全套书售价285欧元.卷1，约1040页，ISBN 978-3-86515-002-8 (3-86515-002-0)，售价59欧元.<br />
<br />
The four-volume " Interkulturelle Ethik " attempts to acquire transcultural commonalities, which can serve to improve the philosophical understanding between people, using the example of the ancient cultural comparison between Europe and China. From a modern philosophic perspective follwing intensive examination with both the classical texts of the moral theories and the practice of ethical techniques is intended to illustrate the strengths and weaknesses of the different directions in order to promote a mutual learning process. In this way, a conceptual foundation of moral-philosophical thought is aimed at, which is no longer based on the dominance of European thought, but exposes the view to an ethics of the equated, peaceful coexistence of human beings<br />
《跨文化伦理》总共四卷，该书通过举例对比古欧洲和古中国在文化方面的异同来探寻跨文化的共性，从而进一步增进不同民族之间哲学层面上的相互理解。在对讨论道德理论的经典篇章做了大量的研究之后，该书从现代哲学角度出发，阐明了不同文化的长处和短处，以期促进文化间的相互学习。这样以来，哲学——道德的理念基础就不再以欧洲理念至上，而是将目光投向了一种人类平等和和平共处的伦理理念。--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 12:39, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
<br />
Vol. I<br />
Guido Rappe<br />
xxv, 1002 pp., 2004<br />
ISBN 978-3-86515-002-8 (3-86515-002-0)<br />
59 €<br />
<br />
In today's era of the coalescence of cultures, the question of cross-cultural ethics is of crucial importance. In view of the ever-repeated assertion that these great differences between European and outer-European thinking stand in the way, a critical review of such theses is made and proved that these are usually unauthorized. By following certain dominant European perspectives from ancient times to modern era, the volume exposes the ethnocentric aspects of the tradition of postconventional approaches. On the other hand, there are intensified similarities in time and space that are not sufficiently taken into account by many modern cultural-relativistic approaches. The volume tries to initiate a new intercultural dialogue on ethics by breaking down prejudices on both sides.<br />
在当今文化交融的时代，跨文化伦理问题至关重要。人们接连不断地断言欧洲及欧洲以外的思想之间存在的巨大差异阻碍了跨文化伦理问题的研究，该书对这些论断进行了批判性的审查，并证明这些断言通常是未经证实的。通过遵循从古至今的一些欧洲主流观点，该书册揭示了后传统习俗方法的民族中心主义。 另一方面，时间和空间上的相似性加剧，许多现代文化相对论方法没有充分考虑到这一点。 该册试图通过打破双方的偏见，开始新的跨文化伦理对话。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 13:30, 3 October 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 07:30, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
<br />
Vol. II, Part I<br />
Ethical Anthropology I.<br />
The body as the foundation of ethics,<br />
ISBN 978-3-86515-003-5 (3-86515-003-9), 1. Tlbd. 2005 € 59<br />
2 Tlbd. Together 118 €<br />
<br />
In contrast to the dominant scientific concepts of human beings, which have especially gained a stronger public impact through recent research on brain physiology, but also in a critical delimitation towards mental metaphysical ideas, which have determined the ethical discussion of the European tradition for 2500 years, this volume deals with the elaboration of fundamentals of an anthropology that is based on ethical phenomena and the moral quality of man. These are understood as a specific way of human existence, whose roots reach deep into the life of the body. Between the neuronal fire on the one hand and the 'spirit' of the 'soul' or the 'consciousness' on the other side, a critical consideration is to be found in empirical phenomena, with the concept of the body, its vitality, its mnemonic potency and its ability to communicate an orientated terminological foundation, on which both the further personal ethics with the founded moral emotions on it as well as an intercultural comparing of ancient ethics concepts can build up.<br />
<br />
第二卷，第一部分<br />
道德人类学 一<br />
身体是伦理的基础<br />
国际标准书号 978-3-86515-003-5 (3-86515-003-9),<br />
<br />
本卷基于伦理现象和人的道德素质，对人类学的基础进行阐释。和占主导地位的科学概念相反，这次对大脑生理学展开的研究对公众产生了强烈的影响，同时对精神形而上学观念进行了严格划界，这决定了欧洲2500年以来对欧洲传统的道德讨论。这些一直以来都被视作人类存在的一种方式，其根深深扎根于生命中。一方面是神经元之火，另一方面的“灵魂的精神”或“意识”，在这中间，可以从经验中得到一个重要的发现，基于身体、生命力、记忆能力、交流有针对性的术语基础等概念，可以在已发现的道德情感上进一步建立个人伦理，以及对古代伦理进行跨文化比较。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 11:25, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
<br />
Vol. II, Part. 2<br />
ISBN 978-3-86515-003-5 (2) (ISBN-10 3865150039), 2 parts 2006 59 €<br />
2 parts together 118 €<br />
<br />
A modern ethics needs a conceptual foundation which adequately takes the emotional and intellectual aspects of man into consideration. This is offered in the present Ethical Anthropology with the term of the person, to which the understanding belongs the term of the personal identity, the freedom of will and responsibility as well as the attitude and the conscience. Its development requires a phenomenological-historical view on the understanding of feelings and thinking in European culture, which reveals those aspects which were largely pushed back by the dominant branch of metaphysics in its relevance to the moral foundation. From this perspective, personal ethics explores its basis in emotional experience, without an understanding of moral quality is impossible, and this is discussed with the example of the feeling of sympathy which is found in a moral sense. But moral feelings alone are not sufficient, but require critical support through reason and through an effort for self-cultivation. Only then can they form part of the balanced path to the success of life, which allows man to counter his moral potency in the fulfillment of his life.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
<br />
Vol. III<br />
ISBN 978-3-86515-004-2 (3-86515-004-7) 59 €<br />
<br />
The virtue ethics, which has been intensified discussed since the second half of the 20th century, is now a major alternative to the established formal approaches of the metaphysical European tradition of ethics. This is because it can look back on a long history which coincides with the beginning of written philosophy in Greek and Chinese antiquity. The knowledge of the high ethical level of these approaches has been pushed back into the background for a long time, due to the ideological attitudes which have taken place during European Christianization and the persistent misleading polemic. Another non-critical and problematic effect was the uncritical use of the term 'deontological', which had been torn out of the antique context and applied to concepts that were directed against virtuous approaches. The present volume aims to help to overcome these shortcomings and confusion. In doing so it elaborates an intercultural perspective that, based on the ancient Chinese virtue ethics, offers a detailed comparison with Greek approaches. The result of this detailed presentation and intensive philosophical penetration shows not only the cross - cultural anthropological relevance of virtuous ethics, but also the fact that the ancient theories of self - cultivation can also open up perspectives for today 's people who can provide valuable guidance in a time of progressive formalization on the way to a subject-centric self-perfection.<br />
<br />
卷三 ISBN 978-3-86515-004-2 (3-86515-004-7) 59 €<br />
<br />
自二十世纪下半叶以来，人们越发热切地讨论道德伦理学。时至今日，道德伦理学已成为一个替代形而上学式欧洲伦理学传统的主要既成方法。这归因于它可以回顾一段悠久的历史，这与始于希腊和中国古代有记载的哲学相一致。由于欧洲基督教化时期意识形态态度的出现和持续的误导性争论，在很长一段时间内，人们将这些方法的高伦理水平知识推回到背景中。另一个非关键且有疑问的影响是对”义务论”一词的随意使用。这一用语从古老的文本中剥离出来并且应用于直接反对道德流派的概念中。本卷旨在帮助克服这些缺点和困惑。基于中国古代道德伦理学，本文阐述不同文化观点，并呈现中国道德伦理学与希腊道德伦理学的具体不同。这种详尽的呈现和深入的哲学渗透的结果不仅表明了道德伦理学与跨文化人类学相关，而且表明古代的修身理论也可以为现代人开拓视野。人们可以在不断形式化的时代提供价值导向，走向以主体为中心的自我完善的道路。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 15:13, 3 October 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
<br />
Vol. IV ISBN 978-3-86515-005-9 (3-86515-005-5) 59 €<br />
<br />
ORDERING<br />
Ruhr University, P.O. Box "Bochumer Universitätsverlag", Universitätsstr. 150, 44801 Bochum, Germany Tel. +49 (0) 234 701360, Fax 701230, email info@blaetterwald.net, Publisher's delivery for the European University Press and the Bochum University Press</div>Hu Huifanghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20200921_trans&diff=9785220200921 trans2020-09-25T12:41:15Z<p>Hu Huifang: /* Wei Yafei 魏亚菲 */</p>
<hr />
<div>Dear students, this is the homework of Sep 21.<br />
<br />
=Task=<br />
A Chinese paper on Manchu translation policies was submitted to the English editor. The English editor starts to translate it into English, but has only translated the first part and runs out of time. He asks his students, to read the first part and then to continue to translate the paper sentence by sentence. He also asks the students to help improve the translation of at least one fellow student. Please sign your translations with the signature button (buttons on the top, third from right).<br />
<br />
=First part of the text (already translated), please read for background=<br />
'''“崇儒重道”背景下的“五经”满文翻译<br />
——清代中、前期翻译政策研究之（二）'''<br />
<br />
'''摘要'''：自汉代起，“崇儒重道”即是中国历代封建王朝的“文治”之道。清初以来，“崇儒重道”既是国家文化政策的重要内容，也是统治者构建精神威权，实现帝王敷治的重要手段。在此背景下，以“五经”、“四书”为代表的众多儒学典籍被相继翻译或编译，其译本不仅被用于科举考试，而且被用作旗学教材。对统治者而言，“五经”的翻（编）译有着极其特殊的意义，这一点表现在诗学与政治文化等方面：首先，“五经”的翻（编）译是旗人学习汉族主流学术体系与传统道德规范的重要途径；其次，“五经”译本的阅读拉近了民族与民族之间的文化、心理距离，有利地缓和了民族关系，增进了民族交流，巩固了统治基础。<br />
<br />
'''关键词'''：崇儒重道;“五经”;汉籍翻译;科举考试;政治文化意涵<br />
<br />
'''导论'''<br />
<br />
“崇儒重道”是汉代以降，中国历代封建王朝的文治之道。作为历代统治者信奉的官方哲学，孔、孟学说及其代表的儒学价值体系长期享有“定于一尊”的社会地位。对社会大众而言，儒家学说是其普遍信仰和精神支柱。对统治者而言，儒家学说则是其建构精神威权，实现帝王敷治的重要工具。清代的官方文献中，并未明确出现“文化政策”字样，而是代之以“文教”、“教化”等概念，但这并不能说明清代的文化建设缺乏既定的政策理念与行为准则。恰恰相反，自顺治十年起，清廷即制订了“崇儒重道”的文化政策，将中国传统的文化概念融入政治实践，并在嗣后各朝逐渐形成“兴文教”、“崇经术”的治国方针。如康熙九年提出的“圣训十六条”、乾隆年间修纂的《四库全书》等，都是“崇儒重道”的重要实践。在文化政策的范畴中，“崇儒重道”有其衍生物，如科举取士、博学鸿词等，而访求、编纂书籍，以及翻译汉文典籍等也是其重要内容。清代的汉籍（书）翻译既面对“四书”、“五经”等儒学典籍，也面对《金瓶梅》、《西厢记》等通俗作品。尤其是前者，其中蕴含着丰富的伦理观念与道德准则，它们的翻译有效沟通了满、汉民族之间的关系，促进了文化交流。通过引导与规范翻译事业，统治者不仅学习了汉族文化与典章制度，而且以思想为治术，完善了治国理念与模式，建构了政权的合法性，实现了“治统”与“道统”的和谐统一。<br />
<br />
<br />
'''1.清初以来的汉籍翻译传统'''<br />
<br />
同“四书”一样，“五经”也是儒家学说的主要经典。《白虎通·五经》中，所谓“经”即是“常也”，而按照《释名》中的说法，“经”则是“常典也”，可见“经”作为典籍必具有恒常意义。（袁行霈，2009：6）那么，“五经”的恒常意义何在？无疑，其意义当在于修身养性、塑造德行。当然，不同经书的具体意义不尽相同，如《礼记·经解篇》中曾援引孔子的话，认为《诗经》的作用在于使人“温柔敦厚”，《书经》（《尚书》）使人“疏通知远”，《易经》使人“洁静精微”，《礼记》使人“恭俭庄敬”，《春秋》则使人“属辞比事”。（同上：7）概言之，所谓“五经”之核，当在于“君子人格”的培养。从此意义上讲，“五经”经义甚合于满清统治者的文治理念与教化政策，因而得到后者的力主与推广。<br />
<br />
天聪年间，随着汉官相继加入满族政权，许多具有汉族文化内涵或汉化特征的改革建议被相继提出。如天聪七年八月初九日，宁完我奏请满洲政权“参汉酌金，用心筹思”，不可一味移植中原汉制，而必须通权达变，依次渐进，开创合于自身需求的制度章程。（罗振玉，1980：82）自此，满洲统治者在进行治国施政，振兴文教时，便以“采行汉制”作为重要的指导原则。为沟通思想，探寻汉制，满洲权贵在汉官的引介下，翻写并讲解汉文典籍，促进了满文译书事业的发展，及统治者对汉族文化的认识。如天聪七年九月，宁完我奏请太宗敕译《大学》、《中庸》、《孝经》等书，虽然译书范围并不涉及“五经”，但所奏译书通过嗣后的“日讲”，仍对太宗撷取儒学思想产生了潜移默化的影响。事实上，早在天聪二年，太宗即赐书朝鲜李氏王朝，索求《尚书》、《诗经》的金、元两朝译本。同时，在太祖敕译汉籍的基础上，命达海续译汉文书籍。然而，尽管太宗本人性嗜典籍，披览弗倦，希望通过翻译与阅读学习汉族文化，但所译书籍乃以“四书”居多，而鲜有涉及“五经”者。由于满洲统治者多不通汉文，因而此局面的造成主要归因于汉官的具疏谏言。如天聪六年九月，王文奎条陈时宜，提到的主要是“四书”，认为它涵盖了帝王治平之道之微妙者。翌年九月，宁完我请译汉书，虽然提及者甚众，但仍限于《学》、《庸》、《论》、《孟》等。此外，便是《通鉴》、《六韬》、《三略》、《素书》等所谓“知古来兴废”，以及“益聪明智识，选练战功机权”的书籍，以上诸中皆与“五经”无关。（同上：24、71）<br />
<br />
满清统治者对于翻译汉籍的支持有着一惯性。事实上，早在亲政之前，顺治皇帝便表现出对于汉族制度和文化的极大兴趣。顺治元年，世祖令祁充格等人翻译辽、金、元三史，并因此对其进行赏赐。顺治二年，祁充格授弘文院大学士，以及明史总裁官，一定程度上即是对其翻译工作的肯定。次年，内国史院大学士刚林奉旨翻译《洪武宝训》（又名《洪武要训》），该书为清朝入关之后翻译的第一部汉文典籍，意在借用前朝开国皇帝的训词教训满洲贵族。同其先祖一样，顺治皇帝一方面把八旗满洲贵族作为法外之人，给予特别恩惠，另一方面又对汉籍官员和汉族文化采取信任政策。为了进行教化，加强思想统治，顺治帝诏令臣民尊孔读经，讲求忠孝节义，不仅亲率诸王大臣赴太学祭祀孔子，并行两跪六叩礼，而且命人翻译五经。顺治十一年，世祖命深谙汉文的鄂貌图翻译《诗经》，后者曾为清太宗讲解译书史，并参与翻译《大明会典》。清军入关后，鄂貌图又奉敕参与太祖、太宗两朝实录的修纂，并以满文翻译《礼记》、《尚书》、《纲鉴会纂》等汉文典籍。顺治十一年，内务府刊刻二十卷《诗经》的满文译本，该译本出鄂貌图之手，对当时的满洲政权了解汉族传统与文化发挥了重要作用。<br />
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康熙皇帝对于翻译事业也是极尽支持之责，这一点明显体现在“翻书房”和“武英殿修书处”两处机构的设置，及其相关活动上。康熙十年，圣祖敕设“翻书房”，用以翻译谕旨、起居注、御论等文书。所谓“翻书房”又称“内翻书房”、“内书房”，设立之初并无定员。顾名思义，“翻书房”的设立是出于书籍翻译的需要，而此处所说的“书”, 主要指汉文典籍，如“四书”、“五经”等。遵圣祖圣谕，“翻书房”的主要任务包括两大方面，其一是奉旨翻译经史，其二是圣祖敕翻御制诗文，二者皆“纂辑以候钦定”。（章宏伟，2009：83）作为专司翻译的机构，“翻书房”还负责语言文字的审定。关于“翻书房”的译书经历，《啸亭续录》中也有记载，认为由它所翻译的《资治通鉴》、《性理精义》、《古文渊鉴》等书行文简洁，义理明晰，流传甚广。（昭梿，1997：397）康熙皇帝自幼聪颖好学，对于汉籍和汉族文化有着很深的情愫，这一点即是他支持翻译事业的文化原因。《东华录》中曾说，圣祖好学不倦，不仅深谙帝王政治，而且于圣贤心学、六经要旨等，也能融会贯通。圣祖认为，儒学经典义理无穷，对于“教化”尤其重要。（中国第一历史档案馆，1984：80）<br />
雍正在位期间，汉文书籍的满文翻译和出版仍在发展，但种类与数量稍嫌单调和稀少。之所以如此，显然与雍正年间的政治形势有关。雍正二年，世宗敕颁《朋党论》和《雍正上谕》，表明统治集团内部存在激烈斗争。与此同时，为了强化皇权统治，清廷遵旨颁行《上谕八旗》和《上谕旗务议复》，意在削弱王公旗主之权势。同是在雍正二年，世宗又对圣祖“上谕十六条”进行演绎与注解，并与后者合成《圣谕广训》，以加强伦理道德教育。在世宗的设计中，《圣谕广训》的成书和颁行，并非只是语言文字工作的具体实践，它同样也是重要的文化政策，有助于加强对老百姓的思想和法制教育，维护统治的稳定。<br />
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=Second part of the text, to be translated sentence by sentence into English=<br />
==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
乾隆朝期间，汉字书籍的翻译与顺、康、雍三朝多有类似，所译作品大体分为两类：一类为儒家经典，另一类为佛教典籍。<br />
During the Qianlong period, the translation of Chinese character books was similar with that of the Shunzhi,Kangxi and Yongzheng dynasties. The translated works were roughly divided into two types, one was Confucian classics, the other was Buddhist classics.<br />
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During the QianLong period, the translation of Chinese books was similar with that of the Shunzhi, Kangxi and Yongzheng period. The translated works were generally divided into two types: one was the Confucian classics and the other was the Buddhist classics.--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 07:24, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
乾隆帝认为，经义之教可以启迪人心，其翻（重）译虽然废时耗工，但仍属必要。<br />
Emperor Qianlong believed that it was necessary to translate(retranslate) classics because of their function of enlightenment although they were time-consuming.--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 10:12, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
以《御制翻译四书》为例，该书由大学士鄂尔泰奉敕在厘定满文本《日讲四书解义》的基础上纂成，于乾隆六年由武英殿首次刊刻，后又于乾隆二十年刊刻满、汉合璧本。<br />
Take ''The Imperial Translation of The Four Books'' as an example, it was first printed by the Hall of Martial Valor in the 6th year of Qianlong's reign(A.D. 1741) which was compiled by the grand Secretariat Ortai on the basis of collating ''The Commentary of Spring and Autumn Annals'' ordered by the emperor. And then a Manchu-Chinese edition was published in the 20th year of Qianlong’s reign(A.D. 1755).--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 11:32, 25 September 2020 (UTC)Chen Han<br />
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==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
鄂尔泰奉敕进行厘定，目的是为了确保译文准确，使译文和原文在“文义”、“意旨”和“语气”上保持一致。<br />
Ertai organized and compiled it under the requirement of the King in order to make The translation in accordance with The original in the aspects of the meanings, the will and the tone.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 12:33, 24 September 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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The purpose for Ertai to sort out the book under the command of the emperor is to make sure that the translation is accurate and in accordance with the original in the aspects of meaning, intention and tone.--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 13:25, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
清初以来的汉书翻译与刻印，有着明确的流程。<br />
Since the early Qing Dynasty, the translation and engraving of the Chinese books have had a clear process.--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 13:50, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
Ever since the early Qing Dynasty, the translation and the imprinting of the Chinese books have had an explicit process.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 15:40, 24 September 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
Since early Qing Dynasty,the procedure of translation and imprint of the Chinese books has been definite.--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 01:36, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
康熙朝以前，书籍的译印均由内三院或翰林院经理。<br />
Before the Kangxi Dynasty, the translation and printing of books are in the charge of Imperial Academy or Hanlin Academy.--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 08:23, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Before the reign of Emperor Kangxi, the translation and printing of books were managed by the Cabinet or the Imperial Academy.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 11:34, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Jing 陈静==<br />
康熙十年前后“内翻书房”设立之后，汉书翻译的工作由内翻书房先行办理，完成翻译后送交内务府，并由其下设机构武英殿刊刻。康熙十九年，武英殿增设修书处，汉书译本再次转移至此，至雍正七年成为清初刻印书籍的专门机构。<br />
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==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
循例，汉文书籍译毕成书后，由皇帝颁赐诸王及文武大臣，其中儒家经典的译本另行颁赐给八旗官学，用作研习满文的教材。<br />
Following the previous practice, Chinese books, after being translated, are bestowed by the Emperor to all Kings, civil and military ministers,among which the translation of Confucian classics are separately given to Eight Banners official schools as materials to learn Manchu.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 08:14, 25 September 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
According to the previous practice, the translated Chinese books were bestowed by the Emperor to feudatory Kings and civil and military ministers, among which the translated Confucian classics were given to the "Eight Banners" official school as teaching materials for learning Manchu.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:30, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
2.“五经”翻译情况概览<br />
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清初的“五经”翻译始于顺治年间。<br />
2.an overview of the translation situations of the Five Classics<br />
The translation of the Five Classics in early Qing dynasty starts from the period of Shunzhi.--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 12:59, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. An overview of the Five Classics translation <br />
In the early Qing Dynasty, the translation of the Five Classics began during the reign of Shunzhi.--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:56, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2. An Overview of the Translation Studies of ''the Five Classics''<br />
In the early Qing Dynasty, the translation of ''the Five Classics'' dates from the reign of Shun Zhi.--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 15:06, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
对此，《国立故宫博物院善本旧籍总目》、《世界满文文献目录》、《全国满文图书资料联合目录》及《清代内府刻书目录解题》等文献中均有记载，毋庸赘述。<br />
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No redundancy is needed because that has been recorded in a multitude of journals, including ''The Whole Catalog of Ancient Rare Books in Taipei Palace Museum'', ''The Catalog of World Manchu Journals'', ''The Union Catalog of National Manchu Books and Materials'', ''Explanatory Notes on the Catalog of Engraving Books in Qing Dynasty’s Household Department'' and so on.--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 03:13, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
顺治十一年，世祖敕译《诗经》成书，由内府刊印，计二十卷二十册，是为清代翻译“五经”之始。<br />
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==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
据《御制诗经·序》（顺治本）中所言，世祖敕译《诗经》，是因为该书的意旨能使人明性意、崇礼义，其言其论上可用于治国，下可用于修身，以其事君必忠，以其事父必孝，如此则可期人伦敦厚、教化端正。（叶高树，2002：72）<br />
With reference to the Preface of The Book of Poetry (the version made by emperor’s order in Shunzhi period), Qing Shizu issued an edict to translate The Book of Poetry in that its intention was to enlighten readers on humanity and observance of proprieties. Meanwhile, its content instructed the ruling class to run a country and the individual to cultivate himself in order to serve his superior officers with loyalty, to support his parents with filial piety. As such, subjects were expected to be honest and sincere, upright and virtuous.(Ye Gaoshu, 2002: 72)--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 00:29, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
当然，此书的翻译也与汉籍官吏的推荐密不可分。<br />
Of course, the translation of this book is also inseparable from the recommendation of the Han Dynasty officials. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 01:39, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Certainly, the translation of this book is also closely related to the recommendation of the Han Dynasty officials.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 03:45, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Certainly, the translation of this book is also closely related to the recommendation of the officials of Han nationality.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:55, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The recommendation of Chinese (Han) bureaucrats, of course, is also an inseparable part in translating this book.--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 10:17, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
顺治二年三月，大学士冯铨、洪承畴等即奏陈世祖，认为自古帝王安定天下，必以修德勤学为首务，如金世宗、元世祖等便“博综典籍”、“勤于文学”，而帝王修身治人之道，尽备于“六经”，若能以满、汉词臣朝夕进讲，则圣德势必日进。（巴岱、图海等，1985：3-4）<br />
In March of the second year of Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty(AD 1645), Grand Secretaries Feng Quan and Hong Chengchou submitted memorials to Emperor Shizu of the Chen Dynasty, and held the opinion that since ancient emperors settled the world, they must give top priority to striving for virtues and acquiring knowledge. For example, Emperor Shizong of the Jin Dynasty and Emperor Shizu of the Yuan Dynasty were well versed in classics and diligent in literature. What’s more, the principles of emperors' self-cultivation and governance in people are demonstrated in the Six Classics. If emperors could always accept advice from civil officials of Manchu and Han, then their virtues would surely advance day by day. (Ba Dai, Tu Hai et al., 1985: 3-4)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:02, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In March of the second year of Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty(AD 1645), Grand Secretaries Feng Quan and Hong Chengchou submitted memorials to Emperor Shunzhi, and commented that from anicent times emperors could settle the world because of the policy of cultivating morals and acquiring knowledge. For example, Emperor Wan Yanyong of the Jin Dynasty and Emperor Hu Bilie of the Yuan Dynasty, they had widely read classics and promoted the Confucian thought. What’s more, the principles of emperors' self-cultivation and governance in people are demonstrated in the Six Classics. If emperors could always accept advice from civil officials of Manchu and Han, then their virtues would surely advance day by day. (Ba Dai, Tu Hai et al., 1985: 3-4)--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 03:00, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
嗣后，朱允显、张璿（xuán）等也相继奏设“经筵”，进讲“四书”、“六经”等有关身心要务、治平大道者。<br />
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==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
儒学典籍虽然众多，然世祖尤为偏爱《易经》与《孝经》，认为《孝经》“言近而指远，理约而该博”，放之四海而皆准。（清世祖御注，1986：1-2）<br />
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--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 04:57, 24 September 2020 (UTC)Despite of a multitude of confucian classics, the emperor of Qing Dynasty still prefered to The Book of Changes and The Book of Filial Piety. He accliamed that the latter can transcend time and space owing to its constrianed but abundant principles. So he considered that it was much of the truth at all times and in all countries.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 04:57, 24 September 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 04:57, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Although there are many Confucius classics, Emperor Shizu of the Qing Dynasty gave preference to The Books of Changes and Filial Piety. Because of its plain but meaningful words and simple but universal principles, he thought that Filial Piety can be applied ubiquitously.(Emperor Shizu,1986:1-2)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:52, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
至于“六经”之一的《易经》，世祖也认为它“义精而用博”，囊括了天地万物之理，因而被历代硕儒所阐发。（同上：2）<br />
As for "The Book of Changes", one of the six classics, our forefathers also considered it to be meaningful and widely used. For including the truth of everything in the universe, it had been elucidated by the confucians for dynasties. --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:25, 25 September 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
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==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
顺治十三年十二月，奉世祖圣意，傅以渐、曹本荣等通过殚心研究，融会贯通，纂修《易经通注》成书。<br />
In December of the thirteenth year of Emperor Shunzhi, Fu Yijian and Cao Benrong were assigned by Shizu to compile ''the General Annotations of the I Ching'' with their whole mind and integration.--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 07:00, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
世祖希望通过此书，将原本中的义经奥旨悉数阐明，使其如同“日星”般灿然。（傅以渐、曹本荣等，1986：1）<br />
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==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
圣祖康熙帝热衷学问，但其兴趣主要在宋儒理学上。<br />
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==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
《康熙帝御制文集》中说，上古帝王之治本于道，其道本于心，而辨析心性之理，能羽翼“六经”，发挥圣道者，莫详于宋代诸儒。（玄烨，1966a：1-2）<br />
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==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
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圣祖提倡宋儒之学，尤其是朱子理学，当然有其政治意图，但其在推崇朱熹之余，也对“五经”教义给予赞誉。<br />
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Patriarch advocates Song confucianism, especially the Zhu Xi’s theory, which is politics-oriented, but besides that, he is also in support of the Five Classics.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:45, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
The Emperor Kang Xi advocated Song Confucianism, especially the Zhu Xi’ s theory. Conspicuously, he had his own political purpose through doing so. While besides that, he also gave credits to doctrines of the Five Classics.--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 08:18, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
在他看来，朱熹阐发“五经”，因经取义，理正言顺，和平宽弘，融天地正气、宇宙大道于一体，既可施诸政事，也可验诸“日用”。（玄烨，1966b：10-12）<br />
In his opinion, Zhu Xi illustrated and used points of " The Classic Five", extracting theories from them, which are reasonable, peaceful and large-minded. They are not only applied to political affairs but also to daily life because they combine universal justice and ethic into harmony.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 05:12, 23 September 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 05:17, 23 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In his opinion, Zhu Xi illustrated and streched the content of The Five Classics.Zhu Xi's theory,extracted from the Five Classics,is just and proper,peaceful and wide, intergrating the righteousness of heaven and earth and the law of universe,which can not only be applied to politics but also be verified in daily life.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:40, 23 September 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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In his opinion, the Five Classics illustrsted and published by Zhu Xi can not only be applied in politics, but also in daily life. Because it integrated the righteousness with the law both of the universe, from which he gained loyalty in a reasonalble and gentle way.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 04:58, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In his view, the Five Classics, elucidated by Zhuxi, is justified, peaceful and broad-minded. The principles of the world and the rules of universe are absorbed in it, making it valid in politic affairs and feasible in daily life.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 08:37, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
如学界共知，圣祖亲政之后，满洲政权对于汉族文化的运用即步入全面阶段。It's well-known in academic circles that Manchuria regime could make use of Chinese culture skillfully after the governance of Kangxi Great Emperor.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 01:42, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As the educational circles well-knowed that after the emperor had taken over the reins of government, the Manchuria regime stepped in a comprehensive stage in the aspect of using Han nationality culture.--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 03:25, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
康熙六年六月，圣祖接纳汉官熊赐履奏议，指出敦崇实行，扶持正教，必非“六经”和《论语》、《孟子》等书而不读。（马齐等，1985：14-15）<br />
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==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
为学习汉族的主流学术体系，以及传统的道德规范，圣祖不仅留意典籍，而且敕译、编定群书，将其当作自己的主要政绩，其中与“五经”相关者如康熙十七年敕撰，并于两年后完成译印的《日讲书经解义》。<br />
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==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 08:14, 24 September 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 08:14, 24 September 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 08:14, 24 September 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 08:14, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
该书计二十六卷二十六册，由内府刊刻，卷前有《御制序》、译撰者库勒纳的《进呈疏》，以及库勒纳、叶方蔼等五十八位编（译）撰者的姓名与官衔。<br />
The book consists of twenty-six volumes and twenty-six chapters, which were inscrited by imperial household department. Before the volume, there are the Yu Zhi Xu；and the JinChengShu which translated by Kulena,；and the names and official titles of the fifty-eight compilers and translators including Kulena and Ye Fangai .<br />
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==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
虽然此书名为“奉敕撰”，实际上却是编撰与翻译相间，因此叶高树在其《清朝前期的文化政策》一书中，仍将其定为“汉籍满文译本”之一。（叶高树，2002：68）<br />
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==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
自康熙十九年起，至乾隆朝末期，清代官方译印的“五经”书籍还有《日讲易经解义》（康熙二十二年，牛钮、孙在丰等奉敕撰）、《诗经》（雍正十一年，顺治皇帝敕译）、《日讲春秋解义》（乾隆二年，库勒纳等奉敕译）、《御制翻译书经集传》（乾隆二十五年，乾隆皇帝敕译）、《御制翻译周易》（乾隆三十年，乾隆皇帝敕译）、《御制翻译诗经》（乾隆三十三年，乾隆皇帝敕译）、《御制翻译礼记》（乾隆四十八年，乾隆皇帝敕译）、《御制翻译春秋》（乾隆四十九年，乾隆皇帝敕译）等。<br />
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==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
上述译本中，多数并未明确交待译者姓名，而只是在卷前写明“敕译”二字。<br />
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==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
虽然如此，从清代文教政策和职官体系看，其译者当属兼通满、汉文之笔帖式、庶吉士、中书、库使等无疑。<br />
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==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
需要指出，顺、雍、乾期间，《诗经》一书前后被译印三次，其中顺治十一年、雍正十一年刊印的系同一版本，而乾隆三十三年的《御制翻译诗经》在卷数、册数上均少于前者，显然不同于前者。<br />
It should be noted that the Book of Songs has been translated and printed three times during the reign of Emperor Shunzhi, Yongzheng and Qianlong. And the same version was published in the 11st year of Shunzhi and that of Yongzheng. While the Imperial Translation of the Book of Songs, which came out in the 33rd year of Qianlong, is less than the former one in terms of volumes. Thus they are obviously different versions.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 10:23, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
一部书籍被译印多次，足见统治者对翻译之重视，以及对所译汉籍经义之推崇。<br />
The book was translated and printed for so many times. This fully showed how much importance the ruler attached on translation and how much respect he paid to the translated Chinese classics.--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 08:16, 24 September 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 08:16, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
Much translation and printment of the book fully demonstrated not only how much importance the ruler attached to its translation,but also how he respeced and promoted its translated Chinese classics.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 08:40, 24 September 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
The book was translated and printed many times, which shows that the ruler attached great importance to the translation and the translated Chinese classics.--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 14:41, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
The frequently translated and printed book demonstrated the ruler's attention to the translation and appreciation to the original Chinese text. --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 12:33, 25 September 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
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==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
3.“五经”译本在科试与旗学中的应用<br />
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与明、清二朝以“四书文”取士一样，“五经”教义也是八旗科试中的重要内容。<br />
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==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
早在清军入关之际，朝廷即规定乡、会二试中，首场考试“五经”各四题，共计二十题，由考生自行决定，各占一经，作答四题。<br />
As early as the Manchu army entered the Shanhaiguan，imperial court has issued a regulation that in the metropolitan and provincial examination four questions for each of “the five classics” must be set in the first round , a total of 20 questions. Candidates were able to randomly choose one of “the five classic” and answered four questions.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 12:27, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
As early as 1644 when the Manchu army entered the Shanhaiguan, the imperial court has issued a regulation that in both metropolitan and provincial examination, four questions of each of the Five Classics must be set in the first round, 20 questions in total. Examinees needed to randomly choose one of the Five Classics and answered four questions.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 01:10, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
由于五经题和四书题一样采用八股体，因而也称制艺，又称时文。<br />
The articles made from the questions of The Four Books and Five Classics which adopted the style of Eight-legged essay were also called creative arts as well as practical essays.--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 06:58, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
Taking the style of stereotyped writing like The Four Books,The Five Classics articles are therefore called creative arts as well as practical essays.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 08:18, 25 September 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
童生考试及其岁、科考试中，除考试四书文一道之外，同样考试经文一题。<br />
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==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
据商衍鎏（liú）考证，清代童生之县试共试五场，其中第一场主要考试四书文和五言六韵试帖诗，第二场加入性理论或者孝经论，但自第三场起，考试内容中便加入经文一篇，出题范围以“五经”为限。（商衍鎏，2014：9-10）<br />
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==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
《清史稿·选举志一》中，对于儒童入学考试的程式也有记载。The form of Confucian students' entrance exam was recorded in ''the Election Annals of Qing Dynasty Historical Manuscripts''--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 10:52, 24 September 2020 (UTC).<br />
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The process of the entrance exam for Confucian students was also found in “The Election Annals of Qing Dynasty Historical Manuscripts” .--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 01:08, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
据此可知，清代的儒童考试初用四书文、孝经论各一题，但以前者为主，孝经题较少。<br />
From such facts, we can see that the exam,aimed at Confucian students in the Qing Dynasty, firstly took one question from The Four Book and The Classic of Filial Piety respectively. However,the former took much precedence over the latter.--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 08:24, 24 September 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
From such facts, we can see that the exam, which was set for Confucian students in the Qing Dynasty,took one question from The Four Book and The Classic of Filial Piety respectively at the beginning, but questions from The Four Book occupied the main position in the exam. --[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:48, 25 September 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
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==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
这一办法后来被调整，改为“正试”用四书文二道，“复试”用四书文和小学论各一题。<br />
This method was later adjusted to two questions taken from four books in the "regular examination". And the two questions in the "second examination" are one taken from four books and the other taken from the theory of learning.--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 09:17, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
This method was later adjusted and changed into two questions of The Four Books in the primary test and two questions in retrial, one of The Four Books--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 15:50, 23 September 2020 (UTC) and the other of The Primary Learning.--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 15:50, 23 September 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
但康熙三十九之际，圣祖令各直省考试儒童时，由于学生平日即以“五经”和小学等作为学习内容，因而考试时也考试经书，并要求学臣将考生中能够“成诵三经、五经者”，“酌量优录”。（同上：28）<br />
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In the 39th year of the Qing Emperor Kangxi (AD 1700), the Emperor ordered that candidates should have a good grasp of Confucian classics in the provincial selective examination, since the Five Classics and the Primary Learning are included into their daily learning content. Moreover, candidates who are able to recite the Three Classics(the Spring and Autumn Annals, the Book of Changes, the Book of Songs)and the Five Classics( the Book of Songs, the Book of History, the Book of Rites, the Book of Changes, the Spring and Autumn Annals) have priority in admission. (same as above: 28)--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:07, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
康熙四十二年，顺天学政甚至专门以背诵五经作为取士原则，这一做法虽被奉旨申饬，但“五经”之重要，由此可见。<br />
During the forty-second year of the Kangxi Dynasty(AD 1703),the officials in charge of the imperial examination in Shuntian Prefecture even specially take the recitation of The Four Books and The Five Classics as the principle for grading the exam.Although this practice was clearly ordered to rectify,but this shows the importance of The Five Classics.--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 15:39, 23 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the 42nd year of Emperor Kangxi(AD 1703), education administrator of Shuntian Prefecture even specially took the recitation of the Five Classics as the standard of candidate selection. Although this practice was just made on imperial orders, the importance of the Five Classics could be seen from it. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:37, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
如乾隆朝中期以后，将儒童之“复试”改为四书文、经文（即“五经”）各一道，即是明证。<br />
Taking the confucianscholars' second interview after the middle period of Qianlong reign for an example，the test topic was changed to one from the Four Books and the other one from the Five Classics, which is just the testament to the importance of the Five Classics.--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 09:33, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
After the middle period of the reign of Emperor Qianlong, candidates need to write two eight-part eassys, whose topics derive from the Four Books and Five Classics, which is a token.--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 10:39, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
生员参加岁考（学政到任第一年的考试）、科考（学政到任第二年的考试）时，自清初起便考试经文，初定为一篇，嗣后暂遭裁撤。<br />
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==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
雍正六年，又复考经文题一道，无论岁试、科试，都是一样。<br />
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==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
乾隆二十三年，岁试改为四书文一道、经文题一道。<br />
Until the twenty-third year of the Qianlong reign (AD 1758) , the test topics were adjusted ,one chosing from The Four Books, the other from The Classic Five.--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:13, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
虽然科试不再考试经文题，但岁试中考试经文的做法成为“永制”。<br />
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==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
清代的举贡体制中，也有考试经文者。<br />
In the imperial examination system of the Qing Dynasty, there were also students tested for scriptures.--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 10:08, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
In the imperial examination system of dynasty Qing, there were sdutents who tested for scriptures as well.--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 12:01, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for the imperial examination system in Qing Dynasty, there were students who took the examination of scripture. --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 09:02, 25 September 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
以“拔贡”考试为例，廪、增、附生在应考拔贡之前，需向所在府、州、县儒学署（教育管理机构）报名，然后分两场参加拔贡考试，其中每场也需要考试经文一篇。<br />
Take "Ba Gong" (A exam that select students who can be admitted to Imperial College) for example,scholars who live in government grants should apply for the place in Educational Administration of local government before they go for the "Ba Gong" exam.The exam will be held in two parts, each part requests wrting a piece of text.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:09, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take "Ba Gong" (Ba Gong is a exam held by department of education of every province which is intended to select students of fine qualities and fine schor for Imperial College) as an example, students called Linsheng, Zengsheng and Fusheng who are provided with meals by the government have to apply to the Educational Administration of local government at various levels before they attend the exam "Ba Gong" .Then they will take two exams, and in each exam they are required to write a essay to interpret opinions and ideas in Confucian classics.--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:41, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
乾隆十六年，拔贡考试中增加“会考”，仍试以经文、四书文各一题。<br />
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==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
乾隆十七年，经文题改为经解题，出题范围不变。<br />
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==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
“优贡”考试也是如此，如乾隆二十九年，“优贡”考试四书文二篇、经解一篇。<br />
It was the same to the Yougong Exam (An exam held every three years. The provincial eduacation ministry selects the students with erudition as well as high moral code from its lower level to the Imperial College).In the 29th year's reign of Emperor Qianlong(1764 AD), two passages of ''The Four Books''and one of ''Jingjie''were chosen to be tested in the exam.--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 11:55, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
即便在清末之际，如光绪二十七年，“优贡”考试也仍在第二场中考试“五经义”一篇。<br />
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==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
“优贡”中的会考环节也一样考试经文一篇，与“拔贡”会考相同，且宣统元年（1905）废除八股文之后，五经义试题作为考试内容仍照常办理。<br />
The exam section in "Yogon" also had to finish a scripture just like "Bagong" exam. And after eight-legged essay being abolished in the first year of the Xuantong reign, the five classics test questions would still be adopted as the test content.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 15:31, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
清代乡举考试（俗称“乡试”）也多承明制，其考试诸法如场期、试题、弥封、誊录、对读等，大体沿袭明代，更张者不多。<br />
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==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
清制，乡试共分三场，一般定于八月举行，遇重大事故时也可推移。<br />
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==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
考试题型及内容上，仍以“制艺”形式为主，别称“时文”，头场考试七篇，其中四书文三篇、五经文二十篇（每经出四题）。<br />
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==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
康、雍年间，对乡试的考法进行了调整，如二场试论初用《孝经》，后兼用《性理》。<br />
During the Kangxi and Yongzheng period, provincial examinations were adjusted. For example, Filial Piety was used in the second argumentation, after that, the Theory of Nature was added.--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 02:23, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
During the Kangxi and Yongzheng period, provincial examinations were adjusted. For example,in the second argumentation Filial Piety was used in the beginning. However afterwards the Theory of Nature was added in .--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 09:16, 25 September 2020 (UTC)Mashuya<br />
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==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
雍正初年，又复改初制，只考《孝经》。<br />
In the first years of the reign of Emperor Yong Zheng, the original system was changed again, and only ''the book of filial piety'' was examined.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:47, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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雍正初年，又复改初制，只考《孝经》<br />
In the first years of the reign of Emperor Yong Zheng, the original system was changed again,and the exam only tests the "Book of Filial Piety"--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 02:34, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
又如康熙二年，朝廷因故暂废八股文，并将原制中第三场考试的“策”五题移至第一场，同时将二场改为四书论、经论各一篇。<br />
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==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
凡此种种，都是乡试考法的临时调整。<br />
All above is simply the temporary adjustment of question<br />
types in triennial examination.--[[User:Mashuya|Mashuya]] ([[User talk:Mashuya|talk]]) 09:08, 25 September 2020 (UTC)马淑雅<br />
All these were temporary adjustments of provincial examination methods.--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 11:48, 25 September 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan欧阳静兰<br />
<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
无论作何调整，乡试中考试五经文题，却是清代定制。<br />
<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
如乾隆五十二年，高宗以考生专治一经，而不能兼通其它经书，不合于敦崇实学的理念，因而敕令自翌年起，废除乡试中“专治一经”的做法，要求分年轮试一经，以后再改为每经中各出一题，即经文五题。（同上：80）<br />
For example, in the fifty-second year of Emperor Quanlong's reign, Emperor Qianlong claimed that students could not be familar with all of the Five Classics if the students learnt only one of the five classics, which did not conform to idea of pursuing all useful knowledge beneficial to the country. Therefore, He commanded to abolish the practice of "examing only one classic" and test the Five Classics in particular sequence, one classic a year. After finishing all the five classics, an argument topic was selected from each classic, which formed the Five Propostions about the Five Classics.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 12:22, 25 September 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br />
<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
经文五题的底本即《易经》、《书经》、《诗经》、《春秋》和《礼记》，但内容上并非专考先秦诸子的原说，其中加入了宋儒的章句、注疏。具体而言，便是《易经》中融入程、朱学说的本义，《书经》中融入蔡沈的注解，《诗经》中融入朱熹的集传，《春秋》中融入胡安国的研究，以及《礼记》中融入陈澔的传注。<br />
Although the original texts of the five topics were the Book of Changes, the Book of History, the Book of Songs, the Spring and Autumn Annals and the Book of Rites,their contents were not totally the original theories of pre–qin philosophers.Instead,the chapters, sentences and annotations of Confucianism in Song Dynasty were also be added.Specifically, the original meaning of Cheng's and Zhu's theories was integrated into the Book of Changes, Cai Shen's annotation was integrated into the Book of Songs, Zhu Xi's Collected Biography was integrated into the Book of Songs, Hu Anguo's research was integrated into the Spring and Autumn Annals, and Chen Shu's biographical notes were integrated into the Book of Rites.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 08:31, 25 September 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
清末光绪年间，清廷因故对乡试的办理再作改革，但五经文或五经义仍照考不误In the Guangxu Reign of the Qing Dynasty， the Qing government reformed the administration of the provincial examination for some reason. However, the five classics and the further explanations of them were still included in the examination.<br />
<br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
由于清沿明制以来，“则会场各题目，皆与乡试无异矣”，因而此处不再详述，但可以肯定的是，无论乡试会试，“五经”乃是重要的命题依据。（王凯旋，2015：42）<br />
<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
《清史稿》中说，自唐以后，废选举之制，改用科目，历代相沿。<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
明代以来，专取四子书，以及五经命题，谓之“制艺”，而“有清一沿明制，二百全年，虽有以他途进者，终不得与科第出身者相比。”（赵尔巽等，1977：3099）<br />
Since Ming Dynasty, the examination topics were selected from The Four Books(The Great Learning, The Doctrine of Mean, The Confucian Analects, and the Works of Mencius) and The Five Classics (The Book of Song, The Book of History, The Book of Changes, The Book of Rites, and The Spring and Autumn annals). These were called ‘ZhiYi’(Eight-legged Essays). Within 200 years, Qing Danasty followed the imperial examination system of Ming. Although there were other ways to be an official, officials who had passed the examination always enjoyed a higher position.--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 11:38, 25 September 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan欧阳静兰<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
可见，清代科考的场次和内容等，与明朝旧制整体上乃是相向而行的。<br />
<br />
It indicates that the schedule and contents of the imperial examination system in the Qing Dynasty remained consistent with the old one of the Ming Dynasty in general.--Ouyang Ling<br />
From this we can see, things like sessions and contend of the imperial competitive examination of Qing Dynasty are almost on the same track of the old one of Ming Dynassty.--[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 06:00, 24 September 2020 (UTC)Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿<br />
<br />
It can be seen that the sessions and contents of the imperial examination system in the Qing Dynasty were still in the same direction as the old one of the Ming Dynasty on the whole.--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 06:04, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
清代科试对五经文的倚重，与官学中的教、习内容密不可分。<br />
<br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
清初以来，以满译汉籍文本作为旗学教材，渐成传统。<br />
<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
早在太祖年间，为教导八旗子弟读书，并解决“无书可读”的窘境，上谕达海着手翻译汉籍。<br />
<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
虽然此时翻译的汉文书籍并不涉及“五经”，但此事表明译书与旗人教育之间的关系。<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
太宗即位以后，愈发重视旗人教育，并为此向朝鲜王朝索要译书，其中即包括《诗经》和《书经》。<br />
<br />
After Taizong came to the throne, he paid more attention to the education of bannermen, and asked for translations from the Joseon Dynasty, including the "Book of Songs" and "The Book of Documents".--[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 08:24, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
After Taizong (the second emperor of Qing Dynasty--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 11:42, 24 September 2020 (UTC)) ascended the throne, he attached more attention to the education of banner people (member of anyone of the 'Eight Banners' during the Qing Dynasty) and asked the Josein Dynasty for translations which included ''the Book of Songs'' and ''The Book of Documents''.<br />
<br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
《朝鲜王朝实录·仁祖实录》中对此事的记载如下：<br />
<br />
It was recorded in ''the Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty · the True Record of Injo'' as:--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 04:06, 23 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It was recorded in ''the Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty · the True Record of king Injo'' as:--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 04:20, 23 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
闻贵国有金、元所译《书》、《诗》等经及《四书》，敬求一览，惟冀慨然。（韩国国史编纂委员会，1973：38）<br />
I have heard that there are classics such as Books, Poems and four Books translated by Jin and Yuan in your country. I respectfully ask for a list, but I hope to be filled with emotion. (Korean National History compilation Committee, 1973 Vol 38)--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 04:10, 25 September 2020 (UTC)漆凯<br />
I have heard that there are t classics like ''The Book of Documents'',''The Book of Songs''and ''Four Books'' translated in the Jin and Yuan Dynasties.I ask for a copy of these with our sincere respect and hope it's very geneous of you.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:05, 25 September 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
太宗索书一事发生在天聪二年，即1628年。<br />
<br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
同年十二月，朝鲜政府回函，以“第国中所有，只是天下通行本，而金、元所译，则未曾见得”为由，谢绝了太宗的请求。<br />
In December of the same year,the Joseon authority replied:"Our country only retains the ordinary versions of those books,and we never obtain the tanslation versions from Jin or Yuan Dynasty." So they declined Tai Zong's request.--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 16:04, 24 September 2020 --[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 02:35, 25 September 2020 (UTC)(UTC)<br />
<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
然而次年十月，仁祖又改变主意，将太宗索取的部分汉籍译本赠予大清。<br />
<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
同书中对此亦有记载，其文如下：<br />
This event was also recorded in the Veritable Records and it said:--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 04:50, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
It was also recorded in the same book and it said: --[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 05:50, 24 September 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
金汗求书册，以《春秋》、《周易》、《礼记》、《通鉴》、《史略》等书赐之。（同上：352）<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
虽然太宗最为看重的《诗》、《书》二经，以及“四书”等均未获得封赠，但“五经”中其它三经的到来，即《礼记》、《春秋》和《周易》，仍有助于缓解清初旗人教育中教材短缺的问题。<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
顺治朝初期，因满清王朝刚刚入关，朝廷在开办国子监八旗官学时，即同意满、汉官员子弟可根据自身意愿选择习汉书，或者习清书，而此时的学习教材无非就是传统的汉文经史，或者汉文典籍的满文译本。<br />
At the beginning of Shun Zhi Emperor period when Qing Dynasty just accessed to Shanhai Pass, imperial court gave permission to the offspring of officials in Qing Dynasty and Han Dynasty to choose to study books of Han or those of Manchu according to their own will with the establishment of official school of the Imperial College for Eight Banners. However, the learning text then is nothing but traditional Han's classics and histories or their Manchu translation.--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:58, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
后者仍以经、史居多，其中又以“四书”多于“五经”。<br />
<br />
And these Manchu versions are still dominated by classics and history,among which the Four Books is more than the Five Classics.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 05:19, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
And these Manchu versions are still dominated by classics and history,among which there are more "Four Books" than "Five Classics".--[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 08:56, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
如顺治二年选授他赤哈哈番的阿什坦所翻译的《大学》、《中庸》等，便被用作旗人教育的主要教材。（陈康祺，1997：362）<br />
The Great Learning and The Doctrine of the Mean translated by A Shentan，who was nominated as Doctor Official in the second year of the reign of Qing Emperor Shunzhi，served as the main textbooks for Bannermen. (Chen Kangqi，1997：362)<br />
--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 09:21, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
顺治九年，礼部题准，嗣后坊间书贾只能刊行、售卖理学政治、裨益文业的各类书籍。<br />
In the ninth year of Shunzhi,the Ministry of Rites approved that, merchants selling books could only publish and sell books on Neo-Confucianism, politics and all kinds of books that were beneficial to the literature.--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 10:44, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
In the ninth year of Shunzhi,with the approval of the emperor, the Ministry of Rites proposed that non-governmental booksellers could only publish and sell books on Neo-Confucianism, politics or books that benefit for literature in future.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:41, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
至于“其他琐语淫词，及一切滥刻窗艺社”，则“通行严禁”，违者从重究治。（索尔讷等，1968：165）<br />
And the circulation of "lewd srcipts and books and all the imitations of classics" were prohibited.Whoever violates this regulation would be severely punished.(Solner,etc,1968:165)--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 22:49, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
为端正士风，顺治帝通令直省学政，将“五经”和“四子书”等，“责成提调教官课令生儒诵习讲解。”（稽璜等，1988：5486）<br />
In order to improve the study atmosphere of literati,the Emperor ShunZhi in Qing Dynasty issued a general order to education administrator of the province that The Five Classics and The Four Books should be given lectures by the instructors and students should recite and explain them.<br />
--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 04:08, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
翌年二月，又命内院诸臣翻译“五经”，并亲自审阅译稿，感叹“天德王道，备载于书，真万世不易之理也。”（巴岱、图海等，1985：572）<br />
<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
此书于顺治十一年译成，从当时坊间存在满文抄本、满汉合璧本的事实看，可以推见其流传情况仍然无外乎两种：其一，被颁赐群臣；其二，被用于旗学教材。<br />
The book was translated in the eleventh year of Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty (AD 1645). Its Manchu and Manchu-Chinese manuscripts sold in bookshops can tell us that it was either conferred on court officials or served as a textbook of Qi Xue, schools for eight-banners.--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 13:12, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
With the finished translation of the book in the eleventh year of the reign of Emperor Shunzhi, its Manchu and Manchu-Chinese manuscripts sprung up in the non-governmental bookshops. It can be seen that the wide-spread phenomenon of the book is as much due to the application for courts or textbooks of Qi Xue(schools for eight-banners). <br />
--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 11:23, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
顺治年间，虽然皇帝因过度亲近汉臣、仰慕汉族文化，而遭到来自满族统计阶层的压力，但旗学教育中以汉籍满文译本作为教材的传统却未改变。<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
如康熙年间傅达礼翻译的《大学衍义》，一经告蒇便颁赐诸臣，及八旗官学。<br />
Such as the University Spread Meaning traslated by Fu Dali during the Qing emperor Kangxi years.Upon its publication,it was bestowed to all ministers and official study of Eight banners.--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 13:00, 24 September 2020 (UTC)王美玲<br />
Such as the University Spread Meaning traslated by Fu Dali during the Qing emperor Kangxi years. It was bestowed to all ministers and official schools of Eight banners once finished.--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 02:20, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
Such as ''the Exposition of the Great'' Learning translated by Fu Dali during the reign of Emperor Kangxi. As soon as it was published, it was bestowed to all ministers and official schools of Eight banners.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 03:54, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
与此同时，翰林院按日进讲，并年终汇呈的各类“讲义”也被选用作旗学教材，如《日讲书经解义》、《日讲易经解义》、《日讲春秋解义》、《日讲礼记解义》等。<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
由于这些以“解义”形式出现的各类满文书籍有其汉文底本，因而实质上仍是汉籍“五经”的重译。<br />
Those Manchu books which emerged in the form of annotations are essentially still the retranslations of the Five Classics , for they have their original Chinese versions already.--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 08:12, 24 September 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 08:12, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
Notwithstanding some original Chinese versions, these Manchu books appeared in annotated editions were actually the retranslations of the Five Classics.--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 08:32, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
无论编译这些书籍的目的是“因国书以通经义”，还是“因经义以通国书”，其作为旗学教材使用的事实可得验证。（叶高树，2006：1-42）<br />
<br />
<br />
No matter the purpose of compiling these classics is "to comprehend the classics as they are nationally recognized" or " to comprehend the national books as they are classics", the fact that they were used as textbooks for the eight banners disciples is verified.--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 09:20, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
乾隆年间，“五经”的翻译继续进行，其原因之一便是对作为满文教材使用的旧译本进行修订，以适应满洲文化的新变化，尤其是满语作为国语的最新发展。<br />
<br />
During the Qianlong period, one of the reasons of continuing the translation of the Five Classics was to revise the old version used as the Manchu textbooks, to suit the new change of Manchuria culture, especially the newest development of Manchu becoming national language.--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 03:01, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
During the Qianlong period, one of the reasons of continuing the translation of the Five Classics was to revise the old version used as the Manchu textbooks, to adapt the new change of Manchuria culture, especially the newest development of Manchu becoming national language.--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 09:35, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
满文创设之初，词汇较少，文法也很简单。<br />
At the early period of the creation of Manwen, there are few vocabulary and grammar in it.--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 06:00, 25 September 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei.<br />
At the initial stage of Manchu, it has less vocabulary and simple grammar.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 06:24, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
At the beginning of the creation of Manchu, there were few words and uncomplicated grammar.--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 09:23, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
At the beginning of the Manchu, there were few words and uncomplicated grammar.--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 12:41, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
至乾隆年间，由于经历百余年发展，语言的新特点早已显现，这一点不仅表现在新词汇的添设上，而且表现在语法和句型的完整性上。<br />
Until to the qianlong period,because of having passed over a century of development,the new characteristics of language already emerged, the one point not only had appeared in adding more on new words，but also completeness of grammar and sentence patterns.--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 03:11, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Up to the period of Qianlong Dynasty, the language's development in the past century or more has rendered itself newly-emerged traits, which can be reflected from not only new words' addition but also from the integrity of grammar and sentence patterns.--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 00:29, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
With the development of language,so during the governance of Qianlong Emperor,the new features of language had already arised,which could be reflected from not only addition of new words but completeness of grammar and syntax.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 02:06, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
从乾隆朝纂辑的《钦定新清语》档册上，也可看出满语的这一演变，主要表现在五个方面：其一，将满语中的许多汉语借词，从原来的音译改为意译；其二，对意译汉语的许多问题进行纠正；其三，对满语中某些音位的对译汉字进行规范；其四，对有声调的汉语词在译为满文时出现的问题进行解决；其五，对满语中的某些词汇进行意义上的阐发与拓展。（佟永功、关嘉禄，1995：66-69）<br />
''New Qing Language by Imperial Order'' during Qianlong’s reign could also show this change of Manchu language in 5 main aspects:Firstly, the translations of many loan words borrowed from Chinese into Manchu language were changed from transliteration to free translation. Secondly, many problems with free translation of Chinese were corrected. Thirdly, some Chinese characters representing certain phonemes in Manchu language were standardized. Fourthly, some problems of translating Chinese words with tones into Manchu language were solved. Fifthly, some meanings of Manchu words were elucidated and expanded.（Tong Yonggong, Guan Jialu, 1995: 66-69）--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 08:10, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
正因为这样，旧译本作为旗学教材已不合时宜。<br />
<br />
Because of this, the old version is out of date as a Eight Banners of Manchuria textbook of flag studies.--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 04:06, 23 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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そのようなことによって、旧来に満語で書かれた漢籍の教材として使われていた古い訳本はもはや時代に合わなかったわけだ。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 04:06, 23 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Because of this, the old version is out of date as the textbook for Manchurian nobles.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 04:27, 23 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Because of this, the old translation is not in line with the needs of the times as the textbook for he Manchurian nobles.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:17, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
Because of this, the old translated version, as textbook for Manchurian nobles,is not suitable any longer at present. --[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:21, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In this way, the old version is out of date as the textbook for he Manchurian nobles.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 08:31, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
如乾隆三十二年，《御制翻译诗经》成书，内有乾隆帝的御制序言，其中便提到“参采新定国语”进行重译，以“复为折衷是正”。（清高宗敕译，1986：7-8）<br />
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For example, in the 32nd year of Qianlong's reign, Shi Jing (the book of songs) translated by Emperor Qianlong’s order was finished containing Emperor Qianlong's imperial preface, which refers that the retranslation should refer and adopt to the newly established national language and make a compromise. (translated by the order of Qing emperor Gaozong, 1986:7-8)<br />
--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 05:01, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, in the 32nd year of Qianlong's reign, the royal version Shi Jing (the book of songs) was published containing Emperor Qianlong's imperial preface, which refers to that the retranslation should adopt to the newly established national language and make a compromise. (translated by the order of Qing emperor Gaozong, 1986:7-8)--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 23:03, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
乾隆帝在新清语的标准下敕译的“五经”文本，对嗣后汉文旧籍译本的新译，以及改进旗学教材等，均有较大帮助。<br />
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==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
如咸丰六年七月，文宗重新校阅并厘定《翻译孝经》（雍正五年敕译）时，便参照了《御制翻译五经》中的新清语。<br />
For example, in June 6 in period Xian Feng of Qing dynasty, when the emperor Wen Zong revised and collated the book “ Translation of filial piety” again, he considered the new language of dynasty Qing in a book called “ Translation of Five classics on the order of the emperor”. --[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:38, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
For instance, in the July of the 6th year of Xianfeng’s reign, the Emperor Wenzong just took the new Qing language in ''Translation of Five Classics by Imperial Order'' as a reference when he proofread and collated ''Translation of The Book of Filial Piety'' (translated in the 5th year of Qianlong’s reign by the order of the emperor) again.--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 13:33, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
同年，大学士文庆进呈孟保翻译的《大学衍义》，文宗在“覆加批阅”此书时，也遵从乾隆年间《五经》的钦定译本。<br />
In the same year, Meng Bao’s translation version of ''the Exposition of the Great Learning'' was presented to the Emperor Wen Zong by th grand secretery Wen Qing. When the Emeperor read and commented this book again，he also took the authorized version of ''the Five Classics''，which was published during the reign of Emperor Qianlong，as reference.--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 03:56, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
In the same year, Meng Bao’s translation version of ''the Exposition of the Great Learning'' was presented to the Emperor Wenzong by the grand secretary Wen Qing. When the Emeperor read and commented this book again，he also took the authorized version of ''the Five Classics''，which was published during the reign of Emperor Qianlong，as reference.--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 12:24, 25 September 2020 (UTC)Chen Han<br />
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==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
虽然新译本成书的同时，某些汉籍的旧译本仍被作为教材使用，但无论新译旧译，皆为清代的旗学教育与人才培养，贡献甚蜚。<br />
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==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
4.“五经”翻译的诗学与政治文化原因<br />
以《诗经》为例，其前后两次的满文翻译相距百年以上，因而两个译本在句法、词汇、文体特征上存在差异，如旧译本文体上较为简洁，新译本文体上较为详细，造成这一显著区别的原因乃是前、后两个年代的满语发展情况，以及社会的主流诗学观念。<br />
4.The poetic and political and cultural causes of the translation of the Five Classics<br />
Take The Book of Songs as an example; the two Manchu translations are moree than one hundred years apart, so there exist differences between the two translations in the aspect of syntax, vocabulary and stylistic features. For instance, the old translation is more concise, while the new one more detailed. The reason for this remarkable distinction lies in the development of the Manchu language between the two periods and the mainstream poetics of the society.<br />
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4.The poetic and political and cultural causes of the translation of the Five Classics<br />
Take The Book of Songs as an example. The two Manchu translations of this book are more than one hundred years apart, so there exists differences between the two translations in turns of syntax, vocabulary and stylistic features. For instance, the old translation is more concise, while the new one more detailed. The reason for this remarkable distinction lies in the development of the Manchu language in the two periods and the mainstream poetics of the society. --[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 02:56, 25 September 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
有关这一点，日本学者山琦雅人在其《论满文<诗经>新旧翻译之差异》中已有详细论证，此处亦不再详述。（山琦雅人，2000：246-261）<br />
Masato Yamazaki,a Japanese scholar,had a detailed demostration in his book of''On the difference between the new and old Manchu versions of The Book of Songs'',so it won't be repeated here again.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 03:38, 25 September 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Masato Yamazaki,a Japanese scholar, already had a detailed analysis about this point in his book ''On the difference between the old and the new Manchu versions of The Book of Songs'',so it won't be repeated here again.(Masato Yamazaki, 2000:246-261)--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 12:16, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
叶高树在其《<诗经>满文译本比较研究》一文中，也对《诗经》的两个译本做了考订与研究，其研究较之山琦雅人（2000）更为详实，内容上不仅涉及语言，如名词的翻译、叠字的翻译、用字的比较、语法的比较、而且引用、阐释了乾隆朝重译《诗经》的原委，其中指出：<br />
Ye Gaoshu also made an investigation and research on the two versions of ''The Book of Songs'' in the article ''the Comparative study of Manchu Versions of The Book of Songs'', his research is more detailed than Yamazaki's(2000). The content not only involves the language, such as the translation of nouns and reduplicated words, the comparison of words and grammar, but also quotes and explains the whole story of retranslation of ''The Book of Songs'' in Qianlong Dynasty. --[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 05:31, 24 September 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
是经于世祖章皇帝顺治十一年译定初本，体裁已备，阅时兹久，凡《清文鉴》所未赅皙者，参采新定国语，侔揣务极精详，因命分册签题，几余复为折衷是正。（清高宗敕译，1768：6-8）<br />
The first version was translated in the 11th year of emperor Shunzhi of Shizu Zhang. The genre was prepared and review spent lots of time. Those who are not comprehensive in "Qing Wenjian" can take part in the newly established national language. Mou Chuai is very detailed. So he was ordered to Classify materials into books and decided the title. He revised several times in accordance with opinions of all parties (translated by Emperor Gaozong of the Qing Dynasty, 1768:6-8)<br />
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--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:16, 23 September 2020 (UTC)xiao yining<br />
The original version was translated by Emperor Shunzhi in the eleventh year of Emperor Shunzhi of Yu Shizu, and the genre has been prepared for a long time. For those who are not fair in the Qing Wenjian, they take part in the Xinding mandarin and speculate that the matter is extremely detailed. Due to the order to sign the title in separate volumes, more than a few are eclectic. (translated by Gao Zongchi in the Qing Dynasty, 1768)--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 04:28, 25 September 2020 (UTC)QiKai<br />
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==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
上文中，明确阐述了重译《诗经》的诗学原因，即，乾隆年间满语发展的变革，以及“钦定新清书”的编订等，使得旧译中的语言文字与时下通行者凸显差距，重译之事不可不为。<br />
In the above, the reason for retranslating ''The Book of Songs''is expressed definitely. In other words, with the development of Manchu and the compilation of ''The Si Ku Quan Shu''during the reign of Emperor Qianlong, the language used in the past was so distinguished from that we use now that retranslating became a must.--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 08:13, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
至于重译此书是否仅出于语言变革的原因，而与政治实践或者文化政策全然无关，或者说重译是否也有政治文化意涵，重译本御制序言中并没有提及，但这一点在旧译本中已有交代。<br />
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As for retranslating this book,which is only for the reasons of language change, and has nothing to do with political practice or cultural policy, or whether retranslation also has political and cultural implications.That was not mentioned in the preface of the retranslated version of the imperial system, but this has been in the old version.--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 05:05, 23 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the preface of the retranslated version,it was not mentioned whether the retranslation was fully out of linguistic revolution, or had something to do with political or cultural policy concerns. Yet, it has been explained in former translated one.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 05:30, 23 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
康熙朝期间，译印汉书的工作继续进行，主要包括两个方面：其一，整理前朝尚未刊行的译本；其二，新译其它汉族书籍。<br />
During Kangxi's region in the Qing Dynasty, the translating and printing of works of the Han Dynasty continued, which included two main parts: first, reading and checking the translation that had not yet been published, and second, giving other Han works new translated versions.<br />
--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 06:25, 24 September 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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In the reign of Emperor Kangxi,the translation and printing of books of the Han Dynasty continued,which included two main sides.On the one hand,arranged translations that had not yet been published.On the other hand,translated other Han books into new versions.--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 08:23, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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During the reign of Emperor Kang Xi，the work of translating and printing the Chinese books continued, which includes two parts: one is to arrange the unpublished translations left by the former dynasty, another is to translate other Chinese books.--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 09:49, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
此间虽并未翻译“五经”作品，却将“日讲”中用到的“五经”章句讲义集结刊印，如《日讲书经解义》、《日讲易经解义》等，以阐发义理、裨益政治，使天下臣民知其“仰法前代圣王”，孜孜求治之意。（玄烨，1966b：10）<br />
Although ''the Five Classics'' are not translated during this period, the chapters and sentences of it used in ''Daily Talks'' are collected and printed, such as ''Daily Talks on Interpretation of the Book of Songs(Shijing)'', ''Daily Talks on Interpretation of the Book of Changes（Yijing）''and so on, which is of great help to illustrate righteousness and politics, making subjects admire and respect their previous great emperor and seek the governance diligently. (Xuan Ye, 1966b: 10)<br />
--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 05:24, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Although ''the Five Classics'' are not translated during this period, the chapters and sentences of it used in ''Daily Talks'' are collected and printed, such as ''Daily Talks on Interpretation of the Book of Songs)'', ''Daily Talks on Interpretation of the Book of Changes（Yijing）'' and so on, which was of great help to illustrate righteousness and politics, maked subjects knew that they admired and respected the laws maked by their previous great emperor and seeked the governance diligently. (Xuan Ye, 1966b: 10)--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 06:29, 25 September 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
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==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
这些“解义”并非直接译自汉文典籍，因此严格意义上并非翻译，但因为它们系经汉文编写后再译写为满文，因而仍可纳入广义上的翻译范畴。<br />
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==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
康熙朝以此种方式编译的“五经”作品还有《日讲春秋解义》和《日讲礼记解义》，但上述二者均未在本朝印行，而是延宕至乾隆时期。<br />
In Kangxi Dynasty, works of The Five Classics compiled in this way also include Daily Talks on the Annotations of The Spring and Autumn and Daily Talks on the Annotations of The Book of Rites. However, before the Qianlong period, neither of the two books was printed or distributed.--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 15:06, 23 September 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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In Kangxi Dynasty, works about The Five Classics compiled in this way also include Daily Talks on the Annotations of The Spring and Autumn and Daily Talks on the Annotations of The Book of Rites. However, neither of the two books was published untill the Qianlong period.--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]])--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:53, 23 September 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
关于《日讲春秋解义》延期刊布的原因，《清高宗（乾隆）御制诗文全集·御制文初集》中有明确解释，其意是康熙晚年图书编纂任务繁重，雍正即位后又认为康熙朝汉文本《钦定春秋传说汇纂》与胡安国本人的思想颇多出入，且“于圣心自多未洽”，故而命果亲王允礼、大学士张廷玉，以及内阁学士方苞等对其进行校订，如此才使得刊印有所牵延。（清高宗御制，1993a：13-14）<br />
As for the reasons for the delay of the publication of The Commentary of Spring and Autumn Annals,there is a clear explanation in The Complete Collection of Poetry and Essays of Emperor Gaozong of Qing(Qianlong)·The First Collection. In this book, it explains that the task of compiling books is quite heavy in the later years of Emperor Kangxi. Then, after Emperor Yongzheng ascended the throne, he reckoned that The Official Compilation of Legends during the Spring and Autumn Annals differs a lot from Hu Anguo's own thoughts and it is "not consistent with the emperor's will".So Yongzheng ordered Guo Prince Yunli, Grand Secretary Zhang Tingyu and secretaries of Cabinet like Fang Bao to revise it. Therefore, the publication was kind of delayed.(Written by Emperor Gaozong of Qing,1993a:13-14)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 13:55, 23 September 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
《日讲礼记解义》虽然成书于康熙朝，但因为该书卷帙浩繁，一直存放在翻书房，导致满文翻译迟迟未能完成。<br />
The Commentary of Spring and Autumn Annals, finished in Emperor Kangxi reign, is vast and has long been kept in study, thus leading to the incomplete Manchu translation.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:06, 25 September 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
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==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
至乾隆朝初期因为修纂《三礼义疏》，才将该书取出，以便参校异同，并将此书的翻译加以完成。<br />
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==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
至于《日讲诗经解义》，康熙年间亦未付梓。<br />
As for the book Daily Analysis of the Book of Songs, it wasn't finished during Kangxi period yet.<br />
The book, ''Daily records of interpretation of classics'' was not printed even during the reign of Emperor Kangxi.--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 10:47, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
其中原因，可能与顺治年间《诗经》满文译本的流通，以及《钦定诗经传说汇纂》的纂辑有关。<br />
Its reaosn may be related to the circulation of the manchu version of the“Book of Songs”in the period of Shunzhi and the compilation of the“Collection of Lengends of the Book of Songs complied and published by imperial order ”.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 09:59, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
康熙朝后期，汉书翻译的范围得到拓展，在翻译经、史之外，兼及明儒之书，如《菜根谭》、《醒世要言》等，这些书同样涉及治世之道、除恶扬善之法，但无一者关乎“五经”。<br />
In the late Kangxi Dynasty, the scope involved in the translation of Han History was expanded. Besides the translation of Classics and history, it also included the works of Ming Dynasty and Confucianism, etc. These books also involved the way to govern the world and the way to get rid of evil deeds and make one’ s values well-known, but none of them related to the Five Classics.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 03:44, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the late Kangxi Danasty, the translated books of Han Dynasty have been expanded. Besides classical and historical ones, the confucian works of Ming Dynasty have been a part of them, such as the Vegatable Roots , Awaken the World and so on. These books also involved the way to govern the word, as well as eliminated evil and promote good as before,while none of them was about the Five Classics.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 06:01, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
雍正年间，前朝既定的学术方针大体得以遵循。<br />
During the reign of Yongzheng, the academic policy established by the previous dynasty was generally followed.<br />
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In the Qing Dynasty Yongzheng, the established academic policy of the previous dynasties was generally followed. --[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:42, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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During the reign of Yong Zheng, the established academic policy of the previous dynasty was generally followed.--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:51, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
一方面，世宗敕撰《诗经传说汇纂》成书，以竟圣祖未竟之志；另一方面，又以朱熹弟子蔡沈的《书集传》为底本，并荟萃汉、唐以来诸家学说，敕纂《书经传说汇纂》成书。<br />
Emperor YongZheng mandated that ''Collection of Authorized Poetry'' be completed to meet unrealized ambition of Emperor Kangxi. At the same time，He required that ''Collection of Authorized Books'' be completed with ''Books collection'' by Scholar Cai Shen, Students of Scholar Zhu Xi, as the standardized script and with other theories formed since Han and Tang Dynasty as complement.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 05:16, 23 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
On the one hand, Emperor Yongzheng mandated that ''Collection of Authorized Poetry'' be completed to meet unrealized ambition of Emperor Kangxi. On the other hand, he required that ''Collection of Authorized Books'' be completed with ''Books collection'' by Scholar Cai Shen, Students of Scholar Zhu Xi, as the standardized script and with other theories formed since Han and Tang Dynasty as complement.--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 04:27, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
与此同时，朝廷刊行《五经四书读本》、《五子近思录辑要》等汉文旧籍，并应世宗圣谕将其中部分颁赐国子监，及其它旗学机构。<br />
Meanwhile, the court published some old books in Chinese such as ''The Five Classics and The Four Books Reader'' and ''The Abstract of WuZi JinSiLu''. Then the court issued some of these books to the Imperial College and other branches of Eight Banners Official School called QiXue institutions in response to the edict of the Emperor Yongzheng of Qing Dynasty.--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 03:04, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
然而，雍正朝官方刊刻的七种汉籍满译本中，无一种为“五经”类，其中原因，仍待详考。<br />
Among seven Manchu versions officially inscribed by Yong Zheng Dynasty, however, none of them are of the Five Classics. For reason, we will still examine it in more details. --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:56, 24 September 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 07:20, 24 September 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 07:24, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
Among seven Manchu translations officially inscribed by Yong Zheng imperial court, however, none of them is Five Classics, the reasons for which still need to be examined further.--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 15:17, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However,none one of them belong to the Five Classics among seven Manchu versions published by Yong Zheng Dynasty.Thus we still have to look into the reasons.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 15:04, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
乾隆朝以后，朝廷延续“崇儒礼佛”的政策，翻译中又以儒学典籍为大宗。<br />
After Qianlong Dynasty, the central government continued the policy of respecting Confucianism and worshipping the Buddhism, and largely focused on translating the Confucian classics.--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 07:46, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
After Qianlong, the royal court continued the policy of worshipping Confucianism and respecting Buddhism, and mainly focused on Confucian classics in translation.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 11:51, 25 September 2020 (UTC)Zeng Xinyuan<br />
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==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
其中，翻译“五经”者如《御制翻译书经集传》、《御制翻译周易》、《御制翻译诗经》、《御制翻译礼记》、《御制翻译春秋》等。<br />
Among them, the Five Classics are translated by books such as: the Imperial Translation of Book of History, the Imperial Translation of Book of Changes, the Imperial Translation of Book of Songs, the Imperial Translation of Book of Rites, the Imperial Translation of Book of Rites, and the Imperial Translation of Spring and Autumn Annals.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:55, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
Among them, the Five Classics are translated by books such as: ''the Imperial Translation of Book of History'', ''the Imperial Translation of Book of Changes'', ''the Imperial Translation of Book of Songs'', ''the Imperial Translation of Book of Rites'', ''the Imperial Translation of Book of Rites'', and ''the Imperial Translation of Spring and Autumn Annals''--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 07:51, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
固然，“五经”教义足以启迪心灵、荡涤灵魂，但高宗不畏耗时耗力之苦，重译或重刻上述典籍，如此坚持必有良苦用心。<br />
Although the doctrine of "the Five Classics" can enlighten and purify the soul, Gaozong took great trouble to retranslate or reengraved the above-mentioned classics. He must have a good intention to persist in this way.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 08:36, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
据《清高宗（乾隆）御制诗文全集·御制文初集》中所说，高宗曾自称“朕于几政之暇，每爱以国语翻译经书，如《易》、《书》、《诗》及《四子书，无不蒇事》”（同上：15）高宗对“五经”教义的遵崇，从他以“五经卷”调整科举程式的做法中可见一斑。<br />
According to initial collection of ''Literature Collection of Poems by Emperor Gaozong(Qianlong）'', emperor Gaozong once declared "I love to spend my spare time tranalating Confucian classics into Mandarin. Classics like ''The Books of Changes'', ''The Book of History'', ''The Book of Songs'' and ''The Four Books'' are all translated without exception." (Ibid, :15) Emperor Gaozong's reverence for the doctrine of ''The Five Classics'' can be seen from his practice of adjusting imperial examination by using papers which examine ''The Five Classics''.--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 02:53, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
众所周知，清代科举考试在“四书”、“五经”的出题上有其规定，如《清史稿》中说“初场试书艺三篇、经义四篇”，即是说考试四书题三道，从《论语》、《大学》、《中庸》、《孟子》中进行抽取，于每部各出一题。<br />
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As we all know, there were specific regulations on the the imperial examinations of the Qing Dynasty about the question setting of “The Four Books” and the “The Five Classics”. For instance, as was mentioned by ''Documents of History of the Qing Dynasty'': The first exam tested three articles of “The Four Books” and four articles of Confucian classics argumentation, that is to say, it tested three questions according to The Four Books, extracting one question from ''The Analects of Confucius'', ''The Great Learning'', ''The Doctrine of the Mean'', and ''Mencius'', respectively.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 12:58, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
而“经义四篇”是指从《诗经》、《尚书》等五部经籍中进行出题，每部各出一题，共计二十题。<br />
As for the four articles of Confucian classics argumentationation,it tested four questions according to ''The Five Classics'',extracting one question from each classic respectively, a total of 20 questions.--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 01:37, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
考生在作答时，既可选择某一经书的四题作答，也可选择全部五经之题作答，前者即所谓“认习一经”，后者则系“全作五经文”。（赵尔巽等，1977：3159）<br />
Candidates can answer either four questions selected from a certain scripture of ''The Four Books'' or questions from ''The Five Classics'', the former of which is called “acquiring one of ''The Four Books''”, while the latter is described as “writing in a style of ''The Five Classics''”. (Zhao Erxun, 1977:3159)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:45, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
虽然“全作五经文”与清代科场条例不合，但“认习一经”又容易导致学风空疏，视野狭隘，因而为使学风敦实醇厚，提倡“实学”精神，“五经中式”势在必行。<br />
Although the practice of “answering questions all from The Five Classics” doesn’t conform with the regulations on the imperial examinations of the Qing Dynasty, the practice of “picking four questions all from one certain Confucian classics to answer” can easily cause empty style of study and narrow horizon. Therefore, in order to make the style of study solid,pure and honest, and to promote the spirit of “practical learning”, the practice of the former is imperative.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:44, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Though “writing in a style of ''The Five Classics''” varies from the exam regulation in the Qing dynasty, “acquiring one of The Four Books” may cause candidates to be unrealistic and narrow-minded. In this sense, the translation of ''The Five Classics'' is necessary as a way to improve academic atmosphere and advocate pragmaticism.--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:13, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
乾隆五十二年，高宗降旨，指出士子束发读书，本应“五经”全读，而现在的读书人中，于“本经之外，或竟至束书不观”者大有人在，这一点绝非崇尚经术之道。In the fifty second year of regime of Qian Long, Emperor Gaozong of Tang issued an order, in which he pointed out that young men, studying at the age of fifteen, were supposed to read all of Five Classics, but nowadays a variety of students only read one classic, or even bundled up the books and never read them. This is not the way of worshipping the classics.<br />
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--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 11:37, 25 September 2020 (UTC)Zeng Xinyuan<br />
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==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
于是，高宗决定自次年开始，采取“五经”轮试的办法，五十八年后又改为“五经并试”，并将此法“定为永制”，以凸显“五经”学习的重要性。（陈文新、潘志刚，2018：171）<br />
Therefore, the Gaozong decided to adopt the " Five Classics" round test from the following year, and after fifty-eight years it was changed to "Five Classics Simultaneous Examination". And this method became " parmanent" to hightlight the importance of learning "Five Classics".--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 12:27, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
受此影响，高宗时期的“五经”翻译不仅数量上超越前代，而且质量和成效上较为理想，官方对此颇感自豪。<br />
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Affected by this, the translation of the "Five Classics" during the Emperor Gaozong period not only surpassed the previous generation in quantity, but also was relatively satisfactory in quality and effectiveness. Officials were quite proud of this.--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 05:27, 23 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Due to this policy, the Emperor Gaozong Period witnessed the flourishment of the "Five Classics" translation, with officially satisfactory in its good quality, high efficiency and higher quantity than ever before.--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 05:15, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
《钦定八旗通志》中说，开国以来，清代诸帝先译“四书”，“示初学之津梁”，后又译“五经”，《周易》、《尚书》、《诗经》、《春秋》、《礼记》等均在其列。<br />
According to ''Authorized Comprehensive Records of Eight Banners'',since the founding of the country,the emperors in Qing Dynasty firstly translated the Four Books which could be regarded as a bridge for the learners at the first stage,and then they translated the Five Classics including ''the Book of Changes'',''Book of Documents'', ''the Book of Songs'',''the Spring and Autumn Annnals'',''the Book of Rites''.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 15:05, 24 September 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 15:27, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
五部经书，意旨、功用各自不同，其中“《易》则略象数之，示其吉凶；《书》则疏诘屈之词，归于显易；《诗》则曲摹其咏叹，而句外之寄托可思；《春秋》则细核其异同，而一字之劝惩毕见；《礼记》则名物度数考订必详，精理名言推求必当，尤足破讲家之聚讼。”（铁保等，1968：5-6）<br />
The Five Classics have different themes and purposes. "The Book of Changes reveals the good or ill luck through the image-numerology; Book of Documents explains the obscure words to make them easy to understand; the Book of Songs imitates its chants and their affection beyond the words provides us with much food for thought; the Spring and Autumn Annals checks it similarities and differences carefully, and every word is full of exhortation; the Book of Rites studies the specific things, law and truth in detail, explores and researches famous dictums, so that it can distinguish the argument of Confucians who are committed to explaining the Confucian classics."(Tiebao et al, 1968:5-6) --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:16, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
其中进一步指出，先儒于“五经”中的诂经，大多“株守其文”，既显拘泥，且文义不通，而翻译五经四书，正可疏通其意，使其明白无误，这一点对于裨治文教，意义至大。（同上：6）<br />
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==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
乾隆朝翻译“五经”，除翻译原典的正文内容之外，也不时将章句训诂含括在译文之内，以助学者、读者研习经义。<br />
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Besides translating the contents of the main body in the Five Classics(an authoritative book of Confucianism in China written before 300 BC) , the translation for it in Qianlong Dynasty also contains some sections and sentences from poems and prose and some explanations of words from old books, which is helpful for scholars and readers to study and research .--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:19, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
The translation of Five Classics in Qianglong Dynasty includes not only the contents of the original classics, but also the explanation of sections and phrases and the meanings of words from time to time, which helps the scholars and readers to study the meaning of classics.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:17, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
这么做至少有两方面的好处：其一，统一学术；其二，实现文化统制。<br />
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==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
众所周知，乾隆朝初期以前，汉文经史的翻译主要以满文本为主，或者以满文本、满汉合璧本并行，但乾隆二十年以后，所有汉籍译本均为满汉合璧本。<br />
As is known to all, before the early Emperor Qianlong, the translation of Chinese Confucian classics and history books was mainly based on the texts written in Manchu language, or both the Manchu and the combined version of Manchu and Chinese. However, after the 20th Year of Emperor Qianlong, all Chinese translations were combined version of Manchu and Chinese.--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 04:07, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As is known to all, before the earlier period of Emperor Qianlong, the translation texts of Chinese Confucian classics and history books were mainly in Manchu language, while some of them were in both Manchu language and combined versions of Manchu and Chinese. However, after the 20th year of Emperor Qianlong's reign, all the translation of Chinese works were in combined versions of Manchu and Chinese.--Ouyang Ling<br />
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==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
之所以进行此番调整，实源于旗人国语学习的现状，即，从清初王公大臣“无不弩强善射，国语纯熟”，渐变为“不能人人尽通国语”。（昭梿，1997：16；杨钟义，1969：1）<br />
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==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
与顺治年间旗人在“既习满书”的前提下，通过翻译汉书“观玩”，以了解汉族文化的动机不同，乾隆二十年后的“五经四书”翻译，其主要目的即是劝导那些渐习汉字，渐染汉俗的八旗子弟重拾“国语”，以固满洲旧俗、国之根本。<br />
In the Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty, on the premise that the Manchu people have learned the Manchu books, they translated the history of Han Dynasty and then appreciated and ruminated them to understand the Han culture. Different from the former motivations, the translation of "Five Classics and Four Books" after the 20th year of Emperor Qianlong's regin mainly aimed at persuading those sons of Eight Banners who gradually learned Han characters and customs to relearn "mandarin", and consolidating the Manchu ancient customs and the root of the country.--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 12:14, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
正所谓“或因经义以通国书，而同文之圣化被于四方”，又或者“因国书以通经义，而明道之遗编彰于万世”，二者之中均以“国书”为要，而以通经明道为轻。（铁保等，1968：6）<br />
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==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
至于高宗本人，不仅熟读《诗》、《书》，而且精研《易》、《春秋》，尤其偏好历史，曾著“史论”五十余篇，以探讨历代治理之得失。<br />
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==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
同时，高宗秉承世宗之志，阐释“狄夷”、“籍贯”之说，以构建政权的意识形态，认为国之“正统”必须遵从“《春秋》大一统之义”，“尊王黜霸”，立万世纲常，以正人心。（庆桂等，1985：34-35）<br />
Meanwhile, obeying the will of the Emperor Shizong, Gaozong interpreted the words “Diyi (barbarians)” and “Jiguan (place of birth)” to construct political power ideology and thought the orthodoxy of a country must comply with “the grand unification in ''The Spring and Autumn Annals''”, “revere the king, drive off barbarians” and establish the cardinal guides and constant virtues over countless generations to redress social morality. (Qing Guideng. 1985: 34-35)--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:38, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
通过译印《春秋》，并就其与《通鉴纲目》等进行论证，高宗不仅驳斥了关于自身的批评与质疑，而且为国家建构了统治理论。<br />
Through translating and printing ''the Spring and Autumn Annals'',and comparing it with ''Compendium of general knowledge'', Emperor Gao Zong in Tang Dynasty not only disproved the criticism and doubts about himself but also constructed theories for governing the country.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 14:05, 24 September 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 15:27, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
高宗对于《春秋》的推崇是极其明显的，以致乾隆四十七年当皇子与军机处大臣奉敕订正《通鉴纲目续编》时，高宗仍要求他们将原书中的某些内容“量为删润”，以符合《春秋》之体例。（清高宗御制，1993b：57）<br />
The Emperor Gaozong's esteem for the Spring and Autumn Annals was extremely obvious, so that in the 47th year of the reign of the Emperor Qianlong,when the princes and Military Chancellor were odered by the Emperor Gaozong to cut and polish the content of the original book to fit the style and form of the Spring and Autumn Annals.(The Emperor Gaozong of the Qing Dynasty,1993b:57)<br />
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 14:56, 23 September 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 15:01, 23 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
高宗年间，虽然汉籍翻译范围冗杂，佛经翻译显著增加，但崇儒重道之风并未改变，经史翻译仍是继往圣之绝学，开万世之太平的重要手段。<br />
In the reign of Emperor Gaozong, the scope of translation of Chinese books was diverse and the translation of Buddhist scriptures increased significantly,but the trend of respecting and stressing Confucianism didn’t change, and the translation of Confucianism classics and history was still the important way to inherit the thoughts of sages and to create peace for generations.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 05:30, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the reign of Emperor Gaozong，with the diverseness of the scope of translation and the obvious increase of the the translation of Buddhist scriptures,the trend of respecting and stressing Confucianism was still keep popular,and the translation of Confucianism classics and history still occupied the most significant station compared with others ever,which became an important way to create peace for generations. --[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 03:48, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Shiqing周诗卿==<br />
高宗对“《春秋》，天子之事；是非，万世之公”的论调倍加推崇，指出为人之君，固然有褒贬群臣的权力，但是非公理也是人君必须秉持的常轨。（中国第一历史档案馆，1998：830）<br />
The Emperor Gaozong of Tang Dynasty praised highly of the argument, one that the Spring and Autumn should be taken charge by the emperor, while the right and wrong is the common thinking philosophy of the public which does not change through times. He pointed out that, am emperor wass endowed with the right to make comments on his inferiors. However, the emperor should also act beyond the generally acknowledged truth. (The first Historical Archives of China, 1998:830)<br />
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The Emperor Gaozong of the Qing Dynasty spoke highly of the view that ''Spring and Autumn Annals'' should be taken charge by the emperor, while the right and wrong are the justice of all ages. He pointed out that, as an emperor who dominated supreme power above the masses, was inherently endowed with the right to praise and criticize his officials. However, the non-justice is also a normal that should be upheld by the emperor. (The First Historical Archives of China, 1998:830)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 12:57, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
高宗指出，历来编年之书，数量繁多，皆以《通鉴纲目》为准，而《通鉴纲目》只是纂述《春秋》之义，以明天统、正人纪、昭监戒。（清高宗御制，1993a：11）高宗在位期间，对宋儒理学推崇备至，认为不仅“道统”“绍于周、程、张、朱五子”，而且“经典”也因“程、朱表章”，而“赫然昭著而大行”。（弘历，2005：20-21）<br />
The emperor Gaozong pionted out that,there are many chronicle books over the years,and all of them were on the basis of the Compendium of general knowledge,but it just writed the meaning of the Spring and Autumn and it used to comprehend natural law, standardize code of ethics and show lesson from past to future.(Made by The emperor Gaozong of Qing Dynasty,1993a：11）During the emperor Gaozong's reign, he praised highly in a Confucian school of idealist philosophy of the Song Dynasties,and he considered Confucian orthodoxy was carried on the idea of 5 scholars who were named Zhou,Cheng,Zhang,Zhu and that classics are famous for memorial to the Cheng and Zhu.(Hongli,2005:20-21)--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 07:49, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
然而即便如此，自乾隆十四年起，高宗仍然调整了独尊理学的政策方针，将关注的目光重新投射至经学。<br />
But even so, Emperor Gaozong still adjusted the policy of the exclusive reign of Neo-Confucianism and cast his view on Confucian classics again since the 14th year of Emperor Qianlong's reign.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:34, 24 September 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 12:17, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
《乾隆朝上谕档》对此事有着详实的记载，其中指出：<br />
圣贤之学：行，本也；文，末也。<br />
This can be futher proved by the details in the Imperial Edict of Qianlong, in which records: The essence to pursue the philosophy of ancient saints and thinkers lies in fulfilling the ideas in it rather than catching the literal meaning. --[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:51, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
而文之中，经术其根底也，词章其枝叶也。<br />
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==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
翰林以文学侍从，近年来因朕每试以诗赋，颇致力于词章，而求其沉酣六籍，含英咀华，究经训之阃（kǔn）奥者，不少概见，岂笃志正学者鲜与？……夫穷经不如敦行，然知务本则于躬行为近。<br />
Hanlin was a position of the Civil Service in the royal court,in order to select people with outstanding literary ability,i have focused the exams on poetry and prose,and spent a lot of effort on the literary creation,But it is hard to find a person who strive to be facinated by the Six Classics,who can ponder over the essence of an article,and who can explore the mysteries of classics.Are there few people who are devoted to doing these way?Or is there still someone i just have not seen?Reading all the classics is not as good as actually practicing the principles in it,and doing things personally as your own pursuit.--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 08:56, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
崇尚经术，良有关于世道人心。People worship the knowledge from ancient classics because there are indeed descriptions of what the world looks like and how people feel others. --[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 03:32, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Advocating Confucian classics can bring a good influence on the social atmosphere and people's thoughts. --[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 01:52, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
……内大学士、九卿，外督抚，其公举所知，不拘进士、举人、诸生，以及退休闲散人员，能潜心经学者，慎重遴访。<br />
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Whether the great secretaries and nine ministers in the imperial court or the governors outside the imperial court publicly recommend people they know, not confined to jinshi, successful candidates、scholars, and even retired idlers，who can concentrate on learning，and then choose carefully from them.--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 01:22, 25 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
务择老成敦厚，纯朴淹通之士，以应精选。<br />
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==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
勿滥，称朕意焉。（中国第一历史档案馆，1998：393）<br />
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==Ziyuanzhe 自愿者==<br />
所谓“经学”原指先秦时期的各家学说，但汉代以后往往专指儒学“十三经”，其中又以“四书”、“五经”为要。<br />
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Originally, the Classics Studies referred to the theories of different schools in Pre-Qin period. But after the Han Dynasty, it typically referred to the Thirteen Confucian Classics, in which the Four Books and the Five Classics were particularly highlighted.--Ouyang Ling<br />
The so-called “study of Confucian classics” originally refered to various theories of different schools in the Pre-Qin period, but after the Han Dynasty, it often specially refered to “the Thirteen Confucian Classics”, in which “the Four Books” and “the Five Classics” were highly important.--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 16:21, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ziyuanzhe 自愿者==<br />
因而，高宗此处强调经术乃“文”之根本，理应含括“五经”学问。<br />
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==Ziyuanzhe 自愿者==<br />
从高宗颁赐内阁的此谕中，不难看出其对于经学研究的鼓励，因而敕令朝臣遍访学界，考选潜心经学者，以便“耆儒夙学”得以“布列朝班”。（昭梿，1997：15-16）</div>Hu Huifanghttps://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20200921_trans&diff=9754920200921 trans2020-09-24T08:14:18Z<p>Hu Huifang: /* Hu Huifang 胡慧芳 */</p>
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<div>Dear students, this is the homework of Sep 21.<br />
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=Task=<br />
A Chinese paper on Manchu translation policies was submitted to the English editor. The English editor starts to translate it into English, but has only translated the first part and runs out of time. He asks his students, to read the first part and then to continue to translate the paper sentence by sentence. He also asks the students to help improve the translation of at least one fellow student. Please sign your translations with the signature button (buttons on the top, third from right).<br />
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=First part of the text (already translated), please read for background=<br />
'''“崇儒重道”背景下的“五经”满文翻译<br />
——清代中、前期翻译政策研究之（二）'''<br />
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'''摘要'''：自汉代起，“崇儒重道”即是中国历代封建王朝的“文治”之道。清初以来，“崇儒重道”既是国家文化政策的重要内容，也是统治者构建精神威权，实现帝王敷治的重要手段。在此背景下，以“五经”、“四书”为代表的众多儒学典籍被相继翻译或编译，其译本不仅被用于科举考试，而且被用作旗学教材。对统治者而言，“五经”的翻（编）译有着极其特殊的意义，这一点表现在诗学与政治文化等方面：首先，“五经”的翻（编）译是旗人学习汉族主流学术体系与传统道德规范的重要途径；其次，“五经”译本的阅读拉近了民族与民族之间的文化、心理距离，有利地缓和了民族关系，增进了民族交流，巩固了统治基础。<br />
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'''关键词'''：崇儒重道;“五经”;汉籍翻译;科举考试;政治文化意涵<br />
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'''导论'''<br />
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“崇儒重道”是汉代以降，中国历代封建王朝的文治之道。作为历代统治者信奉的官方哲学，孔、孟学说及其代表的儒学价值体系长期享有“定于一尊”的社会地位。对社会大众而言，儒家学说是其普遍信仰和精神支柱。对统治者而言，儒家学说则是其建构精神威权，实现帝王敷治的重要工具。清代的官方文献中，并未明确出现“文化政策”字样，而是代之以“文教”、“教化”等概念，但这并不能说明清代的文化建设缺乏既定的政策理念与行为准则。恰恰相反，自顺治十年起，清廷即制订了“崇儒重道”的文化政策，将中国传统的文化概念融入政治实践，并在嗣后各朝逐渐形成“兴文教”、“崇经术”的治国方针。如康熙九年提出的“圣训十六条”、乾隆年间修纂的《四库全书》等，都是“崇儒重道”的重要实践。在文化政策的范畴中，“崇儒重道”有其衍生物，如科举取士、博学鸿词等，而访求、编纂书籍，以及翻译汉文典籍等也是其重要内容。清代的汉籍（书）翻译既面对“四书”、“五经”等儒学典籍，也面对《金瓶梅》、《西厢记》等通俗作品。尤其是前者，其中蕴含着丰富的伦理观念与道德准则，它们的翻译有效沟通了满、汉民族之间的关系，促进了文化交流。通过引导与规范翻译事业，统治者不仅学习了汉族文化与典章制度，而且以思想为治术，完善了治国理念与模式，建构了政权的合法性，实现了“治统”与“道统”的和谐统一。<br />
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'''1.清初以来的汉籍翻译传统'''<br />
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同“四书”一样，“五经”也是儒家学说的主要经典。《白虎通·五经》中，所谓“经”即是“常也”，而按照《释名》中的说法，“经”则是“常典也”，可见“经”作为典籍必具有恒常意义。（袁行霈，2009：6）那么，“五经”的恒常意义何在？无疑，其意义当在于修身养性、塑造德行。当然，不同经书的具体意义不尽相同，如《礼记·经解篇》中曾援引孔子的话，认为《诗经》的作用在于使人“温柔敦厚”，《书经》（《尚书》）使人“疏通知远”，《易经》使人“洁静精微”，《礼记》使人“恭俭庄敬”，《春秋》则使人“属辞比事”。（同上：7）概言之，所谓“五经”之核，当在于“君子人格”的培养。从此意义上讲，“五经”经义甚合于满清统治者的文治理念与教化政策，因而得到后者的力主与推广。<br />
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天聪年间，随着汉官相继加入满族政权，许多具有汉族文化内涵或汉化特征的改革建议被相继提出。如天聪七年八月初九日，宁完我奏请满洲政权“参汉酌金，用心筹思”，不可一味移植中原汉制，而必须通权达变，依次渐进，开创合于自身需求的制度章程。（罗振玉，1980：82）自此，满洲统治者在进行治国施政，振兴文教时，便以“采行汉制”作为重要的指导原则。为沟通思想，探寻汉制，满洲权贵在汉官的引介下，翻写并讲解汉文典籍，促进了满文译书事业的发展，及统治者对汉族文化的认识。如天聪七年九月，宁完我奏请太宗敕译《大学》、《中庸》、《孝经》等书，虽然译书范围并不涉及“五经”，但所奏译书通过嗣后的“日讲”，仍对太宗撷取儒学思想产生了潜移默化的影响。事实上，早在天聪二年，太宗即赐书朝鲜李氏王朝，索求《尚书》、《诗经》的金、元两朝译本。同时，在太祖敕译汉籍的基础上，命达海续译汉文书籍。然而，尽管太宗本人性嗜典籍，披览弗倦，希望通过翻译与阅读学习汉族文化，但所译书籍乃以“四书”居多，而鲜有涉及“五经”者。由于满洲统治者多不通汉文，因而此局面的造成主要归因于汉官的具疏谏言。如天聪六年九月，王文奎条陈时宜，提到的主要是“四书”，认为它涵盖了帝王治平之道之微妙者。翌年九月，宁完我请译汉书，虽然提及者甚众，但仍限于《学》、《庸》、《论》、《孟》等。此外，便是《通鉴》、《六韬》、《三略》、《素书》等所谓“知古来兴废”，以及“益聪明智识，选练战功机权”的书籍，以上诸中皆与“五经”无关。（同上：24、71）<br />
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满清统治者对于翻译汉籍的支持有着一惯性。事实上，早在亲政之前，顺治皇帝便表现出对于汉族制度和文化的极大兴趣。顺治元年，世祖令祁充格等人翻译辽、金、元三史，并因此对其进行赏赐。顺治二年，祁充格授弘文院大学士，以及明史总裁官，一定程度上即是对其翻译工作的肯定。次年，内国史院大学士刚林奉旨翻译《洪武宝训》（又名《洪武要训》），该书为清朝入关之后翻译的第一部汉文典籍，意在借用前朝开国皇帝的训词教训满洲贵族。同其先祖一样，顺治皇帝一方面把八旗满洲贵族作为法外之人，给予特别恩惠，另一方面又对汉籍官员和汉族文化采取信任政策。为了进行教化，加强思想统治，顺治帝诏令臣民尊孔读经，讲求忠孝节义，不仅亲率诸王大臣赴太学祭祀孔子，并行两跪六叩礼，而且命人翻译五经。顺治十一年，世祖命深谙汉文的鄂貌图翻译《诗经》，后者曾为清太宗讲解译书史，并参与翻译《大明会典》。清军入关后，鄂貌图又奉敕参与太祖、太宗两朝实录的修纂，并以满文翻译《礼记》、《尚书》、《纲鉴会纂》等汉文典籍。顺治十一年，内务府刊刻二十卷《诗经》的满文译本，该译本出鄂貌图之手，对当时的满洲政权了解汉族传统与文化发挥了重要作用。<br />
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康熙皇帝对于翻译事业也是极尽支持之责，这一点明显体现在“翻书房”和“武英殿修书处”两处机构的设置，及其相关活动上。康熙十年，圣祖敕设“翻书房”，用以翻译谕旨、起居注、御论等文书。所谓“翻书房”又称“内翻书房”、“内书房”，设立之初并无定员。顾名思义，“翻书房”的设立是出于书籍翻译的需要，而此处所说的“书”, 主要指汉文典籍，如“四书”、“五经”等。遵圣祖圣谕，“翻书房”的主要任务包括两大方面，其一是奉旨翻译经史，其二是圣祖敕翻御制诗文，二者皆“纂辑以候钦定”。（章宏伟，2009：83）作为专司翻译的机构，“翻书房”还负责语言文字的审定。关于“翻书房”的译书经历，《啸亭续录》中也有记载，认为由它所翻译的《资治通鉴》、《性理精义》、《古文渊鉴》等书行文简洁，义理明晰，流传甚广。（昭梿，1997：397）康熙皇帝自幼聪颖好学，对于汉籍和汉族文化有着很深的情愫，这一点即是他支持翻译事业的文化原因。《东华录》中曾说，圣祖好学不倦，不仅深谙帝王政治，而且于圣贤心学、六经要旨等，也能融会贯通。圣祖认为，儒学经典义理无穷，对于“教化”尤其重要。（中国第一历史档案馆，1984：80）<br />
雍正在位期间，汉文书籍的满文翻译和出版仍在发展，但种类与数量稍嫌单调和稀少。之所以如此，显然与雍正年间的政治形势有关。雍正二年，世宗敕颁《朋党论》和《雍正上谕》，表明统治集团内部存在激烈斗争。与此同时，为了强化皇权统治，清廷遵旨颁行《上谕八旗》和《上谕旗务议复》，意在削弱王公旗主之权势。同是在雍正二年，世宗又对圣祖“上谕十六条”进行演绎与注解，并与后者合成《圣谕广训》，以加强伦理道德教育。在世宗的设计中，《圣谕广训》的成书和颁行，并非只是语言文字工作的具体实践，它同样也是重要的文化政策，有助于加强对老百姓的思想和法制教育，维护统治的稳定。<br />
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=Second part of the text, to be translated sentence by sentence into English=<br />
==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
乾隆朝期间，汉字书籍的翻译与顺、康、雍三朝多有类似，所译作品大体分为两类：一类为儒家经典，另一类为佛教典籍。<br />
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==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
乾隆帝认为，经义之教可以启迪人心，其翻（重）译虽然废时耗工，但仍属必要。<br />
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==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
以《御制翻译四书》为例，该书由大学士鄂尔泰奉敕在厘定满文本《日讲四书解义》的基础上纂成，于乾隆六年由武英殿首次刊刻，后又于乾隆二十年刊刻满、汉合璧本。<br />
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==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
鄂尔泰奉敕进行厘定，目的是为了确保译文准确，使译文和原文在“文义”、“意旨”和“语气”上保持一致。<br />
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==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
清初以来的汉书翻译与刻印，有着明确的流程。<br />
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==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
康熙朝以前，书籍的译印均由内三院或翰林院经理。<br />
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==Chen Jing 陈静==<br />
康熙十年前后“内翻书房”设立之后，汉书翻译的工作由内翻书房先行办理，完成翻译后送交内务府，并由其下设机构武英殿刊刻。康熙十九年，武英殿增设修书处，汉书译本再次转移至此，至雍正七年成为清初刻印书籍的专门机构。<br />
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==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
循例，汉文书籍译毕成书后，由皇帝颁赐诸王及文武大臣，其中儒家经典的译本另行颁赐给八旗官学，用作研习满文的教材。<br />
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==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
2.“五经”翻译情况概览<br />
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清初的“五经”翻译始于顺治年间。<br />
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==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
对此，《国立故宫博物院善本旧籍总目》、《世界满文文献目录》、《全国满文图书资料联合目录》及《清代内府刻书目录解题》等文献中均有记载，毋庸赘述。<br />
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No redundancy is needed because that has been recorded in a multitude of journals, including ''The Whole Catalog of Ancient Rare Books in Taipei Palace Museum'', ''The Catalog of World Manchu Journals'', ''The Union Catalog of National Manchu Books and Materials'', ''Explanatory Notes on the Catalog of Engraving Books in Qing Dynasty’s Household Department'' and so on.--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 03:13, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
顺治十一年，世祖敕译《诗经》成书，由内府刊印，计二十卷二十册，是为清代翻译“五经”之始。<br />
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==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
据《御制诗经·序》（顺治本）中所言，世祖敕译《诗经》，是因为该书的意旨能使人明性意、崇礼义，其言其论上可用于治国，下可用于修身，以其事君必忠，以其事父必孝，如此则可期人伦敦厚、教化端正。（叶高树，2002：72）<br />
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==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
当然，此书的翻译也与汉籍官吏的推荐密不可分。<br />
Of course, the translation of this book is also inseparable from the recommendation of the Han Dynasty officials. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 01:39, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Certainly, the translation of this book is also closely related to the recommendation of the Han Dynasty officials.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 03:45, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Certainly, the translation of this book is also closely related to the recommendation of the officials of Han nationality.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:55, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
顺治二年三月，大学士冯铨、洪承畴等即奏陈世祖，认为自古帝王安定天下，必以修德勤学为首务，如金世宗、元世祖等便“博综典籍”、“勤于文学”，而帝王修身治人之道，尽备于“六经”，若能以满、汉词臣朝夕进讲，则圣德势必日进。（巴岱、图海等，1985：3-4）<br />
In March of the second year of Emperor Shunzhi of the Qing Dynasty(AD 1645), Grand Secretaries Feng Quan and Hong Chengchou submitted memorials to Emperor Shizu of the Chen Dynasty, and held the opinion that since ancient emperors settled the world, they must give top priority to striving for virtues and acquiring knowledge. For example, Emperor Shizong of the Jin Dynasty and Emperor Shizu of the Yuan Dynasty were well versed in classics and diligent in literature. What’s more, the principles of emperors' self-cultivation and governance in people are demonstrated in the Six Classics. If emperors could always accept advice from civil officials of Manchu and Han, then their virtues would surely advance day by day. (Ba Dai, Tu Hai et al., 1985: 3-4)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:02, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
嗣后，朱允显、张璿（xuán）等也相继奏设“经筵”，进讲“四书”、“六经”等有关身心要务、治平大道者。<br />
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==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
儒学典籍虽然众多，然世祖尤为偏爱《易经》与《孝经》，认为《孝经》“言近而指远，理约而该博”，放之四海而皆准。（清世祖御注，1986：1-2）<br />
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--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 04:57, 24 September 2020 (UTC)Despite of a multitude of confucian classics, the emperor of Qing Dynasty still prefered to The Book of Changes and The Book of Filial Piety. He accliamed that the latter can transcend time and space owing to its constrianed but abundant principles. So he considered that it was much of the truth at all times and in all countries.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 04:57, 24 September 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 04:57, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Although there are many Confucius classics, Emperor Shizu of the Qing Dynasty gave preference to The Books of Changes and Filial Piety. Because of its plain but meaningful words and simple but universal principles, he thought that Filial Piety can be applied ubiquitously.(Emperor Shizu,1986:1-2)--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:52, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
至于“六经”之一的《易经》，世祖也认为它“义精而用博”，囊括了天地万物之理，因而被历代硕儒所阐发。（同上：2）<br />
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==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
顺治十三年十二月，奉世祖圣意，傅以渐、曹本荣等通过殚心研究，融会贯通，纂修《易经通注》成书。<br />
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==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
世祖希望通过此书，将原本中的义经奥旨悉数阐明，使其如同“日星”般灿然。（傅以渐、曹本荣等，1986：1）<br />
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==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
圣祖康熙帝热衷学问，但其兴趣主要在宋儒理学上。<br />
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==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
《康熙帝御制文集》中说，上古帝王之治本于道，其道本于心，而辨析心性之理，能羽翼“六经”，发挥圣道者，莫详于宋代诸儒。（玄烨，1966a：1-2）<br />
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==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
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圣祖提倡宋儒之学，尤其是朱子理学，当然有其政治意图，但其在推崇朱熹之余，也对“五经”教义给予赞誉。<br />
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Patriarch advocates Song confucianism, especially the Zhu Xi’s theory, which is politics-oriented, but besides that, he is also in support of the Five Classics.--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:45, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
在他看来，朱熹阐发“五经”，因经取义，理正言顺，和平宽弘，融天地正气、宇宙大道于一体，既可施诸政事，也可验诸“日用”。（玄烨，1966b：10-12）<br />
In his opinion, Zhu Xi illustrated and used points of " The Classic Five", extracting theories from them, which are reasonable, peaceful and large-minded. They are not only applied to political affairs but also to daily life because they combine universal justice and ethic into harmony.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 05:12, 23 September 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 05:17, 23 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In his opinion, Zhu Xi illustrated and streched the content of The Five Classics.Zhu Xi's theory,extracted from the Five Classics,is just and proper,peaceful and wide, intergrating the righteousness of heaven and earth and the law of universe,which can not only be applied to politics but also be verified in daily life.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:40, 23 September 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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In his opinion, the Five Classics illustrsted and published by Zhu Xi can not only be applied in politics, but also in daily life. Because it integrated the righteousness with the law both of the universe, from which he gained loyalty in a reasonalble and gentle way.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 04:58, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
如学界共知，圣祖亲政之后，满洲政权对于汉族文化的运用即步入全面阶段。It's well-known in academic circles that Manchuria regime could make use of Chinese culture skillfully after the governance of Kangxi Great Emperor.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 01:42, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As the educational circles well-knowed that after the emperor had taken over the reins of government, the Manchuria regime stepped in a comprehensive stage in the aspect of using Han nationality culture.--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 03:25, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
康熙六年六月，圣祖接纳汉官熊赐履奏议，指出敦崇实行，扶持正教，必非“六经”和《论语》、《孟子》等书而不读。（马齐等，1985：14-15）<br />
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==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
为学习汉族的主流学术体系，以及传统的道德规范，圣祖不仅留意典籍，而且敕译、编定群书，将其当作自己的主要政绩，其中与“五经”相关者如康熙十七年敕撰，并于两年后完成译印的《日讲书经解义》。<br />
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==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 08:14, 24 September 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 08:14, 24 September 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 08:14, 24 September 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 08:14, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
该书计二十六卷二十六册，由内府刊刻，卷前有《御制序》、译撰者库勒纳的《进呈疏》，以及库勒纳、叶方蔼等五十八位编（译）撰者的姓名与官衔。<br />
The book consists of twenty-six volumes and twenty-six chapters, which were inscrited by imperial household department. Before the volume, there are the Yu Zhi Xu；and the JinChengShu which translated by Kulena,；and the names and official titles of the fifty-eight compilers and translators including Kulena and Ye Fangai .<br />
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==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
虽然此书名为“奉敕撰”，实际上却是编撰与翻译相间，因此叶高树在其《清朝前期的文化政策》一书中，仍将其定为“汉籍满文译本”之一。（叶高树，2002：68）<br />
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==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
自康熙十九年起，至乾隆朝末期，清代官方译印的“五经”书籍还有《日讲易经解义》（康熙二十二年，牛钮、孙在丰等奉敕撰）、《诗经》（雍正十一年，顺治皇帝敕译）、《日讲春秋解义》（乾隆二年，库勒纳等奉敕译）、《御制翻译书经集传》（乾隆二十五年，乾隆皇帝敕译）、《御制翻译周易》（乾隆三十年，乾隆皇帝敕译）、《御制翻译诗经》（乾隆三十三年，乾隆皇帝敕译）、《御制翻译礼记》（乾隆四十八年，乾隆皇帝敕译）、《御制翻译春秋》（乾隆四十九年，乾隆皇帝敕译）等。<br />
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==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
上述译本中，多数并未明确交待译者姓名，而只是在卷前写明“敕译”二字。<br />
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==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
虽然如此，从清代文教政策和职官体系看，其译者当属兼通满、汉文之笔帖式、庶吉士、中书、库使等无疑。<br />
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==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
需要指出，顺、雍、乾期间，《诗经》一书前后被译印三次，其中顺治十一年、雍正十一年刊印的系同一版本，而乾隆三十三年的《御制翻译诗经》在卷数、册数上均少于前者，显然不同于前者。<br />
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==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
一部书籍被译印多次，足见统治者对翻译之重视，以及对所译汉籍经义之推崇。<br />
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==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
3.“五经”译本在科试与旗学中的应用<br />
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与明、清二朝以“四书文”取士一样，“五经”教义也是八旗科试中的重要内容。<br />
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==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
早在清军入关之际，朝廷即规定乡、会二试中，首场考试“五经”各四题，共计二十题，由考生自行决定，各占一经，作答四题。<br />
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==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
由于五经题和四书题一样采用八股体，因而也称制艺，又称时文。<br />
The articles made from the questions of The Four Books and Five Classics which adopted the style of Eight-legged essay were also called creative arts as well as practical essays.--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 06:58, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
童生考试及其岁、科考试中，除考试四书文一道之外，同样考试经文一题。<br />
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==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
据商衍鎏（liú）考证，清代童生之县试共试五场，其中第一场主要考试四书文和五言六韵试帖诗，第二场加入性理论或者孝经论，但自第三场起，考试内容中便加入经文一篇，出题范围以“五经”为限。（商衍鎏，2014：9-10）<br />
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==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
《清史稿·选举志一》中，对于儒童入学考试的程式也有记载。<br />
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==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
据此可知，清代的儒童考试初用四书文、孝经论各一题，但以前者为主，孝经题较少。<br />
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==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
这一办法后来被调整，改为“正试”用四书文二道，“复试”用四书文和小学论各一题。<br />
This method was later adjusted to two questions taken from four books in the "regular examination". And the two questions in the "second examination" are one taken from four books and the other taken from the theory of learning.<br />
This method was later adjusted and changed into two questions of The Four Books in the primary test and two questions in retrial, one of The Four Books--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 15:50, 23 September 2020 (UTC) and the other of The Primary Learning.--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 15:50, 23 September 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
但康熙三十九之际，圣祖令各直省考试儒童时，由于学生平日即以“五经”和小学等作为学习内容，因而考试时也考试经书，并要求学臣将考生中能够“成诵三经、五经者”，“酌量优录”。（同上：28）<br />
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==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
康熙四十二年，顺天学政甚至专门以背诵五经作为取士原则，这一做法虽被奉旨申饬，但“五经”之重要，由此可见。<br />
During the forty-second year of the Kangxi Dynasty(AD 1703),the officials in charge of the imperial examination in Shuntian Prefecture even specially take the recitation of The Four Books and The Five Classics as the principle for grading the exam.Although this practice was clearly ordered to rectify,but this shows the importance of The Five Classics.--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 15:39, 23 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the 42nd year of Emperor Kangxi(AD 1703), education administrator of Shuntian Prefecture even specially took the recitation of the Five Classics as the standard of candidate selection. Although this practice was just made on imperial orders, the importance of the Five Classics could be seen from it. --[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 02:37, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
如乾隆朝中期以后，将儒童之“复试”改为四书文、经文（即“五经”）各一道，即是明证。<br />
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==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
生员参加岁考（学政到任第一年的考试）、科考（学政到任第二年的考试）时，自清初起便考试经文，初定为一篇，嗣后暂遭裁撤。<br />
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==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
雍正六年，又复考经文题一道，无论岁试、科试，都是一样。<br />
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==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
乾隆二十三年，岁试改为四书文一道、经文题一道。<br />
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==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
虽然科试不再考试经文题，但岁试中考试经文的做法成为“永制”。<br />
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==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
清代的举贡体制中，也有考试经文者。<br />
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==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
以“拔贡”考试为例，廪、增、附生在应考拔贡之前，需向所在府、州、县儒学署（教育管理机构）报名，然后分两场参加拔贡考试，其中每场也需要考试经文一篇。<br />
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==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
乾隆十六年，拔贡考试中增加“会考”，仍试以经文、四书文各一题。<br />
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==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
乾隆十七年，经文题改为经解题，出题范围不变。<br />
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==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
“优贡”考试也是如此，如乾隆二十九年，“优贡”考试四书文二篇、经解一篇。<br />
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==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
即便在清末之际，如光绪二十七年，“优贡”考试也仍在第二场中考试“五经义”一篇。<br />
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==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
“优贡”中的会考环节也一样考试经文一篇，与“拔贡”会考相同，且宣统元年（1905）废除八股文之后，五经义试题作为考试内容仍照常办理。<br />
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==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
清代乡举考试（俗称“乡试”）也多承明制，其考试诸法如场期、试题、弥封、誊录、对读等，大体沿袭明代，更张者不多。<br />
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==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
清制，乡试共分三场，一般定于八月举行，遇重大事故时也可推移。<br />
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==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
考试题型及内容上，仍以“制艺”形式为主，别称“时文”，头场考试七篇，其中四书文三篇、五经文二十篇（每经出四题）。<br />
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==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
康、雍年间，对乡试的考法进行了调整，如二场试论初用《孝经》，后兼用《性理》。<br />
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==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
雍正初年，又复改初制，只考《孝经》。<br />
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==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
又如康熙二年，朝廷因故暂废八股文，并将原制中第三场考试的“策”五题移至第一场，同时将二场改为四书论、经论各一篇。<br />
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==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
凡此种种，都是乡试考法的临时调整。<br />
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==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
无论作何调整，乡试中考试五经文题，却是清代定制。<br />
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==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
如乾隆五十二年，高宗以考生专治一经，而不能兼通其它经书，不合于敦崇实学的理念，因而敕令自翌年起，废除乡试中“专治一经”的做法，要求分年轮试一经，以后再改为每经中各出一题，即经文五题。（同上：80）<br />
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==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
经文五题的底本即《易经》、《书经》、《诗经》、《春秋》和《礼记》，但内容上并非专考先秦诸子的原说，其中加入了宋儒的章句、注疏。具体而言，便是《易经》中融入程、朱学说的本义，《书经》中融入蔡沈的注解，《诗经》中融入朱熹的集传，《春秋》中融入胡安国的研究，以及《礼记》中融入陈澔的传注。<br />
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==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
清末光绪年间，清廷因故对乡试的办理再作改革，但五经文或五经义仍照考不误。<br />
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==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
由于清沿明制以来，“则会场各题目，皆与乡试无异矣”，因而此处不再详述，但可以肯定的是，无论乡试会试，“五经”乃是重要的命题依据。（王凯旋，2015：42）<br />
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==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
《清史稿》中说，自唐以后，废选举之制，改用科目，历代相沿。<br />
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==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
明代以来，专取四子书，以及五经命题，谓之“制艺”，而“有清一沿明制，二百全年，虽有以他途进者，终不得与科第出身者相比。”（赵尔巽等，1977：3099）<br />
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==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
可见，清代科考的场次和内容等，与明朝旧制整体上乃是相向而行的。<br />
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It indicates that the schedule and contents of the imperial examination system in the Qing Dynasty remained consistent with the old one of the Ming Dynasty in general.--Ouyang Ling<br />
From this we can see, things like sessions and contend of the imperial competitive examination of Qing Dynasty are almost on the same track of the old one of Ming Dynassty.--[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 06:00, 24 September 2020 (UTC)Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿<br />
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It can be seen that the sessions and contents of the imperial examination system in the Qing Dynasty were still in the same direction as the old one of the Ming Dynasty on the whole.--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 06:04, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
清代科试对五经文的倚重，与官学中的教、习内容密不可分。<br />
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==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
清初以来，以满译汉籍文本作为旗学教材，渐成传统。<br />
<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
早在太祖年间，为教导八旗子弟读书，并解决“无书可读”的窘境，上谕达海着手翻译汉籍。<br />
<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
虽然此时翻译的汉文书籍并不涉及“五经”，但此事表明译书与旗人教育之间的关系。<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
太宗即位以后，愈发重视旗人教育，并为此向朝鲜王朝索要译书，其中即包括《诗经》和《书经》。<br />
<br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
《朝鲜王朝实录·仁祖实录》中对此事的记载如下：<br />
<br />
It was recorded in ''the Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty · the True Record of Injo'' as:--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 04:06, 23 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It was recorded in ''the Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty · the True Record of king Injo'' as:--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 04:20, 23 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
闻贵国有金、元所译《书》、《诗》等经及《四书》，敬求一览，惟冀慨然。（韩国国史编纂委员会，1973：38）<br />
<br />
<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
太宗索书一事发生在天聪二年，即1628年。<br />
<br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
同年十二月，朝鲜政府回函，以“第国中所有，只是天下通行本，而金、元所译，则未曾见得”为由，谢绝了太宗的请求。<br />
<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
然而次年十月，仁祖又改变主意，将太宗索取的部分汉籍译本赠予大清。<br />
<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
同书中对此亦有记载，其文如下：<br />
This event was also recorded in the Veritable Records and it said:--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 04:50, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
It was also recorded in the same book and it said: --[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 05:50, 24 September 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
金汗求书册，以《春秋》、《周易》、《礼记》、《通鉴》、《史略》等书赐之。（同上：352）<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
虽然太宗最为看重的《诗》、《书》二经，以及“四书”等均未获得封赠，但“五经”中其它三经的到来，即《礼记》、《春秋》和《周易》，仍有助于缓解清初旗人教育中教材短缺的问题。<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
顺治朝初期，因满清王朝刚刚入关，朝廷在开办国子监八旗官学时，即同意满、汉官员子弟可根据自身意愿选择习汉书，或者习清书，而此时的学习教材无非就是传统的汉文经史，或者汉文典籍的满文译本。<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
后者仍以经、史居多，其中又以“四书”多于“五经”。<br />
<br />
And these Manchu versions are still dominated by classics and history,among which the Four Books is more than the Five Classics.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 05:19, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
如顺治二年选授他赤哈哈番的阿什坦所翻译的《大学》、《中庸》等，便被用作旗人教育的主要教材。（陈康祺，1997：362）<br />
<br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
顺治九年，礼部题准，嗣后坊间书贾只能刊行、售卖理学政治、裨益文业的各类书籍。<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
至于“其他琐语淫词，及一切滥刻窗艺社”，则“通行严禁”，违者从重究治。（索尔讷等，1968：165）<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
为端正士风，顺治帝通令直省学政，将“五经”和“四子书”等，“责成提调教官课令生儒诵习讲解。”（稽璜等，1988：5486）<br />
<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
翌年二月，又命内院诸臣翻译“五经”，并亲自审阅译稿，感叹“天德王道，备载于书，真万世不易之理也。”（巴岱、图海等，1985：572）<br />
<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
此书于顺治十一年译成，从当时坊间存在满文抄本、满汉合璧本的事实看，可以推见其流传情况仍然无外乎两种：其一，被颁赐群臣；其二，被用于旗学教材。<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
顺治年间，虽然皇帝因过度亲近汉臣、仰慕汉族文化，而遭到来自满族统计阶层的压力，但旗学教育中以汉籍满文译本作为教材的传统却未改变。<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
如康熙年间傅达礼翻译的《大学衍义》，一经告蒇便颁赐诸臣，及八旗官学。<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
与此同时，翰林院按日进讲，并年终汇呈的各类“讲义”也被选用作旗学教材，如《日讲书经解义》、《日讲易经解义》、《日讲春秋解义》、《日讲礼记解义》等。<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
由于这些以“解义”形式出现的各类满文书籍有其汉文底本，因而实质上仍是汉籍“五经”的重译。<br />
Those Manchu books which emerged in the form of annotations are essentially still the retranslations of the Five Classics , for they have their original Chinese versions already.--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 08:12, 24 September 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 08:12, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
无论编译这些书籍的目的是“因国书以通经义”，还是“因经义以通国书”，其作为旗学教材使用的事实可得验证。（叶高树，2006：1-42）<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
乾隆年间，“五经”的翻译继续进行，其原因之一便是对作为满文教材使用的旧译本进行修订，以适应满洲文化的新变化，尤其是满语作为国语的最新发展。<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
满文创设之初，词汇较少，文法也很简单。<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
至乾隆年间，由于经历百余年发展，语言的新特点早已显现，这一点不仅表现在新词汇的添设上，而且表现在语法和句型的完整性上。<br />
Until to the qianlong period,because of having passed over a century of development,the new characteristics of language already emerged, the one point not only had appeared in adding more on new words，but also completeness of grammar and sentence patterns.--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 03:11, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Up to the period of Qianlong Dynasty, the language's development in the past century or more has rendered itself newly-emerged traits, which can be reflected from not only new words' addition but also from the integrity of grammar and sentence patterns.--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 00:29, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
With the development of language,so during the governance of Qianlong Emperor,the new features of language had already arised,which could be reflected from not only addition of new words but completeness of grammar and syntax.--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 02:06, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
从乾隆朝纂辑的《钦定新清语》档册上，也可看出满语的这一演变，主要表现在五个方面：其一，将满语中的许多汉语借词，从原来的音译改为意译；其二，对意译汉语的许多问题进行纠正；其三，对满语中某些音位的对译汉字进行规范；其四，对有声调的汉语词在译为满文时出现的问题进行解决；其五，对满语中的某些词汇进行意义上的阐发与拓展。（佟永功、关嘉禄，1995：66-69）<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
正因为这样，旧译本作为旗学教材已不合时宜。<br />
<br />
Because of this, the old version is out of date as a Eight Banners of Manchuria textbook of flag studies.--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 04:06, 23 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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そのようなことによって、旧来に満語で書かれた漢籍の教材として使われていた古い訳本はもはや時代に合わなかったわけだ。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 04:06, 23 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Because of this, the old version is out of date as the textbook for Manchurian nobles.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 04:27, 23 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Because of this, the old translation is not in line with the needs of the times as the textbook for he Manchurian nobles.--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:17, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
如乾隆三十二年，《御制翻译诗经》成书，内有乾隆帝的御制序言，其中便提到“参采新定国语”进行重译，以“复为折衷是正”。（清高宗敕译，1986：7-8）<br />
<br />
For example, in the 32nd year of Qianlong's reign, Shi Jing (the book of songs) translated by Emperor Qianlong’s order was finished containing Emperor Qianlong's imperial preface, which refers that the retranslation should refer and adopt to the newly established national language and make a compromise. (translated by the order of Qing emperor Gaozong, 1986:7-8)<br />
--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 05:01, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
乾隆帝在新清语的标准下敕译的“五经”文本，对嗣后汉文旧籍译本的新译，以及改进旗学教材等，均有较大帮助。<br />
<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
如咸丰六年七月，文宗重新校阅并厘定《翻译孝经》（雍正五年敕译）时，便参照了《御制翻译五经》中的新清语。<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
同年，大学士文庆进呈孟保翻译的《大学衍义》，文宗在“覆加批阅”此书时，也遵从乾隆年间《五经》的钦定译本。<br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
虽然新译本成书的同时，某些汉籍的旧译本仍被作为教材使用，但无论新译旧译，皆为清代的旗学教育与人才培养，贡献甚蜚。<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
4.“五经”翻译的诗学与政治文化原因<br />
以《诗经》为例，其前后两次的满文翻译相距百年以上，因而两个译本在句法、词汇、文体特征上存在差异，如旧译本文体上较为简洁，新译本文体上较为详细，造成这一显著区别的原因乃是前、后两个年代的满语发展情况，以及社会的主流诗学观念。<br />
4.The poetic and political and cultural causes of the translation of the Five Classics<br />
Take The Book of Songs as an example; the two Manchu translations are moree than one hundred years apart, so there exist differences between the two translations in the aspect of syntax, vocabulary and stylistic features. For instance, the old translation is more concise, while the new one more detailed. The reason for this remarkable distinction lies in the development of the Manchu language between the two periods and the mainstream poetics of the society.<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
有关这一点，日本学者山琦雅人在其《论满文<诗经>新旧翻译之差异》中已有详细论证，此处亦不再详述。（山琦雅人，2000：246-261）<br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
叶高树在其《<诗经>满文译本比较研究》一文中，也对《诗经》的两个译本做了考订与研究，其研究较之山琦雅人（2000）更为详实，内容上不仅涉及语言，如名词的翻译、叠字的翻译、用字的比较、语法的比较、而且引用、阐释了乾隆朝重译《诗经》的原委，其中指出：<br />
Ye Gaoshu also made an investigation and research on the two versions of ''The Book of Songs'' in the article ''the Comparative study of Manchu Versions of The Book of Songs'', his research is more detailed than Yamazaki's(2000). The content not only involves the language, such as the translation of nouns and reduplicated words, the comparison of words and grammar, but also quotes and explains the whole story of retranslation of ''The Book of Songs'' in Qianlong Dynasty. --[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 05:31, 24 September 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
是经于世祖章皇帝顺治十一年译定初本，体裁已备，阅时兹久，凡《清文鉴》所未赅皙者，参采新定国语，侔揣务极精详，因命分册签题，几余复为折衷是正。（清高宗敕译，1768：6-8）<br />
The first version was translated in the 11th year of emperor Shunzhi of Shizu Zhang. The genre was prepared and review spent lots of time. Those who are not comprehensive in "Qing Wenjian" can take part in the newly established national language. Mou Chuai is very detailed. So he was ordered to Classify materials into books and decided the title. He revised several times in accordance with opinions of all parties (translated by Emperor Gaozong of the Qing Dynasty, 1768:6-8)<br />
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--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:16, 23 September 2020 (UTC)xiao yining<br />
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==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
上文中，明确阐述了重译《诗经》的诗学原因，即，乾隆年间满语发展的变革，以及“钦定新清书”的编订等，使得旧译中的语言文字与时下通行者凸显差距，重译之事不可不为。<br />
<br />
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
至于重译此书是否仅出于语言变革的原因，而与政治实践或者文化政策全然无关，或者说重译是否也有政治文化意涵，重译本御制序言中并没有提及，但这一点在旧译本中已有交代。<br />
<br />
As for retranslating this book,which is only for the reasons of language change, and has nothing to do with political practice or cultural policy, or whether retranslation also has political and cultural implications.That was not mentioned in the preface of the retranslated version of the imperial system, but this has been in the old version.--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 05:05, 23 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the preface of the retranslated version,it was not mentioned whether the retranslation was fully out of linguistic revolution, or had something to do with political or cultural policy concerns. Yet, it has been explained in former translated one.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 05:30, 23 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
康熙朝期间，译印汉书的工作继续进行，主要包括两个方面：其一，整理前朝尚未刊行的译本；其二，新译其它汉族书籍。<br />
During Kangxi's region in the Qing Dynasty, the translating and printing of works of the Han Dynasty continued, which included two main parts: first, reading and checking the translation that had not yet been published, and second, giving other Han works new translated versions.<br />
--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 06:25, 24 September 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
此间虽并未翻译“五经”作品，却将“日讲”中用到的“五经”章句讲义集结刊印，如《日讲书经解义》、《日讲易经解义》等，以阐发义理、裨益政治，使天下臣民知其“仰法前代圣王”，孜孜求治之意。（玄烨，1966b：10）<br />
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==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
这些“解义”并非直接译自汉文典籍，因此严格意义上并非翻译，但因为它们系经汉文编写后再译写为满文，因而仍可纳入广义上的翻译范畴。<br />
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==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
康熙朝以此种方式编译的“五经”作品还有《日讲春秋解义》和《日讲礼记解义》，但上述二者均未在本朝印行，而是延宕至乾隆时期。<br />
In Kangxi Dynasty, works of The Five Classics compiled in this way also include Daily Talks on the Annotations of The Spring and Autumn and Daily Talks on the Annotations of The Book of Rites. However, before the Qianlong period, neither of the two books was printed or distributed.--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 15:06, 23 September 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
In Kangxi Dynasty, works about The Five Classics compiled in this way also include Daily Talks on the Annotations of The Spring and Autumn and Daily Talks on the Annotations of The Book of Rites. However, neither of the two books was published untill the Qianlong period.--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]])--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:53, 23 September 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
关于《日讲春秋解义》延期刊布的原因，《清高宗（乾隆）御制诗文全集·御制文初集》中有明确解释，其意是康熙晚年图书编纂任务繁重，雍正即位后又认为康熙朝汉文本《钦定春秋传说汇纂》与胡安国本人的思想颇多出入，且“于圣心自多未洽”，故而命果亲王允礼、大学士张廷玉，以及内阁学士方苞等对其进行校订，如此才使得刊印有所牵延。（清高宗御制，1993a：13-14）<br />
As for the reasons for the delay of the publication of The Commentary of Spring and Autumn Annals,there is a clear explanation in The Complete Collection of Poetry and Essays of Emperor Gaozong of Qing(Qianlong)·The First Collection. In this book, it explains that the task of compiling books is quite heavy in the later years of Emperor Kangxi. Then, after Emperor Yongzheng ascended the throne, he reckoned that The Official Compilation of Legends during the Spring and Autumn Annals differs a lot from Hu Anguo's own thoughts and it is "not consistent with the emperor's will".So Yongzheng ordered Guo Prince Yunli, Grand Secretary Zhang Tingyu and secretaries of Cabinet like Fang Bao to revise it. Therefore, the publication was kind of delayed.(Written by Emperor Gaozong of Qing,1993a:13-14)--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 13:55, 23 September 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
《日讲礼记解义》虽然成书于康熙朝，但因为该书卷帙浩繁，一直存放在翻书房，导致满文翻译迟迟未能完成。<br />
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==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
至乾隆朝初期因为修纂《三礼义疏》，才将该书取出，以便参校异同，并将此书的翻译加以完成。<br />
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==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
至于《日讲诗经解义》，康熙年间亦未付梓。<br />
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==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
其中原因，可能与顺治年间《诗经》满文译本的流通，以及《钦定诗经传说汇纂》的纂辑有关。<br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
康熙朝后期，汉书翻译的范围得到拓展，在翻译经、史之外，兼及明儒之书，如《菜根谭》、《醒世要言》等，这些书同样涉及治世之道、除恶扬善之法，但无一者关乎“五经”。<br />
In the late Kangxi Dynasty, the scope involved in the translation of Han History was expanded. Besides the translation of Classics and history, it also included the works of Ming Dynasty and Confucianism, etc. These books also involved the way to govern the world and the way to get rid of evil deeds and make one’ s values well-known, but none of them related to the Five Classics.--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 03:44, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the late Kangxi Danasty, the translated books of Han Dynasty have been expanded. Besides classical and historical ones, the confucian works of Ming Dynasty have been a part of them, such as the Vegatable Roots , Awaken the World and so on. These books also involved the way to govern the word, as well as eliminated evil and promote good as before,while none of them was about the Five Classics.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 06:01, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
雍正年间，前朝既定的学术方针大体得以遵循。<br />
During the reign of Yongzheng, the academic policy established by the previous dynasty was generally followed.<br />
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==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
一方面，世宗敕撰《诗经传说汇纂》成书，以竟圣祖未竟之志；另一方面，又以朱熹弟子蔡沈的《书集传》为底本，并荟萃汉、唐以来诸家学说，敕纂《书经传说汇纂》成书。<br />
Emperor YongZheng mandated that ''Collection of Authorized Poetry'' be completed to meet unrealized ambition of Emperor Kangxi. At the same time，He required that ''Collection of Authorized Books'' be completed with ''Books collection'' by Scholar Cai Shen, Students of Scholar Zhu Xi, as the standardized script and with other theories formed since Han and Tang Dynasty as complement.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 05:16, 23 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
On the one hand, Emperor Yongzheng mandated that ''Collection of Authorized Poetry'' be completed to meet unrealized ambition of Emperor Kangxi. On the other hand, he required that ''Collection of Authorized Books'' be completed with ''Books collection'' by Scholar Cai Shen, Students of Scholar Zhu Xi, as the standardized script and with other theories formed since Han and Tang Dynasty as complement.--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 04:27, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
与此同时，朝廷刊行《五经四书读本》、《五子近思录辑要》等汉文旧籍，并应世宗圣谕将其中部分颁赐国子监，及其它旗学机构。<br />
Meanwhile, the court published some old books in Chinese such as ''The Five Classics and The Four Books Reader'' and ''The Abstract of WuZi JinSiLu''. Then the court issued some of these books to the Imperial College and other branches of Eight Banners Official School called QiXue institutions in response to the edict of the Emperor Yongzheng of Qing Dynasty.--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 03:04, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
然而，雍正朝官方刊刻的七种汉籍满译本中，无一种为“五经”类，其中原因，仍待详考。<br />
Among seven Manchu versions officially inscribed by Yong Zheng Dynasty, however, none of them are of the Five Classics. For reason, we will still examine it in more details. --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:56, 24 September 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 07:20, 24 September 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 07:24, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
乾隆朝以后，朝廷延续“崇儒礼佛”的政策，翻译中又以儒学典籍为大宗。<br />
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==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
其中，翻译“五经”者如《御制翻译书经集传》、《御制翻译周易》、《御制翻译诗经》、《御制翻译礼记》、《御制翻译春秋》等。<br />
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==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
固然，“五经”教义足以启迪心灵、荡涤灵魂，但高宗不畏耗时耗力之苦，重译或重刻上述典籍，如此坚持必有良苦用心。<br />
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==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
据《清高宗（乾隆）御制诗文全集·御制文初集》中所说，高宗曾自称“朕于几政之暇，每爱以国语翻译经书，如《易》、《书》、《诗》及《四子书，无不蒇事》”（同上：15）高宗对“五经”教义的遵崇，从他以“五经卷”调整科举程式的做法中可见一斑。<br />
According to initial collection of ''Literature Collection of Poems by Emperor Gaozong(Qianlong）'', emperor Gaozong once declared "I love to spend my spare time tranalating Confucian classics into Mandarin. Classics like ''The Books of Changes'', ''The Book of History'', ''The Book of Songs'' and ''The Four Books'' are all translated without exception." (Ibid, :15) Emperor Gaozong's reverence for the doctrine of ''The Five Classics'' can be seen from his practice of adjusting imperial examination by using papers which examine ''The Five Classics''.--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 02:53, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
众所周知，清代科举考试在“四书”、“五经”的出题上有其规定，如《清史稿》中说“初场试书艺三篇、经义四篇”，即是说考试四书题三道，从《论语》、《大学》、《中庸》、《孟子》中进行抽取，于每部各出一题。<br />
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==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
而“经义四篇”是指从《诗经》、《尚书》等五部经籍中进行出题，每部各出一题，共计二十题。<br />
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==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
考生在作答时，既可选择某一经书的四题作答，也可选择全部五经之题作答，前者即所谓“认习一经”，后者则系“全作五经文”。（赵尔巽等，1977：3159）<br />
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==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
虽然“全作五经文”与清代科场条例不合，但“认习一经”又容易导致学风空疏，视野狭隘，因而为使学风敦实醇厚，提倡“实学”精神，“五经中式”势在必行。<br />
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==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
乾隆五十二年，高宗降旨，指出士子束发读书，本应“五经”全读，而现在的读书人中，于“本经之外，或竟至束书不观”者大有人在，这一点绝非崇尚经术之道。<br />
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==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
于是，高宗决定自次年开始，采取“五经”轮试的办法，五十八年后又改为“五经并试”，并将此法“定为永制”，以凸显“五经”学习的重要性。（陈文新、潘志刚，2018：171）<br />
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==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
受此影响，高宗时期的“五经”翻译不仅数量上超越前代，而且质量和成效上较为理想，官方对此颇感自豪。<br />
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Affected by this, the translation of the "Five Classics" during the Emperor Gaozong period not only surpassed the previous generation in quantity, but also was relatively satisfactory in quality and effectiveness. Officials were quite proud of this.--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 05:27, 23 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Due to this policy, the Emperor Gaozong Period witnessed the flourishment of the "Five Classics" translation, with officially satisfactory in its good quality, high efficiency and higher quantity than ever before.--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 05:15, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
《钦定八旗通志》中说，开国以来，清代诸帝先译“四书”，“示初学之津梁”，后又译“五经”，《周易》、《尚书》、《诗经》、《春秋》、《礼记》等均在其列。<br />
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==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
五部经书，意旨、功用各自不同，其中“《易》则略象数之，示其吉凶；《书》则疏诘屈之词，归于显易；《诗》则曲摹其咏叹，而句外之寄托可思；《春秋》则细核其异同，而一字之劝惩毕见；《礼记》则名物度数考订必详，精理名言推求必当，尤足破讲家之聚讼。”（铁保等，1968：5-6）<br />
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==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
其中进一步指出，先儒于“五经”中的诂经，大多“株守其文”，既显拘泥，且文义不通，而翻译五经四书，正可疏通其意，使其明白无误，这一点对于裨治文教，意义至大。（同上：6）<br />
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==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
乾隆朝翻译“五经”，除翻译原典的正文内容之外，也不时将章句训诂含括在译文之内，以助学者、读者研习经义。<br />
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Besides translating the contents of the main body in the Five Classics(an authoritative book of Confucianism in China written before 300 BC) , the translation for it in Qianlong Dynasty also contains some sections and sentences from poems and prose and some explanations of words from old books, which is helpful for scholars and readers to study and research .--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:19, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
The translation of Five Classics in Qianglong Dynasty includes not only the contents of the original classics, but also the explanation of sections and phrases and the meanings of words from time to time, which helps the scholars and readers to study the meaning of classics.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:17, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
这么做至少有两方面的好处：其一，统一学术；其二，实现文化统制。<br />
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==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
众所周知，乾隆朝初期以前，汉文经史的翻译主要以满文本为主，或者以满文本、满汉合璧本并行，但乾隆二十年以后，所有汉籍译本均为满汉合璧本。<br />
As is known to all, before the early Emperor Qianlong, the translation of Chinese Confucian classics and history books was mainly based on the texts written in Manchu language, or both the Manchu and the combined version of Manchu and Chinese. However, after the 20th Year of Emperor Qianlong, all Chinese translations were combined version of Manchu and Chinese.--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 04:07, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As is known to all, before the earlier period of Emperor Qianlong, the translation texts of Chinese Confucian classics and history books were mainly in Manchu language, while some of them were in both Manchu language and combined versions of Manchu and Chinese. However, after the 20th year of Emperor Qianlong's reign, all the translation of Chinese works were in combined versions of Manchu and Chinese.--Ouyang Ling<br />
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==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
之所以进行此番调整，实源于旗人国语学习的现状，即，从清初王公大臣“无不弩强善射，国语纯熟”，渐变为“不能人人尽通国语”。（昭梿，1997：16；杨钟义，1969：1）<br />
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==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
与顺治年间旗人在“既习满书”的前提下，通过翻译汉书“观玩”，以了解汉族文化的动机不同，乾隆二十年后的“五经四书”翻译，其主要目的即是劝导那些渐习汉字，渐染汉俗的八旗子弟重拾“国语”，以固满洲旧俗、国之根本。<br />
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==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
正所谓“或因经义以通国书，而同文之圣化被于四方”，又或者“因国书以通经义，而明道之遗编彰于万世”，二者之中均以“国书”为要，而以通经明道为轻。（铁保等，1968：6）<br />
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==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
至于高宗本人，不仅熟读《诗》、《书》，而且精研《易》、《春秋》，尤其偏好历史，曾著“史论”五十余篇，以探讨历代治理之得失。<br />
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==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
同时，高宗秉承世宗之志，阐释“狄夷”、“籍贯”之说，以构建政权的意识形态，认为国之“正统”必须遵从“《春秋》大一统之义”，“尊王黜霸”，立万世纲常，以正人心。（庆桂等，1985：34-35）<br />
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==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
通过译印《春秋》，并就其与《通鉴纲目》等进行论证，高宗不仅驳斥了关于自身的批评与质疑，而且为国家建构了统治理论。<br />
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==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
高宗对于《春秋》的推崇是极其明显的，以致乾隆四十七年当皇子与军机处大臣奉敕订正《通鉴纲目续编》时，高宗仍要求他们将原书中的某些内容“量为删润”，以符合《春秋》之体例。（清高宗御制，1993b：57）<br />
The Emperor Gaozong's esteem for the Spring and Autumn Annals was extremely obvious, so that in the 47th year of the reign of the Emperor Qianlong,when the princes and Military Chancellor were odered by the Emperor Gaozong to cut and polish the content of the original book to fit the style and form of the Spring and Autumn Annals.(The Emperor Gaozong of the Qing Dynasty,1993b:57)<br />
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 14:56, 23 September 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 15:01, 23 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
高宗年间，虽然汉籍翻译范围冗杂，佛经翻译显著增加，但崇儒重道之风并未改变，经史翻译仍是继往圣之绝学，开万世之太平的重要手段。<br />
In the reign of Emperor Gaozong, the scope of translation of Chinese books was diverse and the translation of Buddhist scriptures increased significantly,but the trend of respecting and stressing Confucianism didn’t change, and the translation of Confucianism classics and history was still the important way to inherit the thoughts of sages and to create peace for generations.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 05:30, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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--[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 06:08, 24 September 2020 (UTC)Zhou Shiqing==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
高宗对“《春秋》，天子之事；是非，万世之公”的论调倍加推崇，指出为人之君，固然有褒贬群臣的权力，但是非公理也是人君必须秉持的常轨。（中国第一历史档案馆，1998：830）<br />
The Emperor Gaozong of Tang Dynasty praised highly of the argument, one that the Spring and Autumn should be taken charge by the emperor, while the right and wrong is the common thinking philosophy of the public which does not change through times. He pointed out that, am emperor wass endowed with the right to make comments on his inferiors. However, the emperor should also act beyond the generally acknowledged truth. (The first Historical Archives of China, 1998:830)<br />
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==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
高宗指出，历来编年之书，数量繁多，皆以《通鉴纲目》为准，而《通鉴纲目》只是纂述《春秋》之义，以明天统、正人纪、昭监戒。（清高宗御制，1993a：11）高宗在位期间，对宋儒理学推崇备至，认为不仅“道统”“绍于周、程、张、朱五子”，而且“经典”也因“程、朱表章”，而“赫然昭著而大行”。（弘历，2005：20-21）<br />
The emperor Gaozong pionted out that,there are many chronicle books over the years,and all of them were on the basis of the Compendium of general knowledge,but it just writed the meaning of the Spring and Autumn and it used to comprehend natural law, standardize code of ethics and show lesson from past to future.(Made by The emperor Gaozong of Qing Dynasty,1993a：11）During the emperor Gaozong's reign, he praised highly in a Confucian school of idealist philosophy of the Song Dynasties,and he considered Confucian orthodoxy was carried on the idea of 5 scholars who were named Zhou,Cheng,Zhang,Zhu and that classics are famous for memorial to the Cheng and Zhu.(Hongli,2005:20-21)--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 07:49, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
然而即便如此，自乾隆十四年起，高宗仍然调整了独尊理学的政策方针，将关注的目光重新投射至经学。<br />
But even so, Emperor Gaozong still adjusted the policy of the exclusive reign of Neo-Confucianism, and cast his view on Confucian classics again.--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:34, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
《乾隆朝上谕档》对此事有着详实的记载，其中指出：<br />
圣贤之学：行，本也；文，末也。<br />
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==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
而文之中，经术其根底也，词章其枝叶也。<br />
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==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
翰林以文学侍从，近年来因朕每试以诗赋，颇致力于词章，而求其沉酣六籍，含英咀华，究经训之阃（kǔn）奥者，不少概见，岂笃志正学者鲜与？……夫穷经不如敦行，然知务本则于躬行为近。<br />
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==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
崇尚经术，良有关于世道人心。People worship the knowledge from ancient classics because there are indeed descriptions of what the world looks like and how people feel others. --[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 03:32, 24 September 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
……内大学士、九卿，外督抚，其公举所知，不拘进士、举人、诸生，以及退休闲散人员，能潜心经学者，慎重遴访。<br />
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==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
务择老成敦厚，纯朴淹通之士，以应精选。<br />
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==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
勿滥，称朕意焉。（中国第一历史档案馆，1998：393）<br />
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==Ziyuanzhe 自愿者==<br />
所谓“经学”原指先秦时期的各家学说，但汉代以后往往专指儒学“十三经”，其中又以“四书”、“五经”为要。<br />
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Originally, the Classics Studies referred to the theories of different schools in Pre-Qin period. But after the Han Dynasty, it typically referred to the Thirteen Confucian Classics, in which the Four Books and the Five Classics were particularly highlighted.--Ouyang Ling<br />
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==Ziyuanzhe 自愿者==<br />
因而，高宗此处强调经术乃“文”之根本，理应含括“五经”学问。<br />
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==Ziyuanzhe 自愿者==<br />
从高宗颁赐内阁的此谕中，不难看出其对于经学研究的鼓励，因而敕令朝臣遍访学界，考选潜心经学者，以便“耆儒夙学”得以“布列朝班”。（昭梿，1997：15-16）</div>Hu Huifang